76:
2486:
784:
580:) of a rocket engine is the most important metric of efficiency; a high specific impulse is normally desired. Cold gas thrusters have a significantly lower specific impulse than most other rocket engines because they do not take advantage of chemical energy stored in the propellant. The theoretical specific impulse for cold gases is given by
1418:
a total of 40 lbs (18kg) of gaseous nitrogen at 4500 psi, which provided sufficient propellant to generate a change in velocity of 110 to 135 ft/sec (33.53 to 41.15 m/s). At a nominal mass, the MMU had a translational acceleration of 0.3±0.05 ft/sec (9.1±1.5 cm/s) and a rotational acceleration of 10.0±3.0 deg/sec (0.1745±0.052 rad/sec)
136:
The maximum thrust of a cold gas thruster is dependent upon the pressure in the storage tank. As fuel is used up with simple compressed-gas systems, the pressure decreases and maximum thrust decreases. With liquefied gases, pressure will remain relatively constant as the liquid gas volatilizes and is
1417:
Twenty-four cold gas thrusters utilizing pressurized gaseous nitrogen were used on the Manned
Maneuvering Unit (MMU). The thrusters provided full 6-degree-of-freedom control to the astronaut wearing the MMU. Each thruster provided 1.4 lbs (6.23 N) of thrust. The two propellant tanks onboard provided
585:
51:
rocket engines. Cold gas thrusters have been referred to as the "simplest manifestation of a rocket engine" because their design consists only of a fuel tank, a regulating valve, a propelling nozzle, and the little required plumbing. They are the cheapest, simplest, and most reliable propulsion
87:
that provides the required thrust in flight. The nozzle is shaped such that the high-pressure, low-velocity gas that enters the nozzle is accelerated as it approaches the throat (the narrowest part of the nozzle), where the gas velocity matches the speed of sound.
962:
1715:"SpaceX option package for new Tesla Roadster will include ~10 small rocket thrusters arranged seamlessly around car. These rocket engines dramatically improve acceleration, top speed, braking & cornering. Maybe they will even allow a Tesla to fly …"
1005:
Cold gas systems can use either a solid, liquid or gaseous propellant storage system; but the propellant must exit the nozzle in gaseous form. Storing liquid propellant may pose attitude control issues due to the sloshing of fuel in its tank.
1462:
successfully tested its proof-of-concept safety system for righting a slipping motorcycle using cold gas thrusters. The system senses a sideways wheel slip and uses a lateral cold gas thruster to keep the motorcycle from slipping further.
779:{\displaystyle I_{sp}={\frac {C^{*}}{g_{0}}}\gamma {\sqrt {\left({\frac {2}{\gamma -1}}\right)\left({\frac {2}{\gamma +1}}\right)^{\frac {\gamma +1}{\gamma -1}}\left(1-{\frac {P_{e}}{P_{c}}}\right)^{\frac {\gamma -1}{\gamma }}}}}
1403:. Although the patent of the HHMU does not categorize the device as a cold gas thruster, the HHMU is described as a "propulsion unit utilizing the thrust developed by a pressurized gas escaping various nozzle means."
105:
A lack of combustion in the nozzle of a cold gas thruster allows its usage in situations where regular liquid rocket engines would be too hot. This eliminates the need to engineer heat management systems.
428:
855:
117:
The fuels used in a cold gas system are safe to handle both before and after firing the engine. If inert fuel is used the cold gas system is one of the safest possible rocket engines.
196:
108:
The simple design allows the thrusters to be smaller than regular rocket engines, which makes them a suitable choice for missions with limited volume and weight requirements.
1736:
96:
Cold gas thrusters benefit from their simplicity; however, they do fall short in other respects. The advantages and disadvantages of a cold gas system can be summarized as:
225:
504:
1624:
991:
844:
813:
562:
535:
484:
457:
252:
123:
Cold gas thrusters require very little electrical energy to operate, which is useful, for example, when a spacecraft is in the shadow of the planet it is orbiting.
257:
For a cold gas thruster in space, where the thrusters are designed for infinite expansion (since the ambient pressure is zero), the thrust is given as
59:
Cold gas thrusters are predominantly used to provide stabilization for smaller space missions which require contaminant-free operation. Specifically,
1657:
1820:
2216:
2334:
1955:
1009:
When choosing a propellant, a high specific impulse, and a high specific impulse per unit volume of propellant should be considered.
2232:
63:
propulsion system development has been predominantly focused on cold gas systems because CubeSats have strict regulations against
39:. As opposed to traditional rocket engines, a cold gas thruster does not house any combustion and therefore has lower thrust and
1632:
1813:
262:
2137:
2211:
957:{\displaystyle C^{*}={\frac {a_{0}}{\gamma \left({\frac {2}{\gamma +1}}\right)^{\frac {\gamma +1}{2(\gamma -1)}}}}}
2515:
2510:
2237:
2102:
1806:
1472:
2341:
2196:
2165:
2160:
53:
1386:
156:
1653:
2296:
2155:
1686:
1374:
2329:
2088:
2062:
2004:
1988:
1978:
48:
2261:
2385:
2358:
2313:
2301:
2281:
2047:
2009:
1983:
1432:
Larger cold gas thrusters are employed to help in the attitude control of the first stage of the
1412:
1400:
1221:
847:
201:
2436:
2286:
2186:
1928:
150:
2021:
2014:
1829:
1489:
489:
1012:
Overview of the specific impulses of propellants suitable for a cold gas propulsion system:
149:
is generated by momentum exchange between the exhaust and the spacecraft, which is given by
133:
A cold gas system cannot produce the high thrust that combustive rocket engines can achieve.
2132:
2127:
2031:
1945:
1718:
1586:
1528:
969:
822:
791:
540:
513:
462:
435:
230:
1761:
Kvell, U; Puusepp, M; Kaminski, F; Past, J-E; Palmer, K; Grönland, T-A; Noorma, M (2014).
8:
2291:
2276:
2191:
2078:
2057:
2026:
507:
1590:
1532:
2490:
2456:
2421:
1248:
64:
2485:
2451:
2406:
2306:
2206:
1882:
1784:
1546:
1520:
1484:
1471:
The main focus of research as of 2014 is miniaturization of cold gas thrusters using
1459:
1714:
1573:
Tummala, Akshay; Dutta, Atri; Tummala, Akshay Reddy; Dutta, Atri (9 December 2017).
111:
The cold gas system and its fuel are inexpensive compared to regular rocket engines.
2471:
2461:
2411:
2117:
1870:
1774:
1737:"Greater safety on two wheels: Bosch innovations for the motorcycles of the future"
1604:
1594:
1427:
816:
573:
120:
Cold gas thrusters do not build up a net charge on the spacecraft during operation.
40:
2083:
1887:
1853:
1672:
84:
2416:
2351:
2052:
1892:
1337:
994:
44:
2504:
2426:
2346:
2201:
2170:
1950:
1940:
1935:
1858:
1848:
1788:
1599:
1574:
1455:
proposed the use of air-based cold gas thrusters to improve car performance.
1314:
114:
The simple design is less prone to failures than a traditional rocket engine.
28:
1779:
1762:
75:
2431:
2390:
2363:
2122:
1918:
1913:
1521:"The merits of cold gas micropropulsion in state-of-the-art space missions"
1062:
2446:
2441:
2247:
1798:
2466:
1923:
1609:
1710:
1452:
1396:
1436:
1392:
1122:
1575:"An Overview of Cube-Satellite Propulsion Technologies and Trends"
2242:
1875:
1722:
1494:
1448:
1292:
1270:
1183:
60:
1865:
1843:
1433:
1399:
missions used pressurized oxygen to facilitate the astronauts'
1144:
1084:
146:
36:
1202:
1164:
1377:
due to the inert and non-toxic nature of their propellants.
31:
which uses the expansion of a (typically inert) pressurized
1763:"Nanosatellite orbit control using MEMS cold gas thrusters"
1103:
52:
systems available for orbital maintenance, maneuvering and
1519:
Nguyen, Hugo; Köhler, Johan; Stenmark, Lars (2002-01-01).
32:
1760:
1572:
972:
858:
825:
794:
588:
543:
516:
492:
465:
438:
265:
233:
204:
159:
1518:
423:{\displaystyle F=A_{t}P_{c}\gamma \left+P_{e}A_{e}}
1391:The Hand-Held Maneuvering Unit (HHMU) used on the
1373:Cold gas thrusters are especially well suited for
985:
956:
838:
807:
778:
556:
529:
498:
478:
451:
422:
246:
219:
190:
83:The nozzle of a cold gas thruster is generally a
2502:
1767:Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences
1625:"Maneuvering Unit, Hand-Held, White, Gemini 4"
1814:
1380:
537:is the exit pressure of the propellant, and
137:used up in a manner similar to aerosol cans.
1821:
1807:
1406:
1828:
1778:
1608:
1598:
79:Schematic of a cold gas propulsion system
2233:Atmosphere-breathing electric propulsion
1709:
74:
1684:
486:is the chamber pressure in the nozzle,
2503:
1547:"Micropropulsion systems for cubesats"
1802:
1673:Manned maneuvering unit: User's guide
1687:"The why and how of landing rockets"
1662: Hand-Held Self-Maneuvering Unit
1568:
1566:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1368:
567:
13:
2138:Field-emission electric propulsion
1421:
14:
2527:
2212:Microwave electrothermal thruster
1563:
1507:
191:{\displaystyle F={\dot {m}}V_{e}}
2484:
564:is the exit area of the nozzle.
254:is the velocity of the exhaust.
127:
1754:
1363:
1360:Properties at 0°C and 241 bar.
2342:Pulsed nuclear thermal rocket
2238:High Power Electric Propulsion
1729:
1703:
1678:
1665:
1646:
1617:
1539:
1473:microelectromechanical systems
1439:rocket as it returns to land.
1016:Propellants and Efficiencies
1000:
944:
932:
91:
1:
2197:Helicon double-layer thruster
2166:Electrodeless plasma thruster
2161:Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster
1629:National Air and Space Museum
1500:
1442:
99:
1631:. 2016-03-20. Archived from
7:
1478:
1466:
459:is the area of the throat,
227:is the mass flow rate, and
85:convergent-divergent nozzle
10:
2532:
1425:
1410:
1387:Hand-Held Maneuvering Unit
1381:Hand-Held Maneuvering Unit
1375:astronaut propulsion units
220:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}
25:cold gas propulsion system
2482:
2399:
2378:
2322:
2269:
2260:
2225:
2179:
2156:Pulsed inductive thruster
2148:
2110:
2101:
2071:
2040:
1997:
1971:
1964:
1901:
1836:
1401:extravehicular activities
141:
70:
67:and hazardous materials.
43:compared to conventional
2330:Nuclear pulse propulsion
2089:Electric-pump-fed engine
1989:Hybrid-propellant rocket
1979:Liquid-propellant rocket
1600:10.3390/aerospace4040058
2386:Beam-powered propulsion
2359:Fission-fragment rocket
2314:Nuclear photonic rocket
2282:Nuclear electric rocket
2048:Staged combustion cycle
1984:Solid-propellant rocket
1780:10.3176/proc.2014.2s.09
1413:Manned Maneuvering Unit
1407:Manned Maneuvering Unit
848:characteristic velocity
499:{\displaystyle \gamma }
2437:Non-rocket spacelaunch
2287:Nuclear thermal rocket
2187:Pulsed plasma thruster
1685:plarson (2015-06-25).
987:
958:
840:
809:
780:
558:
531:
500:
480:
453:
424:
248:
221:
192:
80:
2516:Spacecraft propulsion
2511:Spacecraft components
2103:Electrical propulsion
1830:Spacecraft propulsion
1490:Monopropellant Rocket
988:
986:{\displaystyle a_{0}}
959:
841:
839:{\displaystyle C^{*}}
810:
808:{\displaystyle g_{0}}
781:
559:
557:{\displaystyle A_{e}}
532:
530:{\displaystyle P_{e}}
501:
481:
479:{\displaystyle P_{c}}
454:
452:{\displaystyle A_{t}}
425:
249:
247:{\displaystyle V_{e}}
222:
193:
78:
16:Type of rocket engine
2335:Antimatter-catalyzed
2133:Hall-effect thruster
1946:Solar thermal rocket
970:
856:
823:
792:
586:
541:
514:
490:
463:
436:
263:
231:
202:
157:
2277:Direct Fusion Drive
2192:Vacuum arc thruster
2079:Pressure-fed engine
2058:Gas-generator cycle
1965:Chemical propulsion
1902:Physical propulsion
1741:Bosch Media Service
1591:2017Aeros...4...58T
1533:2002iaf..confE.785N
1458:In September 2018,
1017:
997:of the propellant.
508:specific heat ratio
151:Newton's second law
2491:Spaceflight portal
2457:Reactionless drive
2422:Aerogravity assist
2262:Nuclear propulsion
1015:
983:
954:
850:which is given by
836:
805:
776:
554:
527:
496:
476:
449:
420:
244:
217:
188:
81:
2498:
2497:
2452:Atmospheric entry
2407:Orbital mechanics
2374:
2373:
2256:
2255:
2207:Resistojet rocket
2097:
2096:
2072:Intake mechanisms
2005:Liquid propellant
1909:Cold gas thruster
1485:Resistojet rocket
1358:
1357:
952:
948:
909:
774:
771:
748:
711:
681:
654:
627:
385:
346:
320:
214:
175:
21:cold gas thruster
2523:
2488:
2472:Alcubierre drive
2462:Field propulsion
2412:Orbital maneuver
2400:Related concepts
2267:
2266:
2118:Colloid thruster
2108:
2107:
1969:
1968:
1871:Specific impulse
1823:
1816:
1809:
1800:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1782:
1758:
1752:
1751:
1749:
1748:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1713:(June 9, 2018).
1707:
1701:
1700:
1698:
1697:
1682:
1676:
1669:
1663:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1650:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1640:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1612:
1602:
1570:
1561:
1560:
1558:
1557:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1516:
1428:Vernier thruster
1369:Human Propulsion
1018:
1014:
992:
990:
989:
984:
982:
981:
963:
961:
960:
955:
953:
951:
950:
949:
947:
927:
916:
914:
910:
908:
894:
883:
882:
873:
868:
867:
845:
843:
842:
837:
835:
834:
817:standard gravity
814:
812:
811:
806:
804:
803:
785:
783:
782:
777:
775:
773:
772:
767:
756:
754:
750:
749:
747:
746:
737:
736:
727:
713:
712:
710:
699:
688:
686:
682:
680:
666:
659:
655:
653:
639:
633:
628:
626:
625:
616:
615:
606:
601:
600:
574:specific impulse
568:Specific Impulse
563:
561:
560:
555:
553:
552:
536:
534:
533:
528:
526:
525:
505:
503:
502:
497:
485:
483:
482:
477:
475:
474:
458:
456:
455:
450:
448:
447:
429:
427:
426:
421:
419:
418:
409:
408:
396:
392:
391:
387:
386:
384:
383:
374:
373:
364:
351:
347:
345:
331:
325:
321:
319:
305:
291:
290:
281:
280:
253:
251:
250:
245:
243:
242:
226:
224:
223:
218:
216:
215:
207:
197:
195:
194:
189:
187:
186:
177:
176:
168:
54:attitude control
2531:
2530:
2526:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2521:
2520:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2494:
2478:
2395:
2370:
2318:
2252:
2221:
2175:
2149:Electromagnetic
2144:
2093:
2084:Pump-fed engine
2067:
2036:
1993:
1960:
1897:
1888:Rocket equation
1854:Reaction engine
1832:
1827:
1797:
1796:
1759:
1755:
1746:
1744:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1708:
1704:
1695:
1693:
1683:
1679:
1670:
1666:
1658:
1652:
1651:
1647:
1638:
1636:
1623:
1622:
1618:
1571:
1564:
1555:
1553:
1545:
1544:
1540:
1517:
1508:
1503:
1481:
1469:
1445:
1430:
1424:
1422:Vernier Engines
1415:
1409:
1383:
1371:
1366:
1341:
1318:
1296:
1274:
1252:
1229:
1225:
1148:
1126:
1066:
1056:
1051:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1025:
1003:
977:
973:
971:
968:
967:
928:
917:
915:
898:
893:
889:
888:
884:
878:
874:
872:
863:
859:
857:
854:
853:
830:
826:
824:
821:
820:
799:
795:
793:
790:
789:
757:
755:
742:
738:
732:
728:
726:
719:
715:
714:
700:
689:
687:
670:
665:
661:
660:
643:
638:
634:
632:
621:
617:
611:
607:
605:
593:
589:
587:
584:
583:
579:
570:
548:
544:
542:
539:
538:
521:
517:
515:
512:
511:
491:
488:
487:
470:
466:
464:
461:
460:
443:
439:
437:
434:
433:
414:
410:
404:
400:
379:
375:
369:
365:
363:
356:
352:
335:
330:
326:
309:
304:
300:
299:
295:
286:
282:
276:
272:
264:
261:
260:
238:
234:
232:
229:
228:
206:
205:
203:
200:
199:
182:
178:
167:
166:
158:
155:
154:
144:
130:
102:
94:
73:
27:) is a type of
17:
12:
11:
5:
2529:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2496:
2495:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2469:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2417:Gravity assist
2414:
2409:
2403:
2401:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2393:
2388:
2382:
2380:
2379:External power
2376:
2375:
2372:
2371:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2366:
2356:
2355:
2354:
2352:Bussard ramjet
2344:
2339:
2338:
2337:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2316:
2311:
2310:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2284:
2279:
2273:
2271:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2254:
2253:
2251:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2229:
2227:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2183:
2181:
2180:Electrothermal
2177:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2145:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2120:
2114:
2112:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2075:
2073:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2053:Expander cycle
2050:
2044:
2042:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2022:Monopropellant
2019:
2018:
2017:
2012:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1975:
1973:
1966:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1932:
1931:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1895:
1893:Thermal rocket
1890:
1885:
1880:
1879:
1878:
1873:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1856:
1846:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1833:
1826:
1825:
1818:
1811:
1803:
1795:
1794:
1753:
1743:. 10 July 2018
1728:
1721:) – via
1702:
1677:
1671:Lenda, J. A. "
1664:
1645:
1616:
1562:
1538:
1505:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1498:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1480:
1477:
1468:
1465:
1451:in June 2018,
1444:
1441:
1423:
1420:
1411:Main article:
1408:
1405:
1385:Main article:
1382:
1379:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1356:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1294:
1289:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1146:
1141:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1100:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1058:
1053:
1047:
1041:
1035:
1029:
1022:
1002:
999:
995:sonic velocity
980:
976:
946:
943:
940:
937:
934:
931:
926:
923:
920:
913:
907:
904:
901:
897:
892:
887:
881:
877:
871:
866:
862:
833:
829:
802:
798:
770:
766:
763:
760:
753:
745:
741:
735:
731:
725:
722:
718:
709:
706:
703:
698:
695:
692:
685:
679:
676:
673:
669:
664:
658:
652:
649:
646:
642:
637:
631:
624:
620:
614:
610:
604:
599:
596:
592:
577:
569:
566:
551:
547:
524:
520:
495:
473:
469:
446:
442:
417:
413:
407:
403:
399:
395:
390:
382:
378:
372:
368:
362:
359:
355:
350:
344:
341:
338:
334:
329:
324:
318:
315:
312:
308:
303:
298:
294:
289:
285:
279:
275:
271:
268:
241:
237:
213:
210:
185:
181:
174:
171:
165:
162:
143:
140:
139:
138:
134:
129:
126:
125:
124:
121:
118:
115:
112:
109:
106:
101:
98:
93:
90:
72:
69:
45:monopropellant
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2528:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2493:
2492:
2487:
2481:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2427:Oberth effect
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2398:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2365:
2362:
2361:
2360:
2357:
2353:
2350:
2349:
2348:
2347:Fusion rocket
2345:
2343:
2340:
2336:
2333:
2332:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2315:
2312:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2270:Closed system
2268:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2224:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2202:Arcjet rocket
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2171:Plasma magnet
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2147:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2125:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2111:Electrostatic
2109:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2064:
2063:Tap-off cycle
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2045:
2043:
2039:
2033:
2032:Tripropellant
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2006:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1967:
1963:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1951:Photon rocket
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1941:Magnetic sail
1939:
1937:
1936:Electric sail
1934:
1930:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1900:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1867:
1864:
1860:
1859:Reaction mass
1857:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1849:Rocket engine
1847:
1845:
1842:
1841:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1819:
1817:
1812:
1810:
1805:
1804:
1801:
1790:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1757:
1742:
1738:
1732:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1706:
1692:
1688:
1681:
1674:
1668:
1655:
1649:
1635:on 2019-06-30
1634:
1630:
1626:
1620:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1569:
1567:
1552:
1548:
1542:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1525:Iaf Abstracts
1522:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1506:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1482:
1476:
1474:
1464:
1461:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1429:
1419:
1414:
1404:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1388:
1378:
1376:
1361:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1313:
1312:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1220:
1219:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1181:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1101:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1061:
1060:
1054:
1050:
1042:
1038:
1030:
1023:
1020:
1019:
1013:
1010:
1007:
998:
996:
978:
974:
964:
941:
938:
935:
929:
924:
921:
918:
911:
905:
902:
899:
895:
890:
885:
879:
875:
869:
864:
860:
851:
849:
831:
827:
818:
800:
796:
786:
768:
764:
761:
758:
751:
743:
739:
733:
729:
723:
720:
716:
707:
704:
701:
696:
693:
690:
683:
677:
674:
671:
667:
662:
656:
650:
647:
644:
640:
635:
629:
622:
618:
612:
608:
602:
597:
594:
590:
581:
575:
565:
549:
545:
522:
518:
509:
493:
471:
467:
444:
440:
430:
415:
411:
405:
401:
397:
393:
388:
380:
376:
370:
366:
360:
357:
353:
348:
342:
339:
336:
332:
327:
322:
316:
313:
310:
306:
301:
296:
292:
287:
283:
277:
273:
269:
266:
258:
255:
239:
235:
211:
208:
183:
179:
172:
169:
163:
160:
152:
148:
135:
132:
131:
128:Disadvantages
122:
119:
116:
113:
110:
107:
104:
103:
97:
89:
86:
77:
68:
66:
62:
57:
55:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
29:rocket engine
26:
22:
2489:
2432:Space launch
2364:Fission sail
2292:Radioisotope
2123:Ion thruster
2041:Power cycles
2027:Bipropellant
1919:Steam rocket
1914:Water rocket
1908:
1770:
1766:
1756:
1745:. Retrieved
1740:
1731:
1705:
1694:. Retrieved
1690:
1680:
1667:
1648:
1637:. Retrieved
1633:the original
1628:
1619:
1582:
1578:
1554:. Retrieved
1551:ResearchGate
1550:
1541:
1524:
1470:
1457:
1446:
1431:
1416:
1390:
1384:
1372:
1364:Applications
1359:
1045:
1033:
1011:
1008:
1004:
965:
852:
787:
582:
571:
431:
259:
256:
145:
95:
82:
65:pyrotechnics
58:
49:bipropellant
35:to generate
24:
20:
18:
2447:Aerocapture
2442:Aerobraking
2323:Open system
2307:"Lightbulb"
2248:Mass driver
1998:Propellants
1929:Diffractive
1773:(2S): 279.
1610:10057/15652
1231:(Freon-12)
1031:Theoretical
1001:Propellants
92:Performance
2505:Categories
2467:Warp drive
2297:Salt-water
2015:Hypergolic
1924:Solar sail
1747:2018-12-14
1696:2018-12-16
1675:." (1978).
1654:US 3270986
1639:2018-12-12
1556:2018-12-14
1501:References
1443:Automotive
1426:See also:
100:Advantages
41:efficiency
2010:Cryogenic
1789:1736-6046
1711:@elonmusk
1585:(4): 58.
1579:Aerospace
1453:Elon Musk
1024:Molecular
1021:Cold Gas
939:−
936:γ
919:γ
900:γ
886:γ
865:∗
832:∗
769:γ
762:−
759:γ
724:−
705:−
702:γ
691:γ
672:γ
648:−
645:γ
630:γ
613:∗
494:γ
361:−
337:γ
314:−
311:γ
293:γ
212:˙
173:˙
2302:Gas core
1837:Concepts
1479:See also
1467:Research
1437:Falcon 9
1393:Gemini 4
1043:Measured
1026:weight M
2391:Tethers
2243:MagBeam
2128:Gridded
1883:Staging
1876:Delta-v
1723:Twitter
1587:Bibcode
1529:Bibcode
1527:: 785.
1495:CubeSat
1354:Liquid
1332:Liquid
1309:Liquid
1243:Liquid
1057:(g/cm)
1055:Density
993:is the
846:is the
506:is the
61:CubeSat
2217:VASIMR
1866:Thrust
1844:Rocket
1787:
1691:SpaceX
1659:
1434:SpaceX
1234:120.9
1207:131.3
1052:(sec)
1040:(sec)
966:where
788:where
432:Where
198:where
147:Thrust
142:Thrust
71:Design
37:thrust
23:(or a
2226:Other
1972:State
1719:Tweet
1460:Bosch
1449:tweet
1447:In a
1345:44.0
1323:44.0
1300:17.0
1287:0.19
1278:16.0
1265:0.96
1256:88.0
1216:2.74
1197:1.08
1188:83.8
1178:0.44
1169:40.0
1152:32.0
1139:0.28
1130:28.0
1117:0.19
1108:20.2
1098:0.04
1079:0.02
1956:WINE
1785:ISSN
1395:and
1303:105
1284:105
1281:114
1095:165
1092:179
1089:4.0
1076:272
1073:296
1070:2.0
1028:(u)
819:and
572:The
47:and
1775:doi
1605:hdl
1595:doi
1351:61
1348:67
1329:61
1326:67
1306:96
1262:45
1259:55
1240:37
1237:46
1222:CCl
1213:28
1210:31
1194:37
1191:39
1175:52
1172:57
1136:73
1133:80
1114:75
1111:82
815:is
153:as
56:.
33:gas
2507::
1783:.
1771:63
1769:.
1765:.
1739:.
1689:.
1627:.
1603:.
1593:.
1581:.
1577:.
1565:^
1549:.
1523:.
1509:^
1475:.
1397:10
1338:CO
1293:NH
1271:CH
1249:CF
1203:Xe
1184:Kr
1165:Ar
1155:?
1104:Ne
1085:He
1048:sp
1036:sp
578:sp
576:(I
510:,
19:A
1822:e
1815:t
1808:v
1791:.
1777::
1750:.
1725:.
1717:(
1699:.
1642:.
1613:.
1607::
1597::
1589::
1583:4
1559:.
1535:.
1531::
1340:2
1319:O
1317:2
1315:N
1295:3
1273:4
1251:4
1228:2
1226:F
1224:2
1147:2
1145:O
1125:2
1123:N
1065:2
1063:H
1046:I
1034:I
979:0
975:a
945:)
942:1
933:(
930:2
925:1
922:+
912:)
906:1
903:+
896:2
891:(
880:0
876:a
870:=
861:C
828:C
801:0
797:g
765:1
752:)
744:c
740:P
734:e
730:P
721:1
717:(
708:1
697:1
694:+
684:)
678:1
675:+
668:2
663:(
657:)
651:1
641:2
636:(
623:0
619:g
609:C
603:=
598:p
595:s
591:I
550:e
546:A
523:e
519:P
472:c
468:P
445:t
441:A
416:e
412:A
406:e
402:P
398:+
394:]
389:)
381:c
377:P
371:e
367:P
358:1
354:(
349:)
343:1
340:+
333:2
328:(
323:)
317:1
307:2
302:(
297:[
288:c
284:P
278:t
274:A
270:=
267:F
240:e
236:V
209:m
184:e
180:V
170:m
164:=
161:F
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
