183:
31:
2520:
387:
374:(and optional hypergolic boosters on the Ariane 3 and 4) have been retired and replaced with the Ariane 5, which uses a first stage fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The Titan II, III and IV, with their hypergolic first and second stages, have also been retired. Hypergolic propellants are still widely used in upper stages when multiple burn-coast periods are required, and in
429:
As hypergolic rockets do not need an ignition system, they can fire any number of times by simply opening and closing the propellant valves until the propellants are exhausted and are therefore uniquely suited for spacecraft maneuvering and well suited, though not uniquely so, as upper stages of such
79:. The main advantages of hypergolic propellants are that they can be stored as liquids at room temperature and that engines which are powered by them are easy to ignite reliably and repeatedly. Common hypergolic propellants are difficult to handle due to their extreme
266:
as oxidizer. The hypergolic rocket motor had the advantage of fast climb and quick-hitting tactics at the cost of being very volatile and capable of exploding with any degree of inattention. Other proposed combat rocket fighters like the
501:
has so far limited their practical use to space launch vehicles where they need to be stored only briefly. As the largest issue with the usage of cryogenic propellants in interplanetary space is boil-off, which is largely dependent on
422:. The propellants in turn flow through control valves into the combustion chamber; there, their instant contact ignition prevents a mixture of unreacted propellants from accumulating and then igniting in a potentially catastrophic
837:
are not hypergolic, but concentrated hydrogen peroxide (referred to as high-test peroxide or HTP) run over a catalyst produces free oxygen and steam at over 700 °C (1,300 °F) which is hypergolic with
947:) + all known fuels – Briefly considered as an oxidizer given its high hypergolicity with all standard fuels, but ultimately abandoned in the 70s due to the difficulty of handling the substance safely.
1402:
588:
of traditional hypergolics necessitate expensive safety precautions. Failure to follow adequate safety procedures with an exceptionally dangerous UDMH-nitric acid propellant mixture nicknamed
328:. But the difficulties of such corrosive and toxic materials, including injury-causing leaks and the explosion of a Titan-II in its silo, led to their near universal replacement with
1581:
406:
Hypergolically-fueled rocket engines are usually simple and reliable because they need no ignition system. Although larger hypergolic engines in some launch vehicles use
285:
vertical launch expendable fighter was ever flight-tested with the Walter rocket propulsion system as its primary sustaining thrust system for military-purpose aircraft.
1023:
substances, which ignite spontaneously in the presence of air, are also sometimes used as rocket fuels themselves or to ignite other fuels. For example a mixture of
541:, as the higher propellant density allows the size of their propellant tank to be reduced significantly, which in turn allows the probe to fit within a smaller
1396:
237:
which required external ignition, and lithergols were solid/liquid hybrids. Hypergolic propellants (or at least hypergolic ignition) were far less prone to
997:
rocket engine. This propellant combination would have yielded a significant increase in performance, but was ultimately given up due to toxicity concerns.
1669:
1434:
366:
The trend among western space launch agencies is away from large hypergolic rocket engines and toward hydrogen/oxygen engines with higher performance.
320:
like liquid oxygen in a missile that had to be kept launch ready for months or years at a time led to a switch to hypergolic propellants in the U.S.
1854:
2250:
438:, which must perform more than one burn. Restartable non-hypergolic rocket engines nevertheless exist, notably the cryogenic (oxygen/hydrogen)
199:
2368:
1305:
1768:
1577:
1163:
1546:
1989:
573:. A launch vehicle that uses hypergolic propellant must therefore carry a greater mass of fuel than one that uses these cryogenic fuels.
241:
than electric or pyrotechnic ignition. The "hypergole" terminology was coined by Dr. Wolfgang Nöggerath, at the
Technical University of
2266:
1517:
529:
fuel offers extremely high performance, yet its density only warrants its usage in the largest of rocket stages, while mixtures of
118:
of 80–83%. He was probably the first to discover this phenomenon, and set to work developing a fuel. Prof. Otto Lutz assisted the
90:
In contemporary usage, the terms "hypergol" and "hypergolic propellant" usually mean the most common such propellant combination:
1595:
815:(toxic but stable), abandoned due to lack of reliable ignition. No engine with this combination ever went into mass production.
1261:
1208:
1157:
171:
and PBY bombers, but the project was disliked because of the toxic properties of both fuel and oxidizer, as well as the high
119:
1489:
1327:
1705:
1847:
1641:
182:
2171:
733:
1724:
2245:
1800:
1786:
1762:
1687:
1473:
1237:
659:
348:
136:. BMW developed engines burning a hypergolic mix of nitric acid with various combinations of amines, xylidines and
1665:
911:
713:
633:
534:
478:
2271:
2136:
1840:
1226:
Peenemünde West: Die
Erprobungsstelle der Luftwaffe für geheime Fernlenkwaffen und deren Entwicklungsgeschichte
2375:
2230:
2199:
2194:
1503:
1044:
703:
459:
1443:
1230:
Peenemünde West: The
Luftwaffe's test center for secret guided missiles and the history of their development
1820:
163:
worked on aniline/nitric acid engines in the early 1940s, for small missiles and jet assisted take-off (
2549:
1384:
1000:
669:
391:
17:
2330:
2189:
513:
Another advantage of hypergolic propellants is their high density compared to cryogenic propellants.
507:
352:
1031:(which are both separately and even more so together pyrophoric), was used for engine starts in the
2363:
2122:
2096:
2038:
2022:
2012:
1825:
203:
2295:
1301:
2419:
2392:
2347:
2335:
2315:
2081:
2043:
2017:
673:
662:
360:
1749:
1436:
Apollo 11 Mission Report - Performance of the
Command and Service Module Reaction Control System
1144:
2470:
2320:
2220:
1962:
1556:
1004:
952:
915:
905:
861:
802:
798:
788:
784:
780:
725:
443:
367:
148:
65:
1815:
702:– used during the ignition process of some rocket engines that use liquid oxygen, used by the
485:, are all liquid at ordinary temperatures and pressures. They are therefore sometimes called
2544:
2055:
1863:
826:
737:
681:
301:
1363:
175:
of aniline. The second problem was eventually solved by the addition of small quantities of
2166:
2161:
2065:
1979:
948:
940:
891:
375:
278:
were meant to use the Walter 509 series of rocket motors, but besides the Me 163, only the
249:
91:
143:
Hypergolic propellants were discovered independently, for the second time, in the U.S. by
8:
2325:
2310:
2225:
2112:
2091:
2060:
1036:
927:
728:, and supplied by them to France for the Ariane 1 first and second stages (replaced with
651:
625:
593:
503:
474:
447:
340:
234:
226:
1619:
1525:
1180:
Lutz, O. (1957). "BMW Developments". In
Benecke, T. H.; Quick, A.W.; Schulz, W. (eds.).
2524:
2490:
2455:
1254:
Command and control: nuclear weapons, the
Damascus Accident, and the illusion of safety
990:
974:
895:
877:
822:
717:
655:
617:
554:
522:
482:
289:
168:
115:
1602:
1186:. Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development-AG-20. Appelhans. p. 420.
147:
and Navy
Annapolis researchers in 1940. They developed engines powered by aniline and
2519:
2485:
2440:
2340:
2240:
1942:
1916:
1796:
1782:
1758:
1497:
1469:
1442:. NASA - Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. December 1971. pp. 4, 8. Archived from
1257:
1233:
1204:
1183:
History of German Guided
Missiles Development (Guided Missiles Seminar. 1956. Munich)
1153:
1105:
1028:
830:
770:
695:
371:
329:
133:
111:
57:
2505:
2495:
2445:
2151:
1904:
1745:
1701:
1367:
1346:
1345:. NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69. NIST Office of Data and Informatics.
1140:
986:
960:
794:
776:
589:
321:
293:
176:
517:
has a density of 1.14 g/ml, while on the other hand, hypergolic oxidizers such as
260:, a rocket motor which consumed methanol/hydrazine as fuel and high test peroxide
2117:
1921:
1887:
1728:
1461:
1319:
1198:
1181:
1032:
558:
542:
526:
494:
305:
156:
107:
316:. Although they are preferred in space launchers, the difficulties of storing a
30:
2450:
2385:
2086:
1926:
1718:
1024:
978:
970:
707:
691:
347:, employed hypergolic fuels in both the descent and ascent rocket engines. The
344:
325:
268:
230:
211:
172:
160:
152:
1378:
2538:
2460:
2380:
2235:
2204:
1984:
1974:
1969:
1892:
1882:
845:
699:
685:
666:
570:
562:
514:
498:
356:
313:
279:
186:
An early hypergolic-propellant rocket engine, the Walter 109-509A of 1942–45.
84:
61:
1302:"Fuel Propellants - Storable, and Hypergolic vs. Ignitable by Mike Schooley"
489:. They are suitable for use in spacecraft missions lasting many years. The
2465:
2424:
2397:
2156:
1952:
1947:
1596:"Project SPECTRA - Experimental evaluation of a Liquid storable propellant"
919:
857:
841:
761:
592:, for example, resulted in the deadliest rocketry accident in history, the
553:
Relative to their mass, traditional hypergolic propellants possess a lower
419:
242:
191:
1683:
1416:
1364:
A Summary of NASA and USAF Hypergolic
Propellant Related Spills and Fires
2480:
2475:
2281:
1203:. Library of flight. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
923:
853:
812:
757:
629:
613:
577:
538:
537:
have a density at least ten times higher. This is of great importance in
518:
415:
257:
35:
1832:
2500:
1957:
1020:
901:
585:
490:
423:
317:
238:
167:). The project resulted in the successful assisted take off of several
566:
1551:
1109:
1097:
1008:
808:
721:
637:
530:
470:
407:
297:
95:
44:
39:
1350:
414:, is fed to the propellant tanks under pressure through a series of
1051:
1040:
982:
849:
834:
818:
677:
621:
581:
463:
451:
435:
431:
309:
195:
129:
80:
76:
1232:] (in German), Peene Münde West: Weltbildverlag, p. 220,
620:(NTO) – widely used in historical American rockets, including the
386:
2276:
1909:
1779:
Modern
Engineering for Design of Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines
887:
883:
766:
753:
275:
262:
137:
124:
1899:
1877:
1521:
1048:
994:
411:
144:
132:, and 13% water, and spontaneously ignited with high strength
729:
439:
455:
410:, most hypergolic engines are pressure-fed. A gas, usually
333:
164:
72:
1751:
Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants
1146:
Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants
1098:"Investigation of Hypergolic Fuels with Hydrogen Peroxide"
1277:
1102:
3rd International Hydrogen Peroxide Propulsion Conference
829:, with the peroxide first decomposed by a catalyst. Cold
749:
Less-common or obsolete hypergolic propellants include:
658:(NTO) – smaller engines and reaction control thrusters:
525:
have a density of 1.55 g/ml and 1.45 g/ml respectively.
1757:. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.
248:
The only rocket-powered fighter ever deployed was the
894:
World War II German rocket fighter aircraft, for its
359:(among others) used hypergolic propellants for their
860:derivatives (AK-2x group in the Soviet Union) e.g.
609:Common hypergolic propellant combinations include:
71:The two propellant components usually consist of a
1096:Melof, Brian M.; Grubelich, Mark C. (2000-11-15).
1666:"European space-rocket liquid-propellant engines"
1492:. Archived from the original on February 2, 2013.
1464:Development of the Shuttle, 1972–1981 - Volume 2.
2536:
221:or oil, later influenced by the chemical suffix
959:) presents the same hazards, but offers higher
930:Upper Stages, Isayev-built maneuvering engines.
1095:
336:and then in land-based U.S. and Soviet ICBMs.
1848:
194:, rocket propellants were broadly classed as
68:when they come into contact with each other.
557:than cryogenic propellant combinations like
1793:History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines
1510:
1200:History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines
934:
128:which contained 30% hydrazine hydrate, 57%
1855:
1841:
1490:"Space Launch Report: Ariane 5 Data Sheet"
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
744:
599:
38:due to the hazards of the hypergolic fuel
1862:
1251:
985:, was studied by Soviet Rocket Scientist
890:(methanol, hydrazine, water, catalyst) –
2267:Atmosphere-breathing electric propulsion
1340:
506:of spacecraft, for larger craft such as
385:
181:
29:
1116:
908:(flown in French Diamant A first-stage)
14:
2537:
1781:, Huzel & Huang, pub. AIAA, 1992.
1196:
1173:
1007:– A sightly less toxic alternative to
951:is known to burn concrete and gravel.
190:In Germany from the mid-1930s through
1836:
1744:
1405:from the original on 15 November 2014
1223:
1190:
1139:
1015:
334:submarine-launched ballistic missiles
324:and in most Soviet ICBMs such as the
274:and reconnaissance aircraft like the
1584:from the original on 7 January 2022.
1459:
1334:
1179:
1256:. New York, NY: The Penguin Press.
760:(unstable, explosive), used in the
390:Hypergolic propellant tanks of the
370:1 through 4, with their hypergolic
24:
2172:Field-emission electric propulsion
1774:from the original on 10 July 2022.
1712:
1672:from the original on 23 July 2021.
1320:"PROPERTIES OF ROCKET PROPELLANTS"
1308:from the original on 24 July 2021.
1169:from the original on 10 July 2022.
469:The most common hypergolic fuels,
381:
351:used the same combination for the
25:
2561:
2246:Microwave electrothermal thruster
1808:
1708:from the original on 1 July 2022.
1690:from the original on 12 May 2022.
1468:. Smithsonian Institution Press.
1330:from the original on 26 May 2022.
660:Apollo command and service module
2518:
886:(stabilized >80% peroxide) +
548:
1694:
1676:
1658:
1634:
1612:
1588:
1570:
1539:
1482:
1453:
1427:
1409:
1398:The Nedelin Catastrophe, Part 1
1389:
1372:
1357:
1312:
714:Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine
479:unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine
2376:Pulsed nuclear thermal rocket
2272:High Power Electric Propulsion
1578:"WAC Corporal Sounding Rocket"
1294:
1270:
1245:
1217:
1089:
1063:
989:for usage in combination with
13:
1:
2231:Helicon double-layer thruster
2200:Electrodeless plasma thruster
2195:Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster
1795:, G. Sutton, pub. AIAA 2005.
1078:
401:
42:, here being loaded onto the
1821:The Periodic Table of Videos
1555:. 2014-03-23. Archived from
1524:. 2007-12-10. Archived from
1152:. Rutgers University Press.
7:
1460:T.A., Heppenheimer (2002).
773:(dust-sensitive, explosive)
720:(NTO) – frequently used by
704:SpaceX Merlin Engine Family
487:storable liquid propellants
355:. Those spacecraft and the
332:boosters, first in Western
233:, while non-hypergols were
34:The attendant wears a full
10:
2566:
1380:"Toxic Propellant Hazards"
1043:rocket and is used in the
1001:Tetramethylethylenediamine
852:) typically oxidized with
510:this is less of an issue.
392:Orbital Maneuvering System
101:
27:Type of rocket engine fuel
2516:
2433:
2412:
2356:
2303:
2294:
2259:
2213:
2190:Pulsed inductive thruster
2182:
2144:
2135:
2105:
2074:
2031:
2005:
1998:
1935:
1870:
1547:"ISRO tests Vikas engine"
1502:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1071:Oxford English Dictionary
604:
353:Service Propulsion System
2364:Nuclear pulse propulsion
2123:Electric-pump-fed engine
2023:Hybrid-propellant rocket
2013:Liquid-propellant rocket
1826:University of Nottingham
1341:Linstrom, Peter (2021).
1252:Schlosser, Eric (2013).
1057:
935:Proposed, remain unflown
803:white fuming nitric acid
361:reaction control systems
122:with the development of
2420:Beam-powered propulsion
2393:Fission-fragment rocket
2348:Nuclear photonic rocket
2316:Nuclear electric rocket
2082:Staged combustion cycle
2018:Solid-propellant rocket
1620:"Nitric acid/Hydrazine"
745:Less common or obsolete
600:Hypergolic combinations
466:can also be restarted.
430:space launchers as the
372:first and second stages
2471:Non-rocket spacelaunch
2321:Nuclear thermal rocket
2221:Pulsed plasma thruster
1343:NIST Chemistry WebBook
1197:Sutton, G. P. (2006).
953:Chlorine pentafluoride
789:Copenhagen Suborbitals
785:red fuming nitric acid
726:Proton (rocket family)
684:thrusters used by the
398:
187:
149:red fuming nitric acid
60:combination used in a
49:
2137:Electrical propulsion
1864:Spacecraft propulsion
1816:"Hypergolic Reaction"
1224:Botho, Stüwe (1998),
624:; all engines in the
389:
376:launch escape systems
292:, such as the Soviet
185:
54:hypergolic propellant
33:
2369:Antimatter-catalyzed
2167:Hall-effect thruster
1980:Solar thermal rocket
1642:"High Test Peroxide"
1417:"ROCKET PROPELLANTS"
1011:and its derivatives.
949:Chlorine trifluoride
941:Chlorine trifluoride
892:Messerschmitt Me 163
844:(TG-02, approx. 50%
632:is a mixture of 50%
250:Messerschmitt Me 163
210:is a combination of
114:was hypergolic with
92:dinitrogen tetroxide
66:spontaneously ignite
2311:Direct Fusion Drive
2226:Vacuum arc thruster
2113:Pressure-fed engine
2092:Gas-generator cycle
1999:Chemical propulsion
1936:Physical propulsion
1608:on 4 November 2013.
1401:, 28 October 2014,
652:Monomethylhydrazine
626:Apollo Lunar Module
594:Nedelin catastrophe
475:monomethylhydrazine
341:Apollo Lunar Module
217:or work, and Latin
64:, whose components
2525:Spaceflight portal
2491:Reactionless drive
2456:Aerogravity assist
2296:Nuclear propulsion
1727:2009-04-30 at the
1702:"Nitric Acid/UDMH"
1528:on January 4, 2011
1016:Related technology
991:nitrogen tetroxide
975:nitrogen tetroxide
823:high-test peroxide
718:nitrogen tetroxide
656:nitrogen tetroxide
618:nitrogen tetroxide
523:nitrogen tetroxide
483:nitrogen tetroxide
399:
290:ballistic missiles
256:. The Komet had a
229:. Monergols were
188:
116:high-test peroxide
50:
2550:Soviet inventions
2532:
2531:
2486:Atmospheric entry
2441:Orbital mechanics
2408:
2407:
2290:
2289:
2241:Resistojet rocket
2131:
2130:
2106:Intake mechanisms
2039:Liquid propellant
1943:Cold gas thruster
1622:. Astronautix.com
1263:978-1-59420-227-8
1210:978-1-56347-649-5
1159:978-0-8135-0725-5
1029:triethylaluminium
856:or its anhydrous
831:hydrogen peroxide
771:hydrogen peroxide
724:, such as in the
696:triethylaluminium
636:and 50% straight
394:of Space Shuttle
349:Apollo spacecraft
134:hydrogen peroxide
112:hydrazine hydrate
58:rocket propellant
16:(Redirected from
2557:
2522:
2506:Alcubierre drive
2496:Field propulsion
2446:Orbital maneuver
2434:Related concepts
2301:
2300:
2152:Colloid thruster
2142:
2141:
2003:
2002:
1905:Specific impulse
1857:
1850:
1843:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1775:
1773:
1756:
1732:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1646:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1616:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1601:. Archived from
1600:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1565:
1564:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1534:
1533:
1518:"SpaceX Updates"
1514:
1508:
1507:
1501:
1493:
1486:
1480:
1479:
1457:
1451:
1450:
1449:on 12 July 2022.
1448:
1441:
1431:
1425:
1424:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1393:
1387:
1381:
1376:
1370:
1368:Internet Archive
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1187:
1177:
1171:
1170:
1168:
1151:
1137:
1114:
1113:
1093:
1073:
1067:
961:specific impulse
922:missile system,
795:Furfuryl alcohol
777:Furfuryl alcohol
481:, and oxidizer,
179:to the aniline.
177:furfuryl alcohol
110:discovered that
21:
2565:
2564:
2560:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2555:
2554:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2528:
2512:
2429:
2404:
2352:
2286:
2255:
2209:
2183:Electromagnetic
2178:
2127:
2118:Pump-fed engine
2101:
2070:
2027:
1994:
1931:
1922:Rocket equation
1888:Reaction engine
1866:
1861:
1814:
1811:
1806:
1771:
1765:
1754:
1735:
1729:Wayback Machine
1717:
1713:
1700:
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1415:
1414:
1410:
1395:
1394:
1390:
1379:
1377:
1373:
1362:
1358:
1351:10.18434/T4D303
1339:
1335:
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1300:
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1284:
1276:
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1047:engines on the
1039:engines on the
1033:SR-71 Blackbird
1018:
973:and diborane +
966:
958:
946:
937:
896:Walter 109-509A
875:
871:
867:
747:
647:
643:
607:
602:
590:"Devil's Venom"
586:carcinogenicity
555:calorific value
551:
543:payload fairing
495:liquid hydrogen
404:
384:
382:Characteristics
231:monopropellants
157:Reaction Motors
108:Hellmuth Walter
104:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2451:Gravity assist
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2413:External power
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2214:Electrothermal
2211:
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2100:
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2089:
2087:Expander cycle
2084:
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2056:Monopropellant
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2026:
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2020:
2015:
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1967:
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1930:
1929:
1927:Thermal rocket
1924:
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1810:
1809:External links
1807:
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1141:Clark, John D.
1115:
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1080:
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1074:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1025:triethylborane
1017:
1014:
1013:
1012:
998:
981:, a so-called
979:Pentaborane(9)
971:Pentaborane(9)
968:
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825:+ catalyst) –
816:
806:
792:
791:SPECTRA Engine
774:
764:
746:
743:
742:
741:
736:rockets using
711:
708:Rocketdyne F-1
692:Triethylborane
689:
649:
645:
641:
606:
603:
601:
598:
550:
547:
403:
400:
383:
380:
343:, used in the
296:that launched
173:freezing point
161:Curtiss-Wright
153:Robert Goddard
120:Walter Company
103:
100:
26:
9:
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2145:Electrostatic
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2097:Tap-off cycle
2095:
2093:
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2073:
2067:
2066:Tripropellant
2064:
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2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2010:
2008:
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1985:Photon rocket
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1970:Electric sail
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1893:Reaction mass
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1883:Rocket engine
1881:
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1801:1-56347-649-5
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1719:Astronautix:
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1579:
1573:
1559:on 2014-03-23
1558:
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1475:1-58834-009-0
1471:
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987:V. P. Glushko
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846:triethylamine
843:
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820:
817:
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700:liquid oxygen
697:
693:
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687:
686:SpaceX Dragon
683:
679:
675:
671:
668:
667:Space Shuttle
664:
661:
657:
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631:
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611:
610:
597:
595:
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574:
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560:
556:
549:Disadvantages
546:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
511:
509:
505:
500:
499:liquid oxygen
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
467:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
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427:
425:
421:
420:safety valves
417:
413:
409:
397:
393:
388:
379:
377:
373:
369:
364:
362:
358:
357:Space Shuttle
354:
350:
346:
345:Moon landings
342:
337:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
314:liquid oxygen
311:
307:
303:
300:and the U.S.
299:
295:
291:
288:The earliest
286:
284:
281:
280:Bachem Ba 349
277:
273:
272:
265:
264:
259:
255:
251:
246:
244:
240:
236:
235:bipropellants
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
213:
209:
206:. The ending
205:
201:
200:non-hypergols
198:, hypergols,
197:
193:
184:
180:
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166:
162:
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109:
99:
97:
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88:
86:
85:corrosiveness
82:
78:
74:
69:
67:
63:
62:rocket engine
59:
55:
47:
46:
41:
37:
32:
19:
2545:Rocket fuels
2523:
2466:Space launch
2398:Fission sail
2326:Radioisotope
2157:Ion thruster
2075:Power cycles
2061:Bipropellant
2048:
1953:Steam rocket
1948:Water rocket
1819:
1792:
1778:
1750:
1738:Bibliography
1720:
1714:
1696:
1678:
1660:
1648:. Retrieved
1636:
1624:. Retrieved
1614:
1603:the original
1590:
1572:
1561:. Retrieved
1557:the original
1550:
1541:
1530:. Retrieved
1526:the original
1512:
1484:
1465:
1462:
1455:
1444:the original
1435:
1429:
1420:
1411:
1397:
1391:
1374:
1359:
1342:
1336:
1323:
1314:
1296:
1285:. Retrieved
1281:
1272:
1253:
1247:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1199:
1192:
1182:
1175:
1145:
1101:
1091:
1070:
1065:
1019:
920:MGM-52 Lance
858:nitric oxide
762:WAC Corporal
748:
738:Vikas engine
698:(TEA-TEB) +
608:
575:
552:
539:space probes
512:
486:
468:
428:
405:
395:
365:
338:
287:
282:
270:
261:
253:
247:
222:
218:
214:
207:
192:World War II
189:
142:
123:
105:
89:
70:
53:
51:
43:
2481:Aerocapture
2476:Aerobraking
2357:Open system
2341:"Lightbulb"
2282:Mass driver
2032:Propellants
1963:Diffractive
1746:Clark, John
1626:January 13,
1421:braeunig.us
1324:braeunig.us
1035:and in the
854:nitric acid
813:nitric acid
758:nitric acid
688:spacecraft.
630:Aerozine 50
614:Aerozine 50
578:corrosivity
519:nitric acid
258:HWK 109-509
245:, Germany.
239:hard starts
48:space probe
36:hazmat suit
2539:Categories
2501:Warp drive
2331:Salt-water
2049:Hypergolic
1958:Solar sail
1563:2019-07-29
1532:2010-02-03
1287:2021-12-29
1079:References
1069:"-ergol",
1021:Pyrophoric
902:Turpentine
491:cryogenity
424:hard start
408:turbopumps
402:Advantages
330:solid-fuel
204:lithergols
169:Martin PBM
18:Hypergolic
2044:Cryogenic
1552:The Hindu
1084:Citations
1054:rockets.
1009:Hydrazine
878:inhibitor
868:and 20% N
838:kerosene.
809:Hydrazine
722:Roscosmos
716:(UDMH) +
638:hydrazine
531:hydrazine
504:the scale
471:hydrazine
396:Endeavour
298:Sputnik 1
243:Brunswick
196:monergols
106:In 1935,
96:hydrazine
45:MESSENGER
40:hydrazine
2336:Gas core
1871:Concepts
1769:Archived
1748:(1972).
1725:Archived
1706:Archived
1688:Archived
1670:Archived
1650:July 11,
1582:Archived
1498:cite web
1403:archived
1328:Archived
1306:Archived
1278:"SpaceX"
1164:Archived
1143:(1972).
1052:Falcon 9
1041:Saturn V
983:Zip fuel
963:than ClF
864:(80% HNO
850:xylidine
848:and 50%
835:kerosene
819:Kerosene
678:Ariane 5
654:(MMH) +
622:Titan II
582:toxicity
508:Starship
464:Falcon 9
452:Saturn V
446:and the
436:Ariane 5
432:Delta II
322:Titan II
310:kerosene
269:Heinkel
151:(RFNA).
138:anilines
130:methanol
81:toxicity
77:oxidizer
2425:Tethers
2277:MagBeam
2162:Gridded
1917:Staging
1910:Delta-v
1828:. 2009.
1684:"P8E-9"
1385:YouTube
995:RD-270M
993:in the
898:engine.
888:C-Stoff
884:T-Stoff
767:Aniline
754:Aniline
462:on the
450:on the
444:Centaur
442:on the
318:cryogen
308:, used
306:Titan-1
276:DFS 228
263:T-Stoff
227:alcohol
125:C-Stoff
102:History
75:and an
2251:VASIMR
1900:Thrust
1878:Rocket
1799:
1785:
1761:
1721:RD-270
1522:SpaceX
1472:
1282:SpaceX
1260:
1236:
1207:
1156:
1110:767866
1108:
1049:SpaceX
1045:Merlin
862:AK-20F
605:Common
584:, and
460:Merlin
454:. The
412:helium
368:Ariane
283:Natter
159:, and
145:GALCIT
2260:Other
2006:State
1772:(PDF)
1755:(PDF)
1645:(pdf)
1606:(PDF)
1599:(PDF)
1447:(PDF)
1440:(PDF)
1228:[
1167:(PDF)
1150:(PDF)
1058:Notes
1005:IRFNA
924:Agena
916:IRFNA
906:IRFNA
876:with
842:Tonka
827:Gamma
781:IRFNA
730:UH 25
682:Draco
680:EPS;
458:/LOX
440:RL-10
416:check
302:Atlas
271:Julia
254:Komet
225:from
219:oleum
215:ergon
212:Greek
208:ergol
94:plus
56:is a
1990:WINE
1797:ISBN
1783:ISBN
1759:ISBN
1652:2014
1628:2023
1504:link
1470:ISBN
1258:ISBN
1234:ISBN
1205:ISBN
1154:ISBN
1106:OSTI
1027:and
955:(ClF
943:(ClF
928:Able
926:and
912:UDMH
833:and
801:(or
799:WFNA
787:) –
783:(or
734:ISRO
706:and
672:and
634:UDMH
576:The
567:LCH4
535:UDMH
533:and
497:and
477:and
456:RP-1
434:and
418:and
339:The
326:R-36
312:and
304:and
202:and
165:JATO
73:fuel
1383:on
1347:doi
1037:F-1
821:+ (
732:);
674:RCS
670:OMS
663:RCS
571:LOX
565:or
563:LOX
559:LH2
527:LH2
521:or
515:LOX
493:of
448:J-2
294:R-7
223:-ol
83:or
2541::
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1818:.
1767:.
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1500:}}
1496:{{
1419:.
1326:.
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640:(N
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252:B
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