1079:(RSL) method for quantitatively testing for the Hydrogen Embrittlement threshold stress for the onset of Hydrogen-Induced Cracking due to platings and coatings from Internal Hydrogen Embrittlement (IHE) and Environmental Hydrogen Embrittlement (EHE). F1624 provides a rapid, quantitative measure of the effects of hydrogen both from internal sources and external sources (which is accomplished by applying a selected voltage in an electrochemical cell). The F1624 test is performed by comparing a standard fast-fracture tensile strength to the fracture strength from a
26:
961:
minimally affected while retaining the desired properties would also provide an optimal solution. Much research has been done to catalog the compatibility of certain metals with hydrogen. Tests such as ASTM F1624 can also be used to rank alloys and coatings during materials selection to ensure (for instance) that the threshold of cracking is below the threshold for hydrogen-assisted stress corrosion cracking. Similar tests can also be used during quality control to more effectively qualify materials being produced in a rapid and comparable manner.
349:
553:
1050:(RSL) method per ASTM F1624 and (2) the sustained load test, which takes 200 hours. The sustained load test is still included in many legacy standards, but the RSL method is increasingly being adopted due to speed, repeatability, and the quantitative nature of the test. The RSL method provides an accurate ranking of the effect of hydrogen from both internal and external sources.
1090:. While the title now explicitly includes the word fasteners, F1940 was not originally intended for these purposes. F1940 is based on the F1624 method and is similar to F519 but with different root radius and stress concentration factors. When specimens exhibit a threshold cracking of 75% of the net fracture strength, the plating bath is considered to be 'non-embrittling'.
1016:
Most analytical methods for hydrogen embrittlement involve evaluating the effects of (1) internal hydrogen from production and/or (2) external sources of hydrogen such as cathodic protection. For steels, it is important to test specimens in the lab that are at least as hard (or harder) than the final
992:
or polymer coatings, offer additional protection against hydrogen embrittlement. These coatings form a physical barrier between the metal surface and the environment. They provide excellent adhesion, flexibility, and resistance to environmental factors. Organic coatings can be applied through various
929:
or "baking", is used to overcome the weaknesses of methods such as electroplating which introduce hydrogen to the metal, but is not always entirely effective because a sufficient time and temperature must be reached. Tests such as ASTM F1624 can be used to rapidly identify the minimum baking time (by
1007:
offer several advantages in the context of hydrogen embrittlement prevention. The coating materials used in this process are often composed of materials with excellent resistance to hydrogen diffusion, such as ceramics or cermet alloys. These materials have a low permeability to hydrogen, creating a
984:
Chemical conversion coatings are another effective method for surface protection. These coatings are typically formed through chemical reactions between the metal substrate and a chemical solution. The conversion coating chemically reacts with the metal surface, resulting in a thin, tightly adhering
969:
Coatings act as a barrier between the metal substrate and the surrounding environment, hindering the ingress of hydrogen atoms. These coatings can be applied through various techniques such as electroplating, chemical conversion coatings, or organic coatings. The choice of coating depends on factors
255:
Metals can be exposed to hydrogen from two types of sources: gaseous hydrogen and hydrogen chemically generated at the metal surface. Gaseous hydrogen is molecular hydrogen and does not cause embrittlement though it can cause hot hydrogen attack (see below). It is the atomic hydrogen from chemical
754:
measurements where the measured crack growth rates can be an order of magnitude higher in hydrogen than in air. That this effect is due to adsorption, which saturates when the crack surface is completely covered, is understood from the weak dependence of the effect on the pressure of hydrogen.
960:
Another way of preventing this problem is through materials selection. This will build an inherent resistance to this process and reduce the need of post processing or constant monitoring for failure. Certain metals or alloys are highly susceptible to this issue, so choosing a material that is
980:
solution containing metal ions. By applying an electric current, the metal ions are reduced and form a metallic coating on the substrate. Electroplating can provide an excellent protective layer that enhances corrosion resistance and reduces the susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement.
769:
Hydrogen embrittlement is the effect where a previously embrittled material has low fracture toughness whatever atmosphere it is tested in. Environmental embrittlement is the effect when the low fracture toughness is only observed when the testing happens in that atmosphere.
749:
Hydrogen embrittlement is a volume effect: it affects the volume of the material. Environmental embrittlement is a surface effect where molecules from the atmosphere surrounding the material under test are adsorbed onto the fresh crack surface. This is most clearly seen from
867:
Apart from arc welding, the most common problems are from chemical or electrochemical processes which, by reduction of hydrogen ions or water, generate hydrogen atoms at the surface, which rapidly dissolve in the metal. One of these chemical reactions involves
527:
iron is also susceptible, though austempered steel (and possibly other austempered metals) displays increased resistance to hydrogen embrittlement. NASA has reviewed which metals are susceptible to embrittlement and which only prone to hot hydrogen attack:
1032:. The test focuses on hydrogen embrittlement of copper alloys, including a metallographic evaluation (method A), testing in a hydrogen charged chamber followed by metallography (method B), and method C is the same as B but includes a bend test.
985:
protective layer. Examples of conversion coatings include chromate, phosphate, and oxide coatings. These coatings not only provide a barrier against hydrogen diffusion but also enhance the corrosion resistance of the metal.
376:
at internal surfaces and localised plasticity at crack tips that assist in the propagation of cracks. There is a great variety of mechanisms that have been proposed and investigated as to the cause of brittleness once
331:
but not in steels, and hydrogen-induced blistering, which only occurs at high hydrogen concentrations and does not require the presence of stress. However, hydrogen embrittlement is almost always distinguished from
860:, welding rods have to be perfectly dried in an oven at the appropriate temperature and duration before use. Another way to minimize the formation of hydrogen is to use special low-hydrogen electrodes for welding
556:
Steels were embrittled with hydrogen through cathodic charging. Heat treatment (baking) was used to reduce hydrogen content. Lower bake times resulted in quicker fracture times due to higher hydrogen content.
937:
In the case of welding, often pre-heating and post-heating the metal is applied to allow the hydrogen to diffuse out before it can cause any damage. This is specifically done with high-strength steels and
1123:
236:
in steels, and most metals are relatively immune to hydrogen embrittlement at temperatures above 150 °C. Hydrogen embrittlement requires the presence of both atomic ("diffusible") hydrogen and a
1017:
parts will be. Ideally, specimens should be made of the final material or the nearest possible representative, as fabrication can have a profound impact on resistance to hydrogen-assisted cracking.
610:
Testing the fracture toughness of hydrogen-charged, embrittled specimens is complicated by the need to keep charged specimens very cold, in liquid nitrogen, to prevent the hydrogen diffusing away.
478:): Interstitial hydrogen lowers the stress required for metal atoms to fracture apart. HEDE can only occur when the local concentration of hydrogen is high, such as due to the increased hydrogen
1608:
Li, Hanyu; Niu, Ranming; Li, Wei; Lu, Hongzhou; Cairney, Julie; Chen, Yi-Sheng (September 2022). "Hydrogen in pipeline steels: Recent advances in characterization and embrittlement mitigation".
1141:, generally known as 'the Cheesegrater', suffered from hydrogen embrittlement in steel bolts, with three bolts failing in 2014 and 2015. Most of the 3,000 bolts were replaced at a cost of £6m.
934:, a relatively low number of samples can be used to pinpoint this value). Then the same test can be used as a quality control check to evaluate if baking was sufficient on a per-batch basis.
368:
Hydrogen embrittlement is a complex process involving a number of distinct contributing micro-mechanisms, not all of which need to be present. The mechanisms include the formation of brittle
468:
caused by the suppression of dislocation emission at the crack tip by dissolved hydrogen. This prevents the crack tip rounding-off, so the sharp crack then leads to brittle-cleavage failure.
733:
properties of steels. This is entirely expected given the nature of the embrittlement mechanisms proposed for fast fracture. In general hydrogen embrittlement has a strong effect on high-
599:
processes that introduce hydrogen. They may also experience long-term failures any time from weeks to decades after being placed in service due to accumulation of hydrogen over time from
2430:"ASTM G142 - 98(2011) Standard Test Method for Determination of Susceptibility of Metals to Embrittlement in Hydrogen Containing Environments at High Pressure, High Temperature, or Both"
2164:
902:
Hydrogen embrittlement can be prevented through several methods, all of which are centered on minimizing contact between the metal and hydrogen, particularly during fabrication and the
957:. Due to the time needed to re-combine hydrogen atoms into the hydrogen molecules, hydrogen cracking due to welding can occur over 24 hours after the welding operation is completed.
385:
into the metal. In recent years, it has become widely accepted that HE is a complex process dependent on material and environment, so that no single mechanism applies exclusively.
921:
If the metal has not yet started to crack, hydrogen embrittlement can be reversed by removing the hydrogen source and causing the hydrogen within the metal to diffuse out through
572:
is not generally considered susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. As an example of severe hydrogen embrittlement, the elongation at failure of 17-4PH precipitation hardened
1905:
Dolan, Michael D.; Kochanek, Mark A.; Munnings, Christopher N.; McLennan, Keith G.; Viano, David M. (February 2015). "Hydride phase equilibria in V–Ti–Ni alloy membranes".
340:
pockets. The mechanisms (there are many) by which hydrogen causes embrittlement in steels are not comprehensively understood and continue to be explored and studied.
1062:
Standard Test Method for
Determination of Susceptibility of Metals to Embrittlement in Hydrogen Containing Environments at High Pressure, High Temperature, or Both
603:
and other sources. Numerous failures have been reported in the hardness range from HRC 32-36 and above; therefore, parts in this range should be checked during
2300:
496:
formation: The formation of brittle hydrides with the parent material allows cracks to propagate in a brittle fashion. This is particularly a problem with
2062:
Tartaglia, John; Lazzari, Kristen; et al. (March 2008). "A Comparison of
Mechanical Properties and Hydrogen Embrittlement Resistance of Austempered
1652:
149:
1334:
Safety
Standard for Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems: Guidelines for Hydrogen System Design, Materials Selection, Operations, Storage, and Transportation
232:
The essential facts about the nature of hydrogen embrittlement have been known since the 19th century. Hydrogen embrittlement is maximised at around
2590:
1680:
894:
After a manufacturing process or treatment which may cause hydrogen ingress, the component should be baked to remove or immobilize the hydrogen.
256:
attack which causes embrittlement because the atomic hydrogen dissolves quickly into the metal at room temperature. Gaseous hydrogen is found in
2409:"ASTM F1459 - 06(2012): Standard Test Method for Determination of the Susceptibility of Metallic Materials to Hydrogen Gas Embrittlement (HGE)"
2342:
1106:
2485:"ASTM F1940 - 07a(2014) Standard Test Method for Process Control Verification to Prevent Hydrogen Embrittlement in Plated or Coated Fasteners"
1340:. Washington, DC: Office of Safety and Mission Assurance, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 1997-10-29. p. A-93. NSS 1740.16
2506:"ASTM F519 - 17a Standard Test Method for Mechanical Hydrogen Embrittlement Evaluation of Plating/Coating Processes and Service Environments"
2598:
976:
is a commonly used method to deposit a protective layer onto the metal surface. This process involves immersing the metal substrate into an
1037:
Standard Test Method for
Residual Embrittlement in Metallic Coated, Externally Threaded Articles, Fasteners, and Rod-Inclined Wedge Method
2531:
2234:
319:, or it can be used to encompass all embrittling effects that hydrogen has on metals. These broader embrittling effects include
142:
729:
While most failures in practice have been through fast failure, there is experimental evidence that hydrogen also affects the
389:
Internal pressure: At high hydrogen concentrations, absorbed hydrogen species recombine in voids to form hydrogen molecules (H
2468:
2326:
2046:
1238:
1112:
Standard Test Method for
Mechanical Hydrogen Embrittlement Evaluation of Plating/Coating Processes and Service Environments
1073:
Standard Test Method for
Measurement of Hydrogen Embrittlement Threshold in Steel by the Incremental Step Loading Technique
1055:
Standard Test Method for
Determination of the Susceptibility of Metallic Materials to Hydrogen Gas Embrittlement (HGE) Test
1044:
Standard Test Method for
Mechanical Hydrogen Embrittlement Evaluation of Plating/Coating Processes and Service Environments
503:
2167:
M J Cheaitani and R J Pargeter, TWI, paper presented at the
International Steel and Hydrogen Conference 28 September 2011.
1277:
1318:
197:
required for cracks in the metal to initiate and propagate, resulting in embrittlement. Hydrogen embrittlement occurs in
2394:
393:), creating pressure from within the metal. This pressure can increase to levels where cracks form, commonly designated
2343:"Standard Test Method for Process Control Verification to Prevent Hydrogen Embrittlement in Plated or Coated Fasteners"
1461:
1088:
Standard Test Method for
Process Control Verification to Prevent Hydrogen Embrittlement in Plated or Coated Fasteners
135:
2177:
Fernandez-Sousa, Rebeca (2020). "Analysis of the influence of microstructural traps on hydrogen assisted fatigue".
333:
848:
practice, in which hydrogen is released from moisture, such as in the coating of welding electrodes or from damp
1083:
practice where the load is held for hour(s) at each step. In many cases it can be performed in 30 hours or less.
2642:
1130:
in the span, after only two weeks of service, with the failure attributed to embrittlement (see details above).
1965:
Djukic, M.B.; et al. (2015). "Hydrogen damage of steels: A case study and hydrogen embrittlement model".
861:
588:
465:
249:
2365:
361:
2301:"Validity of Caltrans' Environmental Hydrogen Embrittlement Test on Grade BD Anchor Rods in the SAS Span"
2129:
1717:
Robertson, Ian M.; Sofronis, P.; Nagao, A.; Martin, M. L.; Wang, S.; Gross, D. W.; Nygren, K. E. (2015).
1687:
1226:
261:
98:
2612:
1487:
970:
such as the type of metal, the operating environment, and the specific requirements of the application.
576:
was measured to drop from 17% to only 1.7% when smooth specimens were exposed to high-pressure hydrogen
533:
311:
Hydrogen embrittlement as a term can be used to refer specifically to the embrittlement that occurs in
88:
1233:, Woodhead Publishing Series in Metals and Surface Engineering, Woodhead Publishing, pp. 90–130,
1030:
Standard Test Methods for Detection of Cuprous Oxide (Hydrogen Embrittlement Susceptibility) in Copper
2632:
1433:
1187:
1064:. The test uses a cylindrical tensile specimen tested into an enclosure pressurized with hydrogen or
803:
506:: Hydrogen can induce phase transformations in some materials, and the new phase may be less ductile.
443:
410:
103:
20:
296:. Hydrogen can be introduced into the metal during manufacturing by the presence of moisture during
1533:
1080:
1076:
1047:
1046:. There are 7 different samples designs and the two most commons tests are (1) the rapid test, the
826:
405:
forming on the specimen surface, designated hydrogen-induced blistering. These effects can reduce
2595:
1332:
1001:. They can be formulated with additives to further enhance their resistance to hydrogen ingress.
888:
108:
2556:
2038:
2032:
1360:"II. On some remarkable changes produced in iron and steel by the action of hydrogen and acids"
1172:
926:
811:
702:
336:(HTHA), which occurs in steels at temperatures above 204 °C and involves the formation of
2647:
1138:
931:
903:
618:
587:
decreases, so the likelihood that hydrogen embrittlement will lead to fracture increases. In
580:
304:. The most common causes of failure in practice are poorly-controlled electroplating or damp
2196:
2075:
1730:
1617:
1499:
1192:
838:
418:
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8:
2263:
714:
600:
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289:
123:
93:
58:
2200:
2079:
1734:
1621:
1511:
1503:
25:
2627:
2212:
2186:
2165:
Fracture Mechanics Techniques for Assessing the Effects of Hydrogen on Steel Properties
2099:
1802:
1782:
1748:
1633:
1590:
1407:
1397:
1381:
1182:
1099:
759:
751:
734:
730:
662:. This process can cause the grains to be forced away from each other, and is known as
584:
461:
237:
194:
83:
63:
1978:
778:
During manufacture, hydrogen can be dissolved into the component by processes such as
2637:
2464:
2322:
2216:
2103:
2091:
2042:
1877:
1752:
1637:
1582:
1515:
1389:
1234:
1152:
829:. In one case of failure during construction of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge
738:
431:
348:
53:
1806:
1771:"Discrete dislocation plasticity HELPs understand hydrogen effects in bcc materials"
1594:
1412:
2204:
2083:
2005:
1974:
1945:
1914:
1869:
1836:
1835:(XVII International Colloquium on Mechanical Fatigue of Metals (ICMFM17)): 468–71.
1792:
1738:
1625:
1574:
1507:
1441:
Phase Transformations & Complex Properties Research Group, Cambridge University
1371:
1177:
1109:)Test methods for selecting metallic materials resistant to hydrogen embrittlement.
1004:
907:
874:
869:
853:
783:
561:
541:
487:
277:
273:
265:
233:
2208:
1918:
766:
tests, but the severity is much reduced compared with the same effect in fatigue.
2602:
1841:
1824:
1167:
1162:
1157:
939:
671:
631:
604:
573:
439:
257:
241:
226:
2557:"Cheesegrater bolts to cost Severfield £6m after Leadenhall building loses five"
1950:
1933:
1629:
1797:
1770:
1284:
1134:
998:
973:
787:
659:
569:
483:
353:
293:
2087:
1743:
1718:
1681:"Hydrogen embrittlement revisited by in situ electrochemical nanoindentations"
1578:
1310:
1309:
Jewett, R. P.; Walter, R. J.; Chandler, W. T.; Frohmberg, R. P. (1973-03-01).
2621:
2095:
2028:
1586:
1519:
1393:
1385:
922:
834:
830:
815:
763:
493:
316:
113:
1562:
2146:
Morlet, J. G. (1958). "A new concept in hydrogen embrittlement in steels".
1881:
1857:
1376:
1359:
849:
524:
373:
305:
2484:
2408:
841:. The reaction of the zinc with water introduced hydrogen into the steel.
486:
field at a crack tip, at stress concentrators, or in the tension field of
2505:
2429:
994:
977:
857:
845:
795:
779:
447:
435:
372:, the creation of voids that can lead to high-pressure bubbles, enhanced
252:
are more susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement than mid-strength steels.
245:
1653:"What is high temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA) / hot hydrogen attack?"
674:, not because exposure of copper to external steam causes the problem).
552:
2010:
1993:
1127:
947:
698:
500:
alloys, while most other structural alloys do not easily form hydrides.
479:
427:
382:
190:
2607:
1825:"Hydrogen effect on fatigue behavior of a quenched and tempered steel"
1402:
821:
During service use, hydrogen can be dissolved into the metal from wet
1873:
915:
910:
should be avoided, as should increased contact with elements such as
822:
718:
710:
626:
516:
406:
378:
285:
281:
222:
182:
48:
2532:"British Land to replace 'a number of bolts' on Leadenhall Building"
1563:"Hydrogen Embrittlement of Metals: A Primer for the Failure Analyst"
1094:
There are many other related standards for hydrogen embrittlement:
2191:
1787:
1197:
951:
943:
799:
694:
686:
592:
520:
497:
451:
357:
328:
324:
210:
186:
73:
43:
2363:
2235:"A Failure Analysis of Hydrogen Embrittlement in Bridge Fasteners"
1858:"Atomic mechanism and prediction of hydrogen embrittlement in iro"
1462:"What is hydrogen embrittlement? – Causes, effects and prevention"
1008:
robust barrier against hydrogen ingress into the metal substrate.
1057:. The test uses a diaphragm loaded with a differential pressure.
807:
791:
706:
596:
402:
369:
337:
320:
301:
297:
68:
1994:"Effect of Hydrogen in aluminium and aluminium alloys: A review"
1973:(Recent case studies in Engineering Failure Analysis): 485–498.
1116:
1065:
989:
911:
709:
formation, resulting in irregular volume expansion and reduced
690:
622:
537:
529:
438:
at a crack tip. HELP results in crack propagation by localised
240:
to induce crack growth, although that stress may be applied or
218:
214:
206:
1225:
Lynch, S. P. (2011-01-01), Raja, V. S.; Shoji, Tetsuo (eds.),
595:
of HRC 32 may be susceptible to early hydrogen cracking after
564:
of less than 1000 MPa (~145,000 psi) or hardness of less than
2130:"Technical Reference for Hydrogen Compatibility of Materials"
1904:
1308:
954:
891:(SSC), a significant problem for the oil and gas industries.
852:. To avoid atomic hydrogen formation in the high temperature
682:
667:
655:
646:
312:
198:
1716:
1021:
625:
can be embrittled if exposed to hot hydrogen. The hydrogen
269:
202:
118:
1227:"2 - Hydrogen embrittlement (HE) phenomena and mechanisms"
844:
A common case of embrittlement during manufacture is poor
2586:
Resources on hydrogen embrittlement, Cambridge University
1126:
failed during testing. Catastrophic failures occurred in
825:
or through misapplication of protection measures such as
515:
Hydrogen embrittles a variety of metals including steel,
721:-based alloys for use in hydrogen separation membranes.
1934:"Hydrogen embrittlement of low carbon structural steel"
1650:
758:
Environmental embrittlement is also observed to reduce
1075:. The test uses the incremental step loading (ISL) or
1823:
Vergani, Laura; Colombo, Chiara; et al. (2014).
446:
occurring in the surrounding material, which gives a
16:
Reduction in ductility of a metal exposed to hydrogen
2264:"Steel fasteners failure by hydrogen embrittlement"
2023:
2021:
1944:(20th European Conference on Fracture): 1167–1172.
717:). This is a particular issue when looking for non-
544:). Sandia has also produced a comprehensive guide.
2395:"ADDRESSING HYDROGEN PERMEATION AND EMBRITTLEMENT"
2139:
1024:standards for testing for hydrogen embrittlement:
705:significant amounts of hydrogen. This can lead to
2608:A Sandia National Lab technical reference manual.
677:
629:through the copper and reacts with inclusions of
193:solid metals. Once absorbed, hydrogen lowers the
2619:
2061:
2018:
1991:
1434:"Prevention of Hydrogen Embrittlement in Steels"
229:are less susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement.
2176:
658:), which then forms pressurized bubbles at the
2449:ASTM STP 543, "Hydrogen Embrittlement Testing"
2387:
2261:
1822:
1775:Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids
1712:
1710:
1708:
1610:Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering
1311:"Hydrogen environment embrittlement of metals"
837:) rods were left wet for 5 years before being
744:
741:and very little effect on high-cycle fatigue.
315:and similar metals at relatively low hydrogen
2262:Ferraz, M. Teresa; Oliveira, Manuela (2008).
2228:
2226:
143:
2257:
2255:
1117:Notable failures from hydrogen embrittlement
244:. Hydrogen embrittlement increases at lower
2294:
2292:
2148:The Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute
1992:Ambat, Rajan; Dwarakadasa (February 1996).
1705:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1351:
2223:
2068:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
1818:
1816:
1768:
1723:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
1567:Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention
1364:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
1122:In 2013, six months prior to opening, the
925:. This de-embrittlement process, known as
510:
150:
136:
2458:
2375:. Fastenal Company Engineering Department
2298:
2252:
2190:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2009:
1949:
1840:
1796:
1786:
1742:
1607:
1601:
1411:
1401:
1375:
1102:) Resistance to Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
2364:Federal Engineering and Design Support.
2357:
2289:
2027:
1900:
1898:
1667:
1644:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1358:Johnson, William H. (31 December 1875).
551:
347:
24:
2158:
1813:
1764:
1762:
1560:
1357:
713:(because metallic hydrides are fragile
670:is directly produced inside the copper
458:Hydrogen decreased dislocation emission
2620:
2170:
2145:
2127:
2110:
1964:
1931:
1526:
1485:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1255:
773:
2596:Hydrogen purity plays a critical role
2316:
1895:
1556:
1554:
1454:
1431:
1420:
1224:
2529:
1855:
1849:
1759:
1678:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1214:
607:to ensure they are not susceptible.
2232:
2066:Quenched and Tempered 4340 Steel".
2037:. New York: Harmony Books. p.
1719:"Hydrogen Embrittlement Understood"
1512:10.1146/annurev.ms.08.080178.001551
1275:
1252:
1124:East Span of the Oakland Bay Bridge
964:
644:, forming 2 metallic Cu atoms and
189:. Hydrogen atoms are small and can
13:
2271:Ciência e Tecnologia dos Materiais
1932:Djukic, M.B.; et al. (2014).
1551:
1492:Annual Review of Materials Science
1488:"Hydrogen Embrittlement of Steels"
1321:from the original on May 25, 2024.
993:methods, including spray coating,
14:
2659:
2579:
1979:10.1016/j.engfailanal.2015.05.017
1211:
906:. Embrittling procedures such as
519:(at high temperatures only), and
334:high temperature hydrogen attack
2549:
2523:
2498:
2477:
2452:
2443:
2422:
2401:
2335:
2310:
2055:
1985:
1958:
1925:
1907:Journal of Alloys and Compounds
1276:Lee, Jonathan A. (April 2016).
29:Hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC)
2530:Mair, Lucy (14 January 2015).
2461:Hydrogen Embrittlement Testing
1856:Song, Jun (11 November 2012).
1479:
1325:
1302:
678:Vanadium, nickel, and titanium
272:(as may be encountered during
1:
2299:Yun Chung (2 December 2014).
2209:10.1016/j.actamat.2020.08.030
1998:Bulletin of Materials Science
1919:10.1016/j.jallcom.2014.10.081
1655:. TWI - The Welding Institute
1651:TWI – The Welding Institute.
1561:Louthan, M. R. (2008-06-01).
1204:
897:
466:ductile-to-brittle transition
343:
2613:Hydrogen embrittlement, NASA
1967:Engineering Failure Analysis
1842:10.1016/j.proeng.2014.06.299
1769:Haiyang Yu (February 2009).
472:Hydrogen enhanced decohesion
417:Hydrogen enhanced localised
362:scanning electron microscopy
268:sources of hydrogen include
7:
1951:10.1016/j.mspro.2014.06.190
1630:10.1016/j.jngse.2022.104709
1486:Oriani, R A (August 1978).
1466:TWI - The Welding Institute
1145:
745:Environmental embrittlement
534:austenitic stainless steels
442:at the crack tip with less
323:formation, which occurs in
185:of a metal due to absorbed
99:Metal-induced embrittlement
10:
2664:
2319:Welding Processes Handbook
1938:Procedia Materials Science
1798:10.1016/j.jmps.2018.08.020
1011:
1005:Thermally sprayed coatings
988:Organic coatings, such as
724:
426:): Hydrogen increases the
171:hydrogen-assisted cracking
89:Liquid metal embrittlement
18:
2321:. Elsevier. p. 115.
2088:10.1007/s11661-007-9451-8
1744:10.1007/s11661-015-2836-1
1579:10.1007/s11668-008-9133-x
1231:Stress Corrosion Cracking
1188:Stress corrosion cracking
804:electrochemical machining
613:
583:of steels increases, the
547:
395:hydrogen-induced cracking
181:), is a reduction in the
175:hydrogen-induced cracking
104:Stress corrosion cracking
21:Stress corrosion cracking
1534:"Hydrogen Embrittlement"
1278:"Hydrogen Embrittlement"
1081:Rising step load testing
1077:Rising step load testing
1048:Rising step load testing
540:(including alloys, e.g.
536:, aluminium and alloys,
36:Mechanical failure modes
2128:Marchi, C. San (2012).
889:sulfide stress cracking
570:Hardness Rockwell Scale
560:Steel with an ultimate
511:Material susceptibility
109:Sulfide stress cracking
2591:Hydrogen embrittlement
2536:constructionnews.co.uk
2463:. ASTM International.
1538:Metallurgy for Dummies
1377:10.1098/rspl.1874.0024
1283:. NASA. Archived from
1173:Low hydrogen annealing
930:testing using careful
927:low hydrogen annealing
557:
365:
300:or while the metal is
250:higher-strength steels
163:Hydrogen embrittlement
79:Hydrogen embrittlement
30:
2643:Materials degradation
1139:122 Leadenhall Street
932:design of experiments
904:electrolysis of water
697:have a high hydrogen
555:
504:Phase transformations
464:simulations reveal a
351:
28:
2317:Weman, Klas (2011).
1829:Procedia Engineering
1370:(156–163): 168–179.
1193:White etching cracks
862:high-strength steels
701:, and can therefore
589:high-strength steels
217:, and their alloys.
2201:2020AcMat.199..253F
2080:2008MMTA...39..559T
1735:2015MMTA...46.2323R
1622:2022JNGSE.10504709L
1504:1978AnRMS...8..327O
1020:There are numerous
827:cathodic protection
774:Sources of hydrogen
664:steam embrittlement
601:cathodic protection
591:, anything above a
290:cathodic protection
94:Mechanical overload
2601:2013-03-01 at the
2459:Raymond L (1974).
2011:10.1007/BF02744792
1679:Barnoush, Afrooz.
1432:Bhadhesia, Harry.
1183:Oxygen-free copper
1105:ISO 11114-4:2005 (
1100:NACE International
1098:NACE TM0284-2003 (
1086:ASTM F1940 is the
1071:ASTM F1624 is the
1053:ASTM F1459 is the
760:fracture toughness
585:fracture toughness
558:
462:Molecular dynamics
450:appearance to the
381:hydrogen has been
366:
284:(typically due to
31:
2470:978-0-8031-0373-3
2328:978-0-85709-518-3
2048:978-1-4000-4760-4
1298:– via CORE.
1240:978-1-84569-673-3
1153:Hydrogen analyzer
1060:ASTM G142 is the
1042:ASTM F519 is the
1035:ASTM B839 is the
1028:ASTM B577 is the
739:low-cycle fatigue
715:ceramic materials
488:edge dislocations
286:aqueous corrosion
238:mechanical stress
169:), also known as
160:
159:
54:Corrosion fatigue
2655:
2633:Electrochemistry
2573:
2572:
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2174:
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2162:
2156:
2155:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2125:
2108:
2107:
2059:
2053:
2052:
2034:Why Things Break
2025:
2016:
2015:
2013:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1902:
1893:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1874:10.1038/nmat3479
1862:Nature Materials
1853:
1847:
1846:
1844:
1820:
1811:
1810:
1800:
1790:
1766:
1757:
1756:
1746:
1729:(6): 2323–2341.
1714:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1692:
1686:. Archived from
1685:
1676:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1605:
1599:
1598:
1558:
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1306:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1289:
1282:
1273:
1250:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1222:
1178:Nascent hydrogen
965:Surface Coatings
940:low alloy steels
886:
883:
882:
870:hydrogen sulfide
812:hot roll forming
660:grain boundaries
653:
643:
640:
639:
562:tensile strength
542:beryllium copper
411:tensile strength
280:, or cleaning),
258:pressure vessels
234:room temperature
227:stainless steels
201:, as well as in
152:
145:
138:
33:
32:
2663:
2662:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2653:
2652:
2618:
2617:
2603:Wayback Machine
2582:
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2368:
2366:"Embrittlement"
2362:
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2303:
2297:
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2179:Acta Materialia
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1287:
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1274:
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1245:
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1223:
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1207:
1202:
1168:Hydrogen safety
1163:Hydrogen piping
1158:Hydrogen damage
1148:
1119:
1014:
967:
900:
881:
878:
877:
876:
873:
816:heat treatments
776:
747:
727:
680:
672:crystal lattice
650:
645:
638:
635:
634:
633:
630:
616:
605:quality control
574:stainless steel
550:
513:
440:ductile failure
392:
346:
266:Electrochemical
156:
23:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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2581:
2580:External links
2578:
2575:
2574:
2563:. 17 June 2015
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2356:
2334:
2327:
2309:
2288:
2277:(1/2): 128–133
2251:
2239:Corrosionpedia
2233:Francis, Rob.
2222:
2169:
2157:
2138:
2109:
2054:
2047:
2029:Eberhart, Mark
2017:
2004:(1): 103–114.
1984:
1957:
1924:
1894:
1868:(2): 145–151.
1848:
1812:
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1704:
1666:
1643:
1600:
1573:(3): 289–307.
1550:
1525:
1498:(1): 327–357.
1478:
1453:
1419:
1350:
1324:
1301:
1290:on Feb 5, 2021
1251:
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1135:City of London
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1010:
999:powder coating
974:Electroplating
966:
963:
923:heat treatment
899:
896:
879:
788:electroplating
775:
772:
746:
743:
726:
723:
679:
676:
648:
636:
621:which contain
615:
612:
549:
546:
512:
509:
508:
507:
501:
491:
484:tensile stress
469:
455:
414:
401:), as well as
390:
360:, observed by
354:hardened steel
345:
342:
317:concentrations
294:electroplating
248:. In general,
158:
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2074:(3): 559–76.
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1693:on 2011-05-18
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953:
949:
945:
941:
935:
933:
928:
924:
919:
917:
913:
909:
908:acid pickling
905:
895:
892:
890:
885:
871:
865:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
842:
840:
836:
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819:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
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771:
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765:
764:fast fracture
761:
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619:Copper alloys
611:
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563:
554:
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531:
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494:Metal hydride
492:
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27:
22:
2648:Metalworking
2565:. Retrieved
2560:
2551:
2539:. Retrieved
2535:
2525:
2513:. Retrieved
2510:www.astm.org
2509:
2500:
2489:. Retrieved
2479:
2460:
2454:
2445:
2434:. Retrieved
2424:
2413:. Retrieved
2403:
2389:
2377:. Retrieved
2372:
2359:
2347:. Retrieved
2337:
2318:
2312:
2279:. Retrieved
2274:
2270:
2242:. Retrieved
2238:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2160:
2151:
2147:
2141:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2033:
2001:
1997:
1987:
1970:
1966:
1960:
1941:
1937:
1927:
1910:
1906:
1885:. Retrieved
1865:
1861:
1851:
1832:
1828:
1778:
1774:
1726:
1722:
1695:. Retrieved
1688:the original
1657:. Retrieved
1646:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1570:
1566:
1541:. Retrieved
1537:
1528:
1495:
1491:
1481:
1469:. Retrieved
1465:
1456:
1444:. Retrieved
1440:
1367:
1363:
1353:
1342:. Retrieved
1333:
1327:
1314:
1304:
1292:. Retrieved
1285:the original
1244:, retrieved
1230:
1093:
1087:
1072:
1061:
1054:
1043:
1036:
1029:
1019:
1015:
1003:
987:
983:
972:
968:
959:
942:such as the
936:
920:
901:
893:
866:
850:welding rods
843:
820:
777:
768:
757:
748:
728:
681:
663:
617:
609:
578:
559:
514:
475:
471:
457:
436:dislocations
423:
416:
398:
394:
367:
310:
306:welding rods
254:
246:strain rates
231:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
161:
78:
2567:22 December
2349:24 February
2281:18 December
2244:18 December
1913:: 276–281.
1887:22 December
1697:18 December
1659:16 December
1543:18 December
1471:18 December
1446:17 December
1294:18 December
1128:shear bolts
995:dip coating
978:electrolyte
846:arc welding
835:zinc-plated
796:carbonizing
780:phosphating
525:Austempered
444:deformation
352:Crack in a
2622:Categories
2491:2015-02-24
2487:. Astm.org
2436:2015-02-24
2432:. Astm.org
2415:2015-02-24
2411:. Astm.org
2345:. Astm.org
2192:2008.05452
1788:1807.05101
1616:: 104709.
1344:2022-06-27
1246:2022-06-10
1205:References
948:molybdenum
898:Prevention
831:galvanized
798:, surface
699:solubility
568:32 on the
480:solubility
428:nucleation
419:plasticity
379:diffusible
374:decohesion
344:Mechanisms
19:See also:
2628:Corrosion
2217:221103811
2104:136866718
2096:1073-5623
1781:: 41–60.
1753:136682331
1638:250713252
1587:1864-1245
1520:0084-6600
1394:0370-1662
1386:2053-9126
916:phosphate
839:tensioned
823:corrosion
719:palladium
711:ductility
666:(because
517:aluminium
407:ductility
383:dissolved
282:corrosion
262:pipelines
223:aluminium
183:ductility
49:Corrosion
2638:Hydrogen
2599:Archived
2541:21 April
2515:21 April
2373:Fastenal
2031:(2003).
1882:23142843
1807:56081700
1595:51738408
1413:97579399
1319:Archived
1317:. NASA.
1198:Zircotec
1146:See also
952:vanadium
944:chromium
800:cleaning
784:pickling
695:titanium
687:vanadium
627:diffuses
593:hardness
581:strength
532:alloys,
521:titanium
498:vanadium
452:fracture
432:movement
403:blisters
370:hydrides
358:hydrogen
329:vanadium
325:titanium
274:pickling
242:residual
211:titanium
191:permeate
187:hydrogen
124:Yielding
74:Fracture
44:Buckling
2397:. 2023.
2197:Bibcode
2185:: 253.
2076:Bibcode
1731:Bibcode
1618:Bibcode
1500:Bibcode
1133:In the
1012:Testing
856:of the
808:welding
792:casting
752:fatigue
731:fatigue
725:Fatigue
707:hydride
597:plating
579:As the
482:in the
448:brittle
356:due to
338:methane
321:hydride
298:welding
292:), and
278:etching
69:Fouling
64:Fatigue
2561:cityam
2467:
2325:
2215:
2102:
2094:
2045:
1880:
1805:
1751:
1636:
1593:
1585:
1518:
1410:
1403:113285
1400:
1392:
1384:
1237:
1066:helium
990:paints
955:alloys
912:sulfur
854:plasma
833:(i.e.
814:, and
735:stress
703:absorb
693:, and
691:nickel
683:Alloys
623:oxygen
614:Copper
548:Steels
538:copper
530:nickel
364:(SEM).
313:steels
302:molten
225:, and
219:Copper
215:cobalt
207:nickel
199:steels
195:stress
84:Impact
2379:9 May
2369:(PDF)
2304:(PDF)
2267:(PDF)
2213:S2CID
2187:arXiv
2154:: 37.
2133:(PDF)
2100:S2CID
1803:S2CID
1783:arXiv
1749:S2CID
1691:(PDF)
1684:(PDF)
1634:S2CID
1591:S2CID
1437:(PDF)
1408:S2CID
1398:JSTOR
1382:eISSN
1338:(PDF)
1288:(PDF)
1281:(PDF)
997:, or
887:) in
668:steam
656:water
270:acids
59:Creep
2569:2020
2543:2018
2517:2018
2465:ISBN
2381:2015
2351:2015
2323:ISBN
2283:2020
2246:2020
2092:ISSN
2043:ISBN
1889:2020
1878:PMID
1699:2020
1661:2020
1583:ISSN
1545:2020
1516:ISSN
1473:2020
1448:2020
1390:ISSN
1315:NTRS
1296:2020
1235:ISBN
1022:ASTM
914:and
476:HEDE
430:and
424:HELP
409:and
327:and
260:and
203:iron
119:Wear
2205:doi
2183:199
2152:189
2084:doi
2006:doi
1975:doi
1946:doi
1915:doi
1911:622
1870:doi
1837:doi
1793:doi
1779:123
1739:doi
1727:46A
1626:doi
1614:105
1575:doi
1508:doi
1372:doi
1107:ISO
858:arc
762:in
685:of
566:HRC
434:of
399:HIC
288:or
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