846:
776:
1017:
allowances can soon be exceeded leading to premature failure of the steel pile. Piles that have been coated and have cathodic protection installed at the time of construction are not susceptible to ALWC. For unprotected piles, sacrificial anodes can be installed locally to the affected areas to inhibit the corrosion or a complete retrofitted sacrificial anode system can be installed. Affected areas can also be treated using cathodic protection, using either sacrificial anodes or applying current to an inert anode to produce a calcareous deposit, which will help shield the metal from further attack.
784:
433:
1114:
728:
1679:
1056:
2162:
1103:
1330:
303:
1593:
43:
1403:
1786:
1418:, which is used to predict and control oxide layer formation in diverse situations. A simple test for measuring corrosion is the weight loss method. The method involves exposing a clean weighed piece of the metal or alloy to the corrosive environment for a specified time followed by cleaning to remove corrosion products and weighing the piece to determine the loss of weight. The rate of corrosion (
573:
140:
1217:
638:
passive film thickness on aluminium, stainless steels, and alloys is within 10 nanometers. The passive film is different from oxide layers that are formed upon heating and are in the micrometer thickness range – the passive film recovers if removed or damaged whereas the oxide layer does not. Passivation in natural environments such as air, water and soil at moderate
1518:
952:"), or other compounds capable of oxidizing (or assisting the oxidation of) the material concerned. For example, materials used in aerospace, power generation, and even in car engines must resist sustained periods at high temperature, during which they may be exposed to an atmosphere containing the potentially highly-corrosive products of combustion.
2149:(dissolution) rate of the glass (cm/d). In closed systems, the consumption of protons from the aqueous phase increases the pH and causes a fast transition to hydrolysis. However, a further saturation of solution with silica impedes hydrolysis and causes the glass to return to an ion-exchange; e.g., diffusion-controlled regime of corrosion.
831:(in types 321 and 347, respectively), can prevent this effect, but the latter require special heat treatment after welding to prevent the similar phenomenon of "knifeline attack". As its name implies, corrosion is limited to a very narrow zone adjacent to the weld, often only a few micrometers across, making it even less noticeable.
352:, although in this context, the term "degradation" is more common. Corrosion degrades the useful properties of materials and structures including mechanical strength, appearance, and permeability to liquids and gases. Corrosive is distinguished from caustic: the former implies mechanical degradation, the latter chemical.
2342:
Hydrolytic class 3 (Type III): Glass of the 3rd hydrolytic class usually contains sodium silicate glasses and has a mean hydrolytic resistance, which is two times poorer than of type 1 glasses. Acid class DIN 12116 and alkali class DIN 52322 (ISO 695) are to be distinguished from the hydrolytic class
1793:
Glass is characterized by a high degree of corrosion resistance. Because of its high water resistance, it is often used as primary packaging material in the pharmaceutical industry since most medicines are preserved in a watery solution. Besides its water resistance, glass is also robust when exposed
1393:
Anodic protection impresses anodic current on the structure to be protected (opposite to the cathodic protection). It is appropriate for metals that exhibit passivity (e.g. stainless steel) and suitably small passive current over a wide range of potentials. It is used in aggressive environments, such
1235:
wide, appear in the metal's oxide film. These pores allow the oxide to grow much thicker than passivating conditions would allow. At the end of the treatment, the pores are allowed to seal, forming a harder-than-usual surface layer. If this coating is scratched, normal passivation processes take over
955:
Some products of high-temperature corrosion can potentially be turned to the advantage of the engineer. The formation of oxides on stainless steels, for example, can provide a protective layer preventing further atmospheric attack, allowing for a material to be used for sustained periods at both room
864:
Crevice corrosion is influenced by the crevice type (metal-metal, metal-non-metal), crevice geometry (size, surface finish), and metallurgical and environmental factors. The susceptibility to crevice corrosion can be evaluated with ASTM standard procedures. A critical crevice corrosion temperature is
760:
Pitting results when a small hole, or cavity, forms in the metal, usually as a result of de-passivation of a small area. This area becomes anodic, while part of the remaining metal becomes cathodic, producing a localized galvanic reaction. The deterioration of this small area penetrates the metal and
1653:
that hold them together leave very little free chemical energy in the structure; they can be thought of as already corroded. When corrosion does occur, it is almost always a simple dissolution of the material or chemical reaction, rather than an electrochemical process. A common example of corrosion
1034:
is a catastrophic form of corrosion that occurs when susceptible materials are exposed to environments with high carbon activities, such as synthesis gas and other high-CO environments. The corrosion manifests itself as a break-up of bulk metal to metal powder. The suspected mechanism is firstly the
1337:
For effective CP, the potential of the steel surface is polarized (pushed) more negative until the metal surface has a uniform potential. With a uniform potential, the driving force for the corrosion reaction is halted. For galvanic CP systems, the anode material corrodes under the influence of the
509:
than others, based on how strongly its ions are bound to the surface. Two metals in electrical contact share the same electrons, so that the "tug-of-war" at each surface is analogous to competition for free electrons between the two materials. Using the electrolyte as a host for the flow of ions in
1016:
Accelerated low-water corrosion (ALWC) is a particularly aggressive form of MIC that affects steel piles in seawater near the low water tide mark. It is characterized by an orange sludge, which smells of hydrogen sulfide when treated with acid. Corrosion rates can be very high and design corrosion
860:
is a localized form of corrosion occurring in confined spaces (crevices), to which the access of the working fluid from the environment is limited. Formation of a differential aeration cell leads to corrosion inside the crevices. Examples of crevices are gaps and contact areas between parts, under
1578:
Until 20–30 years ago, galvanized steel pipe was used extensively in the potable water systems for single and multi-family residents as well as commercial and public construction. Today, these systems have long ago consumed the protective zinc and are corroding internally, resulting in poor water
700:
Passivation is extremely useful in mitigating corrosion damage, however even a high-quality alloy will corrode if its ability to form a passivating film is hindered. Proper selection of the right grade of material for the specific environment is important for the long-lasting performance of this
1346:
between the anode and the cathode. The most common sacrificial anode materials are aluminum, zinc, magnesium and related alloys. Aluminum has the highest capacity, and magnesium has the highest driving voltage and is thus used where resistance is higher. Zinc is general purpose and the basis for
747:
under fairly extreme circumstances, they can continue to grow even when conditions return to normal, since the interior of a pit is naturally deprived of oxygen and locally the pH decreases to very low values and the corrosion rate increases due to an autocatalytic process. In extreme cases, the
1354:
into the environment including seawater. From a working perspective, sacrificial anodes systems are considered to be less precise than modern cathodic protection systems such as
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) systems. Their ability to provide requisite protection has to be checked
1140:
treatments. They work by providing a barrier of corrosion-resistant material between the damaging environment and the structural material. Aside from cosmetic and manufacturing issues, there may be tradeoffs in mechanical flexibility versus resistance to abrasion and high temperature. Platings
637:
Passivation refers to the spontaneous formation of an ultrathin film of corrosion products, known as a passive film, on the metal's surface that act as a barrier to further oxidation. The chemical composition and microstructure of a passive film are different from the underlying metal. Typical
1173:
can often be added to it. These chemicals form an electrically insulating or chemically impermeable coating on exposed metal surfaces, to suppress electrochemical reactions. Such methods make the system less sensitive to scratches or defects in the coating, since extra inhibitors can be made
739:, can interfere with a given alloy's ability to re-form a passivating film. In the worst case, almost all of the surface will remain protected, but tiny local fluctuations will degrade the oxide film in a few critical points. Corrosion at these points will be greatly amplified, and can cause
2176:
The standard procedure ISO 719 describes a test of the extraction of water-soluble basic compounds under neutral conditions: 2 g of glass, particle size 300–500 μm, is kept for 60 min in 50 mL de-ionized water of grade 2 at 98 °C; 25 mL of the obtained solution is titrated against
1696:
involves several complex and often poorly understood physiochemical processes. These are strikingly different from the other processes discussed here, and so the term "corrosion" is only applied to them in a loose sense of the word. Because of their large molecular weight, very little
1955:
O) ion from the solution. It causes an ion-selective depletion of near surface layers of glasses and gives an inverse-square-root dependence of corrosion rate with exposure time. The diffusion-controlled normalized leaching rate of cations from glasses (g/cm·d) is given by:
1529:
released a study titled "Corrosion Costs and
Preventive Strategies in the United States" on the direct costs associated with metallic corrosion in the US industry. In 1998, the total annual direct cost of corrosion in the US roughly $ 276 billion (or 3.2% of the US
1239:
Anodizing is very resilient to weathering and corrosion, so it is commonly used for building facades and other areas where the surface will come into regular contact with the elements. While being resilient, it must be cleaned frequently. If left without cleaning,
2323:. Through its composition neutral glass has a high resistance against temperature shocks and the highest hydrolytic resistance. Against acid and neutral solutions it shows high chemical resistance, because of its poor alkali content against alkaline solutions.
1534:
at the time). Broken down into five specific industries, the economic losses are $ 22.6 billion in infrastructure, $ 17.6 billion in production and manufacturing, $ 29.7 billion in transportation, $ 20.1 billion in government, and $ 47.9 billion in utilities.
1160:
coatings, like
Durabak-M26 for example, can provide an anti-corrosive seal with a highly durable slip resistant membrane. Painted coatings are relatively easy to apply and have fast drying times although temperature and humidity may cause dry times to vary.
1812:
leaching (ion exchange) and hydrolytic dissolution of the glass network. Both mechanisms strongly depend on the pH of contacting solution: the rate of ion exchange decreases with pH as 10, whereas the rate of hydrolytic dissolution increases with pH as 10.
2152:
In typical natural conditions, normalized corrosion rates of silicate glasses are very low and are of the order of 10 to 10 g/(cm·d). The very high durability of silicate glasses in water makes them suitable for hazardous and nuclear waste immobilisation.
1252:
A new form of protection has been developed by applying certain species of bacterial films to the surface of metals in highly corrosive environments. This process increases the corrosion resistance substantially. Alternatively, antimicrobial-producing
1067:
Various treatments are used to slow corrosion damage to metallic objects which are exposed to the weather, salt water, acids, or other hostile environments. Some unprotected metallic alloys are extremely vulnerable to corrosion, such as those used in
811:
with the well-protected alloy nearby, which leads to "weld decay" (corrosion of the grain boundaries in the heat affected zones) in highly corrosive environments. This process can seriously reduce the mechanical strength of welded joints over time.
1538:
Rust is one of the most common causes of bridge accidents. As rust displaces a much higher volume than the originating mass of iron, its build-up can also cause failure by forcing apart adjacent components. It was the cause of the collapse of the
752:
to the point that otherwise tough alloys can shatter; a thin film pierced by an invisibly small hole can hide a thumb sized pit from view. These problems are especially dangerous because they are difficult to detect before a part or structure
926:). The iron sulfate coating will protect the steel from further reaction; however, if hydrogen bubbles contact this coating, it will be removed. Thus, a groove can be formed by a travelling bubble, exposing more steel to the acid, causing a
819:
shows no signs of sensitization, while a heavily sensitized steel shows the presence of grain boundary precipitates. The dark lines in the sensitized microstructure are networks of chromium carbides formed along the grain boundaries.
510:
the same direction, the noble metal will take electrons from the active one. The resulting mass flow or electric current can be measured to establish a hierarchy of materials in the medium of interest. This hierarchy is called a
2749:
R. Zuo; D. Örnek; B.C. Syrett; R.M. Green; C.-H. Hsu; F.B. Mansfeld; T.K. Wood (2004). "Inhibiting mild steel corrosion from sulfate-reducing bacteria using antimicrobial-producing biofilms in Three-Mile-Island process water".
1701:
can be gained by mixing a given mass of polymer with another substance, making them generally quite difficult to dissolve. While dissolution is a problem in some polymer applications, it is relatively simple to design against.
540:, which removes some layers of the underlying metal to make a smooth surface. For example, phosphoric acid may also be used to electropolish copper but it does this by removing copper, not the products of copper corrosion.
456:. For example, zinc is often used as a sacrificial anode for steel structures. Galvanic corrosion is of major interest to the marine industry and also anywhere water (containing salts) contacts pipes or metal structures.
378:
The chemistry of corrosion is complex; it can be considered an electrochemical phenomenon. During corrosion at a particular spot on the surface of an object made of iron, oxidation takes place and that spot behaves as an
595:
tend to decompose spontaneously into pure metal, which is why these elements can be found in metallic form on Earth and have long been valued. More common "base" metals can only be protected by more temporary means.
2025:
2326:
Hydrolytic class 2 (Type II): This class usually contains sodium silicate glasses with a high hydrolytic resistance through surface finishing. Sodium silicate glass is a silicate glass, which contains alkali- and
1579:
quality and pipe failures. The economic impact on homeowners, condo dwellers, and the public infrastructure is estimated at $ 22 billion as the insurance industry braces for a wave of claims due to pipe failures.
1548:
investigation showed that a drain in the road had been blocked for road re-surfacing, and had not been unblocked; as a result, runoff water penetrated the support hangers. Rust was also an important factor in the
1543:
in 1983, when support bearings rusted internally and pushed one corner of the road slab off its support. Three drivers on the roadway at the time died as the slab fell into the river below. The following
1705:
A more common and related problem is "swelling", where small molecules infiltrate the structure, reducing strength and stiffness and causing a volume change. Conversely, many polymers (notably flexible
947:
is chemical deterioration of a material (typically a metal) as a result of heating. This non-galvanic form of corrosion can occur when a metal is subjected to a hot atmosphere containing oxygen, sulfur
1923:
2085:
Glass network dissolution is characteristic of the later phases of corrosion and causes a congruent release of ions into the water solution at a time-independent rate in dilute solutions (g/cm·d):
2405: – Corrosion tests in which the environment, temperature, and/or other parameters are cycled on a regular basis. Often these cycles are used to evaluate corrosion in an accelerated manner.
2801:
2908:
761:
can lead to failure. This form of corrosion is often difficult to detect due to the fact that it is usually relatively small and may be covered and hidden by corrosion-produced compounds.
2813:
Most water heater manufacturers will recommend inspecting the condition of the sacrificial anode every one (1) to three (3) years and replacing it when it has been consumed more than 50%
2173:) of glasses in neutral, basic, and acidic environments, under simulated environmental conditions, in simulated body fluid, at high temperature and pressure, and under other conditions.
2130:
1471:
1084:
When surface treatments are used to reduce corrosion, great care must be taken to ensure complete coverage, without gaps, cracks, or pinhole defects. Small defects can act as an "
807:
of stainless alloys. This chemical reaction robs the material of chromium in the zone near the grain boundary, making those areas much less resistant to corrosion. This creates a
1350:
A number of problems are associated with sacrificial anodes. Among these, from an environmental perspective, is the release of zinc, magnesium, aluminum and heavy metals such as
1717:
The most common form of degradation, however, is a decrease in polymer chain length. Mechanisms which break polymer chains are familiar to biologists because of their effect on
1156:
Painting either by roller or brush is more desirable for tight spaces; spray would be better for larger coating areas such as steel decks and waterfront applications. Flexible
1005:. In the presence of oxygen (aerobic), some bacteria may directly oxidize iron to iron oxides and hydroxides, other bacteria oxidize sulfur and produce sulfuric acid causing
359:
corrode merely from exposure to moisture in air, but the process can be strongly affected by exposure to certain substances. Corrosion can be concentrated locally to form a
452:(the cathode) corrodes at a slower rate. When immersed separately, each metal corrodes at its own rate. What type of metal(s) to use is readily determined by following the
1951:. Diffusion-controlled leaching (ion exchange) is characteristic of the initial phase of corrosion and involves replacement of alkali ions in the glass by a hydronium (H
2276:
The standardized test ISO 719 is not suitable for glasses with poor or not extractable alkaline components, but which are still attacked by water; e.g., quartz glass, B
1153:. If the zinc coating is not thick enough the surface soon becomes unsightly with rusting obvious. The design life is directly related to the metal coating thickness.
2881:
1088:", allowing corrosion to penetrate the interior and causing extensive damage even while the outer protective layer remains apparently intact for a period of time.
1355:
regularly by means of underwater inspection by divers. Furthermore, as they have a finite lifespan, sacrificial anodes need to be replaced regularly over time.
1145:
will cause any exposed area to corrode much more rapidly than an unplated surface would. For this reason, it is often wise to plate with active metal such as
1575:. Measuring instruments based on the half-cell potential can detect the potential corrosion spots before total failure of the concrete structure is reached.
757:. Pitting remains among the most common and damaging forms of corrosion in passivated alloys, but it can be prevented by control of the alloy's environment.
673:
ions for silicon. On the other hand, unusual conditions may result in passivation of materials that are normally unprotected, as the alkaline environment of
701:
group of materials. If breakdown occurs in the passive film due to chemical or mechanical factors, the resulting major modes of corrosion may include
267:
2683:
2165:
Effect of addition of a certain glass component on the chemical durability against water corrosion of a specific base glass (corrosion test ISO 719).
665:, but many other factors are influential. Some conditions that inhibit passivation include high pH for aluminium and zinc, low pH or the presence of
2653:
2793:
2904:
2578:. New York : Toronto : New York: Macmillan Pub. Co. ; Collier Macmillan Canada ; Maxwell Macmillan International Pub. Group.
2708:
2417:
1962:
815:
A stainless steel is said to be "sensitized" if chromium carbides are formed in the microstructure. A typical microstructure of a normalized
791:
Stainless steel can pose special corrosion challenges, since its passivating behavior relies on the presence of a major alloying component (
669:
ions for stainless steel, high temperature for titanium (in which case the oxide dissolves into the metal, rather than the electrolyte) and
877:, hydrogen grooving is the corrosion of piping at grooves created by the interaction of a corrosive agent, corroded pipe constituents, and
1244:
will naturally occur. Anodization is the process of converting an anode into cathode by bringing a more active anode in contact with it.
1394:
as solutions of sulfuric acid. Anodic protection is an electrochemical method of corrosion protection by keeping metal in passive state
2440:
440:
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals have physical or electrical contact with each other and are immersed in a common
3072:
3055:
295:. It is the gradual deterioration of materials (usually a metal) by chemical or electrochemical reaction with their environment.
1861:
1231:
often undergo a surface treatment. Electrochemical conditions in the bath are carefully adjusted so that uniform pores, several
367:-controlled process, it occurs on exposed surfaces. As a result, methods to reduce the activity of the exposed surface, such as
344:
of the original metal and results in a distinctive coloration. Corrosion can also occur in materials other than metals, such as
2511:
260:
2939:
2834:
2583:
1364:
1141:
usually fail only in small sections, but if the plating is more noble than the substrate (for example, chromium on steel), a
735:
Certain conditions, such as low concentrations of oxygen or high concentrations of species such as chloride which compete as
3010:
2972:
375:, can increase a material's corrosion resistance. However, some corrosion mechanisms are less visible and less predictable.
2873:
2478:
1670:, such flaws cause a dramatic reduction in the strength of a glass object during its first few hours at room temperature.
615:. While corrosion of these metals is continuous and ongoing, it happens at an acceptably slow rate. An extreme example is
1375:). Anodes for ICCP systems are tubular and solid rod shapes of various specialized materials. These include high silicon
107:
3004:
2434:
2851:
414:
in water may also be available due to dissolution of other acidic oxides from the atmosphere). This spot behaves as a
309:
connection of elements of the cooling tower of a power plant from 1904. Increased material volume caused by corrosion.
79:
3144:
2737:
1632:
661:
Passivation is primarily determined by metallurgical and environmental factors. The effect of pH is summarized using
253:
126:
3109:
363:
or crack, or it can extend across a wide area, more or less uniformly corroding the surface. Because corrosion is a
1305:
Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making it the cathode of an
1270:
1363:
For larger structures, galvanic anodes cannot economically deliver enough current to provide complete protection.
436:
Galvanic corrosion of an aluminium plate occurred when the plate was connected to a mild steel structural support.
2850:
Koch, Gerhardus H.; Brongers, Michiel P.H.; Thompson, Neil G.; Virmani, Y. Paul; Payer, Joe H. (September 2001).
960:, prevent or reduce wear during high-temperature sliding contact of metallic (or metallic and ceramic) surfaces.
623:, but has such slow kinetics that it is effectively immune to electrochemical corrosion under normal conditions.
86:
3040:
2966:
2091:
1614:
1526:
1118:
64:
1179:
2466:
2428:
2363:
1430:
1372:
17:
536:
is often applied to ferrous tools or surfaces to remove rust. Corrosion removal should not be confused with
2675:
1043:
C species (where M is the metal), which migrate away from the metal surface. However, in some regimes, no M
845:
479:
directly affects the corrosion rates of the materials. Galvanic corrosion is often prevented by the use of
93:
1509:
Other common expressions for the corrosion rate is penetration depth and change of mechanical properties.
985:, or commonly known as microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC), is a corrosion caused or promoted by
2649:
957:
372:
216:
1174:
available wherever metal becomes exposed. Chemicals that inhibit corrosion include some of the salts in
336:
oxides, is a well-known example of electrochemical corrosion. This type of corrosion typically produces
1816:
Mathematically, corrosion rates of glasses are characterized by normalized corrosion rates of elements
1610:
1006:
944:
432:
206:
60:
956:
and high temperatures in hostile conditions. Such high-temperature corrosion products, in the form of
75:
2704:
2516:
1258:
994:
775:
710:
221:
2181:
solution. The volume of HCl required for neutralization is classified according to the table below.
1929:
The overall corrosion rate is a sum of contributions from both mechanisms (leaching + dissolution):
1076:
or crumble into powder even in dry, temperature-stable indoor environments unless properly treated.
3176:
2599:
Hoffman, Robert S.; Burns, Michele M.; Gosselin, Sophie (2020). "Ingestion of
Caustic Substances".
2402:
1773:
often do not include these additives so that they break down more easily as ultrafine particles of
1339:
993:. It can apply to both metallic and non-metallic materials, in the presence or absence of oxygen.
1603:
1561:
collapsed within a minute, killing 46 drivers and passengers who were on the bridge at the time.
1002:
905:
816:
770:
632:
368:
226:
53:
861:
gaskets or seals, inside cracks and seams, spaces filled with deposits, and under sludge piles.
2460:
1809:
1714:, which can be leached out of the structure, causing brittleness or other undesirable changes.
1531:
850:
196:
2905:"Potable Water Pipe Condition Assessment For a High Rise Condominium in The Pacific Northwest"
1825:(g/cm·d) which are determined as the ratio of total amount of released species into the water
783:
548:
Some metals are more intrinsically resistant to corrosion than others (for some examples, see
2381:
2372:
2054:
th cation effective diffusion coefficient (cm/d), which depends on pH of contacting water as
1063:
equipment such as helicopters to protect them from corrosion, thus saving millions of dollars
930:. The grooving is exacerbated by the tendency of subsequent bubbles to follow the same path.
557:
296:
2481: – Predictive measurement of stainless steel resistance to localized pitting corrosion
2445:
2328:
2320:
1770:
1415:
1379:, graphite, mixed metal oxide or platinum coated titanium or niobium coated rod and wires.
1306:
1047:
C species is observed indicating a direct transfer of metal atoms into the graphite layer.
749:
603:, even though their corrosion is thermodynamically favorable. These include such metals as
8:
3181:
2490:
2393:
2354:
1730:
1693:
1659:
1569:
1540:
1343:
1342:
is caused by the current flow from the anode to the cathode, driven by the difference in
1300:
1241:
1195:
1170:
1113:
982:
977:
561:
553:
241:
211:
176:
3171:
2775:
2387:
2300:
1722:
1707:
1310:
1142:
1010:
808:
754:
444:, or when the same metal is exposed to electrolyte with different concentrations. In a
427:
387:
released at this anodic spot move through the metal to another spot on the object, and
201:
181:
100:
3080:
2299:
Hydrolytic class 1 (Type I): This class, which is also called neutral glass, includes
2169:
There exist numerous standardized procedures for measuring the corrosion (also called
1283:
during concrete placement. CPF has been used in environments to combat the effects of
3150:
3140:
3036:
3000:
2962:
2935:
2830:
2767:
2733:
2616:
2579:
2451:
2422:
2178:
1568:, creating severe structural problems. It is one of the most common failure modes of
1558:
1517:
1388:
1085:
961:
939:
874:
857:
840:
722:
706:
702:
685:
600:
480:
345:
171:
31:
2779:
1666:, normal glass does form sub-microscopic flaws when exposed to moisture. Due to its
2759:
2728:
JE Breakell, M Siegwart, K Foster, D Marshall, M Hodgson, R Cottis, S Lyon (2005).
2608:
2384: – Field of engineering dealing with designing materials that resist corrosion
1801:
1762:
1754:
1407:
1069:
998:
882:
800:
662:
537:
528:
Often, it is possible to chemically remove the products of corrosion. For example,
341:
3052:
2396: – Gradual destruction of materials by chemical reaction with its environment
1564:
Similarly, corrosion of concrete-covered steel and iron can cause the concrete to
1275:
Controlled permeability formwork (CPF) is a method of preventing the corrosion of
3059:
3030:
2994:
2956:
2505:
2316:
1663:
1314:
1228:
1133:
1039:(CO) in the vapor phase. This graphite layer is then thought to form metastable M
1036:
647:
549:
529:
492:
453:
448:, the more active metal (the anode) corrodes at an accelerated rate and the more
321:
314:
144:
1757:
can slow these process very effectively, and can be as simple as a UV-absorbing
1013:
can form in the deposits of corrosion products, leading to localized corrosion.
2549:
2522:
2472:
1750:
1746:
1686:
1682:
1368:
1280:
1137:
990:
584:
407:
2763:
1662:
to reduce its solubility in water; though it is not nearly as soluble as pure
3165:
2475: – Tabular arrangement of the chemical elements ordered by atomic number
2336:
2304:
1797:
1655:
1650:
1554:
1550:
1106:
1097:
1031:
1026:
986:
927:
886:
445:
392:
391:
oxygen at that spot in presence of H (which is believed to be available from
231:
3154:
964:
is also commonly used to produce controlled oxide nanostructures, including
2932:
When Glass Meets Pharma: Insights about Glass as
Primary Packaging Material
2859:
2771:
2620:
2332:
2191:
1766:
1318:
1221:
1157:
909:
743:
of several types, depending upon conditions. While the corrosion pits only
727:
583:
The materials most resistant to corrosion are those for which corrosion is
523:
497:
In any given environment (one standard medium is aerated, room-temperature
475:, etc.) affect galvanic corrosion. The surface area ratio of the anode and
411:
2730:
Management of
Accelerated Low Water Corrosion in Steel Maritime Structures
2612:
787:
Sensitized metallic microstructure, showing wider intergranular boundaries
27:
Gradual destruction of materials by chemical reaction with its environment
3134:
3101:
3035:. D.E. Clark, B.K. Zoitos (eds.), William Andrew Publishing/Noyes (1992)
2676:"Different Types of Corrosion: Pitting Corrosion - Causes and Prevention"
2312:
1726:
1711:
1284:
1191:
1060:
1035:
deposition of a graphite layer on the surface of the metal, usually from
949:
804:
576:
464:
449:
441:
2493: – Measure of the tendency of a substance to gain or lose electrons
2487: – Chemical reaction in which oxidation states of atoms are changed
2161:
1678:
1169:
If the environment is controlled (especially in recirculating systems),
2827:
Fundamentals of corrosion – Mechanisms, Causes and
Preventative Methods
2146:
2020:{\displaystyle \mathrm {NR} x_{i}=2\rho {\sqrt {\frac {D_{i}}{\pi t}}}}
1617: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1309:. Cathodic protection systems are most commonly used to protect steel
1199:
1175:
1055:
849:
Corrosion in the crevice between the tube and tube sheet (both made of
744:
2528:
2411:
1805:
1410:
corroded extremely rapidly after only five months of outside exposure
1376:
1232:
1211:
1187:
1183:
1102:
965:
823:
Special alloys, either with low carbon content or with added carbon "
643:
620:
608:
364:
317:
3053:
Calculation of the
Chemical Durability (Hydrolytic Class) of Glasses
2636:"Statistical study on the corrosion of mild steel in saline mediums"
2635:
2448: – Investigation of failures associated with legal intervention
2187:
Amount of 0.01M HCl needed to neutralize extracted basic oxides, mL
1592:
1329:
865:
commonly used to rank a material's resistance to crevice corrosion.
302:
42:
2748:
1742:
1254:
878:
792:
674:
670:
666:
651:
616:
592:
498:
472:
468:
384:
349:
191:
161:
1402:
572:
2496:
2425: – Tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons
2357: – metal corrosion occurring in the presence of anoxic water
1758:
1698:
1667:
1646:
1351:
1198:, and a wide range of specially designed chemicals that resemble
1150:
1125:
828:
796:
748:
sharp tips of extremely long and narrow corrosion pits can cause
655:
612:
476:
415:
329:
284:
186:
2852:"Corrosion costs and preventive strategies in the United States"
2311:, Fiolax). Glass of this class contains essential quantities of
1846:(days), and weight fraction content of the element in the glass
1785:
299:
is the field dedicated to controlling and preventing corrosion.
1774:
1572:
824:
689:
325:
2550:"Corrosion | Oxidation, Electrochemical, Rusting | Britannica"
1649:
materials are almost entirely immune to corrosion. The strong
997:
are active in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic); they produce
2484:
2463: – Reduction in ductility of a metal exposed to hydrogen
2308:
2295:
Usual glasses are differentiated into the following classes:
1738:
1734:
1565:
1288:
1276:
1129:
1073:
736:
681:
678:
460:
388:
380:
356:
337:
306:
292:
288:
2794:"The sacrificial anode: what is it? When should you replace"
1216:
1202:(i.e., long-chain organic molecules with ionic end groups).
139:
2849:
1545:
1146:
901:
795:, at least 11.5%). Because of the elevated temperatures of
604:
588:
333:
236:
1918:{\displaystyle \mathrm {NR} _{i}={\frac {M_{i}}{Sf_{i}t}}}
579:
do not naturally corrode, even on a geological time scale.
410:
from air into water in moist air condition of atmosphere.
1718:
779:
Normal microstructure of Type 304 stainless steel surface
514:
and is useful in predicting and understanding corrosion.
3032:
Corrosion of Glass, Ceramics and
Ceramic Superconductors
1358:
2858:. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Archived from
2525: – Material degradation due to corrosion and wear.
2499: – form of corrosion applicable to stainless steel
2398:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
2390: – Corrosion of materials occurring in outer space
2377:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1521:
The collapsed Silver Bridge, as seen from the Ohio side
639:
853:) of a heat exchanger in a seawater desalination plant
2999:. New York: Nova Science Publishers. p. 100 ff.
2469: – Noncontact variant of atomic force microscopy
2094:
1965:
1864:
1433:
2598:
2501:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
2407:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
2368:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
2359:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1414:
The formation of an oxide layer is described by the
695:
2519: – Growth of cracks in a corrosive environment
1794:to certain chemically-aggressive liquids or gases.
1264:
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2456:Pages displaying short descriptions with no spaces
2124:
2019:
1917:
1465:
764:
731:Diagram showing cross-section of pitting corrosion
1257:can be used to inhibit mild steel corrosion from
3163:
1333:Sacrificial anode attached to the hull of a ship
3062:. Glassproperties.com. Retrieved on 2012-07-15.
2705:"The effect of sulphuric acid on storage tanks"
2375: – Warning symbol on locations or products
1338:steel, and eventually it must be replaced. The
1324:
313:In the most common use of the word, this means
3106:International Organization for Standardization
2418:Electrical resistivity measurement of concrete
2366: – bacterially-induced oxidation of metal
1500:is the surface area of the metal exposed, and
619:, which releases large amounts of energy upon
2996:New Developments in Glassy Nuclear Wasteforms
1279:by naturally enhancing the durability of the
933:
692:can often circumvent passivation mechanisms.
261:
2437: – Resolved paradox in electrochemistry
1050:
904:in the steel reacts with the acid to form a
463:, types of metal, and operating conditions (
2414: – Used for steel corrosion resistance
2824:
2441:Fibre-reinforced plastic tanks and vessels
543:
268:
254:
3139:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
2992:
2954:
2902:
2682:. WebCorr Corrosion Consulting Services.
2650:"Methods of Protecting Against Corrosion"
2125:{\displaystyle \mathrm {NR} h=\rho r_{h}}
1834:(g) to the water-contacting surface area
1633:Learn how and when to remove this message
1582:
1367:(ICCP) systems use anodes connected to a
1178:(Roman water systems are known for their
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
2829:. Taylor and Francis Group. p. 25.
2160:
2156:
1800:is the corrosion of silicate glasses in
1784:
1677:
1673:
1516:
1488:is the weight loss of the metal in time
1401:
1328:
1215:
1112:
1101:
1054:
844:
782:
774:
726:
571:
431:
301:
143:Corrosion on exposed metal, including a
138:
2929:
1506:is the density of the metal (in g/cm).
1466:{\displaystyle R={\frac {kW}{\rho At}}}
587:unfavorable. Any corrosion products of
30:For the Front Line Assembly album, see
14:
3164:
3136:Principles and prevention of corrosion
2576:Principles and prevention of corrosion
2512:Scanning vibrating electrode technique
1294:
971:
567:
360:
3132:
2911:from the original on 29 December 2017
2656:from the original on 10 February 2012
2573:
1780:
1365:Impressed current cathodic protection
1359:Impressed current cathodic protection
1079:
684:. Exposure to a liquid metal such as
421:
2652:. Piping Technology & Products.
2479:Pitting resistance equivalent number
2082:is the density of the glass (g/cm).
1804:. It is governed by two mechanisms:
1615:adding citations to reliable sources
1586:
1397:
1382:
1164:
868:
834:
716:
517:
65:adding citations to reliable sources
36:
2800:. Hydro Solution. 20 January 2020.
1247:
1091:
24:
3126:
2907:. GSG Group, Inc. Dan Robles, PE.
2633:
2435:Faraday paradox (electrochemistry)
2099:
2096:
1970:
1967:
1870:
1867:
1749:is a well-known problem affecting
1512:
486:
25:
3193:
2958:Fundamentals of inorganic glasses
2856:CC Technologies Laboratories, Inc
2531: – Type of corrosion in zinc
1710:) are intentionally swelled with
1224:is anodized with a yellow finish.
900:) flows through steel pipes, the
696:Corrosion in passivated materials
501:), one metal will be either more
459:Factors such as relative size of
2993:Ojovan, M.I.; Lee, W.E. (2007).
2961:. Gulf Professional Publishing.
1591:
1271:Controlled permeability formwork
1265:Controlled permeability formwork
1020:
599:Some metals have naturally slow
556:(oxidation) including painting,
554:protecting metals from corrosion
41:
3112:from the original on 2018-03-14
3094:
3073:"Vapor Hydration Testing (VHT)"
3065:
3046:
3024:
3013:from the original on 2023-02-14
2986:
2975:from the original on 2023-02-14
2948:
2923:
2896:
2884:from the original on 2014-09-11
2866:
2843:
2818:
2804:from the original on 2022-09-13
2786:
2711:from the original on 2019-09-13
2686:from the original on 2022-09-13
2601:New England Journal of Medicine
1602:needs additional citations for
765:Weld decay and knifeline attack
406:) formed due to dissolution of
52:needs additional citations for
2825:Schweitzer, Philip A. (2010).
2742:
2732:, Volume 634 of CIRIA Series,
2722:
2697:
2668:
2642:
2627:
2592:
2567:
2542:
1654:protection in ceramics is the
1527:Federal Highway Administration
1205:
626:
332:, the formation of red-orange
291:into a more chemically stable
13:
1:
2536:
2508: – Corrosion test method
2467:Kelvin probe force microscope
2429:Environmental stress fracture
2364:Bacterial anaerobic corrosion
1373:cathodic protection rectifier
1236:to protect the damaged area.
1117:Corroding steel gantry on an
642:is seen in such materials as
564:, and combinations of these.
552:). There are various ways of
320:of metal in reaction with an
2874:"NACE Corrosion Costs Study"
1325:Sacrificial anode protection
958:compacted oxide layer glazes
7:
2752:Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol
2347:
217:Metal-induced embrittlement
10:
3198:
1386:
1298:
1268:
1209:
1095:
1024:
1007:biogenic sulfide corrosion
975:
945:High-temperature corrosion
937:
934:High-temperature corrosion
838:
768:
720:
630:
521:
490:
425:
328:, hydrogen, or hydroxide.
207:Liquid metal embrittlement
29:
2930:Boltres, Bettine (2015).
2764:10.1007/s00253-003-1403-7
2517:Stress corrosion cracking
1259:sulfate-reducing bacteria
1132:, and the application of
1051:Protection from corrosion
995:Sulfate-reducing bacteria
711:stress corrosion cracking
222:Stress corrosion cracking
3133:Jones, Denny A. (1996).
2955:Varshneya, A.K. (1994).
2574:Jones, Denny A. (1991).
2431: – Material failure
2403:Cyclic corrosion testing
1371:power source (such as a
851:type 316 stainless steel
817:type 304 stainless steel
287:that converts a refined
154:Mechanical failure modes
1003:sulfide stress cracking
827:" such as titanium and
771:Intergranular corrosion
633:Passivation (chemistry)
544:Resistance to corrosion
227:Sulfide stress cracking
2461:Hydrogen embrittlement
2166:
2126:
2021:
1919:
1840:(cm), time of contact
1790:
1690:
1583:Corrosion in nonmetals
1532:gross domestic product
1522:
1467:
1411:
1334:
1317:, ships, and offshore
1313:and tanks; steel pier
1225:
1122:
1110:
1064:
854:
788:
780:
732:
580:
437:
310:
197:Hydrogen embrittlement
148:
2613:10.1056/nejmra1810769
2382:Corrosion engineering
2373:Chemical hazard label
2321:alkaline earth oxides
2164:
2157:Glass corrosion tests
2127:
2022:
1920:
1788:
1771:Plastic shopping bags
1681:
1674:Corrosion of polymers
1520:
1468:
1405:
1332:
1219:
1116:
1105:
1058:
848:
786:
778:
730:
575:
558:hot-dip galvanization
435:
305:
297:Corrosion engineering
142:
3083:on December 14, 2007
2880:. NACE. 2013-11-12.
2446:Forensic engineering
2343:DIN 12111 (ISO 719).
2329:alkaline earth oxide
2301:borosilicate glasses
2092:
1963:
1862:
1611:improve this article
1553:disaster of 1967 in
1431:
1307:electrochemical cell
1171:corrosion inhibitors
1136:are the most common
919:) and hydrogen gas (
885:. For example, when
799:and heat treatment,
750:stress concentration
61:improve this article
2680:corrosionclinic.com
2491:Reduction potential
2394:Corrosive substance
2355:Anaerobic corrosion
2171:chemical durability
1694:Polymer degradation
1570:reinforced concrete
1541:Mianus River Bridge
1424:) is calculated as
1344:electrode potential
1301:Cathodic protection
1295:Cathodic protection
1242:panel edge staining
1196:conducting polymers
1119:electrified railway
1011:Concentration cells
983:Microbial corrosion
978:Microbial corrosion
972:Microbial corrosion
568:Intrinsic chemistry
562:cathodic protection
373:chromate conversion
212:Mechanical overload
3058:2007-11-05 at the
2554:www.britannica.com
2388:Corrosion in space
2167:
2145:is the stationary
2122:
2017:
1915:
1791:
1781:Corrosion of glass
1723:ionizing radiation
1691:
1523:
1463:
1412:
1335:
1226:
1222:climbing descender
1123:
1111:
1080:Surface treatments
1065:
855:
789:
781:
733:
581:
481:sacrificial anodes
438:
428:Galvanic corrosion
422:Galvanic corrosion
311:
149:
2941:978-3-87193-432-2
2934:. Editio Cantor.
2836:978-1-4200-6770-5
2798:hydrosolution.com
2607:(18): 1739–1748.
2585:978-0-02-361215-2
2452:Hydrogen analyzer
2423:Electronegativity
2274:
2273:
2015:
2014:
1913:
1802:aqueous solutions
1755:Plastic additives
1643:
1642:
1635:
1559:suspension bridge
1461:
1408:neodymium magnets
1398:Rate of corrosion
1389:Anodic protection
1383:Anodic protection
1165:Reactive coatings
1070:neodymium magnets
962:Thermal oxidation
940:Thermal oxidation
875:chemical industry
869:Hydrogen grooving
858:Crevice corrosion
841:Crevice corrosion
835:Crevice corrosion
801:chromium carbides
723:Pitting corrosion
717:Pitting corrosion
707:crevice corrosion
703:pitting corrosion
663:Pourbaix diagrams
601:reaction kinetics
585:thermodynamically
518:Corrosion removal
278:
277:
172:Corrosion fatigue
137:
136:
129:
111:
32:Corrosion (album)
16:(Redirected from
3189:
3158:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3117:
3098:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3088:
3079:. Archived from
3069:
3063:
3050:
3044:
3028:
3022:
3021:
3019:
3018:
2990:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2952:
2946:
2945:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2916:
2900:
2894:
2893:
2891:
2889:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2822:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2809:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2746:
2740:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2716:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2691:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2661:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2596:
2590:
2589:
2571:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2561:
2546:
2502:
2457:
2408:
2399:
2378:
2369:
2360:
2317:aluminium oxides
2184:
2183:
2177:0.01 mol/L
2144:
2131:
2129:
2128:
2123:
2121:
2120:
2102:
2081:
2075:
2053:
2047:
2036:
2026:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2005:
2004:
1995:
1994:
1983:
1982:
1973:
1950:
1924:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1908:
1907:
1894:
1893:
1884:
1879:
1878:
1873:
1854:
1845:
1839:
1833:
1824:
1763:titanium dioxide
1737:such as oxygen,
1638:
1631:
1627:
1624:
1618:
1595:
1587:
1525:In 2002, the US
1505:
1499:
1493:
1487:
1481:
1472:
1470:
1469:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1449:
1441:
1423:
1416:Deal–Grove model
1291:, and abrasion.
1248:Biofilm coatings
1229:Aluminium alloys
1180:mineral deposits
1092:Applied coatings
1059:The US military
999:hydrogen sulfide
968:and thin films.
925:
918:
899:
805:grain boundaries
803:can form in the
538:electropolishing
405:
355:Many structural
270:
263:
256:
151:
150:
132:
125:
121:
118:
112:
110:
69:
45:
37:
21:
3197:
3196:
3192:
3191:
3190:
3188:
3187:
3186:
3177:Glass chemistry
3162:
3161:
3147:
3129:
3127:Further reading
3124:
3115:
3113:
3102:"Procedure 719"
3100:
3099:
3095:
3086:
3084:
3071:
3070:
3066:
3060:Wayback Machine
3051:
3047:
3029:
3025:
3016:
3014:
3007:
2991:
2987:
2978:
2976:
2969:
2953:
2949:
2942:
2928:
2924:
2914:
2912:
2903:Daniel Robles.
2901:
2897:
2887:
2885:
2872:
2871:
2867:
2848:
2844:
2837:
2823:
2819:
2807:
2805:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2747:
2743:
2727:
2723:
2714:
2712:
2703:
2702:
2698:
2689:
2687:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2659:
2657:
2648:
2647:
2643:
2634:Nwagha, Nzube.
2632:
2628:
2597:
2593:
2586:
2572:
2568:
2559:
2557:
2548:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2534:
2506:Salt spray test
2500:
2455:
2406:
2397:
2376:
2367:
2358:
2350:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2203:
2199:equivalent, μg
2198:
2195:
2159:
2142:
2137:
2116:
2112:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2077:
2073:
2063:
2055:
2049:
2046:
2038:
2032:
2006:
2000:
1996:
1993:
1978:
1974:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1960:
1954:
1945:
1936:
1930:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1889:
1885:
1883:
1874:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1859:
1852:
1847:
1841:
1835:
1831:
1826:
1823:
1817:
1789:Glass corrosion
1783:
1725:(most commonly
1676:
1664:sodium silicate
1660:soda–lime glass
1639:
1628:
1622:
1619:
1608:
1596:
1585:
1557:, when a steel
1515:
1513:Economic impact
1501:
1495:
1489:
1483:
1482:is a constant,
1477:
1450:
1442:
1440:
1432:
1429:
1428:
1419:
1400:
1391:
1385:
1361:
1327:
1303:
1297:
1273:
1267:
1250:
1214:
1208:
1167:
1143:galvanic couple
1100:
1094:
1082:
1053:
1046:
1042:
1037:carbon monoxide
1029:
1023:
991:chemoautotrophs
980:
974:
942:
936:
924:
920:
917:
913:
898:
894:
890:
871:
843:
837:
809:galvanic couple
773:
767:
725:
719:
698:
648:stainless steel
635:
629:
570:
550:galvanic series
546:
532:in the form of
530:phosphoric acid
526:
520:
512:galvanic series
495:
493:Galvanic series
489:
487:Galvanic series
454:galvanic series
446:galvanic couple
430:
424:
404:
400:
396:
315:electrochemical
285:natural process
274:
133:
122:
116:
113:
70:
68:
58:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3195:
3185:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3160:
3159:
3145:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3093:
3064:
3045:
3023:
3006:978-1600217838
3005:
2985:
2967:
2947:
2940:
2922:
2895:
2865:
2862:on 2011-07-08.
2842:
2835:
2817:
2785:
2758:(2): 275–283.
2741:
2721:
2696:
2667:
2641:
2626:
2591:
2584:
2566:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2532:
2526:
2523:Tribocorrosion
2520:
2514:
2509:
2503:
2494:
2488:
2482:
2476:
2473:Periodic table
2470:
2464:
2458:
2454: – Device
2449:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2426:
2420:
2415:
2409:
2400:
2391:
2385:
2379:
2370:
2361:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2331:and primarily
2324:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2261:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2250:
2249:
2246:
2243:
2239:
2238:
2235:
2232:
2228:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2217:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2193:
2188:
2158:
2155:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2108:
2105:
2101:
2098:
2068:
2059:
2042:
2029:
2028:
2012:
2009:
2003:
1999:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1969:
1952:
1941:
1932:
1927:
1926:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1888:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1869:
1850:
1829:
1819:
1782:
1779:
1751:natural rubber
1747:Ozone cracking
1687:natural rubber
1683:Ozone cracking
1675:
1672:
1651:chemical bonds
1641:
1640:
1599:
1597:
1590:
1584:
1581:
1514:
1511:
1474:
1473:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1448:
1445:
1439:
1436:
1399:
1396:
1387:Main article:
1384:
1381:
1360:
1357:
1326:
1323:
1299:Main article:
1296:
1293:
1269:Main article:
1266:
1263:
1249:
1246:
1210:Main article:
1207:
1204:
1166:
1163:
1138:anti-corrosion
1096:Main article:
1093:
1090:
1086:Achilles' heel
1081:
1078:
1052:
1049:
1044:
1040:
1025:Main article:
1022:
1019:
987:microorganisms
976:Main article:
973:
970:
935:
932:
922:
915:
896:
892:
870:
867:
839:Main article:
836:
833:
769:Main article:
766:
763:
741:corrosion pits
721:Main article:
718:
715:
697:
694:
631:Main article:
628:
625:
569:
566:
545:
542:
522:Main article:
519:
516:
491:Main article:
488:
485:
426:Main article:
423:
420:
408:carbon dioxide
402:
398:
276:
275:
273:
272:
265:
258:
250:
247:
246:
245:
244:
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
156:
155:
135:
134:
49:
47:
40:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3194:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3146:0-13-359993-0
3142:
3138:
3137:
3131:
3130:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3097:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3068:
3061:
3057:
3054:
3049:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3033:
3027:
3012:
3008:
3002:
2998:
2997:
2989:
2974:
2970:
2964:
2960:
2959:
2951:
2943:
2937:
2933:
2926:
2910:
2906:
2899:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2869:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2846:
2838:
2832:
2828:
2821:
2814:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2789:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2745:
2739:
2738:0-86017-634-7
2735:
2731:
2725:
2710:
2706:
2700:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2671:
2655:
2651:
2645:
2637:
2630:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2595:
2587:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2555:
2551:
2545:
2541:
2530:
2527:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2504:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2489:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2477:
2474:
2471:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2427:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2404:
2401:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2374:
2371:
2365:
2362:
2356:
2353:
2352:
2341:
2338:
2337:calcium oxide
2334:
2330:
2325:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2297:
2296:
2293:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2262:
2258:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2201:
2197:
2189:
2186:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2174:
2172:
2163:
2154:
2150:
2148:
2143:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2088:
2087:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2052:
2045:
2041:
2035:
2010:
2007:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1949:
1944:
1940:
1935:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1890:
1886:
1880:
1875:
1858:
1857:
1856:
1853:
1844:
1838:
1832:
1822:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1798:Glass disease
1795:
1787:
1778:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1753:for example.
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1731:free radicals
1728:
1724:
1720:
1715:
1713:
1709:
1703:
1700:
1695:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1671:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1648:
1637:
1634:
1626:
1616:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1600:This section
1598:
1594:
1589:
1588:
1580:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1555:West Virginia
1552:
1551:Silver Bridge
1547:
1542:
1536:
1533:
1528:
1519:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1498:
1492:
1486:
1480:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1446:
1443:
1437:
1434:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1422:
1417:
1409:
1404:
1395:
1390:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1356:
1353:
1348:
1347:galvanizing.
1345:
1341:
1331:
1322:
1320:
1319:oil platforms
1316:
1312:
1308:
1302:
1292:
1290:
1287:, chlorides,
1286:
1282:
1278:
1277:reinforcement
1272:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1245:
1243:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1203:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1172:
1162:
1159:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1120:
1115:
1108:
1104:
1099:
1098:Galvanization
1089:
1087:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1062:
1057:
1048:
1038:
1033:
1032:Metal dusting
1028:
1027:Metal dusting
1021:Metal dusting
1018:
1014:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
979:
969:
967:
963:
959:
953:
951:
946:
941:
931:
929:
928:vicious cycle
911:
907:
903:
888:
887:sulfuric acid
884:
880:
876:
866:
862:
859:
852:
847:
842:
832:
830:
826:
821:
818:
813:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
785:
777:
772:
762:
758:
756:
751:
746:
742:
738:
729:
724:
714:
712:
708:
704:
693:
691:
687:
683:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
659:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
634:
624:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
597:
594:
590:
586:
578:
574:
565:
563:
559:
555:
551:
541:
539:
535:
531:
525:
515:
513:
508:
504:
500:
494:
484:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
457:
455:
451:
447:
443:
434:
429:
419:
417:
413:
409:
394:
393:carbonic acid
390:
386:
382:
376:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
353:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
316:
308:
304:
300:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
271:
266:
264:
259:
257:
252:
251:
249:
248:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
232:Thermal shock
230:
228:
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
159:
158:
157:
153:
152:
146:
141:
131:
128:
120:
109:
106:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78: –
77:
73:
72:Find sources:
66:
62:
56:
55:
50:This article
48:
44:
39:
38:
33:
19:
18:Corrosiveness
3135:
3114:. Retrieved
3105:
3096:
3085:. Retrieved
3081:the original
3076:
3067:
3048:
3031:
3026:
3015:. Retrieved
2995:
2988:
2977:. Retrieved
2957:
2950:
2931:
2925:
2913:. Retrieved
2898:
2886:. Retrieved
2877:
2868:
2860:the original
2855:
2845:
2826:
2820:
2812:
2806:. Retrieved
2797:
2788:
2755:
2751:
2744:
2729:
2724:
2713:. Retrieved
2699:
2688:. Retrieved
2679:
2670:
2658:. Retrieved
2644:
2629:
2604:
2600:
2594:
2575:
2569:
2558:. Retrieved
2556:. 2023-08-03
2553:
2544:
2333:sodium oxide
2313:boron oxides
2294:
2275:
2175:
2170:
2168:
2151:
2138:
2135:
2084:
2078:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2056:
2050:
2043:
2039:
2033:
2030:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1848:
1842:
1836:
1827:
1820:
1815:
1796:
1792:
1767:carbon black
1716:
1712:plasticizers
1704:
1692:
1644:
1629:
1620:
1609:Please help
1604:verification
1601:
1577:
1563:
1537:
1524:
1508:
1502:
1496:
1490:
1484:
1478:
1475:
1420:
1413:
1392:
1362:
1349:
1340:polarization
1336:
1304:
1274:
1251:
1238:
1227:
1168:
1158:polyurethane
1155:
1124:
1083:
1072:, which can
1066:
1061:shrink-wraps
1030:
1015:
981:
954:
943:
910:iron sulfate
872:
863:
856:
822:
814:
790:
759:
740:
734:
699:
660:
636:
598:
582:
577:Gold nuggets
547:
533:
527:
524:Rust removal
511:
506:
502:
496:
458:
439:
412:Hydrogen ion
377:
354:
312:
280:
279:
166:
123:
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
59:Please help
54:verification
51:
2915:10 December
2878:Cor-Pro.com
1727:ultraviolet
1668:brittleness
1285:carbonation
1206:Anodization
1200:surfactants
1192:polyaniline
950:sulfidation
908:coating of
906:passivation
627:Passivation
534:naval jelly
465:temperature
450:noble metal
442:electrolyte
369:passivation
117:August 2022
76:"Corrosion"
3182:Metallurgy
3166:Categories
3116:2012-07-15
3087:2012-07-15
3041:081551283X
3017:2016-01-05
2979:2016-01-05
2968:0127149708
2808:2022-09-13
2715:2019-10-27
2690:2022-09-13
2660:31 January
2560:2023-08-08
2537:References
2284:glass or P
2267:> 1085
2202:Hydrolytic
2190:Extracted
2147:hydrolysis
1810:controlled
1233:nanometers
1188:phosphates
1176:hard water
1107:Galvanized
1001:, causing
989:, usually
938:See also:
87:newspapers
3172:Corrosion
2529:Zinc pest
2412:Dimetcote
2264:> 3.5
2256:620-1085
2242:0.85-2.0
2231:0.2-0.85
2209:< 0.1
2110:ρ
2037:is time,
2008:π
1991:ρ
1806:diffusion
1735:oxidizers
1658:added to
1623:June 2022
1452:ρ
1377:cast iron
1311:pipelines
1212:Anodizing
1184:chromates
966:nanowires
677:does for
644:aluminium
621:oxidation
609:magnesium
385:electrons
365:diffusion
318:oxidation
281:Corrosion
167:Corrosion
3155:32664979
3110:Archived
3108:. 1985.
3077:Vscht.cz
3056:Archived
3011:Archived
2973:Archived
2909:Archived
2882:Archived
2802:Archived
2780:20734181
2772:12898064
2709:Archived
2684:Archived
2654:Archived
2621:32348645
2348:See also
2253:2.0-3.5
2245:264-620
2220:0.1-0.2
2212:< 31
1743:chlorine
1729:light),
1255:biofilms
1194:, other
1130:painting
879:hydrogen
793:chromium
745:nucleate
675:concrete
671:fluoride
667:chloride
652:titanium
617:graphite
593:platinum
505:or more
499:seawater
473:salinity
469:humidity
350:polymers
346:ceramics
324:such as
242:Yielding
192:Fracture
162:Buckling
2888:16 June
2497:Rouging
2303:(e.g.,
2292:glass.
2270:> 5
2234:62-264
2048:is the
1761:(e.g.,
1759:pigment
1699:entropy
1647:ceramic
1573:bridges
1352:cadmium
1151:cadmium
1126:Plating
1109:surface
883:bubbles
873:In the
829:niobium
825:getters
797:welding
688:or hot
686:mercury
656:silicon
613:cadmium
477:cathode
416:cathode
330:Rusting
322:oxidant
307:Riveted
187:Fouling
182:Fatigue
147:and nut
101:scholar
3153:
3143:
3039:
3003:
2965:
2938:
2833:
2778:
2770:
2736:
2619:
2582:
2223:31-62
2204:class
2136:where
2076:, and
2031:where
1775:litter
1741:, and
1733:, and
1689:tubing
1476:where
1406:These
1134:enamel
737:anions
709:, and
690:solder
654:, and
611:, and
507:active
389:reduce
383:. The
357:alloys
338:oxides
326:oxygen
202:Impact
103:
96:
89:
82:
74:
2776:S2CID
2485:Redox
2309:Pyrex
2305:Duran
1739:ozone
1708:vinyl
1645:Most
1566:spall
1315:piles
1289:frost
1281:cover
1220:This
1074:spall
755:fails
682:rebar
679:steel
503:noble
461:anode
381:anode
342:salts
293:oxide
289:metal
283:is a
177:Creep
108:JSTOR
94:books
3151:OCLC
3141:ISBN
3037:ISBN
3001:ISBN
2963:ISBN
2936:ISBN
2917:2012
2890:2014
2831:ISBN
2768:PMID
2734:ISBN
2662:2012
2617:PMID
2580:ISBN
2335:and
2319:and
1656:lime
1546:NTSB
1147:zinc
1121:line
914:FeSO
902:iron
881:gas
605:zinc
589:gold
371:and
334:iron
237:Wear
145:bolt
80:news
2760:doi
2609:doi
2605:382
2179:HCl
2074:·10
1946:+NR
1937:=NR
1769:).
1765:or
1719:DNA
1685:in
1613:by
1182:),
1149:or
591:or
361:pit
348:or
340:or
63:by
3168::
3149:.
3104:.
3075:.
3009:.
2971:.
2876:.
2854:.
2811:.
2796:.
2774:.
2766:.
2756:64
2754:.
2707:.
2678:.
2615:.
2603:.
2552:.
2315:,
2307:,
2259:5
2248:4
2237:3
2226:2
2215:1
2192:Na
2064:=
1931:NR
1855::
1818:NR
1777:.
1745:.
1721::
1494:,
1369:DC
1321:.
1261:.
1190:,
1186:,
1128:,
1009:.
948:("
895:SO
713:.
705:,
658:.
650:,
646:,
640:pH
607:,
560:,
483:.
471:,
467:,
418:.
401:CO
3157:.
3119:.
3090:.
3043:.
3020:.
2982:.
2944:.
2919:.
2892:.
2839:.
2782:.
2762::
2718:.
2693:.
2664:.
2638:.
2623:.
2611::
2588:.
2563:.
2339:.
2290:5
2288:O
2286:2
2282:3
2280:O
2278:2
2196:O
2194:2
2141:h
2139:r
2132:,
2118:h
2114:r
2107:=
2104:h
2100:R
2097:N
2079:ρ
2072:0
2070:i
2066:D
2061:i
2057:D
2051:i
2044:i
2040:D
2034:t
2027:,
2011:t
2002:i
1998:D
1988:2
1985:=
1980:i
1976:x
1971:R
1968:N
1953:3
1948:h
1943:i
1939:x
1934:i
1925:.
1910:t
1905:i
1901:f
1897:S
1891:i
1887:M
1881:=
1876:i
1871:R
1868:N
1851:i
1849:f
1843:t
1837:S
1830:i
1828:M
1821:i
1808:-
1636:)
1630:(
1625:)
1621:(
1607:.
1503:ρ
1497:A
1491:t
1485:W
1479:k
1458:t
1455:A
1447:W
1444:k
1438:=
1435:R
1421:R
1045:3
1041:3
923:2
921:H
916:4
912:(
897:4
893:2
891:H
889:(
403:3
399:2
397:H
395:(
269:e
262:t
255:v
130:)
124:(
119:)
115:(
105:·
98:·
91:·
84:·
57:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
