2937:) devoted to the subject, the US liquid-propellant rocket engine (LPRE) industry has undergone significant changes. At least 14 US companies have been involved in the design, development, manufacture, testing, and flight support operations of various types of rocket engines from 1940 to 2000. In contrast to other countries like Russia, China, or India, where only government or pseudogovernment organisations engage in this business, the US government relies heavily on private industry. These commercial companies are essential to the continued viability of the United States and its form of governance, as they compete with one another to provide cutting-edge rocket engines that meet the needs of the government, the military, and the private sector. In the United States the company that develops the LPRE usually is awarded the production contract.
2967:
have played crucial roles in the development of liquid rocket propulsion engines (LPREs). They have conducted unbiased testing, guided work at US and some non-US contractors, performed research and development, and provided essential testing facilities including hover test facilities and simulated altitude test facilities and resources. Initially, private companies or foundations financed smaller test facilities, but since the 1950s, the U.S. government has funded larger test facilities at government laboratories. This approach reduced costs for the government by not building similar facilities at contractors' plants but increased complexity and expenses for contractors. Nonetheless, government laboratories have solidified their significance and contributed to LPRE advancements.
2959:
Propellant Rocket
Engines (LPREs), and their graduate and undergraduate education programs are considered one of their most important contributions. Universities such as Princeton University, Cornell University, Purdue University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Alabama, the Navy's Post-Graduate School, or the California Institute of Technology have conducted excellent R&D work on topics related to the rocket engine industry. One of the earliest examples of the contribution of universities to the rocket engine industry is the work of the GALCIT in 1941. They demonstrated the first jet-assisted takeoff (JATO) rockets to the Army, leading to the establishment of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
2791:, sometimes called screaming or squealing. The most immediately damaging, and the hardest to control. It is due to acoustics within the combustion chamber that often couples to the chemical combustion processes that are the primary drivers of the energy release, and can lead to unstable resonant "screeching" that commonly leads to catastrophic failure due to thinning of the insulating thermal boundary layer. Acoustic oscillations can be excited by thermal processes, such as the flow of hot air through a pipe or combustion in a chamber. Specifically, standing acoustic waves inside a chamber can be intensified if combustion occurs more intensely in regions where the pressure of the acoustic wave is maximal.
2963:
university research and commercial companies has been inconsistent and weak. Universities were not always aware of the industry's specific needs, and engineers and designers in the industry had limited knowledge of university research. As a result, many university research programs remained relatively unknown to industry decision-makers. Furthermore, in the last few decades, certain university research projects, while interesting to professors, were not useful to the industry due to a lack of communication or relevance to industry needs.
3585:
2170:
251:
293:
7436:
860:
730:
22:
36:
4785:–3 in (3.8–7.6 cm) diameter, closed at one end, packed with black powder propellant and strapped to a shaft of bamboo about 4 ft (120 cm) long. A rocket carrying about one pound of powder could travel almost 1,000 yards (910 m). These 'rockets', fitted with swords, would travel several meters in the air before coming down with sword edges facing the enemy. These were used very effectively against the British empire.
3468:), which must be balanced against the tendency of highly energetic propellants to spontaneously explode. Assuming that the chemical potential energy of the propellants can be safely stored, the combustion process results in a great deal of heat being released. A significant fraction of this heat is transferred to kinetic energy in the engine nozzle, propelling the rocket forward in combination with the mass of combustion products released.
697:
4356:
as well as effective transmitter diameters measuring 30–300 meters to propel a vehicle to LEO. Concepts operating in X-band or below must have effective transmitter diameters measured in kilometers to achieve a fine enough beam to follow a vehicle to LEO. The transmitters are too large to fit on mobile platforms and so microwave-powered rockets are constrained to launch near fixed beam director sites.
4310:~1 MW of power per kg of payload is needed to achieve orbit, relatively high accelerations, lasers are blocked by clouds, fog, reflected laser light may be dangerous, pretty much needs hydrogen monopropellant for good performance which needs heavy tankage, some designs are limited to ~600 seconds due to reemission of light since propellant/heat exchanger gets white hot
3165:
launch. In this application, the premium has typically been placed on minimum weight, and it is difficult to achieve high reliability and low weight simultaneously. In addition, if the number of flights launched is low, there is a very high chance of a design, operations or manufacturing error causing destruction of the vehicle.
3067:
would be contracted to another DB specialised in LPRE development (oftentimes each DB had expertise in specific types of LPREs with different applications, propellants, or engine sizes). This meant that the development or design study of a rocket engine was always aimed at a specific application which entailed set requirements.
3083:
vehicle intended for lunar and planetary missions, the Soviet Union developed and put into production at least two engines for each of the six stages. Additionally, they developed alternate engines for a more advanced N-l vehicle. However, the program faced multiple flight failures, and with the United States' successful
803:
lightweight fashion, although is routinely done with other forms of jet engines. In rocketry a lightweight compromise nozzle is generally used and some reduction in atmospheric performance occurs when used at other than the 'design altitude' or when throttled. To improve on this, various exotic nozzle designs such as the
2686:
chamber which burns a moment later, and again increases the chamber pressure, repeating the cycle. This may lead to high-amplitude pressure oscillations, often in ultrasonic range, which may damage the motor. Oscillations of ±200 psi at 25 kHz were the cause of failures of early versions of the
3772:
Throttling, burn termination, and reignition require special designs. Handling issues from ignitable mixture. Lower performance than liquid rockets. If grain cracks it can block nozzle with disastrous results. Grain cracks burn and widen during burn. Refueling harder than simply filling tanks. Cannot
3140:
The decision to keep fatal LPRE accidents hidden from the public eye reflects a broader ethical dilemma. The Soviet government, driven by the pursuit of scientific and technological superiority during the Cold War, sought to maintain an image of invincibility and conceal the failures that accompanied
3066:
Once a mission with a new vehicle (missile or spacecraft) was established it was passed on to a design bureau whose role was to oversee the development of the entire rocket. If none of the previously developed rocket engines met the needs of the mission, a new rocket engine with specific requirements
1693:
term represents the pressure thrust term. At full throttle, the net thrust of a rocket motor improves slightly with increasing altitude, because as atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, the pressure thrust term increases. At the surface of the Earth the pressure thrust may be reduced by up to
890:
the pressure that acts on the engine also reciprocally acts on the propellant, it turns out that for any given engine, the speed that the propellant leaves the chamber is unaffected by the chamber pressure (although the thrust is proportional). However, speed is significantly affected by all three of
5697:
According to Lord
Rayleigh's criterion for thermoacoustic processes, "If heat be given to the air at the moment of greatest condensation, or be taken from it at the moment of greatest rarefaction, the vibration is encouraged. On the other hand, if heat be given at the moment of greatest rarefaction,
4355:
MW of power per kg of payload is needed to achieve orbit depending on the propellant, and this incurs infrastructure cost for the beam director plus related R&D costs. Concepts operating in the millimeter-wave region have to contend with weather availability and high altitude beam director sites
3518:
When computing the specific reaction energy of a given propellant combination, the entire mass of the propellants (both fuel and oxidiser) must be included. The exception is in the case of air-breathing engines, which use atmospheric oxygen and consequently have to carry less mass for a given energy
3136:
While the immediate cause of the 1960 accident was attributed to a lack of protective circuits in the missile control unit, the ethical considerations surrounding LPRE accidents in the USSR extend beyond specific technical failures. The secrecy surrounding these accidents, which remained undisclosed
3078:
However, when two parallel engine development programs were supported in order to select the superior one for a specific application, several qualified rocket engine models were never used. This luxury of choice was not commonly available in other nations. However, the use of design bureaus also led
3058:
between the Soviet Union and the United States, characterised by intense competition in spaceflight achievements. Between 14 and 17 Design
Bureaus and research institutes were actively involved in developing LPREs during this period. These organisations received relatively steady support and funding
2856:
from the shock waves generated depends on the size of the rocket and on the exhaust velocity. Such shock waves seem to account for the characteristic crackling and popping sounds produced by large rocket engines when heard live. These noise peaks typically overload microphones and audio electronics,
2728:
The combustion instabilities can be provoked by remains of cleaning solvents in the engine (e.g. the first attempted launch of a Titan II in 1962), reflected shock wave, initial instability after ignition, explosion near the nozzle that reflects into the combustion chamber, and many more factors. In
2140:
In practice, the degree to which rockets can be throttled varies greatly, but most rockets can be throttled by a factor of 2 without great difficulty; the typical limitation is combustion stability, as for example, injectors need a minimum pressure to avoid triggering damaging oscillations (chugging
802:
To maintain this ideal of equality between the exhaust's exit pressure and the ambient pressure, the diameter of the nozzle would need to increase with altitude, giving the pressure a longer nozzle to act on (and reducing the exit pressure and temperature). This increase is difficult to arrange in a
798:
For optimal performance, the pressure of the gas at the end of the nozzle should just equal the ambient pressure: if the exhaust's pressure is lower than the ambient pressure, then the vehicle will be slowed by the difference in pressure between the top of the engine and the exit; on the other hand,
4825:
Goddard began to use liquid propellants in 1921, and in 1926 became the first to launch a liquid-fuelled rocket. Goddard pioneered the use of the De Laval nozzle, lightweight propellant tanks, small light turbopumps, thrust vectoring, the smoothly-throttled liquid fuel engine, regenerative cooling,
4751:
oil, then inserted into hollow wood and lit to "fly away suddenly to whatever place you wish and burn up everything". The second recipe combines one pound of sulfur, two pounds of charcoal, and six pounds of saltpeter—all finely powdered on a marble slab. This powder mixture is packed firmly into a
3543:
With liquid propellants (but not gaseous), failure to ignite within milliseconds usually causes too much liquid propellant to be inside the chamber, and if/when ignition occurs the amount of hot gas created can exceed the maximum design pressure of the chamber, causing a catastrophic failure of the
3105:
The Soviet Union encountered a series of tragic accidents and mishaps in the development and operation of rocket engines. Notably, the USSR holds the unfortunate distinction of having experienced more injuries and deaths resulting from liquid propellant rocket engine (LPRE) accidents than any other
3074:
When only one DB was picked for the development, it was often the result of the relationship between a vehicle or system's chief designer and the chief designer of a rocket engine specialised DB. If the vehicle's chief designer was happy with previous work done by a certain design bureau it was not
2864:
Generally speaking, noise is most intense when a rocket is close to the ground, since the noise from the engines radiates up away from the jet, as well as reflecting off the ground. Also, when the vehicle is moving slowly, little of the chemical energy input to the engine can go into increasing the
2234:
that make up the engine—the pumps, pipes and combustion chambers involved. The lack of inlet duct and the use of dense liquid propellant allows the pressurisation system to be small and lightweight, whereas duct engines have to deal with air which has around three orders of magnitude lower density.
822:
When exhausting into a sufficiently low ambient pressure (vacuum) several issues arise. One is the sheer weight of the nozzle—beyond a certain point, for a particular vehicle, the extra weight of the nozzle outweighs any performance gained. Secondly, as the exhaust gases adiabatically expand within
3575:
Once ignited, rocket chambers are self-sustaining and igniters are not needed and combustion usually proceeds through total consumption of the propellants. Indeed, chambers often spontaneously reignite if they are restarted after being shut down for a few seconds. Unless designed for re-ignition,
2979:
Russia and the former Soviet Union was and still is the world's foremost nation in developing and building rocket engines. From 1950 to 1998, their organisations developed, built, and put into operation a larger number and a larger variety of liquid propellant rocket engine (LPRE) designs than any
2685:
The combustion may display undesired instabilities, of sudden or periodic nature. The pressure in the injection chamber may increase until the propellant flow through the injector plate decreases; a moment later the pressure drops and the flow increases, injecting more propellant in the combustion
920:
hypersonic exhaust jet. The speed increase of a rocket nozzle is mostly determined by its area expansion ratio—the ratio of the area of the exit to the area of the throat, but detailed properties of the gas are also important. Larger ratio nozzles are more massive but are able to extract more heat
789:
Nozzle efficiency is affected by operation in the atmosphere because atmospheric pressure changes with altitude; but due to the supersonic speeds of the gas exiting from a rocket engine, the pressure of the jet may be either below or above ambient, and equilibrium between the two is not reached at
4816:
on a solid-propellant (gunpowder) rocket engine, doubling the thrust and increasing the efficiency by a factor of about twenty-five. This was the birth of the modern rocket engine. He calculated from his independently derived rocket equation that a reasonably sized rocket, using solid fuel, could
3082:
One notable example of duplication and cancellation was the development of engines for the R-9A ballistic missile. Two sets of engines were supported, but ultimately only one set was selected, leaving several perfectly functional engines unused. Similarly, for the ambitious heavy N-l space launch
2966:
Government laboratories, including the Rocket
Propulsion Laboratory (now part of Air Force Research Laboratory), Arnold Engineering Test Center, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, White Sands Proving Grounds, and NASA John H. Glenn Research Center,
2705:
development. The
Rocketdyne engines used in the Atlas family were found to suffer from this effect in several static firing tests, and three missile launches exploded on the pad due to rough combustion in the booster engines. In most cases, it occurred while attempting to start the engines with a
3630:
can be highly visible, as the propellant frequently contains metals such as elemental aluminium which burns with an orange-white flame and adds energy to the combustion process. Rocket engines which burn liquid hydrogen and oxygen will exhibit a nearly transparent exhaust, due to it being mostly
3326:/in-sec). The strongest heat fluxes are found at the throat, which often sees twice that found in the associated chamber and nozzle. This is due to the combination of high speeds (which gives a very thin boundary layer), and although lower than the chamber, the high temperatures seen there. (See
2970:
LPRE programs have been subject to several cancellations in the United States, even after spending millions of dollars on their development. For example, the M-l LOX/LH2 LPRE, Titan I, and the RS-2200 aerospike, as well as several JATO units and large uncooled thrust chambers were cancelled. The
2645:
or otherwise, must be introduced into the combustion chamber at the correct rate in order to have a controlled rate of production of hot gas. A "hard start" indicates that the quantity of combustible propellant that entered the combustion chamber prior to ignition was too large. The result is an
785:
In practice, perfect expansion is only achievable with a variable–exit-area nozzle (since ambient pressure decreases as altitude increases), and is not possible above a certain altitude as ambient pressure approaches zero. If the nozzle is not perfectly expanded, then loss of efficiency occurs.
3164:
vehicles have a reputation for unreliability and danger; especially catastrophic failures. Contrary to this reputation, carefully designed rockets can be made arbitrarily reliable. In military use, rockets are not unreliable. However, one of the main non-military uses of rockets is for orbital
2962:
However the transfer of knowledge from research professors and their projects to the rocket engine industry has been a mixed experience. While some notable professors and relevant research projects have positively influenced industry practices and understanding of LPREs, the connection between
2952:(RFPs) to solicit proposals from private companies and research institutions. Private companies and research institutions, in turn, may invest in research and development (R&D) activities to develop new rocket engine technologies that meet the needs and specifications outlined in the RFPs.
912:
in gases increases with the square root of temperature, the use of hot exhaust gas greatly improves performance. By comparison, at room temperature the speed of sound in air is about 340 m/s while the speed of sound in the hot gas of a rocket engine can be over 1700 m/s; much of this
2860:
More worryingly for space agencies, such sound levels can also damage the launch structure, or worse, be reflected back at the comparatively delicate rocket above. This is why so much water is typically used at launches. The water spray changes the acoustic qualities of the air and reduces or
1177:
in metres/second or ft/s) or as a time (seconds). For example, if an engine producing 100 pounds of thrust runs for 320 seconds and burns 100 pounds of propellant, then the specific impulse is 320 seconds. The higher the specific impulse, the less propellant is required to provide the desired
2958:
Universities provide graduate and undergraduate education to train qualified technical personnel, and their research programs often contribute to the advancement of rocket engine technologies. More than 25 universities in the US have taught or are currently teaching courses related to Liquid
2713:
The problem affecting Atlas vehicles was mainly the so-called "racetrack" phenomenon, where burning propellant would swirl around in a circle at faster and faster speeds, eventually producing vibration strong enough to rupture the engine, leading to complete destruction of the rocket. It was
2724:
In the Soviet space program, combustion instability also proved a problem on some rocket engines, including the RD-107 engine used in the R-7 family and the RD-216 used in the R-14 family, and several failures of these vehicles occurred before the problem was solved. Soviet engineering and
3437:
With regenerative cooling a second boundary layer is found in the coolant channels around the chamber. This boundary layer thickness needs to be as small as possible, since the boundary layer acts as an insulator between the wall and the coolant. This may be achieved by making the coolant
830:, exhaust gas flow detachment will occur in a grossly over-expanded nozzle. As the detachment point will not be uniform around the axis of the engine, a side force may be imparted to the engine. This side force may change over time and result in control problems with the launch vehicle.
786:
Grossly over-expanded nozzles lose less efficiency, but can cause mechanical problems with the nozzle. Fixed-area nozzles become progressively more under-expanded as they gain altitude. Almost all de Laval nozzles will be momentarily grossly over-expanded during startup in an atmosphere.
3370:
Film cooling: The engine is designed with rows of multiple orifices lining the inside wall through which additional propellant is injected, cooling the chamber wall as it evaporates. This method is often used in cases where the heat fluxes are especially high, likely in combination with
455:– holes through which the propellant escapes under pressure; but sometimes may be more complex spray nozzles. When two or more propellants are injected, the jets usually deliberately cause the propellants to collide as this breaks up the flow into smaller droplets that burn more easily.
4747:). The manuscript is composed of recipes for creating incendiary weapons from the mid-eighth to the end of the thirteenth centuries—two of which are rockets. The first recipe calls for one part of colophonium and sulfur added to six parts of saltpeter (potassium nitrate) dissolved in
4347:
operation is possible with these propellants even for small rockets, so there are no location, trajectory and shock constraints added by the rocket staging process. Microwaves are 10-100× cheaper in $ /watt than lasers and have all-weather operation at frequencies below 10 GHz.
3274:). Most construction materials will also combust if exposed to high temperature oxidiser, which leads to a number of design challenges. The nozzle and combustion chamber walls must not be allowed to combust, melt, or vaporize (sometimes facetiously termed an "engine-rich exhaust").
2582:
of any in-use chemical rocket, hydrogen's very low density (about one-fourteenth that of water) requires larger and heavier turbopumps and pipework, which decreases the engine's thrust-to-weight ratio (for example the RS-25) compared to those that do not use hydrogen (NK-33).
2653:
Explosions from hard starts usually cannot happen with purely gaseous propellants, since the amount of the gas present in the chamber is limited by the injector area relative to the throat area, and for practical designs, propellant mass escapes too quickly to be an issue.
3503:
An additional advantage of light molecules is that they may be accelerated to high velocity at temperatures that can be contained by currently available materials - the high gas temperatures in rocket engines pose serious problems for the engineering of survivable motors.
4759:
Articles and books on the subject of rocketry appeared increasingly from the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries. In the sixteenth century, German military engineer Conrad Haas (1509–1576) wrote a manuscript which introduced the construction of multi-staged rockets.
2649:
Avoiding hard starts involves careful timing of the ignition relative to valve timing or varying the mixture ratio so as to limit the maximum pressure that can occur or simply ensuring an adequate ignition source is present well prior to propellant entering the chamber.
3515:(LOX, or LO2), are the most effective propellants in terms of exhaust velocity that have been widely used to date, though a few exotic combinations involving boron or liquid ozone are potentially somewhat better in theory if various practical problems could be solved.
6073:
3944:
Easily tested on ground. High thrust/weight ratios are possible (~14) together with good fuel efficiency over a wide range of airspeeds, mach 0–5.5+; this combination of efficiencies may permit launching to orbit, single stage, or very rapid intercontinental travel.
2980:
other country. Approximately 500 different LPREs have been developed before 2003. For comparison the United States has developed slightly more than 300 (before 2003). The
Soviets also had the most rocket-propelled flight vehicles. They had more liquid propellant
2909:). Then the largest portion of the energy is dissipated in the exhaust's interaction with the ambient air, producing noise. This noise can be reduced somewhat by flame trenches with roofs, by water injection around the jet and by deflecting the jet at an angle.
2747:
Chugging can cause a worsening feedback loop, as cyclic variation in thrust causes longitudinal vibrations to travel up the rocket, causing the fuel lines to vibrate, which in turn do not deliver propellant smoothly into the engines. This phenomenon is known as
1181:
The specific impulse that can be achieved is primarily a function of the propellant mix (and ultimately would limit the specific impulse), but practical limits on chamber pressures and the nozzle expansion ratios reduce the performance that can be achieved.
719:
in air at sea level are not uncommon. About half of the rocket engine's thrust comes from the unbalanced pressures inside the combustion chamber, and the rest comes from the pressures acting against the inside of the nozzle (see diagram). As the gas expands
867:
For a rocket engine to be propellant efficient, it is important that the maximum pressures possible be created on the walls of the chamber and nozzle by a specific amount of propellant; as this is the source of the thrust. This can be achieved by all of:
649:
In order for fuel and oxidiser to flow into the chamber, the pressure of the propellants entering the combustion chamber must exceed the pressure inside the combustion chamber itself. This may be accomplished by a variety of design approaches including
704:
The hot gas produced in the combustion chamber is permitted to escape through an opening (the "throat"), and then through a diverging expansion section. When sufficient pressure is provided to the nozzle (about 2.5–3 times ambient pressure), the nozzle
4191:. The heated propellant is fed through a conventional rocket nozzle to produce thrust. The engine thrust is directly related to the surface area of the solar collector and to the local intensity of the solar radiation and inversely proportional to the
3070:
When it comes to which DBs were awarded contracts for the development of new rocket engines either a single design bureau would be chosen or several design bureaus would be given the same contract which sometimes led to fierce competition between DBs.
4070:
Similar thrust/weight ratio with ion drives (worse), thermal issues, as with ion drives very high power requirements for significant thrust, really needs advanced nuclear reactors, never flown, requires low temperatures for superconductors to work
4421:
Maximum temperature is limited by materials technology, some radioactive particles can be present in exhaust in some designs, nuclear reactor shielding is heavy, unlikely to be permitted from surface of the Earth, thrust/weight ratio is not high.
3479:
with which to dissipate energy. Of these, only translation can do useful work to the vehicle, and while energy does transfer between modes this process occurs on a timescale far in excess of the time required for the exhaust to leave the nozzle.
4485:
Difficulties in heating propellant without losing fissionables in exhaust, massive thermal issues particularly for nozzle/throat region, exhaust almost inherently highly radioactive. Nuclear lightbulb variants can contain fissionables, but cut
2971:
cancellations of these programs were not related to the specific LPRE's performance or any issues with it. Instead, they were due to the cancellation of the vehicle programs the engine was intended for or budget cuts imposed by the government.
1573:
Since, unlike a jet engine, a conventional rocket motor lacks an air intake, there is no 'ram drag' to deduct from the gross thrust. Consequently, the net thrust of a rocket motor is equal to the gross thrust (apart from static back pressure).
3075:
unusual to see continued reliance on that LPRE bureau for that class of engines. For example, all but one of the LPREs for submarine-launched missiles were developed by the same design bureau for the same vehicle development prime contractor.
3873:
Three different propellants (usually hydrogen, hydrocarbon, and liquid oxygen) are introduced into a combustion chamber in variable mixture ratios, or multiple engines are used with fixed propellant mixture ratios and throttled or shut down
3487:
an exhaust molecule has, the more rotational and vibrational modes it will have. Consequently, it is generally desirable for the exhaust species to be as simple as possible, with a diatomic molecule composed of light, abundant atoms such as
3262:
Most other jet engines have gas turbines in the hot exhaust. Due to their larger surface area, they are harder to cool and hence there is a need to run the combustion processes at much lower temperatures, losing efficiency. In addition,
3653:
The shape of the jet varies for a fixed-area nozzle as the expansion ratio varies with altitude: at high altitude all rockets are grossly under-expanded, and a quite small percentage of exhaust gases actually end up expanding forwards.
3281:, where the propellant is passed through tubes around the combustion chamber or nozzle, and other techniques, such as film cooling, are employed to give longer nozzle and chamber life. These techniques ensure that a gaseous thermal
3258:
For efficiency reasons, higher temperatures are desirable, but materials lose their strength if the temperature becomes too high. Rockets run with combustion temperatures that can reach 6,000 °F (3,300 °C; 3,600 K).
2725:
manufacturing processes never satisfactorily resolved combustion instability in larger RP-1/LOX engines, so the RD-171 engine used to power the Zenit family still used four smaller thrust chambers fed by a common engine mechanism.
3050:
were outsourced to other organisations and locations with more suitable test facilities. Many DBs also had housing complexes, gymnasiums, and medical facilities intended to support the needs of their employees and their families.
2805:
Testing for the possibility of screeching is sometimes done by exploding small explosive charges outside the combustion chamber with a tube set tangentially to the combustion chamber near the injectors to determine the engine's
2794:
Such effects are very difficult to predict analytically during the design process, and have usually been addressed by expensive, time-consuming and extensive testing, combined with trial and error remedial correction measures.
2136:
Rockets can usually be throttled down to an exit pressure of about one-third of ambient pressure (often limited by flow separation in nozzles) and up to a maximum limit determined only by the mechanical strength of the engine.
3789:
Some oxidisers are monopropellants, can explode in own right; mechanical failure of solid propellant can block nozzle (very rare with rubberised propellant), central hole widens over burn and negatively affects mixture ratio.
1335:
6081:
2603:
psi). When operated within significant atmospheric pressure, higher combustion chamber pressures give better performance by permitting a larger and more efficient nozzle to be fitted without it being grossly overexpanded.
4738:
It is stated that "the reactive forces of incendiaries were probably not applied to the propulsion of projectiles prior to the 13th century". A turning point in rocket technology emerged with a short manuscript entitled
3569:, with rockets the total injector area is less than the throat thus the chamber pressure tends to ambient prior to ignition and high pressures cannot form even if the entire chamber is full of flammable gas at ignition.
3557:
Ignition can be achieved by a number of different methods; a pyrotechnic charge can be used, a plasma torch can be used, or electric spark ignition may be employed. Some fuel/oxidiser combinations ignite on contact
2759:
In the worst case, this may result in damage to the payload or vehicle. Chugging can be minimised by using several methods, such as installing energy-absorbing devices on feed lines. Chugging may cause
Screeching.
4975:
3000:
Unlike many other countries where the development and production of rocket engines were consolidated within a single organisation, the Soviet Union took a different approach, they established numerous specialised
6364:
The official website of test pilot Erich
Warsitz (world's first jet pilot) which includes videos of the Heinkel He 112 fitted with von Braun's and Hellmuth Walter's rocket engines (as well as the He 111 with ATO
467:, used to hold a part of the combustion in a slower-flowing portion of the combustion chamber, are not needed. The dimensions of the cylinder are such that the propellant is able to combust thoroughly; different
5023:), and one failure to restart in orbit (the third-stage engine of Apollo 6). But these failures did not result in vehicle loss or mission abort (although the failure of Apollo 6's third-stage engine to restart
5094:
2848:
that sprayed 1.1 million litres (290,000 US gal) of water around the base of the rocket in 41 seconds at launch time. Using this system kept sound levels within the payload bay to 142 dB.
1761:
at the throat, and because the supersonic exhaust prevents external pressure influences travelling upstream, it turns out that the pressure at the exit is ideally exactly proportional to the propellant flow
3905:
Similar efficiency to rockets at low speed or exoatmospheric, inlet difficulties, a relatively undeveloped and unexplored type, cooling difficulties, very noisy, thrust/weight ratio is similar to ramjets.
2637:
refers to an over-pressure condition during start of a rocket engine at ignition. In the worst cases, this takes the form of an unconfined explosion, resulting in the damage or destruction of the engine.
2173:
Rocket vehicle mechanical efficiency as a function of vehicle instantaneous speed divided by effective exhaust speed. These percentages need to be multiplied by internal engine efficiency to get overall
412:
Rocket propellant is mass that is stored, usually in some form of tank, or within the combustion chamber itself, prior to being ejected from a rocket engine in the form of a fluid jet to produce thrust.
670:
is a critical part of SpaceX strategy to reduce launch vehicle fluids from five in their legacy Falcon 9 vehicle family to just two in
Starship, eliminating not only the helium tank pressurant but all
3434:) that is notably cooler than the combustion temperature. Disruption of the boundary layer may occur during cooling failures or combustion instabilities, and wall failure typically occurs soon after.
2091:
3471:
Ideally all the reaction energy appears as kinetic energy of the exhaust gases, as exhaust velocity is the single most important performance parameter of an engine. However, real exhaust species are
3141:
their advancements. This prioritisation of national prestige over the well-being and safety of workers raises questions about the ethical responsibility of the state and the organisations involved.
3121:. The explosion occurred after the second-stage rocket engine suddenly ignited, causing the fully loaded missile to disintegrate. The explosion resulted from the ignition and explosion of the mixed
886:
Since all of these things minimise the mass of the propellant used, and since pressure is proportional to the mass of propellant present to be accelerated as it pushes on the engine, and since from
748:
of the exhaust jet depends on the chamber pressure and the ratio of exit to throat area of the nozzle. As exit pressure varies from the ambient (atmospheric) pressure, a choked nozzle is said to be
3831:
Pumps needed for high performance are expensive to design, huge thermal fluxes across combustion chamber wall can impact reuse, failure modes include major explosions, a lot of plumbing is needed.
3267:
use air as an oxidant, which contains 78% largely unreactive nitrogen, which dilutes the reaction and lowers the temperatures. Rockets have none of these inherent combustion temperature limiters.
3005:(DB) which would compete for development contracts. These design bureaus, or "konstruktorskoye buro" (KB) in Russian were state run organisations which were primarily responsible for carrying out
4183:, and therefore does not require an electrical generator as most other forms of solar-powered propulsion do. A solar thermal rocket only has to carry the means of capturing solar energy, such as
3102:
point of view, the ethical implications of these incidents shed light on the complex relationship between technology, human factors, and the prioritisation of scientific advancement over safety.
700:
Rocket thrust is caused by pressures acting in the combustion chamber and nozzle. From Newton's third law, equal and opposite pressures act on the exhaust, and this accelerates it to high speeds.
2922:
The development of the US rocket engine industry has been shaped by a complex web of relationships between government agencies, private companies, research institutions, and other stakeholders.
2988: derived or converted from these decommissioned ballistic missiles than any other nation. As of the end of 1998, the Russians (or earlier the Soviet Union) had successfully launched 2573
2744:. Usually it is caused by pressure variations in feed lines due to variations in acceleration of the vehicle, when rocket engines are building up thrust, are shut down or are being throttled.
1861:
819:
have been proposed, each providing some way to adapt to changing ambient air pressure and each allowing the gas to expand further against the nozzle, giving extra thrust at higher altitudes.
560:
3277:
Rockets that use common construction materials such as aluminium, steel, nickel or copper alloys must employ cooling systems to limit the temperatures that engine structures experience.
3098:
The development of rocket engines in the Soviet Union was marked by significant achievements, but it also carried ethical considerations due to numerous accidents and fatalities. From a
1697:
Maximum efficiency for a rocket engine is achieved by maximising the momentum contribution of the equation without incurring penalties from over expanding the exhaust. This occurs when
3207:
engine, used in a cluster of five in the Saturn V second stage, and singly in the Saturn IB second stage and Saturn V third stage, had no catastrophic failures in 86 engine-flights.
1930:
1628:
2665:
on
December 21, 1932. Delayed ignition allowed the chamber to fill with alcohol and liquid oxygen, which exploded violently. Shrapnel was embedded in the walls, but nobody was hit.
2201:
employing a rocket engine the energetic efficiency is very good if the vehicle speed approaches or somewhat exceeds the exhaust velocity (relative to launch); but at low speeds the
1691:
3828:
Up to ~99% efficient combustion with excellent mixture control, throttleable, can be used with turbopumps which permits incredibly lightweight tanks, can be safe with extreme care
2955:
Alongside private companies, universities, independent research institutes and government laboratories also play a critical role in the research and development of rocket engines.
7771:
5926:
An additional coolant line takes alcohol to fine holes in the inner chamber wall. The alcohol flows alongside the wall, creating a thin, evaporating film for additional cooling.
913:
performance is due to the higher temperature, but additionally rocket propellants are chosen to be of low molecular mass, and this also gives a higher velocity compared to air.
4874:
in 1949. The first staged combustion engine was the S1.5400 used in the Soviet planetary rocket, designed by Melnikov, a former assistant to Isaev. About the same time (1959),
2710:, solving combustion instability was a high priority, and the final two Mercury flights sported an upgraded propulsion system with baffled injectors and a hypergolic igniter.
416:
Chemical rocket propellants are the most commonly used. These undergo exothermic chemical reactions producing a hot gas jet for propulsion. Alternatively, a chemically inert
3090:
These examples demonstrate the complex dynamics and challenges faced by the Soviet Union in managing the development and production of rocket engines through Design Bureaus.
3079:
to certain issues, including program cancellations and duplication. Some major programs were cancelled, resulting in the disposal or storage of previously developed engines.
2992:
with LPREs or almost 65% of the world total of 3973. All of these vehicle flights were made possible by the timely development of suitable high-performance reliable LPREs.
1741:
4920:
rocket to send humans to the Moon. The high specific impulse and low density of liquid hydrogen lowered the upper stage mass and the overall size and cost of the vehicle.
2857:
and so are generally weakened or entirely absent in recorded or broadcast audio reproductions. For large rockets at close range, the acoustic effects could actually kill.
741:, a fixed geometry nozzle with a high expansion-ratio. The large bell- or cone-shaped nozzle extension beyond the throat gives the rocket engine its characteristic shape.
6106:
3270:
The temperatures reached by combustion in rocket engines often substantially exceed the melting points of the nozzle and combustion chamber materials (about 1,200 K for
2127:
1789:
1376:
3941:
Intake air is chilled to very low temperatures at inlet before passing through a ramjet or turbojet engine. Can be combined with a rocket engine for orbital insertion.
3230:, used in a cluster of three, flew in 46 refurbished engine units. These made a total of 405 engine-flights with no catastrophic in-flight failures. A single in-flight
2227:
Rockets, of all the jet engines, indeed of essentially all engines, have the highest thrust-to-weight ratio. This is especially true for liquid-fuelled rocket engines.
1458:
3576:
when cooled, many rockets cannot be restarted without at least minor maintenance, such as replacement of the pyrotechnic igniter or even refueling of the propellants.
5098:
2779:. In extreme cases combustion can end up being forced backwards through the injectors – this can cause explosions with monopropellants. Buzzing may cause Screeching.
2133:
it is controlled by changing the area of propellant that is burning and this can be designed into the propellant grain (and hence cannot be controlled in real-time).
1563:
3453:
performance by lowering the average molecular weight of the exhaust and increasing the efficiency with which combustion heat is converted to kinetic exhaust energy.
1145:
2899:
2621:
In addition, significant temperature gradients are set up in the walls of the chamber and nozzle, these cause differential expansion of the inner liner that create
1994:
1961:
1524:
1491:
1409:
1175:
711:
and a supersonic jet is formed, dramatically accelerating the gas, converting most of the thermal energy into kinetic energy. Exhaust speeds vary, depending on the
622:
593:
499:
7573:
5574:
4584:
due to shock, minimum size for nuclear bombs is still pretty big, expensive at small scales, nuclear treaty issues, fallout when used below Earth's magnetosphere.
2729:
stable engine designs the oscillations are quickly suppressed; in unstable designs they persist for prolonged periods. Oscillation suppressors are commonly used.
823:
the nozzle they cool, and eventually some of the chemicals can freeze, producing 'snow' within the jet. This causes instabilities in the jet and must be avoided.
124:
Compared to other types of jet engine, rocket engines are the lightest and have the highest thrust, but are the least propellant-efficient (they have the lowest
5165:
4339:
and rocket payload fraction, ammonia or methane are economically superior for earth-to-orbit rockets due to their particular combination of high density and I
3800:
Propellant (such as hydrazine, hydrogen peroxide or nitrous oxide) flows over a catalyst and exothermically decomposes; hot gases are emitted through nozzle.
3449:, which lowers combustion temperatures. This reduces heat loads on the engine and allows lower cost materials and a simplified cooling system. This can also
5753:
3367:
is routed around the nozzle before being injected into the combustion chamber or preburner. This is the most widely applied method of rocket engine cooling.
2673:
The extreme vibration and acoustic environment inside a rocket motor commonly result in peak stresses well above mean values, especially in the presence of
7764:
6010:
3153:
before being put into production. For high altitude engines, either a shorter nozzle must be used, or the rocket must be tested in a large vacuum chamber.
2798:
Screeching is often dealt with by detailed changes to injectors, changes in the propellant chemistry, vaporising the propellant before injection or use of
935:
Vehicles typically require the overall thrust to change direction over the length of the burn. A number of different ways to achieve this have been flown:
3500:, most typically oxygen or an oxygen-rich species, must be introduced into the combustion process, adding mass and chemical bonds to the exhaust species.
953:
Multiple engines (often canted at slight angles) are deployed but throttled to give the overall vector that is required, giving only a very small penalty.
5887:
662:
pressurization system common to many large rocket engines or, in some newer rocket systems, by a bleed-off of high-pressure gas from the engine cycle to
5251:
5223:
1201:
361:) speed, and the reaction to this pushes the engine in the opposite direction. Combustion is most frequently used for practical rockets, as the laws of
5983:
3106:
country. These incidents brought into question the ethical considerations surrounding the development, testing, and operational use of rocket engines.
3572:
Solid propellants are usually ignited with one-shot pyrotechnic devices and combustion usually proceeds through total consumption of the propellants.
7568:
4029:
Identical to resistojet except the heating element is replaced with an electrical arc, eliminating the physical requirements of the heating element.
4262:
Only useful in space, as thrust is fairly low, but hydrogen has not been traditionally thought to be easily stored in space, otherwise moderate/low
3046:
of engines installed in vehicle stages, or simulating altitude conditions during engine tests. In certain cases, engine testing, certification and
872:
heating the propellant to as high a temperature as possible (using a high energy fuel, containing hydrogen and carbon and sometimes metals such as
3054:
The Soviet Union's LPRE development effort saw significant growth during the 1960s and reached its peak in the 1970s. This era coincided with the
7757:
973:
as well as being able to operate outside the atmosphere, and while permitting the use of low pressure and hence lightweight tanks and structure.
2618:
Worse, due to the high temperatures created in rocket engines the materials used tend to have a significantly lowered working tensile strength.
5913:
4052:
3416:
3117:
launch facility. This incident resulted in the deaths of 124 engineers and military personnel, including Marshal M.I. Nedelin, a former deputy
5407:
2706:"dry start" method whereby the igniter mechanism would be activated prior to propellant injection. During the process of man-rating Atlas for
901:
is one of the most important parameters of a rocket engine (although weight, cost, ease of manufacture etc. are usually also very important).
799:
if the exhaust's pressure is higher, then exhaust pressure that could have been converted into thrust is not converted, and energy is wasted.
341:. The fluid is usually a gas created by high pressure (150-to-4,350-pound-per-square-inch (10 to 300 bar)) combustion of solid or liquid
4589:
4444:
as their primary power source. Various types of nuclear propulsion have been proposed, and some of them tested, for spacecraft applications:
3562:), and non-hypergolic fuels can be "chemically ignited" by priming the fuel lines with hypergolic propellants (popular in Russian engines).
1791:, provided the mixture ratios and combustion efficiencies are maintained. It is thus quite usual to rearrange the above equation slightly:
2129:(usually measured in kg/s or lb/s). In liquid and hybrid rockets, the propellant flow entering the chamber is controlled using valves, in
5432:
4601:
Containment of antimatter, production of antimatter in macroscopic quantities is not currently feasible. Theoretical only at this point.
6200:
8150:
5052:. Translation of the German language original "Wege zur Raumschiffahrt," (1920). Tunis, Tunisia: Agence Tunisienne de Public-Relations.
3971:
2772:. Usually caused due to insufficient pressure drop across the injectors. It generally is mostly annoying, rather than being damaging.
1746:
Since specific impulse is force divided by the rate of mass flow, this equation means that the specific impulse varies with altitude.
3357:, is passed around the nozzle and dumped. This cooling method has various issues, such as wasting propellant. It is only used rarely.
3340:: The combustion chamber inside walls are lined with a material that traps heat and carries it away with the exhaust as it vaporizes.
2382:
1046:
5825:
4304:
Propellant is heated by light beam (often laser) aimed at vehicle from a distance, either directly or indirectly via heat exchanger
3916:
A combined cycle turbojet/rocket where an additional oxidiser such as oxygen is added to the airstream to increase maximum altitude
3786:
Quite simple, solid fuel is essentially inert without oxidiser, safer; cracks do not escalate, throttleable and easy to switch off.
3523:
have a much better effective energy output per unit mass of propellant that must be carried, but are similar per unit mass of fuel.
3087:, the program was ultimately cancelled, leaving the Soviet Union with a surplus of newly qualified engines without a clear purpose.
1757:
Due to the specific impulse varying with pressure, a quantity that is easy to compare and calculate with is useful. Because rockets
7563:
7558:
7553:
7177:
6391:
1056:
969:), very high exhaust speeds (around 10 times the speed of sound in air at sea level) and very high thrust/weight ratios (>100)
8140:
6333:
4998:, however, experienced occasional failures (some of them catastrophic) in its other use cases, as the engine for the much-flown
4236:
976:
Rockets can be further optimised to even more extreme performance along one or more of these axes at the expense of the others.
8288:
8113:
6117:
4879:
3540:
With liquid and hybrid rockets, immediate ignition of the propellants as they first enter the combustion chamber is essential.
3383:
inner combustion chamber wall and transpirates. So far, this method has not seen usage due to various issues with this concept.
2004:
6343:
6338:
5064:
3322:
that can pass through the wall are among the highest in engineering; fluxes are generally in the range of 0.8–80 MW/m (0.5-50
733:
The four expansion regimes of a de Laval nozzle: • under-expanded • perfectly expanded • over-expanded • grossly over-expanded
6290:
6265:
6232:
5809:
5472:
5358:
4856:
The turbopump was employed by German scientists in World War II. Until then cooling the nozzle had been problematic, and the
2691:
882:
using propellants which are, or decompose to, simple molecules with few degrees of freedom to maximise translational velocity
724:) the pressure against the nozzle's walls forces the rocket engine in one direction while accelerating the gas in the other.
646:
ratios. This, in combination with the high pressures, means that the rate of heat conduction through the walls is very high.
6422:
4936:
4235:
is comparable to nuclear thermal rocket, without the problems and complexity of controlling a fission reaction. Ability to
2144:
For example, some more recent liquid-propellant engine designs that have been optimised for greater throttling capability (
366:
5779:
NASA CR-566, Acoustic Prediction Methods For Rocket Engines, Including The Effects Of Clustered Engines And Deflected Flow
4808:
The modern solid- and liquid-fuelled engines became realities early in the 20th century, thanks to the American physicist
8145:
4683:, propelled a wooden bird along wires using steam. However, it was not powerful enough to take off under its own thrust.
2945:
1743:. Since ambient pressure changes with altitude, most rocket engines spend very little time operating at peak efficiency.
3430:
In all cases, another effect that aids in cooling the rocket engine chamber wall is a thin layer of combustion gases (a
8426:
7688:
3216:
3137:
for approximately three decades, raises concerns about transparency, accountability, and the protection of human life.
3118:
2934:
1039:
950:
Just the combustion chamber and nozzle is gimballed, the pumps are fixed, and high pressure feeds attach to the engine.
3195:
engine, used in a cluster of six in the Saturn I second stage, had no catastrophic failures in 36 engine-flights. The
1796:
132:, the lightest of all elements, but chemical rockets produce a mix of heavier species, reducing the exhaust velocity.
6173:
5897:
5737:
5674:
5636:
5478:
5364:
5261:
5233:
4952:
3820:
3350:
materials, which take heat flux until its outer thrust chamber wall glows red- or white-hot, radiating the heat away.
3220:
2155:
Solid rockets can be throttled by using shaped grains that will vary their surface area over the course of the burn.
916:
Expansion in the rocket nozzle then further multiplies the speed, typically between 1.5 and 2 times, giving a highly
4554:
Thermal issues in nozzle, propellant could be unstable, highly radioactive exhaust. Theoretical only at this point.
891:
the above factors and the exhaust speed is an excellent measure of the engine propellant efficiency. This is termed
8013:
5778:
5603:
5171:
4863:
3038:
which specialised in rocket engines often possessed the necessary personnel, facilities, and equipment to conduct l
2840:
of noise around its base. To reduce this, and the risk of payload damage or injury to the crew atop the stack, the
745:
5757:
5123:
1694:
30%, depending on the engine design. This reduction drops roughly exponentially to zero with increasing altitude.
511:
8456:
7892:
7087:
6059:
5382:
5309:
3836:
3130:
642:. No atmospheric nitrogen is present to dilute and cool the combustion, so the propellant mixture can reach true
301:
8062:
4875:
4752:
long and narrow case. The introduction of saltpeter into pyrotechnic mixtures connected the shift from hurled
4710:
but the principles behind it were not well understood, and it was not developed into a practical power source.
3099:
2721:. Some of the early units tested exploded during static firing, which led to the addition of injector baffles.
2329:
1996: = the thrust coefficient constant of the nozzle (dependent on nozzle geometry, typically about 2)
6369:
2824:
For all but the very smallest sizes, rocket exhaust compared to other engines is generally very noisy. As the
845:, attempt to minimize performance losses by adjusting to varying expansion ratio caused by changing altitude.
631:
The temperatures and pressures typically reached in a rocket combustion chamber in order to achieve practical
3825:
Two fluid (typically liquid) propellants are introduced through injectors into combustion chamber and burnt.
3372:
3360:
3285:
touching the material is kept below the temperature which would cause the material to catastrophically fail.
3278:
1874:
1580:
8250:
7718:
5991:. Houston, TX: NASA, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. p. 8. Archived from the original on 23 August 2022
1633:
6384:
5003:
4860:
ballistic missile used dilute alcohol for the fuel, which reduced the combustion temperature sufficiently.
3289:
834:
2810:
and then evaluating the time response of the chamber pressure- a fast recovery indicates a stable system.
8098:
6310:
5664:
4802:
4256:
3852:
3412:
3150:
3043:
3039:
655:
445:
engines use a combination of solid and liquid or gaseous propellants. Both liquid and hybrid rockets use
6348:
3857:
Rocket takes off as a bipropellant rocket, then turns to using just one propellant as a monopropellant.
1495:= flow area at nozzle exit plane (or the plane where the jet leaves the nozzle if separated flow)
8390:
8281:
8093:
7869:
7708:
7042:
6761:
6723:
4941:
4809:
2775:
Buzzing is known to have adverse effects on engine performance and reliability, primarily as it causes
897:
4331:
is comparable to Nuclear Thermal rocket combined with T/W comparable to conventional rocket. While LH
4149:
Hot water is stored in a tank at high temperature / pressure and turns to steam in nozzle
3595:
Rocket jets vary depending on the rocket engine, design altitude, altitude, thrust and other factors.
3492:
being ideal in practical terms. However, in the case of a chemical rocket, hydrogen is a reactant and
2714:
eventually solved by adding several baffles around the injector face to break up swirling propellant.
420:
can be heated by a high-energy power source through a heat exchanger in lieu of a combustion chamber.
7007:
7002:
5501:
5338:
4871:
4533:
4184:
3877:
Reduces take-off weight, since hydrogen is lighter; combines good thrust to weight with high average
1630:
term represents the momentum thrust, which remains constant at a given throttle setting, whereas the
1015:
663:
378:
156:
3919:
Very close to existing designs, operates in very high altitude, wide range of altitude and airspeed
2190:
which is a reversible process, and hence they give efficiencies which are very close to that of the
8348:
8170:
8088:
7948:
7103:
6432:
5411:
4798:
4559:
3783:
Separate oxidiser/fuel; typically the oxidiser is liquid and kept in a tank and the fuel is solid.
3778:
3726:
3695:
Altitude typically limited to a few hundred feet or so (world record is 830 meters, or 2,723 feet)
3241:
3006:
2926:
2845:
2841:
2306:
1700:
658:
to advance fluid flow. Tank pressure may be maintained by several means, including a high-pressure
438:
258:
201:
6997:
5982:
Bartlett, W.; Kirkland, Z. D.; Polifka, R. W.; Smithson, J. C.; Spencer, G. L. (7 February 1966).
4717:
to propel projectiles was a precursor to the development of the first solid rocket. Ninth Century
3643:
441:
force separate fuel and oxidiser components into the combustion chamber, where they mix and burn.
8461:
8042:
7829:
7444:
6670:
6663:
6523:
6377:
5477:[«Konstruktorskoe Buro Khimavtomatiky» - Scientific-Research Complex / RD0750.]. KBKhA -
4897:
In the West, the first laboratory staged-combustion test engine was built in Germany in 1963, by
4500:
4464:
4407:
Propellant (typically, hydrogen) is passed through a nuclear reactor to heat to high temperature
4315:
4248:
3935:
3748:
3627:
3315:
Materials technology, combined with the engine design, is a limiting factor in chemical rockets.
3063:, which facilitated the continuous development of new engine concepts and manufacturing methods.
2360:
1964:
679:
639:
447:
5939:
4771:. These usually consisted of a tube of soft hammered iron about 8 in (20 cm) long and
3806:
Catalysts can be easily contaminated, monopropellants can detonate if contaminated or provoked,
2103:
1765:
1352:
8018:
7988:
7983:
7907:
7824:
7528:
7397:
7167:
7157:
6848:
6830:
4999:
4794:
4401:
4252:
4076:
3953:
3526:
Computer programs that predict the performance of propellants in rocket engines are available.
2302:
2256:
2222:
2149:
1424:
374:
160:
90:
39:
7069:
6257:
5436:
3753:
Ignitable, self-sustaining solid fuel/oxidiser mixture ("grain") with central hole and nozzle
2182:
for generating a high speed jet, as a consequence of the high combustion temperature and high
947:
and any propellant feeds reach the engine via low pressure flexible pipes or rotary couplings.
8274:
8255:
8023:
7993:
7973:
7713:
7663:
7583:
7543:
7538:
7533:
7407:
7182:
7132:
7070:
6518:
6224:
5459:
4707:
4437:
4344:
3899:
Essentially a ramjet where intake air is compressed and burnt with the exhaust from a rocket
3795:
3423:
3376:
3122:
2940:
Generally, the need or demand for a new rocket engine comes from government agencies such as
2607:
However, these high pressures cause the outermost part of the chamber to be under very large
2202:
2194:. Given the temperatures reached, over 60% efficiency can be achieved with chemical rockets.
1535:
887:
671:
502:
307:
225:
78:
7588:
5727:
4418:
can be high, perhaps 900 seconds or more, above unity thrust/weight ratio with some designs
3288:
Material exceptions that can sustain rocket combustion temperatures to a certain degree are
1120:
8343:
8240:
8203:
8155:
7917:
7683:
7678:
7673:
7668:
7658:
7092:
6404:
4924:
4850:
4703:
4470:
Nuclear reaction using a gaseous state fission reactor in intimate contact with propellant
4218:
4176:
3931:
3894:
3868:
3603:
3422:
Radiatively and film cooled combustion chamber with a radiatively cooled nozzle extension:
3364:
3060:
2949:
2872:
1972:
1939:
1502:
1469:
1387:
1153:
691:
600:
571:
477:
29:
6737:
6730:
5961:
4565:
Shaped nuclear bombs are detonated behind vehicle and blast is caught by a 'pusher plate'
3411:
Ablatively and film cooled combustion chamber with a radiatively cooled nozzle extension:
2591:
Rocket combustion chambers are normally operated at fairly high pressure, typically 10–200
2141:
or combustion instabilities); but injectors can be optimised and tested for wider ranges.
8:
8437:
8363:
8338:
7693:
7513:
7213:
7083:
6768:
6408:
6023:
5861:
5832:
5128:
5069:
4793:
Slow development of this technology continued up to the later 19th century, when Russian
4384:
3404:
Regeneratively cooled combustion chamber with an ablatively cooled nozzle extension: The
3014:
2718:
2500:
2187:
1088:
1067:
7749:
6194:
5781:
From website of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Langley (NASA Langley)
4949:, an effect of the exhaust jet of a rocket that tends to slow a vehicle's rotation speed
3264:
8308:
8108:
8057:
7508:
6143:
6004:
5049:
4969:
4961:(Nuclear Energy for Rocket Vehicle Applications), a US nuclear thermal rocket programme
4659:
4433:
3611:
2819:
2428:
1063:
632:
370:
354:
314:
273:
94:
85:
of reactive chemicals to supply the necessary energy, but non-combusting forms such as
6250:
6217:
5940:"U.S. Manned Rocket Propulsion Evolution Part 8.12: Rocketdyne F-1 Engine Description"
3922:
Atmospheric airspeed limited to same range as turbojet engine, carrying oxidiser like
3889:
Similar issues to bipropellant, but with more plumbing, more research and development
3689:
Partially filled pressurised carbonated drinks container with tail and nose weighting
3638:
The nozzle is usually over-expanded at sea level, and the exhaust can exhibit visible
956:
High-temperature vanes protrude into the exhaust and can be tilted to deflect the jet.
8135:
7927:
6286:
6261:
6228:
6169:
6035:
5893:
5805:
5733:
5670:
5632:
5257:
5229:
5015:
The J-2 had three premature in-flight shutdowns (two second-stage engine failures on
4972:, NASA development of nuclear propulsion for long-duration spaceflight, begun in 2003
4830:
4623:
3993:
3700:
3632:
3461:
3343:
3189:
2981:
2695:
2662:
2658:
2622:
2183:
1106:
863:
Typical temperature (T), pressure (p), and velocity (v) profiles in a de Laval Nozzle
721:
468:
342:
338:
320:
279:
238:
181:
118:
86:
58:
5707:
Lord Rayleigh (1878) "The explanation of certain acoustical phenomena" (namely, the
5698:
or abstracted at the moment of greatest condensation, the vibration is discouraged."
1196:
Below is an approximate equation for calculating the net thrust of a rocket engine:
8235:
8028:
7998:
7968:
7902:
7638:
7618:
6353:
4694:
4569:
4543:
4487:
4474:
4441:
4410:
4323:
4299:
4263:
4227:
4156:
4144:
4033:
4007:
4003:
of a heating element. May also be used to impart extra energy to a monopropellant.
3878:
3807:
3761:
3706:
3476:
2807:
2799:
2776:
2749:
2687:
2579:
1114:
1100:
985:
930:
854:
838:
816:
812:
125:
6298:
5724:
E. C. Fernandes and M. V. Heitor, "Unsteady flames and the Rayleigh criterion" in
5482:
5474:"Конструкторское бюро химавтоматики" - Научно-исследовательский комплекс / РД0750.
5368:
3902:
Mach 0 to Mach 4.5+ (can also run exoatmospheric), good efficiency at Mach 2 to 4
3584:
3042:. Some even had specialised facilities for testing very large engines, conducting
2646:
excessive spike of pressure, possibly leading to structural failure or explosion.
1330:{\displaystyle F_{n}={\dot {m}}\;v_{e}={\dot {m}}\;v_{e-opt}+A_{e}(p_{e}-p_{amb})}
217:
use a solid propellant in the combustion chamber, to which a second liquid or gas
8385:
8313:
8193:
7887:
7815:
7784:
7037:
6455:
5695:(2nd ed.). Macmillan (reprinted by Dover Publications in 1945). p. 226.
4923:
The record for most engines on one rocket flight is 44, set by NASA in 2016 on a
4834:
4813:
4577:, very high thrust/weight ratio, no show stoppers are known for this technology.
4244:
3520:
3497:
3465:
3047:
2930:
2853:
2707:
2612:
2575:
2231:
2210:
2164:
1026:
827:
808:
738:
712:
667:
451:
to introduce the propellant into the chamber. These are often an array of simple
350:
264:
218:
173:
74:
5497:
5334:
430:, and the propellant storage casing effectively becomes the combustion chamber.
8323:
7800:
7012:
6992:
6987:
6982:
6606:
6443:
6411:
6399:
5532:
5448:
With afterburner, reverser and nozzle ... 3,175 kg ... Afterburner ... 169.2 kN
4913:
4909:
4898:
4882:
for Korolev's orbital ICBM, GR-1. Kuznetsov later evolved that design into the
4846:
4842:
4838:
4728:
4718:
4676:
4669:
3639:
3493:
3446:
3431:
3399:
3282:
3204:
3196:
3185:
3174:
3110:
3029:
2985:
2768:
An intermediate frequency oscillation in chamber pressure between 200 and 1000
2206:
2169:
909:
716:
643:
397:
382:
362:
151:
5562:
5520:
3398:
Regeneratively cooled combustion chamber with a film cooled nozzle extension:
3040:
aboratory tests, flow tests, and ground testing of experimental rocket engines
1967:
of the combustion chamber (dependent on propellants and combustion efficiency)
426:
propellants are prepared in a mixture of fuel and oxidising components called
8450:
8395:
8373:
8160:
7958:
7932:
7017:
6801:
6717:
6643:
6462:
6297:
Includes von Braun's and Hellmuth Walter's experiments with rocket aircraft.
6189:
5681:
See Chapter 8, Section 6 and especially Section 7, re combustion instability.
4964:
4665:
4606:
4180:
4023:
4000:
3647:
3588:
3484:
3236:
2833:
1084:
1022:
768:
666:
the propellant tanks For example, the self-pressurization gas system of the
442:
417:
357:. As the gases expand through the nozzle, they are accelerated to very high (
250:
213:
136:
62:
5551:
3841:
A bipropellant thruster using gas propellant for both the oxidiser and fuel
2802:
within the combustion chambers to change the resonant modes of the chamber.
292:
8408:
8368:
8214:
8188:
8178:
8008:
7963:
6358:
5363:[RD0410. Nuclear Rocket Engine. Advanced launch vehicles]. KBKhA -
4764:
4714:
4699:
4673:
4516:
4307:
Simple in principle, in principle very high exhaust speeds can be achieved
4100:
3757:
3684:
3113:
ballistic missile suffered a catastrophic accident on the launchpad at the
3084:
2191:
2179:
2130:
464:
452:
423:
393:
389:
206:
21:
5204:
4904:
Liquid hydrogen engines were first successfully developed in America: the
3773:
be turned off after ignition; will fire until all solid fuel is depleted.
859:
729:
463:
For chemical rockets the combustion chamber is typically cylindrical, and
369:) dictate that high temperatures and pressures are desirable for the best
8413:
8333:
8318:
8297:
8083:
8078:
7897:
7795:
7787:
7107:
7074:
5666:
Rocket Propulsion Elements: An Introduction to the Engineering of Rockets
4946:
4006:
Efficient where electrical power is at a lower premium than mass. Higher
3999:
Energy is imparted to a usually inert fluid serving as reaction mass via
3911:
3619:
3296:, although both are subject to oxidation under certain conditions. Other
3126:
2717:
More significantly, combustion instability was a problem with the Saturn
2702:
2608:
1758:
905:
842:
804:
707:
636:
66:
35:
7733:* Different versions of the engine use different propellant combinations
7523:
4320:
Propellant is heated by microwave beam aimed at vehicle from a distance
3803:
Simple in concept, throttleable, low temperatures in combustion chamber
715:
the nozzle is designed for, but exhaust speeds as high as ten times the
8353:
8328:
7854:
7780:
7162:
6204:. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 446.
5857:
5708:
5297:. Reston, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
5167:
NASA SP-125, Design of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines, Second Edition
5027:
have forced a mission abort had it occurred on a crewed lunar mission).
4857:
4837:, investigated installing liquid-fuelled rockets in military aircraft (
4753:
4732:
3566:
3559:
3546:
3535:
3392:
3347:
3301:
3297:
3250:
mission. This failure had no effect on mission objectives or duration.
2829:
2825:
2753:
2674:
2642:
2241:
2100:
Rockets can be throttled by controlling the propellant combustion rate
1110:
966:
917:
778:
358:
170:
114:
98:
82:
6311:"NASA and Navy Set World Record for Most Engines in One Rocket Flight"
5386:
5360:РД0410. Ядерный ракетный двигатель. Перспективные космические аппараты
3114:
93:
also exist. Vehicles propelled by rocket engines are commonly used by
8378:
8245:
8103:
7953:
7912:
7849:
7498:
7493:
7142:
6315:
5020:
4891:
4748:
4688:
4640:
4044:
3886:, improves payload for launching from Earth by a sizeable percentage
3607:
3319:
3182:
3010:
2989:
2550:
873:
651:
234:
109:, unlike most combustion engines, so rocket engines can be used in a
3618:
and are nearly invisible to the naked eye but shine brightly in the
628:
L* is typically in the range of 64–152 centimetres (25–60 in).
8219:
7978:
7922:
7844:
7839:
7820:
7603:
7598:
7518:
7503:
7488:
7192:
6896:
5962:"U.S. Manned Rocket Propulsion Evolution Part 6: The Titan Missile"
5725:
5016:
4917:
4680:
4636:
4635:
Problems with antimatter production and handling; energy losses in
4240:
3623:
3508:
3472:
3439:
3354:
3337:
3309:
3305:
3247:
3200:
3178:
3055:
3018:
2504:
2337:
2333:
1413:= effective exhaust velocity (sometimes otherwise denoted as
1105:
The most important metric for the efficiency of a rocket engine is
675:
401:
230:
129:
106:
47:
43:
6283:
The First Jet Pilot – The Story of German Test Pilot Erich Warsitz
6047:
4595:
Nuclear pulse propulsion with antimatter assist for smaller bombs
895:, and after allowance is made for factors that can reduce it, the
7834:
7698:
7253:
7248:
7243:
7238:
7233:
7228:
7223:
7218:
6938:
6901:
6891:
6886:
6860:
6749:
6636:
6581:
6575:
4724:
4522:
A sail material is coated with fissionable material on one side.
3293:
3025:
2405:
2279:
77:, producing thrust by ejecting mass rearward, in accordance with
6036:
Complex chemical equilibrium and rocket performance calculations
5410:. National Museum of the United States Air Force. Archived from
3614:
oxidiser-based rockets and hydrogen rocket jets contain largely
2152:) can be throttled to as low as 18–20 per cent of rated thrust.
908:") at the narrowest part of the nozzle, the 'throat'. Since the
696:
135:
Rocket engines become more efficient at high speeds, due to the
16:
Non-air breathing jet engine used to propel a missile or vehicle
8266:
8003:
7859:
7653:
7387:
7382:
7351:
7320:
7315:
7310:
7305:
7300:
7290:
7279:
7273:
7268:
7263:
7258:
7202:
7152:
7027:
6971:
6964:
6948:
6932:
6926:
6921:
6916:
6911:
6906:
6841:
6835:
6825:
6701:
6694:
6533:
6484:
6363:
6193:
5981:
4768:
4721:
4188:
3512:
3387:
Rocket engines may also use several cooling methods. Examples:
3380:
3271:
3161:
3021:
2477:
2454:
1191:
944:
879:
using a low specific density gas (as hydrogen rich as possible)
659:
381:
which preclude their routine use in the Earth's atmosphere and
147:
Here, "rocket" is used as an abbreviation for "rocket engine".
110:
102:
70:
4539:
Nuclear salts are held in solution, caused to react at nozzle
3391:
Regeneratively and film cooled combustion chamber and nozzle:
471:
require different combustion chamber sizes for this to occur.
8183:
7703:
7643:
7472:
7467:
7462:
7457:
7418:
7412:
7356:
7345:
7335:
7285:
7137:
7127:
7079:
7047:
7032:
7022:
6881:
6876:
6871:
6819:
6813:
6687:
6681:
6676:
6656:
6621:
6616:
6593:
6570:
6538:
6502:
6495:
6489:
6479:
6474:
6107:"Evolving to a Depot-Based Space Transportation Architecture"
5885:
5249:
5221:
4958:
4905:
4887:
4883:
4581:
3957:
3949:
3615:
3405:
3312:
have been tried, but were given up on due to various issues.
3231:
3227:
3177:
engine, used in a cluster of eight in the first stage of the
2948:. Once the need is identified, government agencies may issue
2837:
2788:
2769:
2741:
2527:
2431:
940:
334:
333:
Rocket engines produce thrust by the expulsion of an exhaust
194:
25:
6060:
NASA Computer program Chemical Equilibrium with Applications
5124:"ITS Propulsion – The evolution of the SpaceX Raptor engine"
5065:"SpaceX reveals ITS Mars game changer via colonization plan"
4632:
Extremely energetic, very high theoretical exhaust velocity
4018:
Requires a lot of power, hence typically yields low thrust.
3199:
engine, used in a cluster of five in the first stage of the
3109:
One of the most notable disasters occurred in 1960 when the
2787:
A high frequency oscillation in chamber pressure above 1000
921:
from the combustion gases, increasing the exhaust velocity.
7340:
7330:
7122:
6958:
6797:
6712:
6611:
6600:
6559:
6553:
6548:
6513:
6354:
Design Tool for Liquid Rocket Engine Thermodynamic Analysis
4644:
4473:
Very hot propellant, not limited by keeping reactor solid,
3948:
Exists only at the lab prototyping stage. Examples include
3599:
3591:
showing visible banding (shock diamonds) in the exhaust jet
3192:
2941:
2145:
1077:
346:
6339:
Rocket Engine performance analysis with Plume Spectrometry
6256:. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/ Doubleday. p.
6223:. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/ Doubleday. p.
5310:"Blue Origin Completes BE-3 Engine as BE-4 Work Continues"
4482:
between 1,500 and 3,000 seconds but with very high thrust
4043:
Very low thrust and high power, performance is similar to
3188:, had no catastrophic failures in 152 engine-flights. The
2740:
A low frequency oscillation in chamber pressure below 200
2690:
missile second stage engines. The other failure mode is a
7779:
7633:
7628:
7623:
7613:
6163:
4735:
which were the first rocket engines to leave the ground.
4226:
Simple design. Using hydrogen propellant, 900 seconds of
3923:
3323:
3035:
3002:
2732:
Three different types of combustion instabilities occur:
2698:
formed in the combustion chamber may destroy the engine.
2086:{\displaystyle F_{n}={\dot {m}}\,v_{evac}-A_{e}\,p_{amb}}
5856:
4820:
4506:
Fission products are directly exhausted to give thrust.
6168:(Revised paperback ed.). Oxford University Press.
5732:(1st ed.). Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 4.
3598:
Carbon-rich exhausts from kerosene-based fuels such as
377:
are capable of higher efficiencies, but currently have
5831:. Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne. 2005. Archived from
5726:
F. Culick; M. V. Heitor; J. H. Whitelaw, eds. (1996).
2657:
A famous example of a hard start was the explosion of
793:
323:
expands and accelerates the gas jet to produce thrust.
282:
expands and accelerates the gas jet to produce thrust.
6248:
Von Braun, Wernher; Ordway III, Frederick I. (1976).
6215:
Von Braun, Wernher; Ordway III, Frederick I. (1976).
6166:
Aulus Gellius: An Antonine Author and his Achievement
5959:
5937:
5095:"Elon Musk Shows Off Interplanetary Transport System"
4805:, though it was not published widely for some years.
4390:
Heat from radioactive decay is used to heat hydrogen
3475:, which typically have translation, vibrational, and
2875:
2106:
2007:
1975:
1942:
1877:
1799:
1768:
1703:
1636:
1583:
1538:
1505:
1472:
1427:
1390:
1355:
1204:
1156:
1123:
603:
574:
514:
480:
6104:
5662:
5433:"Rolls-Royce SNECMA Olympus - Jane's Transport News"
5408:"Factsheets : Pratt & Whitney J58 Turbojet"
5164:
Huzel, Dexter K.; Huang, David H. (1 January 1971).
4057:
Microwave heated plasma with magnetic throat/nozzle
3926:
can be dangerous. Much heavier than simple rockets.
3769:. A thrust schedule can be designed into the grain.
2230:
This high performance is due to the small volume of
2186:. Rocket nozzles give an excellent approximation to
6793:
6247:
6214:
5985:
Apollo spacecraft liquid primary propulsion systems
2578:. Although hydrogen/oxygen burning has the highest
8151:Engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS)
6249:
6216:
5629:Titian II: A History of a Cold War Missile Program
5575:"Introducing Propellant into a Combustion Chamber"
4829:During the late 1930s, German scientists, such as
4692:described in the first century BC, often known as
4647:; thermal issues. Theoretical only at this point.
3606:of the unburnt particles, in addition to the blue
3149:Rocket engines are usually statically tested at a
2893:
2121:
2085:
1988:
1955:
1924:
1855:
1783:
1735:
1685:
1622:
1557:
1518:
1485:
1452:
1403:
1370:
1329:
1169:
1139:
616:
587:
554:
493:
337:that has been accelerated to high speed through a
8184:Full Authority Digital Engine/Electronics (FADEC)
6359:Rocket & Space Technology - Rocket Propulsion
5892:(8th ed.). Wiley Interscience. p. 308.
4706:. It was created almost two millennia before the
4026:(chemical burning aided by electrical discharge)
2865:kinetic energy of the rocket (since useful power
2701:Combustion instability was also a problem during
2661:'s "1W" engine during a demonstration to General
2178:Rocket engine nozzles are surprisingly efficient
270:Pumps feed fuel and oxidiser under high pressure.
193:) are chemical rockets which use propellant in a
8448:
6009:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
4092:, can be pulsed on and off for attitude control
2861:deflects the sound energy away from the rocket.
2574:Of the liquid fuels used, density is lowest for
1856:{\displaystyle F_{vac}=C_{f}\,{\dot {m}}\,c^{*}}
965:Rocket technology can combine very high thrust (
392:, an available alternative to combustion is the
155:use an inert propellant, heated by electricity (
6100:
6098:
5626:
5159:
5157:
5155:
5153:
5151:
5149:
5147:
5145:
4976:Rocket propulsion technologies (disambiguation)
4271:if higher–molecular-mass propellants are used.
4179:would make use of solar power to directly heat
2933:) in 1941 and the first government laboratory (
1749:
8141:Electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM)
6344:Rocket Engine Thrust Chamber technical article
5881:
5879:
5690:
5198:
5196:
5194:
5192:
5047:
4908:engine first flew in 1962. Its successor, the
4393:About 700–800 seconds, almost no moving parts
4053:Variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket
3375:. A more efficient subtype of film cooling is
3353:Dump cooling: A cryogenic propellant, usually
1462:= effective jet velocity when Pamb = Pe
904:For aerodynamic reasons the flow goes sonic ("
8282:
7765:
6385:
5886:George P. Sutton & Oscar Biblarz (2010).
5658:
5656:
5654:
5652:
5650:
5648:
5250:George P. Sutton & Oscar Biblarz (2010).
5222:George P. Sutton & Oscar Biblarz (2010).
5117:
5115:
5088:
5086:
4590:Antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion
4015:than monopropellant alone, about 40% higher.
3635:(water vapour), plus some unburned hydrogen.
3565:Gaseous propellants generally will not cause
3363:: The fuel (and possibly, the oxidiser) of a
1528:= static pressure at nozzle exit plane
404:, or any other readily available, inert gas.
6280:
6105:Zegler, Frank; Bernard Kutter (2010-09-02).
6095:
5489:
5465:
5351:
5326:
5142:
4727:discovered black powder in a search for the
4653:
3847:Lower performance than liquid-based engines
3760:, reasonably good mass fraction, reasonable
3544:pressure vessel. This is sometimes called a
3210:
3203:, had no failures in 65 engine-flights. The
3168:
3013:of advanced technologies usually related to
2912:
555:{\displaystyle L^{*}={\frac {V_{c}}{A_{t}}}}
254:Simplified diagram of a liquid-fuel rocket:
221:or propellant is added to permit combustion.
6334:Designing for rocket engine life expectancy
6114:AIAA SPACE 2010 Conference & Exposition
5876:
5802:History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines
5295:History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines
5189:
4155:Low overall performance due to heavy tank;
4082:Plasma is used to erode a solid propellant
3844:Higher-performance than cold gas thrusters
2680:
1338:
1147:). This is either measured as a speed (the
296:Simplified diagram of a solid-fuel rocket:
8289:
8275:
8146:Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)
7772:
7758:
6392:
6378:
6065:
5684:
5645:
5301:
5163:
5112:
5092:
5083:
5056:
3972:Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion
3657:
2995:
1596:
1567:= ambient (or atmospheric) pressure
1256:
1230:
5818:
5604:"What's the Deal with Rocket Vibrations?"
5121:
4629:Antimatter annihilation heats propellant
4618:Largely beyond current state of the art.
2216:
2066:
2033:
1921:
1910:
1842:
1829:
1682:
1619:
245:
6349:Net Thrust of a Rocket Engine calculator
6188:
5288:
5286:
5284:
5282:
5280:
5278:
5276:
5274:
5202:
4598:Smaller sized vehicle might be possible
4223:Propellant is heated by solar collector
3583:
3333:In rockets the coolant methods include:
2168:
858:
848:
728:
695:
624:is the area of the throat of the nozzle.
291:
249:
229:use a single propellant decomposed by a
69:of fluid, usually high-temperature gas.
34:
20:
5960:McCutcheon, Kimble D. (3 August 2022).
5938:McCutcheon, Kimble D. (3 August 2022).
4817:place a one-pound payload on the Moon.
4763:Rocket engines were also put in use by
4664:According to the writings of the Roman
4105:High voltages at ground and plus sides
3965:
3379:, in which propellant passes through a
3346:: The engine is made of one or several
1925:{\displaystyle v_{evac}=C_{f}\,c^{*}\,}
1623:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}\;v_{e-opt}\,}
313:Central hole in propellant acts as the
8449:
6071:
5799:
5620:
5292:
5122:Belluscio, Alejandro G. (2016-10-03).
5062:
5009:
4878:began work on the closed cycle engine
4243:—an inevitable byproduct of long-term
3602:are often orange in colour due to the
2205:goes to 0% at zero speed (as with all
1686:{\displaystyle A_{e}(p_{e}-p_{amb})\,}
960:
233:. The most common monopropellants are
176:chemical reactions of the propellant:
8270:
7753:
6373:
5795:
5793:
5791:
5789:
5787:
5777:R.C. Potter and M.J. Crocker (1966).
5771:
5383:"Aircraft: Lockheed SR-71A Blackbird"
5307:
5271:
5097:. Spaceflight Insider. Archived from
4821:The era of liquid-fuel rocket engines
4525:No moving parts, works in deep space
4385:Radioisotope rocket/"Poodle thruster"
4079:(electric arc heating; emits plasma)
4067:from 1,000 seconds to 10,000 seconds
3863:Lower performance than bipropellants
3720:
3662:
3464:require a high energy per unit mass (
3445:Liquid-fuelled engines are often run
3442:in the channels as high as possible.
2925:Since the establishment of the first
2692:deflagration to detonation transition
2677:-like resonances and gas turbulence.
2385:rocket engine, three-propellant mode
755:(exit pressure greater than ambient),
737:The most commonly used nozzle is the
458:
6423:Comparison of orbital rocket engines
5850:
5693:The Theory of Sound – Volume 2
5669:(4th ed.). Wiley Interscience.
5663:G.P. Sutton & D.M. Ross (1975).
5556:
5256:(8th ed.). Wiley Interscience.
5228:(8th ed.). Wiley Interscience.
4988:
4937:Comparison of orbital rocket engines
4580:Never been tested, pusher plate may
2828:exhaust mixes with the ambient air,
2586:
2158:
65:for forming a high-speed propulsive
6048:Tool for Rocket Propulsion Analysis
5041:
4890:engines for the unsuccessful Lunar
4731:; this accidental discovery led to
3330:above for temperatures in nozzle).
3133:(unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine).
2553:rocket engine, full-thrust version
979:
924:
794:Back pressure and optimal expansion
781:forms inside the nozzle extension).
13:
8427:Timeline of heat engine technology
6164:Leofranc Holford-Strevens (2005).
6141:
5860:& various (January 17, 2012).
5784:
5601:
4801:. He was the first to develop the
4788:
4741:Liber Ignium ad Comburendos Hostes
4612:Fusion is used to heat propellant
4362:
3589:Armadillo Aerospace's quad vehicle
3217:Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster
2668:
939:The entire engine is mounted on a
767:(exit pressure less than ambient;
105:. Rocket vehicles carry their own
14:
8473:
6327:
5914:"Raketenmotor der A4 (V2)-Rakete"
5479:Chemical Automatics Design Bureau
5365:Chemical Automatics Design Bureau
4953:Model rocket motor classification
4812:. Goddard was the first to use a
4562:(exploding fission/fusion bombs)
4277:
205:use one or more propellants in a
8296:
8014:Thrust specific fuel consumption
7434:
5631:. University of Arkansas Press.
5495:
5332:
5093:Richardson, Derek (2016-09-27).
4668:, the earliest known example of
4528:Theoretical only at this point.
4511:Theoretical only at this point.
4170:
3705:A non-combusting form, used for
3417:Service propulsion system engine
3221:one notable catastrophic failure
2917:
2813:
310:initiates propellant combustion.
276:mixes and burns the propellants.
6303:
6274:
6241:
6208:
6182:
6157:
6135:
6053:
6041:
6029:
6017:
5975:
5953:
5931:
5906:
5746:
5718:
5701:
5595:
5567:
5545:
5525:
5514:
5460:Military Jet Engine Acquisition
5453:
5425:
5400:
5375:
4592:(fission and/or fusion energy)
4335:propellant offers the highest I
4111:Low thrust, needs high voltage
3860:Simplicity and ease of control
3815:is perhaps 1/3 of best liquids
3234:engine failure occurred during
2165:Rocket § Energy efficiency
876:, or even using nuclear energy)
761:(exit pressure equals ambient),
396:pressurized by compressed air,
304:(propellant) packed into casing
8063:Propeller speed reduction unit
5552:Encyclopedia Astronautica: F-1
5243:
5215:
4756:into self-propelled rocketry.
4440:methods that use some form of
4251:environment of space—for both
3579:
3100:Science and Technology Studies
2869:transmitted to the vehicle is
2628:
2330:Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593
1679:
1647:
1380:= exhaust gas mass flow
1324:
1292:
474:This leads to a number called
142:
81:. Most rocket engines use the
1:
7219:RD-0202 to 0206, 0208 to 0213
5209:Rocket & Space Technology
5034:
4799:liquid-fuelled rocket engines
4316:Microwave-beam-powered rocket
3938:(combined cycle with rocket)
3552:rapid unscheduled disassembly
3426:storable propellant thrusters
2782:
2752:" or "pogo", named after the
2095:
1736:{\displaystyle p_{e}=p_{amb}}
1185:
993:in vacuum of various rockets
790:all altitudes (see diagram).
407:
5203:Braeunig, Robert A. (2008).
5063:Bergin, Chris (2016-09-27).
4122:
3456:
3093:
771:form outside the nozzle), or
654:or, in simpler engines, via
595:is the volume of the chamber
433:
7:
7974:Engine pressure ratio (EPR)
6144:"Microwave Thermal Rockets"
5826:"Space Shuttle Main Engine"
4930:
4803:Tsiolkovsky rocket equation
4615:Very high exhaust velocity
4436:includes a wide variety of
4387:(radioactive decay energy)
3853:Dual mode propulsion rocket
3529:
3413:Lunar module descent engine
3327:
2735:
2567:
2564:
2561:
2558:
2555:
2544:
2541:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2521:
2518:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2494:
2491:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2471:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2448:
2445:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2422:
2419:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2399:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2387:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2345:
2342:
2323:
2320:
2317:
2314:
2311:
2296:
2293:
2290:
2287:
2284:
1532:
1499:
1466:
1421:
1384:
1349:
1341:
10:
8478:
8241:Auxiliary power unit (APU)
7870:Rotating detonation engine
6072:Svitak, Amy (2012-11-26).
5889:Rocket Propulsion Elements
5754:"Sound Suppression System"
5308:Foust, Jeff (2015-04-07).
5293:Sutton, George P. (2005).
5253:Rocket Propulsion Elements
5225:Rocket Propulsion Elements
4942:Rotating detonation engine
4657:
4428:
4117:
3969:
3724:
3714:Extremely low performance
3711:Non-contaminating exhaust
3533:
3253:
3144:
2817:
2763:
2220:
2162:
2122:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}
1784:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}
1750:Vacuum specific impulse, I
1566:
1527:
1494:
1461:
1412:
1379:
1371:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}
1189:
1149:effective exhaust velocity
1098:
928:
898:effective exhaust velocity
852:
689:
680:reaction-control thrusters
635:are extreme compared to a
8435:
8422:
8404:
8304:
8228:
8202:
8169:
8126:
8071:
8050:
8041:
7941:
7878:
7808:
7794:
7729:
7443:
7432:
7372:
7062:
6784:
6632:
6451:
6442:
6431:
6418:
5862:"An SSME-related request"
5715:, vol. 18, pages 319–321.
5502:Encyclopedia Astronautica
5339:Encyclopedia Astronautica
4698:, consisted of a pair of
4672:was in c. 400 BC, when a
4654:History of rocket engines
4536:(nuclear fission energy)
4534:Nuclear salt-water rocket
4519:(nuclear fission energy)
4503:(nuclear fission energy)
4467:(nuclear fission energy)
4404:(nuclear fission energy)
4396:Low thrust/weight ratio.
4300:Light-beam-powered rocket
4095:Low energetic efficiency
3519:output. Fuels for car or
3300:alloys, such as alumina,
3211:Space Shuttle (1981–2011)
3169:Saturn family (1961–1975)
3156:
3059:due to high military and
2913:Rocket engine development
2255:
2252:
2249:
2240:
1453:{\displaystyle v_{e-opt}}
685:
202:Liquid-propellant rockets
157:electrothermal propulsion
7949:Aircraft engine starting
6024:Newsgroup correspondence
5627:David K. Stumpf (2000).
5473:
5359:
4981:
4870:) was first proposed by
4609:(nuclear fusion energy)
4560:Nuclear pulse propulsion
3779:Hybrid-propellant rocket
3727:Liquid rocket propellant
3628:solid-propellant rockets
3219:, used in pairs, caused
2927:liquid-propellant rocket
2846:Sound Suppression System
2842:mobile launcher platform
2681:Combustion instabilities
2361:Pratt & Whitney F119
2211:Rocket energy efficiency
656:sufficient tank pressure
187:solid-propellant rockets
159:) or a nuclear reactor (
128:). The ideal exhaust is
7830:Pulse detonation engine
7264:RD-250 to 252, 261, 262
6201:Encyclopædia Britannica
5800:Sutton, George (2006).
5691:John W. Strutt (1896).
5563:Astronautix NK-33 entry
5048:Hermann Oberth (1970).
4501:Fission-fragment rocket
4465:Gas core reactor rocket
3749:Solid-propellant rocket
3658:Types of rocket engines
3290:carbon–carbon materials
3223:in 270 engine-flights.
3024:, aircraft components,
2996:Institutions and actors
2974:
1965:characteristic velocity
1558:{\displaystyle p_{amb}}
664:autogenously pressurize
640:airbreathing jet engine
375:Nuclear thermal rockets
91:nuclear thermal rockets
40:Viking 5C rocket engine
28:being tested at NASA's
8457:Aerospace technologies
8019:Thrust to weight ratio
7989:Overall pressure ratio
7984:Jet engine performance
7908:Centrifugal compressor
7825:Gluhareff Pressure Jet
6252:The Rockets' Red Glare
6219:The Rockets' Red Glare
6116:. AIAA. Archived from
5756:. NASA. Archived from
5170:. NASA. Archived from
4795:Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
4626:(annihilation energy)
4402:Nuclear thermal rocket
4253:orbital stationkeeping
4077:Pulsed plasma thruster
3592:
3123:hypergolic propellants
3061:spaceflight priorities
2950:requests for proposals
2895:
2282:nuclear rocket engine
2223:thrust-to-weight ratio
2217:Thrust-to-weight ratio
2175:
2123:
2087:
1990:
1957:
1926:
1857:
1785:
1737:
1687:
1624:
1559:
1520:
1487:
1454:
1405:
1372:
1331:
1171:
1141:
1140:{\displaystyle I_{sp}}
864:
734:
701:
672:hypergolic propellants
618:
589:
556:
495:
439:Liquid-fuelled rockets
379:environmental problems
330:
289:
246:Principle of operation
226:Monopropellant rockets
161:nuclear thermal rocket
50:
32:
8369:Steam (reciprocating)
8256:Ice protection system
8024:Variable cycle engine
7994:Propulsive efficiency
7740:are under development
7128:YF-20, 21, 22, 24, 25
6907:RD-107, 108, 117, 118
6285:. Pen and Sword Ltd.
6281:Lutz Warsitz (2009).
5864:. NASASpaceflight.com
5608:MIT Technology Review
5050:"Ways to spaceflight"
4826:and curtain cooling.
4708:Industrial Revolution
4702:nozzles mounted on a
4101:Ion propulsion system
3796:Monopropellant rocket
3692:Very simple to build
3587:
3534:Further information:
3400:Rocketdyne F-1 Engine
3377:transpiration cooling
3030:space launch vehicles
3007:research, development
2986:space launch vehicles
2946:Department of Defense
2931:Reaction Motors, Inc.
2896:
2894:{\displaystyle P=F*V}
2611:– rocket engines are
2172:
2163:Further information:
2124:
2088:
1991:
1989:{\displaystyle C_{f}}
1958:
1956:{\displaystyle c^{*}}
1927:
1858:
1786:
1738:
1688:
1625:
1560:
1521:
1519:{\displaystyle p_{e}}
1488:
1486:{\displaystyle A_{e}}
1455:
1406:
1404:{\displaystyle v_{e}}
1373:
1332:
1172:
1170:{\displaystyle v_{e}}
1142:
862:
849:Propellant efficiency
837:designs, such as the
835:altitude-compensating
775:grossly over-expanded
732:
699:
619:
617:{\displaystyle A_{t}}
590:
588:{\displaystyle V_{c}}
557:
503:characteristic length
496:
494:{\displaystyle L^{*}}
353:components, within a
326:Exhaust exits nozzle.
302:fuel–oxidiser mixture
295:
285:Exhaust exits nozzle.
253:
38:
24:
8156:Flight data recorder
7918:Constant speed drive
7898:Afterburner (reheat)
5371:on 30 November 2010.
5205:"Rocket Propellants"
4851:Messerschmitt Me 163
4713:The availability of
4219:Solar thermal rocket
4177:solar thermal rocket
4152:Simple, fairly safe
3966:Electrically powered
3932:Precooled jet engine
3895:Air-augmented rocket
3869:Tripropellant rocket
3650:of the exhaust gas.
3604:black-body radiation
3496:, not a product. An
3373:regenerative cooling
3365:liquid rocket engine
3361:Regenerative cooling
3279:Regenerative cooling
2873:
2104:
2005:
1973:
1963: = the
1940:
1875:
1797:
1766:
1701:
1634:
1581:
1536:
1503:
1470:
1425:
1388:
1353:
1202:
1154:
1121:
692:Rocket engine nozzle
601:
572:
512:
478:
30:Stennis Space Center
8438:Thermodynamic cycle
8349:Pistonless (Rotary)
8339:Photo-Carnot engine
7229:RD-0216, 0217, 0235
6892:RD-0107, 0108, 0110
5838:on February 8, 2012
5729:Unsteady Combustion
5129:NASASpaceFlight.com
5070:NASASpaceFlight.com
4582:throw off fragments
4551:, very high thrust
4108:Powered by battery
3996:(electric heating)
3821:Bipropellant rocket
3129:with additives and
3119:minister of defence
2836:generated over 200
2188:adiabatic expansion
994:
961:Overall performance
174:reduction-oxidation
97:(they normally use
8058:Propeller governor
5602:Sauser, Brittany.
5268:See Equation 3-33.
5240:See Equation 2-14.
4970:Project Prometheus
4912:, was used in the
4797:first wrote about
4660:History of rockets
4434:Nuclear propulsion
4164:under 200 seconds
3721:Chemically powered
3663:Physically powered
3626:ranges. Jets from
3593:
3462:Rocket propellants
2982:ballistic missiles
2891:
2844:was fitted with a
2820:acoustic signature
2213:for more details.
2176:
2119:
2083:
1986:
1953:
1922:
1865:and so define the
1853:
1781:
1733:
1683:
1620:
1555:
1516:
1483:
1450:
1401:
1368:
1327:
1167:
1137:
984:
888:Newton's third law
865:
759:perfectly expanded
735:
702:
633:thermal efficiency
614:
585:
552:
491:
469:rocket propellants
459:Combustion chamber
371:thermal efficiency
355:combustion chamber
331:
315:combustion chamber
290:
274:Combustion chamber
182:Solid-fuel rockets
119:ballistic missiles
95:ballistic missiles
87:cold gas thrusters
79:Newton's third law
59:rocket propellants
51:
33:
8444:
8443:
8264:
8263:
8136:Annunciator panel
8122:
8121:
8037:
8036:
7928:Propelling nozzle
7747:
7746:
7689:Space Shuttle SRB
7430:
7429:
7368:
7367:
7058:
7057:
6780:
6779:
6319:. 19 August 2016.
6292:978-1-84415-818-8
6267:978-0-385-07847-4
6234:978-0-385-07847-4
5811:978-1-56347-649-5
4876:Nikolai Kuznetsov
4864:Staged combustion
4831:Wernher von Braun
4745:The Book of Fires
4651:
4650:
4624:Antimatter rocket
4426:
4425:
4360:
4359:
4275:
4274:
4168:
4167:
4115:
4114:
3994:Resistojet rocket
3963:
3962:
3756:Simple, often no
3718:
3717:
3707:vernier thrusters
3701:Cold gas thruster
3633:superheated steam
3344:Radiative cooling
3190:Pratt and Whitney
3015:military hardware
2800:Helmholtz dampers
2750:pogo oscillations
2694:; the supersonic
2663:Walter Dornberger
2659:Wernher von Braun
2623:internal stresses
2587:Mechanical issues
2572:
2571:
2203:energy efficiency
2184:compression ratio
2159:Energy efficiency
2116:
2030:
1839:
1778:
1593:
1571:
1570:
1417:in publications)
1365:
1253:
1227:
1117:(usually written
1113:, this is called
1097:
1096:
550:
339:propelling nozzle
239:hydrogen peroxide
8469:
8291:
8284:
8277:
8268:
8267:
8251:Hydraulic system
8246:Bleed air system
8236:Air-start system
8099:Counter-rotating
8048:
8047:
8029:Windmill restart
7999:Specific impulse
7969:Compressor stall
7903:Axial compressor
7806:
7805:
7774:
7767:
7760:
7751:
7750:
7438:
7437:
7274:RD-263, 268, 273
7205:along other LREs
7067:
7066:
6927:RD-191, 151, 181
6791:
6790:
6449:
6448:
6440:
6439:
6394:
6387:
6380:
6371:
6370:
6321:
6320:
6307:
6301:
6299:English edition.
6296:
6278:
6272:
6271:
6255:
6245:
6239:
6238:
6222:
6212:
6206:
6205:
6197:
6195:"Archytas"
6186:
6180:
6179:
6161:
6155:
6154:
6152:
6150:
6139:
6133:
6131:
6129:
6128:
6122:
6111:
6102:
6093:
6092:
6090:
6089:
6080:. Archived from
6069:
6063:
6057:
6051:
6045:
6039:
6033:
6027:
6021:
6015:
6014:
6008:
6000:
5998:
5996:
5990:
5979:
5973:
5972:
5970:
5968:
5957:
5951:
5950:
5948:
5946:
5935:
5929:
5928:
5923:
5921:
5910:
5904:
5903:
5883:
5874:
5873:
5871:
5869:
5854:
5848:
5847:
5845:
5843:
5837:
5830:
5822:
5816:
5815:
5797:
5782:
5775:
5769:
5768:
5766:
5765:
5750:
5744:
5743:
5722:
5716:
5705:
5699:
5696:
5688:
5682:
5680:
5660:
5643:
5642:
5624:
5618:
5617:
5615:
5614:
5599:
5593:
5592:
5590:
5588:
5579:
5571:
5565:
5560:
5554:
5549:
5543:
5542:
5540:
5539:
5529:
5523:
5518:
5512:
5511:
5509:
5508:
5493:
5487:
5486:
5485:on 26 July 2011.
5481:. Archived from
5469:
5463:
5457:
5451:
5450:
5445:
5444:
5435:. Archived from
5429:
5423:
5422:
5420:
5419:
5404:
5398:
5397:
5395:
5394:
5385:. Archived from
5379:
5373:
5372:
5367:. Archived from
5355:
5349:
5348:
5346:
5345:
5330:
5324:
5323:
5321:
5320:
5305:
5299:
5298:
5290:
5269:
5267:
5247:
5241:
5239:
5219:
5213:
5212:
5200:
5187:
5186:
5184:
5182:
5177:on 24 March 2017
5176:
5161:
5140:
5139:
5137:
5136:
5119:
5110:
5109:
5107:
5106:
5090:
5081:
5080:
5078:
5077:
5060:
5054:
5053:
5045:
5028:
5013:
5007:
4992:
4955:lettered engines
4784:
4783:
4779:
4776:
4743:(abbreviated as
4447:
4446:
4442:nuclear reaction
4367:
4366:
4354:
4282:
4281:
4257:attitude control
4237:productively use
4201:
4200:
4145:Hot water rocket
4127:
4126:
3976:
3975:
3731:
3730:
3667:
3666:
3644:schlieren effect
3521:turbojet engines
3477:rotational modes
3318:In rockets, the
3239:
3125:, consisting of
2929:engine company (
2900:
2898:
2897:
2892:
2832:are formed. The
2808:impulse response
2777:material fatigue
2613:pressure vessels
2602:
2598:
2594:
2580:specific impulse
2238:
2237:
2232:pressure vessels
2128:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2118:
2117:
2109:
2092:
2090:
2089:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2065:
2064:
2052:
2051:
2032:
2031:
2023:
2017:
2016:
1995:
1993:
1992:
1987:
1985:
1984:
1962:
1960:
1959:
1954:
1952:
1951:
1931:
1929:
1928:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1909:
1908:
1896:
1895:
1862:
1860:
1859:
1854:
1852:
1851:
1841:
1840:
1832:
1828:
1827:
1815:
1814:
1790:
1788:
1787:
1782:
1780:
1779:
1771:
1742:
1740:
1739:
1734:
1732:
1731:
1713:
1712:
1692:
1690:
1689:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1659:
1658:
1646:
1645:
1629:
1627:
1626:
1621:
1618:
1617:
1595:
1594:
1586:
1564:
1562:
1561:
1556:
1554:
1553:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1517:
1515:
1514:
1492:
1490:
1489:
1484:
1482:
1481:
1459:
1457:
1456:
1451:
1449:
1448:
1410:
1408:
1407:
1402:
1400:
1399:
1377:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1367:
1366:
1358:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1322:
1304:
1303:
1291:
1290:
1278:
1277:
1255:
1254:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1229:
1228:
1220:
1214:
1213:
1176:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1166:
1165:
1146:
1144:
1143:
1138:
1136:
1135:
1115:specific impulse
1101:Specific impulse
995:
983:
980:Specific impulse
931:Thrust vectoring
925:Thrust vectoring
893:exhaust velocity
855:Specific impulse
813:expanding nozzle
637:non-afterburning
623:
621:
620:
615:
613:
612:
594:
592:
591:
586:
584:
583:
561:
559:
558:
553:
551:
549:
548:
539:
538:
529:
524:
523:
500:
498:
497:
492:
490:
489:
367:Carnot's theorem
345:, consisting of
167:Chemical rockets
126:specific impulse
75:reaction engines
8477:
8476:
8472:
8471:
8470:
8468:
8467:
8466:
8447:
8446:
8445:
8440:
8431:
8418:
8400:
8300:
8295:
8265:
8260:
8224:
8207:
8198:
8194:Thrust reversal
8171:Engine controls
8165:
8128:
8118:
8094:Contra-rotating
8067:
8033:
7937:
7888:Accessory drive
7880:
7874:
7816:Air turborocket
7798:
7790:
7778:
7748:
7743:
7725:
7446:
7439:
7435:
7426:
7364:
7254:RD-0255 to 0257
7249:RD-0243 to 0245
7111:
7100:
7096:
7090:
7078:
7054:
6795:
6786:
6776:
6640:
6634:
6628:
6459:
6453:
6434:
6427:
6414:
6412:launch vehicles
6398:
6330:
6325:
6324:
6309:
6308:
6304:
6293:
6279:
6275:
6268:
6246:
6242:
6235:
6213:
6209:
6187:
6183:
6176:
6162:
6158:
6148:
6146:
6142:Parkin, Kevin.
6140:
6136:
6126:
6124:
6120:
6109:
6103:
6096:
6087:
6085:
6074:"Falcon 9 RUD?"
6070:
6066:
6058:
6054:
6046:
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5912:
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5907:
5900:
5884:
5877:
5867:
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5855:
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5841:
5839:
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5828:
5824:
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5798:
5785:
5776:
5772:
5763:
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5752:
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5747:
5740:
5723:
5719:
5706:
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5689:
5685:
5677:
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5625:
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5596:
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5406:
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5376:
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5331:
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5306:
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5264:
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5091:
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5057:
5046:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5031:
5014:
5010:
4993:
4989:
4984:
4933:
4868:Замкнутая схема
4835:Hellmuth Walter
4823:
4814:De Laval nozzle
4791:
4789:Modern rocketry
4781:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4662:
4656:
4575:
4549:
4493:
4480:
4431:
4416:
4365:
4363:Nuclear thermal
4352:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4329:
4280:
4269:
4247:storage in the
4245:liquid hydrogen
4233:
4197:
4173:
4162:
4125:
4120:
4091:
4066:
4039:
4013:
3974:
3968:
3884:
3813:
3767:
3729:
3723:
3665:
3660:
3582:
3538:
3532:
3498:oxidizing agent
3491:
3466:specific energy
3459:
3256:
3235:
3213:
3186:launch vehicles
3171:
3159:
3147:
3096:
3048:quality control
2998:
2977:
2920:
2915:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2854:sound intensity
2822:
2816:
2785:
2766:
2738:
2708:Project Mercury
2683:
2671:
2669:Acoustic issues
2631:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2589:
2576:liquid hydrogen
2332:
2307:SR-71 Blackbird
2258:
2225:
2219:
2167:
2161:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2098:
2093:
2071:
2067:
2060:
2056:
2038:
2034:
2022:
2021:
2012:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2002:
1997:
1980:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1947:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1915:
1911:
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1128:
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1122:
1119:
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1103:
1079:
1058:
1041:
1030:
1017:
1009:
991:
982:
963:
933:
927:
857:
851:
828:de Laval nozzle
809:stepped nozzles
796:
746:static pressure
739:de Laval nozzle
713:expansion ratio
694:
688:
668:SpaceX Starship
608:
604:
602:
599:
598:
579:
575:
573:
570:
569:
544:
540:
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530:
528:
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510:
509:
485:
481:
479:
476:
475:
461:
436:
410:
329:
288:
265:Liquid oxidiser
248:
209:fed from tanks.
169:are powered by
152:Thermal rockets
145:
17:
12:
11:
5:
8475:
8465:
8464:
8462:Rocket engines
8459:
8442:
8441:
8436:
8433:
8432:
8430:
8429:
8423:
8420:
8419:
8417:
8416:
8411:
8405:
8402:
8401:
8399:
8398:
8393:
8391:Thermoacoustic
8388:
8383:
8382:
8381:
8371:
8366:
8361:
8356:
8351:
8346:
8341:
8336:
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8153:
8148:
8143:
8138:
8132:
8130:
8124:
8123:
8120:
8119:
8117:
8116:
8114:Variable-pitch
8111:
8106:
8101:
8096:
8091:
8089:Constant-speed
8086:
8081:
8075:
8073:
8069:
8068:
8066:
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7862:
7857:
7852:
7847:
7842:
7837:
7832:
7827:
7818:
7812:
7810:
7803:
7801:jet propulsion
7792:
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7754:
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7114:
7109:
7098:
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7059:
7056:
7055:
7053:
7052:
7051:
7050:
7045:
7040:
7035:
7030:
7025:
7020:
7015:
7013:LR70-NA , S-3D
7010:
7005:
7000:
6995:
6990:
6985:
6977:
6976:
6975:
6968:
6961:
6953:
6952:
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6909:
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6889:
6884:
6879:
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6864:
6854:
6853:
6852:
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6807:
6805:
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6755:
6754:
6753:
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6727:
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6707:
6706:
6705:
6698:
6691:
6684:
6679:
6674:
6667:
6660:
6649:
6647:
6638:
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6609:
6604:
6597:
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6528:
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6526:
6521:
6516:
6508:
6507:
6506:
6499:
6492:
6487:
6482:
6477:
6468:
6466:
6457:
6446:
6437:
6429:
6428:
6426:
6425:
6419:
6416:
6415:
6401:Rocket engines
6397:
6396:
6389:
6382:
6374:
6368:
6367:
6361:
6356:
6351:
6346:
6341:
6336:
6329:
6328:External links
6326:
6323:
6322:
6302:
6291:
6273:
6266:
6240:
6233:
6207:
6192:, ed. (1911).
6190:Chisholm, Hugh
6181:
6174:
6156:
6134:
6094:
6064:
6052:
6040:
6028:
6016:
5974:
5952:
5930:
5905:
5898:
5875:
5849:
5817:
5810:
5783:
5770:
5745:
5738:
5717:
5700:
5683:
5675:
5644:
5637:
5619:
5594:
5566:
5555:
5544:
5524:
5513:
5488:
5464:
5452:
5424:
5399:
5374:
5350:
5325:
5300:
5270:
5262:
5242:
5234:
5214:
5188:
5141:
5111:
5082:
5055:
5039:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5030:
5029:
5008:
4986:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4979:
4978:
4973:
4967:
4962:
4956:
4950:
4944:
4939:
4932:
4929:
4914:Apollo program
4910:Rocketdyne J-2
4899:Ludwig Boelkow
4839:Heinkel He 112
4822:
4819:
4810:Robert Goddard
4790:
4787:
4767:, the king of
4729:elixir of life
4670:jet propulsion
4658:Main article:
4655:
4652:
4649:
4648:
4633:
4630:
4627:
4620:
4619:
4616:
4613:
4610:
4603:
4602:
4599:
4596:
4593:
4586:
4585:
4578:
4573:
4566:
4563:
4556:
4555:
4552:
4547:
4540:
4537:
4530:
4529:
4526:
4523:
4520:
4513:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4497:
4496:
4491:
4483:
4478:
4471:
4468:
4461:
4460:
4459:Disadvantages
4457:
4454:
4451:
4430:
4427:
4424:
4423:
4419:
4414:
4408:
4405:
4398:
4397:
4394:
4391:
4388:
4381:
4380:
4379:Disadvantages
4377:
4374:
4371:
4364:
4361:
4358:
4357:
4349:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4327:
4321:
4318:
4312:
4311:
4308:
4305:
4302:
4296:
4295:
4294:Disadvantages
4292:
4289:
4286:
4279:
4278:Beamed thermal
4276:
4273:
4272:
4267:
4260:
4249:radiative heat
4239:waste gaseous
4231:
4224:
4221:
4215:
4214:
4213:Disadvantages
4211:
4208:
4205:
4195:
4172:
4169:
4166:
4165:
4160:
4153:
4150:
4147:
4141:
4140:
4139:Disadvantages
4137:
4134:
4131:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4113:
4112:
4109:
4106:
4103:
4097:
4096:
4093:
4089:
4083:
4080:
4073:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4058:
4055:
4049:
4048:
4041:
4037:
4032:1,600 seconds
4030:
4027:
4020:
4019:
4016:
4011:
4004:
3997:
3990:
3989:
3988:Disadvantages
3986:
3983:
3980:
3970:Main article:
3967:
3964:
3961:
3960:
3946:
3942:
3939:
3928:
3927:
3920:
3917:
3914:
3908:
3907:
3903:
3900:
3897:
3891:
3890:
3887:
3882:
3875:
3871:
3865:
3864:
3861:
3858:
3855:
3849:
3848:
3845:
3842:
3839:
3837:Gas-gas rocket
3833:
3832:
3829:
3826:
3823:
3817:
3816:
3811:
3804:
3801:
3798:
3792:
3791:
3787:
3784:
3781:
3775:
3774:
3770:
3765:
3754:
3751:
3745:
3744:
3743:Disadvantages
3741:
3738:
3735:
3722:
3719:
3716:
3715:
3712:
3709:
3703:
3697:
3696:
3693:
3690:
3687:
3681:
3680:
3679:Disadvantages
3677:
3674:
3671:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3646:caused by the
3640:shock diamonds
3581:
3578:
3531:
3528:
3494:reducing agent
3489:
3485:chemical bonds
3458:
3455:
3432:boundary layer
3428:
3427:
3420:
3409:
3402:
3396:
3385:
3384:
3368:
3358:
3351:
3341:
3283:boundary layer
3255:
3252:
3212:
3209:
3205:Rocketdyne J-2
3197:Rocketdyne F-1
3175:Rocketdyne H-1
3170:
3167:
3158:
3155:
3146:
3143:
3095:
3092:
3044:static firings
3036:Design Bureaus
3003:design bureaus
2997:
2994:
2976:
2973:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2890:
2887:
2884:
2881:
2878:
2818:Main article:
2815:
2812:
2784:
2781:
2765:
2762:
2737:
2734:
2682:
2679:
2670:
2667:
2641:Rocket fuels,
2630:
2627:
2599:MPa, 150–3,000
2588:
2585:
2570:
2569:
2566:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2554:
2547:
2546:
2543:
2540:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2530:rocket engine
2524:
2523:
2520:
2517:
2514:
2511:
2508:
2497:
2496:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2480:rocket engine
2474:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2458:
2457:rocket engine
2451:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2434:rocket engine
2425:
2424:
2421:
2418:
2415:
2412:
2409:
2408:rocket engine
2402:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2386:
2379:
2378:
2375:
2372:
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2366:
2363:
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2319:
2316:
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2310:
2299:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2276:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2262:
2261:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2221:Main article:
2218:
2215:
2207:jet propulsion
2160:
2157:
2115:
2112:
2097:
2094:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2041:
2037:
2029:
2026:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2001:
1983:
1979:
1969:
1950:
1946:
1936:
1918:
1914:
1907:
1903:
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1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1431:
1419:
1418:
1411:
1398:
1394:
1382:
1381:
1378:
1364:
1361:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1326:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1276:
1273:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1260:
1252:
1249:
1243:
1238:
1234:
1226:
1223:
1217:
1212:
1208:
1198:
1190:Main article:
1187:
1184:
1164:
1160:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1099:Main article:
1095:
1094:
1091:
1082:
1074:
1073:
1070:
1061:
1053:
1052:
1049:
1044:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1028:
1020:
1018:liquid engines
1012:
1011:
1007:
1002:
999:
989:
981:
978:
971:simultaneously
962:
959:
958:
957:
954:
951:
948:
929:Main article:
926:
923:
910:speed of sound
884:
883:
880:
877:
850:
847:
795:
792:
783:
782:
772:
769:shock diamonds
762:
756:
753:under-expanded
717:speed of sound
690:Main article:
687:
684:
644:stoichiometric
626:
625:
611:
607:
596:
582:
578:
563:
562:
547:
543:
537:
533:
527:
522:
518:
488:
484:
460:
457:
435:
432:
409:
406:
398:carbon dioxide
390:model rocketry
383:cislunar space
365:(specifically
363:thermodynamics
328:
327:
324:
321:Exhaust nozzle
318:
311:
305:
297:
287:
286:
283:
280:Exhaust nozzle
277:
271:
268:
262:
255:
247:
244:
243:
242:
222:
214:Hybrid rockets
210:
198:
144:
141:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8474:
8463:
8460:
8458:
8455:
8454:
8452:
8439:
8434:
8428:
8425:
8424:
8421:
8415:
8412:
8410:
8407:
8406:
8403:
8397:
8396:Manson engine
8394:
8392:
8389:
8387:
8384:
8380:
8377:
8376:
8375:
8374:Steam turbine
8372:
8370:
8367:
8365:
8362:
8360:
8357:
8355:
8352:
8350:
8347:
8345:
8342:
8340:
8337:
8335:
8332:
8330:
8327:
8325:
8322:
8320:
8317:
8315:
8312:
8310:
8309:Carnot engine
8307:
8306:
8303:
8299:
8292:
8287:
8285:
8280:
8278:
8273:
8272:
8269:
8257:
8254:
8252:
8249:
8247:
8244:
8242:
8239:
8237:
8234:
8233:
8231:
8229:Other systems
8227:
8221:
8218:
8216:
8213:
8212:
8210:
8206:and induction
8205:
8201:
8195:
8192:
8190:
8187:
8185:
8182:
8180:
8177:
8176:
8174:
8172:
8168:
8162:
8161:Glass cockpit
8159:
8157:
8154:
8152:
8149:
8147:
8144:
8142:
8139:
8137:
8134:
8133:
8131:
8125:
8115:
8112:
8110:
8107:
8105:
8102:
8100:
8097:
8095:
8092:
8090:
8087:
8085:
8082:
8080:
8077:
8076:
8074:
8070:
8064:
8061:
8059:
8056:
8055:
8053:
8049:
8046:
8044:
8040:
8030:
8027:
8025:
8022:
8020:
8017:
8015:
8012:
8010:
8007:
8005:
8002:
8000:
7997:
7995:
7992:
7990:
7987:
7985:
7982:
7980:
7977:
7975:
7972:
7970:
7967:
7965:
7962:
7960:
7959:Brayton cycle
7957:
7955:
7952:
7950:
7947:
7946:
7944:
7940:
7934:
7933:Turbine blade
7931:
7929:
7926:
7924:
7921:
7919:
7916:
7914:
7911:
7909:
7906:
7904:
7901:
7899:
7896:
7894:
7891:
7889:
7886:
7885:
7883:
7877:
7871:
7868:
7866:
7863:
7861:
7858:
7856:
7853:
7851:
7848:
7846:
7843:
7841:
7838:
7836:
7833:
7831:
7828:
7826:
7822:
7819:
7817:
7814:
7813:
7811:
7807:
7804:
7802:
7797:
7793:
7789:
7786:
7782:
7775:
7770:
7768:
7763:
7761:
7756:
7755:
7752:
7739:
7735:
7732:
7731:
7728:
7720:
7717:
7715:
7712:
7710:
7707:
7705:
7702:
7700:
7697:
7695:
7692:
7690:
7687:
7685:
7682:
7680:
7677:
7675:
7672:
7670:
7667:
7665:
7662:
7660:
7657:
7655:
7652:
7651:
7649:
7645:
7642:
7640:
7637:
7635:
7632:
7630:
7627:
7625:
7622:
7620:
7617:
7615:
7612:
7611:
7609:
7605:
7602:
7600:
7597:
7596:
7594:
7590:
7587:
7585:
7582:
7581:
7579:
7575:
7572:
7570:
7567:
7565:
7562:
7560:
7557:
7555:
7552:
7551:
7549:
7545:
7542:
7540:
7537:
7535:
7532:
7530:
7527:
7525:
7522:
7520:
7517:
7515:
7512:
7510:
7507:
7505:
7502:
7500:
7497:
7495:
7492:
7490:
7487:
7486:
7484:
7479:
7476:
7474:
7471:
7469:
7466:
7464:
7461:
7459:
7456:
7455:
7453:
7452:
7450:
7448:
7442:
7420:
7417:
7414:
7411:
7409:
7406:
7405:
7403:
7399:
7396:
7395:
7393:
7389:
7388:RD-211 to 214
7386:
7384:
7381:
7380:
7378:
7377:
7375:
7371:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7347:
7344:
7342:
7339:
7337:
7334:
7332:
7329:
7328:
7326:
7322:
7319:
7317:
7314:
7312:
7309:
7307:
7304:
7302:
7299:
7298:
7296:
7292:
7289:
7287:
7284:
7282:
7281:
7277:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7260:
7259:RD-215 to 219
7257:
7255:
7252:
7250:
7247:
7245:
7242:
7240:
7237:
7235:
7234:RD-0233, 0234
7232:
7230:
7227:
7225:
7224:RD-0207, 0214
7222:
7220:
7217:
7215:
7212:
7211:
7209:
7204:
7203:Paektusan LRE
7201:
7200:
7198:
7194:
7191:
7190:
7188:
7184:
7181:
7179:
7176:
7175:
7173:
7169:
7166:
7164:
7161:
7159:
7156:
7154:
7151:
7150:
7148:
7144:
7141:
7139:
7136:
7134:
7131:
7129:
7126:
7124:
7121:
7120:
7118:
7117:
7115:
7112:
7105:
7101:
7089:
7085:
7081:
7076:
7072:
7068:
7065:
7061:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7034:
7031:
7029:
7026:
7024:
7021:
7019:
7016:
7014:
7011:
7009:
7006:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6996:
6994:
6991:
6989:
6986:
6984:
6981:
6980:
6978:
6974:
6973:
6969:
6967:
6966:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6956:
6954:
6950:
6947:
6946:
6944:
6940:
6937:
6935:
6934:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6915:
6913:
6910:
6908:
6905:
6903:
6900:
6898:
6895:
6893:
6890:
6888:
6887:RD-0105, 0109
6885:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6875:
6873:
6870:
6869:
6867:
6863:
6862:
6858:
6857:
6855:
6851:
6850:
6846:
6844:
6843:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6821:
6817:
6815:
6812:
6811:
6809:
6808:
6806:
6803:
6799:
6792:
6789:
6783:
6771:
6770:
6766:
6764:
6763:
6759:
6758:
6756:
6752:
6751:
6747:
6746:
6744:
6740:
6739:
6735:
6733:
6732:
6728:
6726:
6725:
6721:
6719:
6716:
6714:
6711:
6710:
6708:
6704:
6703:
6699:
6697:
6696:
6692:
6690:
6689:
6685:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6673:
6672:
6668:
6666:
6665:
6661:
6659:
6658:
6654:
6653:
6651:
6650:
6648:
6645:
6641:
6631:
6623:
6620:
6618:
6615:
6613:
6610:
6608:
6605:
6603:
6602:
6598:
6596:
6595:
6591:
6590:
6588:
6584:
6583:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6572:
6571:KVD-1 (RD-56)
6569:
6568:
6566:
6562:
6561:
6557:
6555:
6552:
6550:
6547:
6546:
6544:
6540:
6537:
6535:
6532:
6531:
6529:
6525:
6522:
6520:
6517:
6515:
6512:
6511:
6509:
6505:
6504:
6500:
6498:
6497:
6493:
6491:
6488:
6486:
6483:
6481:
6478:
6476:
6473:
6472:
6470:
6469:
6467:
6464:
6460:
6450:
6447:
6445:
6441:
6438:
6436:
6430:
6424:
6421:
6420:
6417:
6413:
6410:
6406:
6402:
6395:
6390:
6388:
6383:
6381:
6376:
6375:
6372:
6366:
6362:
6360:
6357:
6355:
6352:
6350:
6347:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6335:
6332:
6331:
6318:
6317:
6312:
6306:
6300:
6294:
6288:
6284:
6277:
6269:
6263:
6259:
6254:
6253:
6244:
6236:
6230:
6226:
6221:
6220:
6211:
6203:
6202:
6196:
6191:
6185:
6177:
6175:0-19-928980-8
6171:
6167:
6160:
6145:
6138:
6123:on 2011-07-17
6119:
6115:
6108:
6101:
6099:
6084:on 2014-03-21
6083:
6079:
6078:Aviation Week
6075:
6068:
6061:
6056:
6049:
6044:
6038:, Cpropep-Web
6037:
6032:
6025:
6020:
6012:
6006:
5987:
5986:
5978:
5963:
5956:
5941:
5934:
5927:
5915:
5909:
5901:
5899:9780470080245
5895:
5891:
5890:
5882:
5880:
5863:
5859:
5853:
5834:
5827:
5821:
5813:
5807:
5803:
5796:
5794:
5792:
5790:
5788:
5780:
5774:
5760:on 2020-08-10
5759:
5755:
5749:
5741:
5739:0-7923-3888-X
5735:
5731:
5730:
5721:
5714:
5710:
5704:
5694:
5687:
5678:
5676:0-471-83836-5
5672:
5668:
5667:
5659:
5657:
5655:
5653:
5651:
5649:
5640:
5638:1-55728-601-9
5634:
5630:
5623:
5609:
5605:
5598:
5583:
5576:
5570:
5564:
5559:
5553:
5548:
5534:
5528:
5522:
5517:
5503:
5499:
5492:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5468:
5462:, RAND, 2002.
5461:
5456:
5449:
5439:on 2010-08-06
5438:
5434:
5428:
5414:on 2015-04-04
5413:
5409:
5403:
5389:on 2012-07-29
5388:
5384:
5378:
5370:
5366:
5362:
5354:
5340:
5336:
5329:
5315:
5311:
5304:
5296:
5289:
5287:
5285:
5283:
5281:
5279:
5277:
5275:
5265:
5263:9780470080245
5259:
5255:
5254:
5246:
5237:
5235:9780470080245
5231:
5227:
5226:
5218:
5210:
5206:
5199:
5197:
5195:
5193:
5173:
5169:
5168:
5160:
5158:
5156:
5154:
5152:
5150:
5148:
5146:
5131:
5130:
5125:
5118:
5116:
5101:on 2016-10-01
5100:
5096:
5089:
5087:
5072:
5071:
5066:
5059:
5051:
5044:
5040:
5026:
5022:
5018:
5012:
5006:upper stages.
5005:
5001:
4997:
4991:
4987:
4977:
4974:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4965:Photon rocket
4963:
4960:
4957:
4954:
4951:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4934:
4928:
4926:
4921:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4902:
4900:
4895:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4873:
4869:
4865:
4861:
4859:
4854:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4832:
4827:
4818:
4815:
4811:
4806:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4786:
4770:
4766:
4761:
4757:
4755:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4736:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4723:
4720:
4716:
4711:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4696:
4695:Hero's engine
4691:
4690:
4684:
4682:
4678:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4666:Aulus Gellius
4661:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4634:
4631:
4628:
4625:
4622:
4621:
4617:
4614:
4611:
4608:
4607:Fusion rocket
4605:
4604:
4600:
4597:
4594:
4591:
4588:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4576:
4572:
4567:
4564:
4561:
4558:
4557:
4553:
4550:
4546:
4541:
4538:
4535:
4532:
4531:
4527:
4524:
4521:
4518:
4515:
4514:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4502:
4499:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4484:
4481:
4477:
4472:
4469:
4466:
4463:
4462:
4458:
4455:
4452:
4449:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4420:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4406:
4403:
4400:
4399:
4395:
4392:
4389:
4386:
4383:
4382:
4378:
4375:
4372:
4369:
4368:
4350:
4346:
4330:
4326:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4313:
4309:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4297:
4293:
4290:
4287:
4284:
4283:
4270:
4266:
4261:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4216:
4212:
4209:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4199:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4185:concentrators
4182:
4181:reaction mass
4178:
4171:Solar thermal
4163:
4159:
4154:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4142:
4138:
4135:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4110:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4098:
4094:
4088:
4084:
4081:
4078:
4075:
4074:
4069:
4063:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4040:
4036:
4031:
4028:
4025:
4024:Arcjet rocket
4022:
4021:
4017:
4014:
4010:
4005:
4002:
4001:Joule heating
3998:
3995:
3992:
3991:
3987:
3984:
3981:
3978:
3977:
3973:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3940:
3937:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3909:
3904:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3892:
3888:
3885:
3881:
3876:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3866:
3862:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3850:
3846:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3834:
3830:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3805:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3793:
3788:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3776:
3771:
3768:
3764:
3759:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3746:
3742:
3739:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3728:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3698:
3694:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3682:
3678:
3675:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3655:
3651:
3649:
3648:incandescence
3645:
3641:
3636:
3634:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3596:
3590:
3586:
3577:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3563:
3561:
3555:
3553:
3549:
3548:
3541:
3537:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3516:
3514:
3510:
3505:
3501:
3499:
3495:
3486:
3481:
3478:
3474:
3469:
3467:
3463:
3454:
3452:
3448:
3443:
3441:
3435:
3433:
3425:
3421:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3408:rocket engine
3407:
3403:
3401:
3397:
3395:Rocket Engine
3394:
3390:
3389:
3388:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3369:
3366:
3362:
3359:
3356:
3352:
3349:
3345:
3342:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3328:§ Nozzle
3325:
3321:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3284:
3280:
3275:
3273:
3268:
3266:
3260:
3251:
3249:
3245:
3244:
3238:
3237:Space Shuttle
3233:
3229:
3224:
3222:
3218:
3208:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3191:
3187:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3166:
3163:
3154:
3152:
3151:test facility
3142:
3138:
3134:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3107:
3103:
3101:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2938:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2923:
2918:United States
2910:
2908:
2904:
2888:
2885:
2882:
2879:
2876:
2868:
2862:
2858:
2855:
2850:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2834:Space Shuttle
2831:
2827:
2821:
2814:Exhaust noise
2811:
2809:
2803:
2801:
2796:
2792:
2790:
2780:
2778:
2773:
2771:
2761:
2757:
2755:
2751:
2745:
2743:
2733:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2720:
2715:
2711:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2697:
2696:pressure wave
2693:
2689:
2678:
2676:
2666:
2664:
2660:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2644:
2639:
2636:
2626:
2624:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2609:hoop stresses
2605:
2584:
2581:
2577:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2507:first stage)
2506:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2433:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2407:
2404:
2403:
2384:
2381:
2380:
2362:
2359:
2358:
2339:
2336:with reheat (
2335:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2308:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2263:
2260:
2247:
2246:rocket engine
2243:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2214:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2171:
2166:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2147:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2132:
2131:solid rockets
2113:
2110:
2078:
2075:
2072:
2068:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2039:
2035:
2027:
2024:
2018:
2013:
2009:
2000:
1981:
1977:
1966:
1948:
1944:
1935:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1879:
1870:
1868:
1848:
1844:
1836:
1833:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1801:
1792:
1775:
1772:
1760:
1747:
1744:
1728:
1725:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1709:
1705:
1695:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1651:
1642:
1638:
1614:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1598:
1590:
1587:
1575:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1531:
1511:
1507:
1498:
1478:
1474:
1465:
1445:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1429:
1420:
1416:
1396:
1392:
1383:
1362:
1359:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1296:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1274:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1258:
1250:
1247:
1241:
1236:
1232:
1224:
1221:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1197:
1193:
1183:
1179:
1162:
1158:
1150:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:Space Shuttle
1055:
1054:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:Space Shuttle
1038:
1037:
1033:
1031:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:Space Shuttle
1014:
1013:
1010:, vacuum (s)
1006:
1003:
1000:
997:
996:
992:
988:
977:
974:
972:
968:
955:
952:
949:
946:
942:
938:
937:
936:
932:
922:
919:
914:
911:
907:
902:
900:
899:
894:
889:
881:
878:
875:
871:
870:
869:
861:
856:
846:
844:
840:
836:
831:
829:
824:
820:
818:
814:
810:
806:
800:
791:
787:
780:
776:
773:
770:
766:
765:over-expanded
763:
760:
757:
754:
751:
750:
749:
747:
742:
740:
731:
727:
725:
723:
722:adiabatically
718:
714:
710:
709:
698:
693:
683:
681:
678:for cold-gas
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
647:
645:
641:
638:
634:
629:
609:
605:
597:
580:
576:
568:
567:
566:
545:
541:
535:
531:
525:
520:
516:
508:
507:
506:
504:
486:
482:
472:
470:
466:
465:flame holders
456:
454:
450:
449:
444:
443:Hybrid rocket
440:
431:
429:
425:
421:
419:
418:reaction mass
414:
405:
403:
399:
395:
391:
386:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
325:
322:
319:
316:
312:
309:
306:
303:
299:
298:
294:
284:
281:
278:
275:
272:
269:
266:
263:
260:
257:
256:
252:
240:
236:
232:
228:
227:
223:
220:
216:
215:
211:
208:
204:
203:
199:
196:
192:
188:
184:
183:
179:
178:
177:
175:
172:
168:
164:
162:
158:
154:
153:
148:
140:
138:
137:Oberth effect
133:
131:
127:
122:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
63:reaction mass
60:
56:
55:rocket engine
49:
45:
41:
37:
31:
27:
23:
19:
8409:Beale number
8364:Split-single
8358:
8298:Heat engines
8215:Flame holder
8189:Thrust lever
8179:Autothrottle
8009:Thrust lapse
7964:Bypass ratio
7864:
7796:Gas turbines
7788:gas turbines
7737:
7278:
7199:North Korea
6970:
6963:
6931:
6859:
6847:
6840:
6818:
6767:
6760:
6748:
6736:
6729:
6722:
6700:
6693:
6686:
6669:
6662:
6655:
6599:
6592:
6580:
6558:
6501:
6494:
6405:solid motors
6400:
6314:
6305:
6282:
6276:
6251:
6243:
6218:
6210:
6199:
6184:
6165:
6159:
6147:. Retrieved
6137:
6125:. Retrieved
6118:the original
6113:
6086:. Retrieved
6082:the original
6077:
6067:
6055:
6043:
6031:
6019:
5995:10 September
5993:. Retrieved
5984:
5977:
5967:19 September
5965:. Retrieved
5955:
5945:19 September
5943:. Retrieved
5933:
5925:
5920:19 September
5918:. Retrieved
5908:
5888:
5866:. Retrieved
5852:
5842:November 23,
5840:. Retrieved
5833:the original
5820:
5801:
5773:
5762:. Retrieved
5758:the original
5748:
5728:
5720:
5712:
5703:
5692:
5686:
5665:
5628:
5622:
5611:. Retrieved
5607:
5597:
5587:February 16,
5585:. Retrieved
5581:
5569:
5558:
5547:
5536:. Retrieved
5527:
5516:
5505:. Retrieved
5496:Wade, Mark.
5491:
5483:the original
5467:
5455:
5447:
5441:. Retrieved
5437:the original
5427:
5416:. Retrieved
5412:the original
5402:
5391:. Retrieved
5387:the original
5377:
5369:the original
5353:
5342:. Retrieved
5333:Wade, Mark.
5328:
5317:. Retrieved
5313:
5303:
5294:
5252:
5245:
5224:
5217:
5208:
5179:. Retrieved
5172:the original
5166:
5133:. Retrieved
5127:
5103:. Retrieved
5099:the original
5074:. Retrieved
5068:
5058:
5043:
5024:
5011:
4995:
4990:
4922:
4903:
4896:
4872:Alexey Isaev
4867:
4862:
4855:
4828:
4824:
4807:
4792:
4765:Tippu Sultan
4762:
4758:
4744:
4740:
4737:
4715:black powder
4712:
4700:steam rocket
4693:
4687:
4685:
4663:
4570:
4544:
4517:Fission sail
4488:
4475:
4453:Description
4432:
4411:
4373:Description
4324:
4288:Description
4264:
4228:
4207:Description
4192:
4174:
4157:
4133:Description
4086:
4061:
4034:
4008:
3982:Description
3879:
3808:
3762:
3758:moving parts
3737:Description
3685:Water rocket
3673:Description
3652:
3637:
3597:
3594:
3574:
3571:
3564:
3556:
3551:
3545:
3542:
3539:
3525:
3517:
3506:
3502:
3482:
3470:
3460:
3450:
3444:
3436:
3429:
3386:
3332:
3317:
3314:
3287:
3276:
3269:
3265:duct engines
3261:
3257:
3242:
3225:
3214:
3172:
3160:
3148:
3139:
3135:
3108:
3104:
3097:
3089:
3085:Moon landing
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3053:
3034:
2999:
2978:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2954:
2939:
2924:
2921:
2906:
2902:
2866:
2863:
2859:
2851:
2823:
2804:
2797:
2793:
2786:
2774:
2767:
2758:
2746:
2739:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2716:
2712:
2700:
2684:
2672:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2640:
2634:
2632:
2620:
2617:
2606:
2590:
2573:
2305:jet engine (
2259:weight ratio
2245:
2229:
2226:
2198:
2196:
2192:Carnot cycle
2180:heat engines
2177:
2154:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2099:
1998:
1933:
1866:
1864:
1756:
1745:
1696:
1576:
1572:
1414:
1195:
1180:
1148:
1109:per unit of
1104:
1042:solid motors
1004:
1001:Propellants
986:
975:
970:
964:
934:
915:
903:
896:
892:
885:
866:
832:
825:
821:
801:
797:
788:
784:
774:
764:
758:
752:
743:
736:
726:
706:
703:
648:
630:
627:
564:
473:
462:
446:
437:
427:
424:Solid rocket
422:
415:
411:
394:water rocket
387:
332:
224:
212:
207:liquid state
200:
190:
186:
180:
166:
165:
150:
149:
146:
134:
123:
73:engines are
57:uses stored
54:
52:
18:
8414:West number
8334:Minto wheel
8319:Gas turbine
8129:instruments
8084:Blade pitch
8079:Autofeather
7781:Jet engines
7736:Engines in
7383:RD-109, 119
7321:RD-864, 869
7306:RD-854, 861
7269:RD-253, 275
6917:RD-170, 171
6132:See page 3.
5916:(in German)
5868:January 17,
5019:and one on
4947:Jet damping
4925:Black Brant
4733:fire arrows
4677:Pythagorean
4456:Advantages
4376:Advantages
4291:Advantages
4210:Advantages
4136:Advantages
3985:Advantages
3912:Turborocket
3740:Advantages
3676:Advantages
3620:ultraviolet
3580:Jet physics
3567:hard starts
3320:heat fluxes
3127:nitric acid
3011:prototyping
2901:for thrust
2830:shock waves
2719:F-1 engines
2629:Hard starts
2174:efficiency.
1999:And hence:
967:meganewtons
843:plug nozzle
805:plug nozzle
674:as well as
343:propellants
259:Liquid fuel
195:solid state
143:Terminology
8451:Categories
8354:Rijke tube
8072:Principles
8051:Components
8043:Propellers
7942:Principles
7893:Air intake
7881:components
7879:Mechanical
7855:Turboshaft
7123:YF-1, 2, 3
7071:Hypergolic
7043:Rutherford
6762:Prometheus
6724:Archimedes
6149:8 December
6127:2011-01-25
6088:2014-03-21
5858:Wayne Hale
5764:2017-02-09
5709:Rijke tube
5613:2018-04-27
5582:IDC Online
5538:2009-09-25
5507:2009-09-25
5443:2009-09-25
5418:2010-04-15
5393:2010-04-16
5344:2009-09-25
5319:2016-10-20
5314:Space News
5135:2016-10-03
5105:2016-10-20
5076:2016-09-27
5035:References
4754:Greek fire
4725:alchemists
4641:gamma rays
4568:Very high
4542:Very high
4438:propulsion
3725:See also:
3642:through a
3608:Swan bands
3560:hypergolic
3547:hard start
3536:Combustion
3511:(LH2) and
3424:Deep space
3348:refractory
3302:molybdenum
3298:refractory
3243:Challenger
3017:, such as
2990:satellites
2905:and speed
2826:hypersonic
2783:Screeching
2754:pogo stick
2675:organ pipe
2643:hypergolic
2635:hard start
2519:1,740,100
2492:1,773,000
2429:Rocketdyne
2257:Thrust-to-
2096:Throttling
1867:vacuum Isp
1186:Net thrust
1111:propellant
918:collimated
853:See also:
779:shock wave
652:turbopumps
408:Propellant
359:supersonic
171:exothermic
115:spacecraft
113:to propel
99:solid fuel
83:combustion
8379:Aeolipile
8104:Proprotor
7954:Bleed air
7913:Combustor
7850:Turboprop
7664:Castor 30
7544:Zefiro 40
7539:Zefiro 23
7480:SpaB-140C
6877:NK-33, 44
6787:cryogenic
6633:Methalox
6452:Hydrolox
6444:Cryogenic
6316:Space.com
6026:, 1998–99
6005:cite book
5498:"RD-0146"
5335:"RD-0410"
5021:Apollo 13
4994:The RL10
4892:N1 rocket
4689:aeolipile
4637:neutrinos
4495:in half.
4123:Preheated
4060:Variable
4045:ion drive
3483:The more
3473:molecules
3457:Chemistry
3447:fuel-rich
3183:Saturn IB
3094:Accidents
2984:and more
2886:∗
2595:bar (1–20
2551:Merlin 1D
2114:˙
2054:−
2028:˙
1949:∗
1917:∗
1849:∗
1837:˙
1776:˙
1661:−
1606:−
1591:˙
1437:−
1363:˙
1306:−
1266:−
1251:˙
1225:˙
1178:impulse.
874:aluminium
839:aerospike
833:Advanced
817:aerospike
744:The exit
521:∗
487:∗
448:injectors
434:Injection
235:hydrazine
8386:Stirling
8314:Fluidyne
8220:Jet fuel
8109:Scimitar
7979:Flameout
7923:Impeller
7845:Turbojet
7840:Turbofan
7821:Pulsejet
7785:aircraft
7679:Orbus-21
7534:Zefiro 9
7297:Ukraine
7075:Aerozine
7063:Storable
6955:Ukraine
6897:RD-0110R
6794:Kerolox
5804:. AIAA.
5533:"RD-180"
5017:Apollo 6
4931:See also
4918:Saturn V
4681:Archytas
4241:hydrogen
3624:infrared
3612:Peroxide
3530:Ignition
3509:hydrogen
3451:increase
3440:velocity
3415:(LMDE),
3355:hydrogen
3338:Ablative
3310:tungsten
3306:tantalum
3248:STS-51-F
3201:Saturn V
3179:Saturn I
3115:Tyuratam
3056:Cold War
3026:missiles
3019:turbojet
2736:Chugging
2688:Titan II
2565:185,000
2542:368,000
2516:7,740.5
2505:Saturn V
2469:933,000
2446:512,000
2397:318,000
2338:Concorde
2334:turbojet
1078:Saturn V
815:and the
676:nitrogen
402:nitrogen
351:oxidiser
231:catalyst
219:oxidiser
130:hydrogen
107:oxidiser
48:Ariane 4
46:through
44:Ariane 1
42:used on
8324:Hot air
8208:systems
7835:Propfan
7738:italics
7699:Star 48
7694:Star 37
7674:Orbus-6
7595:Israel
7529:Waxwing
7485:Europe
7477:SpaB-65
7379:Russia
7244:RD-0237
7239:RD-0236
7210:Russia
7189:Israel
7149:Europe
6993:Kestrel
6939:S1.5400
6902:RD-0124
6868:Russia
6861:SCE-200
6757:Europe
6750:RD-0169
6745:Russia
6671:Longyun
6664:Lingyun
6582:RD-0146
6576:RD-0120
6567:Russia
6524:Vulcain
6510:Europe
6433:Liquid
6409:orbital
5000:Centaur
4780:⁄
4719:Chinese
4704:bearing
4429:Nuclear
4189:mirrors
4118:Thermal
3554:(RUD).
3507:Liquid
3294:rhenium
3254:Cooling
3145:Testing
3022:engines
2944:or the
2764:Buzzing
2513:18,499
2486:21,500
2463:11,890
2420:22,000
2406:RD-0146
2391:10,188
2383:RD-0750
2374:20,500
2352:38,000
2321:34,000
2280:RD-0410
2253:Thrust
2209:). See
2199:vehicle
1934:where:
1869:to be:
1345:
1342:where:
1107:impulse
1080:stage 1
998:Rocket
565:where:
308:Igniter
103:rockets
61:as the
8359:Rocket
8344:Piston
8127:Engine
8004:Thrust
7865:Rocket
7860:Ramjet
7654:AJ-60A
7619:KM-V2b
7610:Japan
7584:Salman
7550:India
7524:Topaze
7489:Mage 1
7454:China
7445:Solid
7352:TR-201
7316:RD-856
7311:RD-855
7301:RD-843
7291:S5.98M
7280:RD-270
7174:India
7168:Viking
7158:Astris
7153:Aestus
7143:YF-50D
7119:China
7028:RS-27A
7018:Merlin
7008:LR-105
6972:RD-810
6965:RD-801
6949:TEPREL
6945:Spain
6933:RD-193
6922:RD-180
6912:RD-120
6856:India
6849:Welkin
6842:YF-130
6836:YF-115
6831:YF-102
6826:YF-100
6810:China
6738:Aeon R
6731:Aeon 1
6718:Raptor
6702:YF-215
6695:YF-209
6688:TQ-15A
6652:China
6545:Japan
6534:CE-7.5
6530:India
6485:YF-75D
6471:China
6365:Units)
6289:
6264:
6231:
6172:
5896:
5808:
5736:
5713:Nature
5673:
5635:
5260:
5232:
5181:7 July
4847:He 176
4843:He 111
4769:Mysore
4749:laurel
4722:Taoist
4679:named
4353:
3513:oxygen
3381:porous
3272:copper
3162:Rocket
3157:Safety
2935:GALCIT
2601:
2597:
2593:
2568:180.1
2559:1,030
2545:136.7
2539:1,638
2536:2,694
2533:1,222
2510:8,391
2489:7,887
2483:9,750
2478:RD-170
2466:4,152
2460:5,393
2455:RD-180
2443:2,278
2440:7,004
2437:3,177
2394:1,413
2388:4,621
2368:3,900
2365:1,800
2349:169.2
2346:7,000
2343:3,175
2315:6,001
2312:2,722
2294:7,900
2288:4,400
2285:2,000
2274:(lbf)
2197:For a
2150:Raptor
1192:Thrust
945:gimbal
906:chokes
811:, the
708:chokes
686:Nozzle
660:helium
501:, the
300:Solid
191:motors
111:vacuum
101:) and
71:Rocket
7809:Types
7719:X-254
7714:X-248
7704:UA120
7684:Orion
7659:Algol
7644:SRB-A
7639:M-34c
7614:KM-V1
7604:RSA-3
7580:Iran
7473:FG-47
7468:FG-46
7463:FG-36
7458:FG-02
7419:XLR81
7413:RS-88
7408:Curie
7398:Gamma
7373:Other
7357:XLR81
7346:RS-88
7341:LR-91
7336:LR-87
7286:S5.92
7214:17D61
7183:Vikas
7163:Vexin
7138:YF-40
7133:YF-23
7106:, or
7086:, or
7080:UH 25
7048:XLR50
7033:RS-56
7023:RS-27
7003:LR-89
6998:LR-79
6882:RD-58
6872:NK-15
6820:TH-12
6814:TH-11
6785:Semi-
6682:TQ-12
6677:TQ-11
6657:BF-20
6622:RS-68
6617:RS-25
6594:BE-3U
6539:CE-20
6519:Vinci
6503:YF-90
6496:YF-79
6490:YF-77
6480:YF-75
6475:YF-73
6121:(PDF)
6110:(PDF)
6062:, CEA
6050:, RPA
5989:(PDF)
5836:(PDF)
5829:(PDF)
5578:(PDF)
5175:(PDF)
5025:would
4982:Notes
4959:NERVA
4906:RL-10
4888:NK-33
4884:NK-15
4674:Greek
4645:muons
4450:Type
4370:Type
4351:0.3–3
4285:Type
4204:Type
4130:Type
4085:High
3979:Type
3958:ATREX
3954:SABRE
3950:RB545
3734:Type
3670:Type
3616:steam
3550:or a
3419:(SPS)
3406:LR-91
3240:
3232:RS-25
3228:RS-25
3028:, or
2838:dB(A)
2789:Hertz
2770:Hertz
2742:Hertz
2703:Atlas
2528:NK-33
2522:94.1
2495:82.5
2472:78.5
2449:73.1
2432:RS-25
2423:38.4
2400:31.2
2377:7.95
2291:35.2
2271:(kN)
2268:(lb)
2265:(kg)
2250:Mass
1759:choke
941:hinge
826:On a
428:grain
335:fluid
26:RS-68
8204:Fuel
7799:and
7783:and
7709:SRMU
7650:USA
7634:M-34
7629:M-24
7624:M-14
7599:LK-1
7589:Rafe
7574:S200
7569:S139
7519:P230
7514:P120
7447:fuel
7404:USA
7331:AJ10
7327:USA
7193:LK-4
7088:UDMH
7038:S-3D
6979:USA
6959:RD-8
6798:RP-1
6769:M-10
6713:BE-4
6709:USA
6612:RL10
6601:BE-7
6589:USA
6560:LE-9
6554:LE-7
6549:LE-5
6514:HM7B
6435:fuel
6407:for
6403:and
6287:ISBN
6262:ISBN
6229:ISBN
6170:ISBN
6151:2016
6011:link
5997:2022
5969:2022
5947:2022
5922:2022
5894:ISBN
5870:2012
5844:2011
5806:ISBN
5734:ISBN
5671:ISBN
5633:ISBN
5589:2024
5521:SSME
5258:ISBN
5230:ISBN
5183:2017
5004:DCSS
5002:and
4886:and
4880:NK-9
4849:and
4833:and
4686:The
4345:SSTO
4255:and
4187:and
4175:The
3936:LACE
3622:and
3600:RP-1
3292:and
3226:The
3215:The
3193:RL10
3181:and
3173:The
3131:UDMH
3111:R-16
3009:and
2975:USSR
2942:NASA
2852:The
2562:825
2556:467
2414:570
2411:260
2355:5.4
2324:5.2
2318:150
2297:1.8
2146:BE-3
1577:The
1093:304
1089:RP-1
1072:313
1051:268
1047:APCP
1034:453
453:jets
388:For
349:and
347:fuel
267:tank
261:tank
237:and
185:(or
117:and
89:and
8329:Jet
7669:GEM
7564:S12
7509:P80
7504:PAP
7499:P-6
7494:P-4
7394:UK
7178:PS4
7108:HNO
7104:MON
7084:MMH
6988:H-1
6983:F-1
6802:LOX
6644:LOX
6607:J-2
6463:LOX
4996:has
4916:'s
4853:).
3924:LOX
3393:V-2
3324:BTU
3308:or
3246:'s
2501:F-1
2417:98
2371:91
2303:J58
2244:or
2242:Jet
1085:LOX
1068:MMH
1064:NTO
1059:OMS
1023:LOX
943:or
841:or
777:(a
189:or
163:).
67:jet
8453::
7559:S9
7554:S7
7102:,
7091:/
7082:,
7077:,
6800:/
6642:/
6637:CH
6461:/
6456:LH
6313:.
6260:.
6258:11
6227:.
6198:.
6112:.
6097:^
6076:.
6007:}}
6003:{{
5924:.
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5786:^
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5647:^
5606:.
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5085:^
5067:.
4927:.
4901:.
4894:.
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4841:,
4643:,
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4574:sp
4548:sp
4492:sp
4479:sp
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4343:.
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4337:sp
4328:sp
4268:sp
4259:.
4232:sp
4198:.
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4161:sp
4090:sp
4065:sp
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3032:.
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2309:)
2148:,
1752:sp
1027:LH
1008:sp
990:sp
807:,
682:.
505::
400:,
385:.
373:.
139:.
121:.
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8290:e
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7823:/
7773:e
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7421:*
7415:*
7359:*
7348:*
7113:)
7110:3
7099:4
7097:O
7095:2
7093:N
7073:(
6804:)
6796:(
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6635:(
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5211:.
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5079:.
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4775:+
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2877:P
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2111:m
2079:b
2076:m
2073:a
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2049:c
2046:a
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2040:e
2036:v
2025:m
2019:=
2014:n
2010:F
1982:f
1978:C
1945:c
1913:c
1906:f
1902:C
1898:=
1893:c
1890:a
1887:v
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1880:v
1845:c
1834:m
1825:f
1821:C
1817:=
1812:c
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1242:=
1237:e
1233:v
1222:m
1216:=
1211:n
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1133:p
1130:s
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1087:/
1066:/
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720:(
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532:V
526:=
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197:.
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