Thermonuclear weapon

1111: 1102: 2541:, and was not of the Teller–Ulam configuration. It used alternating layers of fissile material and lithium deuteride fusion fuel spiked with tritium (this was later dubbed Sakharov's "First Idea"). Though nuclear fusion might have been technically achievable, it did not have the scaling property of a "staged" weapon. Thus, such a design could not produce thermonuclear weapons whose explosive yields could be made arbitrarily large (unlike U.S. designs at that time). The fusion layer wrapped around the fission core could only moderately multiply the fission energy (modern Teller–Ulam designs can multiply it 30-fold). Additionally, the whole fusion stage had to be imploded by conventional explosives, along with the fission core, substantially increasing the amount of chemical explosives needed. 2329:, a co-worker of Teller, made the first key conceptual leaps towards a workable fusion design. Ulam's two innovations that rendered the fusion bomb practical were that compression of the thermonuclear fuel before extreme heating was a practical path towards the conditions needed for fusion, and the idea of staging or placing a separate thermonuclear component outside a fission primary component, and somehow using the primary to compress the secondary. Teller then realized that the gamma and X-ray radiation produced in the primary could transfer enough energy into the secondary to create a successful implosion and fusion burn, if the whole assembly was wrapped in a 7101: 7464: 7344: 2921:, after receiving credible information from an "American scientist" (Teller), on Israel's nuclear capability. During the 1990s, Teller eventually confirmed speculations in the media that it was during his visits in the 1960s that he concluded that Israel was in possession of nuclear weapons. After he conveyed the matter to the higher level of the U.S. government, Teller reportedly said: "They have it, and they were clever enough to trust their research and not to test, they know that to test would get them into trouble." 2574: 7766: 6969: 2883:. Other Indian scientists involved in the test have disputed Santhanam's claim, arguing that his claims are unscientific. British seismologist Roger Clarke argued that the magnitudes suggested a combined yield of up to 60 kilotonnes of TNT (250 TJ), consistent with the Indian announced total yield of 56 kilotonnes of TNT (230 TJ). U.S. seismologist Jack Evernden has argued that for correct estimation of yields, one should 'account properly for geological and seismological differences between test sites'. 1245:, for use in the W76. Production of Fogbank lapsed after the W76 production run ended. The W76 Life Extension Program required more Fogbank to be made. This was complicated by the fact that the original Fogbank's properties were not fully documented, so a massive effort was mounted to re-invent the process. An impurity crucial to the properties of the old Fogbank was omitted during the new process. Only close analysis of new and old batches revealed the nature of that impurity. The manufacturing process used 719: 2859:, said that India's assertion of having detonated a staged thermonuclear bomb was believable. India says that their thermonuclear device was tested at a controlled yield of 45 kt (190 TJ) because of the close proximity of the Khetolai village at about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi), to ensure that the houses in that village do not suffer significant damage. Another cited reason was that radioactivity released from yields significantly more than 45 kt might not have been contained fully. After the 7932: 7240: 402: 2307: 1872:

the outer case: if the foam were not there, metal would ablate from the inside of the outer case with a large impulse, causing the casing to recoil outwards rapidly. The purpose of the casing is to contain the explosion for as long as possible, allowing as much X-ray ablation of the metallic surface of the secondary stage as possible, so it compresses the secondary efficiently, maximizing the fusion yield. Plastic foam has a low density, so causes a smaller impulse when it ablates than metal does.

7973: 7737: 7597: 7356: 8000: 7829: 7778: 7720: 7680: 7639: 7585: 7402: 6981: 1207:) each protruding through the outer edge of the reflector with one end in each section; all are clamped to the carriage and arranged more or less evenly around the casing's circumference. The neutron guns are tilted so the neutron emitting end of each gun end is pointed towards the central axis of the bomb. Neutrons from each neutron gun pass through and are focused by the neutron focus lens towards the centre of primary in order to boost the initial fissioning of the plutonium. A " 2147:. The Soviet Union is thought to have used multiple stages (including more than one tertiary fusion stage) in their 50 Mt (210 PJ) (100 Mt (420 PJ) in intended use) Tsar Bomba. The fissionable jacket could be replaced with lead, as was done with the Tsar Bomba. If any hydrogen bombs have been made from configurations other than those based on the Teller–Ulam design, the fact of it is not publicly known. A possible exception to this is the Soviet early 33: 7193: 2157:

alone (first stage). Second, the radiation from the fissioning of the primary would be used to compress and ignite the secondary fusion stage, resulting in a fusion explosion many times more powerful than the fission explosion alone. This chain of compression could conceivably be continued with an arbitrary number of tertiary fusion stages, each igniting more fusion fuel in the next stage although this is debated. Finally, efficient bombs (but not so-called

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is not known with any confidence. The difficulty that other countries had in developing the Teller–Ulam design (even when they apparently understood the design, such as with the United Kingdom) makes it somewhat unlikely that this simple information alone is what provides the ability to manufacture thermonuclear weapons. Nevertheless, the ideas put forward by Morland in 1979 have been the basis for all the current speculation on the Teller–Ulam design.

2994: 1695: 7320: 7205: 7181: 7538: 2240:) inside a specially shaped radiation case (known as the "peanut" for its shape). The value of an egg-shaped primary lies apparently in the fact that a MIRV warhead is limited by the diameter of the primary: if an egg-shaped primary can be made to work properly, then the MIRV warhead can be made considerably smaller yet still deliver a high-yield explosion. A W88 warhead manages to yield up to 475 kilotonnes of TNT (1,990 TJ) with a 1590: 2459: 1412: 666: 7920: 7228: 7069: 7504: 7281: 5074: 7052: 7961: 7944: 7668: 7332: 7264: 7627: 7298: 2735: 7897: 7526: 7476: 7157: 7140: 868: 2600:. The United Kingdom had worked closely with the Americans on the Manhattan Project. British access to nuclear weapons information was cut off by the United States at one point due to concerns about Soviet espionage. Full cooperation was not reestablished until an agreement governing the handling of secret information and other issues was signed. However, the British were allowed to observe the U.S. 2394: 2985:(DOE) policy has been, and continues to be, that they do not acknowledge when "leaks" occur, because doing so would acknowledge the accuracy of the supposed leaked information. Aside from images of the warhead casing, most information in the public domain about this design is relegated to a few terse statements by the DOE and the work of a few individual investigators. 883:, a container that traps the first stage or primary's energy inside temporarily. The outside of this radiation case, which is also normally the outside casing of the bomb, is the only direct visual evidence publicly available of any thermonuclear bomb component's configuration. Numerous photographs of various thermonuclear bomb exteriors have been declassified. 2952:(USGS), the blast released energy equivalent to an earthquake with a seismic magnitude of 6.3, 10 times more powerful than previous nuclear tests conducted by North Korea. U.S. Intelligence released an early assessment that the yield estimate was 140 kt (590 TJ), with an uncertainty range of 70 to 280 kt (290 to 1,170 TJ). On 12 September, 2836: 2206:

the radiation from the primary heated the polyethylene foam lining of the casing to a plasma, which then re-radiated radiation into the secondary's pusher, causing its surface to ablate and driving it inwards, compressing the secondary, igniting the sparkplug, and causing the fusion reaction. The general applicability of this principle is unclear.

341:. Additionally, in most designs the radiation case is also constructed of a material that undergoes fission driven by fast thermonuclear neutrons. Such bombs are classified as two stage weapons. Fast fission of the tamper and radiation case is the main contribution to the total yield and is the dominant process that produces 2716:

design, beyond the fact that France detonated a 2.6 Mt (11 PJ) device in the "Canopus" test. France reportedly had great difficulty with its initial development of the Teller-Ulam design, but it later overcame these and is believed to have nuclear weapons equal in sophistication to the other major nuclear powers.

2445:, megaton-class warheads were as small as 18 inches (0.46 m) in diameter and 720 pounds (330 kg) in weight. Further innovation in miniaturizing warheads was accomplished by the mid-1970s, when versions of the Teller–Ulam design were created that could fit ten or more warheads on the end of a small MIRVed missile. 2280:. Teller spent much of the Manhattan Project attempting to figure out how to make the design work, preferring it over work on the atomic bomb, and over the last year of the project he was assigned exclusively to the task. However once World War II ended, there was little impetus to devote many resources to the 1218:(RRW) Program. A graphic includes blurbs describing the potential advantage of a RRW on a part-by-part level, with the interstage blurb saying a new design would replace "toxic, brittle material" and "expensive 'special' material... unique facilities". The "toxic, brittle material" is widely assumed to be 292:) between the primary and secondary assemblies placed within an enclosure called a radiation case, which confines the X-ray energy and resists its outward pressure. The distance separating the two assemblies ensures that debris fragments from the fission primary (which move much more slowly than X-ray 4694:...said..."none of these explosions were thermonuclear, we are doing research and can do a fusion test if asked..." ""These boosted devices are like a half way stage towards a thermonuclear bomb. They use elements of the thermonuclear process, and are effectively stronger Atom bombs," Munir Ahmad Khan 3150:

Morland's work is interpreted as being at least partially correct because the DOE had sought to censor it, one of the few times they violated their usual approach of not acknowledging "secret" material that had been released; however, to what degree it lacks information, or has incorrect information,

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The yield of India's hydrogen bomb test remains highly debatable among the Indian science community and the international scholars. The question of politicisation and disputes between Indian scientists further complicated the matter. In an interview in August 2009, the director for the 1998 test site

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American observers had been invited to these kinds of tests. After Britain's successful detonation of a megaton-range device (and thus demonstrating a practical understanding of the Teller–Ulam design "secret"), the United States agreed to exchange some of its nuclear designs with the United Kingdom,

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The outer casing of the secondary assembly is called the "tamper-pusher". The purpose of a tamper in an implosion bomb is to delay the expansion of the reacting fuel supply (which is very hot dense plasma) until the fuel is fully consumed and the explosion runs to completion. The same tamper material

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of this chain reaction heat the highly compressed (and thus super dense) thermonuclear fuel surrounding the spark plug to around 300 million kelvin, igniting fusion reactions between fusion fuel nuclei. In modern weapons fueled by lithium deuteride, the fissioning plutonium spark plug also emits free

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For destruction of cities and non-hardened targets, breaking the mass of a single missile payload down into smaller MIRV bombs in order to spread the energy of the explosions into a "pancake" area is far more efficient in terms of area-destruction per unit of bomb energy. This also applies to single

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In essence, the Teller–Ulam configuration relies on at least two instances of implosion occurring: first, the conventional (chemical) explosives in the primary would compress the fissile core, resulting in a fission explosion many times more powerful than that which chemical explosives could achieve

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was declassified in 1991: "Fact that fissile or fissionable materials are present in some secondaries, material unidentified, location unspecified, use unspecified, and weapons undesignated." In 1998 the DOE declassified the statement that "The fact that materials may be present in channels and the

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was the modified fission bomb and produced 720 kt (3,000 TJ)—making it the largest fission explosion ever. At the time almost everyone (including the pilots of the plane that dropped it) thought that this was a fusion bomb. This bomb was put into service in 1958. A second prototype fusion

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Energy released in the primary is transferred to the "secondary" (or fusion) stage. This energy compresses the fusion fuel and sparkplug; the compressed sparkplug becomes supercritical and undergoes a fission chain reaction, further heating the compressed fusion fuel to a high enough temperature to

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the transfer of energy from the primary to the secondary. It must direct the hot gases, plasma, electromagnetic radiation and neutrons toward the right place at the right time. Less than optimal interstage designs have resulted in the secondary failing to work entirely on multiple shots, known as a

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A second set of tests was scheduled, with testing recommencing in September 1957. The first test was based on a "… new simpler design. A two-stage thermonuclear bomb that had a much more powerful trigger". This test Grapple X Round C was exploded on 8 November and yielded approximately 1.8 Mt

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device, based on information obtained from extensive interviews with the scientists and engineers who assembled it. According to Rhodes, the actual mechanism for the compression of the secondary was a combination of the radiation pressure, foam plasma pressure, and tamper-pusher ablation theories;

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stated that a 1-inch-thick (25 mm) layer of plastic foam was fixed to the lead liner of the inside of the Ivy Mike steel casing using copper nails. Rhodes quotes several designers of that bomb explaining that the plastic foam layer inside the outer case is to delay ablation and thus recoil of

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The proposed tamper-pusher ablation mechanism posits that the outer layers of the thermonuclear secondary's tamper-pusher are heated so extremely by the primary's X-ray flux that they expand violently and ablate away (fly off). Because total momentum is conserved, this mass of high velocity ejecta

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Following the crash, and a painstaking clear-up mission to recover thousands of pieces of material from 500 million gallons of ice, the Pentagon stated that all four weapons onboard had been "destroyed". However, documents obtained by the BBC under the US Freedom of Information act have disclosed

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Most bombs do not apparently have tertiary "stages"—that is, third compression stage(s), which are additional fusion stages compressed by a previous fusion stage. The fissioning of the last blanket of uranium, which provides about half the yield in large bombs, does not count as a "stage" in this

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The calculated ablation pressure is one order of magnitude greater than the higher proposed plasma pressures and nearly two orders of magnitude greater than calculated radiation pressure. No mechanism to avoid the absorption of energy into the radiation case wall and the secondary tamper has been

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Next comes the "Reflector/Neutron Gun Carriage". The reflector seals the gap between the Neutron Focus Lens (in the center) and the outer casing near the primary. It separates the primary from the secondary and performs the same function as the previous reflector. There are about six neutron guns

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is the primary example). Such processes have resulted in a body of unclassified knowledge about nuclear bombs that is generally consistent with official unclassified information releases and related physics and is thought to be internally consistent, though there are some points of interpretation

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in August 1949 came earlier than expected by Americans, and over the next several months there was an intense debate within the U.S. government, military, and scientific communities regarding whether to proceed with development of the far more powerful Super. The debate covered matters that were

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68.9 inches (1,750 mm) long, with a maximum diameter of 21.8 inches (550 mm), and by different estimates weighing in a range from 175 to 360 kilograms (386 to 794 lb). The smaller warhead allows more of them to fit onto a single missile and improves basic flight properties such as

1142:. The major components and their arrangement are in the diagram, though details are almost absent; what scattered details it does include likely have intentional omissions or inaccuracies. They are labeled "End-cap and Neutron Focus Lens" and "Reflector Wrap"; the former channels neutrons to the 2552:

design to achieve megaton-range results proved unfeasible. After the United States tested the "Ivy Mike" thermonuclear device in November 1952, proving that a multimegaton bomb could be created, the Soviets searched for an alternative design. The "Second Idea", as Sakharov referred to it in his

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speculated that North Korea may be trying to develop a "hydrogen bomb" and such a device may be North Korea's next weapons test. In January 2016, North Korea claimed to have successfully tested a hydrogen bomb, although only a magnitude 5.1 seismic event was detected at the time of the test, a

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warheads with a yield of about 300 kt (1,300 TJ) each. France's nuclear program has been carefully designed to ensure that these weapons remain usable decades into the future. Currently, France is no longer deliberately producing critical mass materials such as plutonium and enriched

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on 24 August 1968 was the country's first multistage thermonuclear weapon test. The bomb was detonated from a balloon at a height of 520 metres (1,710 ft). The result of this test was significant atmospheric contamination. Very little is known about France's development of the Teller–Ulam

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The primary's reaction is over and it has expanded. The surface of the pusher for the secondary is now so hot that it is also ablating or expanding away, pushing the rest of the secondary (tamper, fusion fuel, and fissile spark plug) inwards. The spark plug starts to fission. Not depicted: the

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case was moot, dropped its suit, and allowed the magazine to publish its article, which it did in November 1979. Morland had by then, however, changed his opinion of how the bomb worked, suggesting that a foam medium (the polystyrene) rather than radiation pressure was used to compress the

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in 1951 was the first American nuclear test series to test principles that led to the development of thermonuclear weapons. Sufficient fission was achieved to boost the associated fusion device, and enough was learned to achieve a full-scale device within a year. The design of all modern

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and allow citizens to feel empowered to question official statements on the importance of nuclear weapons and nuclear secrecy. Most of Morland's ideas about how the weapon worked were compiled from accessible sources: the drawings that most inspired his approach came from the

1052:) often boosted by deuterium gas. The spark plug, when compressed, can undergo nuclear fission (because of the shape, it is not a critical mass without compression). The tertiary, if one is present, would be set below the secondary and probably be made of the same materials. 3017:", and in 1979 added, "n thermonuclear weapons, radiation from a fission explosive can be contained and used to transfer energy to compress and ignite a physically separate component containing thermonuclear fuel." To this latter sentence the US government specified that " 1691:

impels the rest of the tamper-pusher to recoil inwards with tremendous force, crushing the fusion fuel and the spark plug. The tamper-pusher is built robustly enough to insulate the fusion fuel from the extreme heat outside; otherwise, the compression would be spoiled.

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spark plug—is imploded by the X-ray energy impinging on its pusher/ tamper. This compresses the entire secondary stage and drives up the density of the plutonium spark plug. The density of the plutonium fuel rises to such an extent that the spark plug is driven into a

2565:" in November 1955 with a yield of 1.6 Mt (6.7 PJ). The Soviets demonstrated the power of the staging concept in October 1961, when they detonated the massive and unwieldy Tsar Bomba. It was the largest nuclear weapon developed and tested by any country. 3121:

Through a variety of more complicated circumstances, the DOE case began to wane as it became clear that some of the data they were attempting to claim as "secret" had been published in a students' encyclopedia a few years earlier. After another H-bomb speculator,

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and exerts a force on any surface it strikes. The pressure of radiation at the intensities seen in everyday life, such as sunlight striking a surface, is usually imperceptible, but at the extreme intensities found in a thermonuclear bomb the pressure is enormous.

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North Korea claimed to have tested its miniaturised thermonuclear bomb on 6 January 2016. North Korea's first three nuclear tests (2006, 2009 and 2013) were relatively low yield and do not appear to have been of a thermonuclear weapon design. In 2013, the

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Though large quantities of vague data have been officially released—and larger quantities of vague data have been unofficially leaked by former bomb designers—most public descriptions of nuclear weapon design details rely to some degree on speculation,

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reflector; typically a cylinder made of an X-ray opaque material such as uranium with the primary and secondary at either end. It does not reflect like a mirror; instead, it gets heated to a high temperature by the X-ray flux from the primary, then it

3185:. The US Air Force maintains that the bomb was unarmed and did not contain the live plutonium core necessary to initiate a nuclear explosion. The bomb was thought by the Department of Energy to lie buried under several feet of silt at the bottom of 1275:

The fusion fuel of the secondary stage may be surrounded by a layer of additional fuel that undergoes fission when hit by the neutrons from the reactions within. These fission events account for about half of the total energy released in typical

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detonated upon impact with the ground, dispersing plutonium over nearby farms. A third bomb landed intact near Palomares while the fourth fell 12 miles (19 km) off the coast into the Mediterranean sea and was recovered a few months later.

2633:(7.5 PJ). On 28 April 1958 a bomb was dropped that yielded 3 Mt (13 PJ)—Britain's most powerful test. Two final air burst tests on 2 and 11 September 1958, dropped smaller bombs that yielded around 1 Mt (4.2 PJ) each. 1361:

For two thermonuclear bombs for which the general size and primary characteristics are well understood, the Ivy Mike test bomb and the modern W-80 cruise missile warhead variant of the W-61 design, the radiation pressure was calculated to be

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Whether these statements vindicate some or all of the models presented above is up for interpretation, and official U.S. government releases about the technical details of nuclear weapons have been purposely equivocating in the past (e.g.,

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Applying the more detailed form of those calculations to the Ivy Mike device yields vaporized pusher gas expansion velocity of 290 kilometres per second (180 mi/s) and an implosion velocity of perhaps 400 km/s (250 mi/s) if

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The secondary's relatively massive tamper (which resists outward expansion as the explosion proceeds) also serves as a thermal barrier to keep the fusion fuel filler from becoming too hot, which would spoil the compression. If made of

2871:, said that India has the capability to build thermonuclear bombs of any yield at will. India officially maintains that it can build thermonuclear weapons of various yields up to around 200 kt (840 TJ) on the basis of the 2619:

tests were carried out. The first test, Green Granite, was a prototype fusion bomb that failed to produce equivalent yields compared to the U.S. and Soviets, achieving only approximately 300 kt (1,300 TJ). The second test

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but is thought to have fielded only one such tertiary model, i.e., a bomb in which a fission stage, followed by a fusion stage, finally compresses yet another fusion stage. This U.S. design was the heavy but highly efficient (i.e.,

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radiation from the primary. Most of the energy produced would be absorbed by either the walls of the radiation case or the tamper around the secondary. Analyzing the effects of that absorbed energy led to the third mechanism:

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similar magnitude to the 2013 test of a 6–9 kt (25–38 TJ) atomic bomb. These seismic recordings cast doubt upon North Korea's claim that a hydrogen bomb was tested and suggest it was a non-fusion nuclear test.

1578:. The fission reactions though, especially the last fission reactions, release a tremendous amount of fission products and fallout. If the last fission stage is omitted, by replacing the uranium tamper with one made of 2553:

memoirs, was a previous proposal by Ginzburg in November 1948 to use lithium deuteride in the bomb, which would, in the course of being bombarded by neutrons, produce tritium and free deuterium. In late 1953 physicist

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It is well established that Edward Teller advised and guided the Israeli establishment on general nuclear matters for some 20 years. Between 1964 and 1967, Teller made six visits to Israel where he lectured at the

776:. Ford claims he used only pre-existing information and even submitted a manuscript to the government, which wanted to remove entire sections of the book for concern that foreign states could use the information. 759:

has been not to acknowledge the leaking of design information, as such acknowledgment would potentially validate the information as accurate. In a small number of prior cases, the U.S. government has attempted to

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estimate of 6.3. Its yield estimate was revised to 250 kt (1,000 TJ), while noting the estimate had some uncertainty and an undisclosed margin of error. On 13 September, an analysis of before and after

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Rough calculations for the basic ablation effect are relatively simple: the energy from the primary is distributed evenly onto all of the surfaces within the outer radiation case, with the components coming to a

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Current technical criticisms of the idea of "foam plasma pressure" focus on unclassified analysis from similar high energy physics fields that indicate that the pressure produced by such a plasma would only be a

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There is very little detailed information in the open literature about the mechanism of the interstage. One of the best sources is a simplified diagram of a British thermonuclear weapon similar to the American

2727:. Between 1966 and 1996 France carried out more than 190 nuclear tests. France's final nuclear test took place on 27 January 1996, and then the country dismantled its Polynesian test sites. France signed the 1253:, which led to at least three evacuations of the Fogbank plant in 2006. Widely used in the petroleum and pharmaceutical industries, acetonitrile is flammable and toxic. Y-12 is the sole producer of Fogbank. 2788:

capable of carrying nuclear warheads. The M51.1 missiles are intended to be replaced with the new M51.2 warhead beginning in 2016, which has a 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) greater range than the M51.1.

2350:) total yield, it raised expectations to a near certainty that the concept would work. On 1 November 1952, the Teller–Ulam configuration was tested at full scale in the "Ivy Mike" shot at an island in the 2173:." However, usually such weapons were not more than a dozen megatons, which was generally considered enough to destroy even the most hardened practical targets (for example, a control facility such as the 5259: 3013:

In 1972 the United States government declassified a document stating "n thermonuclear (TN) weapons, a fission 'primary' is used to trigger a TN reaction in thermonuclear fuel referred to as a 'secondary

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in Greenland. The resulting fire caused extensive radioactive contamination. Personnel involved in the cleanup failed to recover all the debris from three of the bombs, and one bomb was not recovered.

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of 9 May 1951 tested the basic concept for the first time on a very small scale. As the first successful (uncontrolled) release of nuclear fusion energy, which made up a small fraction of the 225

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ballistic missile submarines. One ballistic missile submarine is deployed in the deep ocean, but a total of three must be in operational use at all times. The three older submarines are armed with 16

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of 1954–1955. The People's Republic of China detonated its first thermonuclear bomb on 17 June 1967, 32 months after detonating its first fission weapon, with a yield of 3.31 Mt. It took place in the

6102:"Infamy and Honor at the Atomic Café: Father of the hydrogen bomb, "Star Wars" missile defense and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Edward Teller has no regrets about his contentious career" 1764:

the gas expansion velocity is roughly 410 km/s (250 mi/s) and the implosion velocity 570 km/s (350 mi/s). The pressure due to the ablating material is calculated to be 5.3

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Pushed from both sides (from the primary and the spark plug), the lithium deuteride fuel is highly compressed and heated to thermonuclear temperatures. Also, by being bombarded with neutrons, each

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official declassification reports indicate that foamed plastic materials are or may be used in radiation case liners, and despite the low direct plasma pressure they may be of use in delaying the

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could be constructed. This contrasts with fission weapons, which are limited in yield because only so much fission fuel can be amassed in one place before the danger of its accidentally becoming

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The Teller–Ulam design was for many years considered one of the top nuclear secrets, and even today it is not discussed in any detail by official publications with origins "behind the fence" of

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in charge of the project. British knowledge on how to make a thermonuclear fusion bomb was rudimentary, and at the time the United States was not exchanging any nuclear knowledge because of the

3118:. Morland and his lawyers disagreed on all points, but the injunction was granted, as the judge in the case felt that it was safer to grant the injunction and allow Morland, et al., to appeal. 2691:

delivered information indicating that China knew secret details of the U.S. W88 warhead, supposedly through espionage. (This line of investigation eventually resulted in the abortive trial of

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of the tamper/pusher outer surface, and the temperature of that layer can then be calculated. The velocity at which the surface then expands outwards is calculated and, from a basic Newtonian

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magazine, was sent to the DOE after falling into the hands of a professor who was opposed to Morland's goal, the DOE requested that the article not be published and pressed for a temporary

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and colleagues concluded that "he extreme danger to mankind inherent in the proposal wholly outweighs any military advantage." Despite the objections raised, on 31 January 1950, President

5311:"North Korea's Punggye-ri Nuclear Test Site: Satellite Imagery Shows Post-Test Effects and New Activity in Alternate Tunnel Portal Areas | 38 North: Informed Analysis of North Korea" 3106:. The DOE argued that Morland's information was (1) likely derived from classified sources, (2) if not derived from classified sources, itself counted as "secret" information under the " 2185:

bombs deliverable by cruise missile or other system, such as a bomber, resulting in most operational warheads in the U.S. program having yields of less than 500 kt (2,100 TJ).

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to encourage informative responses from them (i.e., asking questions such as "Do they still use spark plugs?" even if he was not aware what the latter term specifically referred to).

3069:. Morland also interviewed (often informally) many former Los Alamos scientists (including Teller and Ulam, though neither gave him any useful information), and he used a variety of 2612:

agreed to a secret plan, whereby if the Aldermaston scientists failed or were greatly delayed in developing the fusion bomb, it would be replaced by an extremely large fission bomb.

1222:, which fits that description and would also moderate the neutron flux from the primary. Some material to absorb and re-radiate the X-rays in a particular manner may also be used. 2969:

satellite imagery of the test site was published suggesting the test occurred under 900 metres (3,000 ft) of rock, and the yield "could have been in excess of 300 kilotons".

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Israel is alleged to possess thermonuclear weapons of the Teller–Ulam design, but it is not known to have tested any nuclear devices, although it is widely speculated that the

2608:, providing them with clear, direct evidence of the compression produced in the secondary stages by radiation implosion. Because of these difficulties, in 1955 Prime Minister 1687:

serves also as a pusher in that it is the medium by which the outside pressure (force acting on the surface area of the secondary) is transferred to the mass of fusion fuel.

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that are still considered open. The state of public knowledge about the Teller–Ulam design has been mostly shaped from a few specific incidents outlined in a section below.

3334:

But, yes, the hydrogen bomb—that is, a two-stage thermonuclear device, as we refer to it—is indeed the principal part of the US arsenal, as it is of the Russian arsenal..

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The primary's fission reaction has run to completion, and the primary is now at several million degrees and radiating gamma and hard X-rays, heating up the inside of the

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a month later. In 1981, Morland published a book about his experience, describing in detail the train of thought that led him to his conclusions about the "secret".

3058:

in 1979 on the "secret of the hydrogen bomb". In 1978, Morland had decided that discovering and exposing this "last remaining secret" would focus attention onto the

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Report of the United States House of Representatives Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China

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preparations, K. Santhanam claimed that the yield of the thermonuclear explosion was lower than expected and that India should therefore not rush into signing the

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was the most powerful bomb ever detonated. As thermonuclear weapons represent the most efficient design for weapon energy yield in weapons with yields above 50

4798: 4608: 5499:"Air Force Search & Recovery Assessment of the 1958 Savannah, GA B-47 Accident". AF Nuclear Weapons and Counterproliferation Agency. U.S. Air Force. 2001. 5528: 3449: 3034:). Other information, such as the types of fuel used in some of the early weapons, has been declassified, though precise technical information has not been. 996:, which is used because it is easier to weaponize than liquefied tritium/deuterium gas. This dry fuel, when bombarded by neutrons, produces tritium, a heavy 5546: 992:

that helps compress the fusion fuel (and, in the case of uranium, may eventually undergo fission itself). Inside this is the fusion fuel, usually a form of

7416: 5206: 3483: 856:" is thought to have been a three-stage fission-fusion-fusion device. Theoretically by continuing this process thermonuclear weapons with arbitrarily high 4731: 1665:

of the basic photon pressure within the radiation case, and also that the known foam materials intrinsically have a very low absorption efficiency of the

1479:

case, based on research that located declassified documents listing special foams as liner components within the radiation case of thermonuclear weapons.

384: 8026: 7073: 5584: 2426:) (2.5 times expected) and is the largest U.S. bomb ever tested. Efforts shifted towards developing miniaturized Teller–Ulam weapons that could fit into 6388: 5564: 2957: 1110: 1101: 534: 5233: 3529: 2557:

achieved the first breakthrough of staging the reaactions. The next breakthrough of radiation implosion was discovered and developed by Sakharov and

2104:

would thus increase the yield of a Teller–Ulam bomb above a depleted uranium or natural uranium jacket. This has been proposed specifically for the

1064:. The fissioning primary produces four types of energy: 1) expanding hot gases from high explosive charges that implode the primary; 2) superheated 2937: 2626: 3850: 7249: 7061: 606: 1984:

nuclei require a minimum energy of about 1 megaelectronvolt (0.16 pJ)) and because these slower neutrons are produced by other fissioning

7110: 2118:

The inside of the casing may or may not be specially machined to "reflect" the X-rays. X-ray "reflection" is not like light reflecting off a

540: 1329:

X-rays creating a plasma in the radiation channel's filler (a polystyrene or "Fogbank" plastic foam). This was a second idea put forward by

960:

The secondary is usually shown as a column of fusion fuel and other components wrapped in many layers. Around the column is first a "pusher-

2670:

in northwest China. China had received extensive technical help from the Soviet Union to jump-start their nuclear program, but by 1960 the

1214:

The first U.S. government document to mention the interstage was only recently released to the public promoting the 2004 initiation of the

601: 7547: 4448: 2930: 1570:

This would complete the fission-fusion-fission sequence. Fusion, unlike fission, is relatively "clean"—it releases energy but no harmful

590: 4713: 741:", even if it is created by persons who are not government employees or associated with weapons programs, in a legal doctrine known as " 5838: 2115:

In some descriptions, additional internal structures exist to protect the secondary from receiving excessive neutrons from the primary.

611: 6437:

YouTube Playlist of declassified nuclear explosion tests obtained by converting film scans to digital at Lawrence Livermore Laboratory

6436: 3143:

of fissile material as well. He published these changes, based in part on the proceedings of the appeals trial, as a short erratum in

4750: 642: 4678: 4478: 2166: 2165:

provided by the fusion reactions in secondary or tertiary stages. Such designs are suggested to be capable of being scaled up to an

6973: 585: 3821: 2851:, a Pakistani nuclear physicist, asserted that if Shakti-I had been a thermonuclear test, the device had failed to fire. However, 1702:

Warhead before firing. The nested spheres at the top are the fission primary; the cylinders below are the fusion secondary device.

1508:, pushing against the tamper of the secondary, compressing it tightly, and beginning the fission chain reaction in the spark plug. 1309:

the X-rays create the pressure is the main remaining disputed point in the unclassified press. There are three proposed theories:

7431: 7370: 3708: 3418: 3126:, had his own ideas about the "secret" (quite different from Morland's) published in a Wisconsin newspaper, the DOE claimed that 2638: 1519:. Then begins a fusion reaction between the tritium and the deuterium, releasing even more neutrons, and a huge amount of energy. 4645:"Pokhran – II tests were fully successful; given India capability to build nuclear deterrence: Dr. Kakodkar and Dr. Chidambaram" 7729: 7689: 7044: 6463: 4032: 2743: 555: 545: 5653: 1353:

inside the closed casing might be enough to compress the secondary. Electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays or light carries

7105: 4215: 3772: 2880: 2830: 2728: 2480: 2254: 1582:, for example, the overall explosive force is reduced by approximately half but the amount of fallout is relatively low. The 1433: 813: 683: 571: 560: 550: 358: 4582: 4423: 2548:, was detonated in 1953 with a yield equivalent to 400 kt (1,700 TJ) (15%-20% from fusion). Attempts to use a 2753: 2431: 1597:

Warhead before firing; primary (fission bomb) at top, secondary (fusion fuel) at bottom, all suspended in polystyrene foam.

852:. This process could be continued, with energy from the secondary igniting a third fusion stage; the Soviet Union's AN602 " 475: 3050:

Most of the current ideas on the workings of the Teller–Ulam design came into public awareness after the DOE attempted to

1586:

is a hydrogen bomb with an intentionally thin tamper, allowing as many of the fast fusion neutrons as possible to escape.

7017: 4847: 3241: 2161:) end with the fissioning of the final natural uranium tamper, something that could not normally be achieved without the 1854: 524: 203: 7348: 6834: 6187: 6144: 6066: 6016: 5970: 5799: 5748: 5686: 5463: 5378: 5033: 4973: 4904: 4391: 4331: 4252: 4166: 4119: 4042: 3996: 3692: 3627: 3160: 2982: 2427: 2406:

The liquid deuterium fuel of Ivy Mike was impractical for a deployable weapon, and the next advance was to use a solid

756: 747: 3373:

The B61-based "Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator:" Clever retrofit or headway towards fourth-generation nuclear weapons?

1123:, in which they proposed their revolutionary staged implosion idea. This declassified version is extensively redacted. 6511: 6426: 6276: 5510: 2868: 2506: 1459: 1093:

from the primary to prematurely begin heating the secondary, weakening the compression enough to prevent any fusion.

705: 371:, who developed it in 1951 for the United States, with certain concepts developed with the contribution of physicist 4806: 2488: 1441: 1293:

has been the subject of some disagreement in the open press but is thought to be transmitted through the X-rays and

7365: 6791: 4529: 3045: 2769: 1600:

High-explosive fires in primary, compressing plutonium core into supercriticality and beginning a fission reaction.

3026:

term 'channel filler', with no elaboration", which may refer to the polystyrene foam (or an analogous substance).

1735:, and the effects of that thermal energy are then analyzed. The energy is mostly deposited within about one X-ray 8031: 7873: 7007: 2961: 2720: 2641:. Instead of continuing with its own design, the British were given access to the design of the smaller American 2561:

in early 1954. Sakharov's "Third Idea", as the Teller–Ulam design was known in the USSR, was tested in the shot "

1603:

Fission primary emits X-rays that are scattered along the inside of the casing, irradiating the polystyrene foam.

375:. Similar devices were developed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, France, China and India. The thermonuclear 8056: 7421: 3221: 2945: 2856: 2558: 2484: 1437: 1238: 687: 202:) was carried out by the United States in 1952, and the concept has since been employed by most of the world's 17: 7552: 3557: 7360: 7268: 6385: 5623:

that while this is technically true—none of the bombs remained complete—one of the weapons was not recovered.

4505: 3070: 635: 453: 7848: 7787: 6695: 6419:

University of Southampton, Mountbatten Centre for International Studies, Nuclear History Working Paper No5.

2593: 2589: 1215: 1204: 6373: 5325: 5097: 4284: 1072:; and 4) the neutrons from the primary's nuclear detonation. The interstage is responsible for accurately 7802: 7724: 7694: 7034: 7027: 6914: 6819: 6806: 6687: 2910: 2781: 2442: 1861:

until energy has distributed evenly and a sufficient fraction has reached the secondary's tamper/pusher.

1723:

The secondary's fuel has started the fusion reaction and shortly will burn up. A fireball starts to form.

789: 616: 6101: 4081:

Harvey, John R.; Michalowski, Stefan (21 December 2007). "Nuclear weapons safety: The case of trident".

2780:

thermonuclear warheads. The air fleet is four squadrons at four different bases. In total, there are 23

2084:

nuclei consume fusion neutrons in the fast-fission process. Using a final fissionable/fissile jacket of

1061: 7858: 7406: 7273: 7012: 6903: 6879: 6506: 6501: 6456: 6058: 5123: 2892: 2761: 2739: 2663: 2520: 1078: 816:

is the idea that different parts of a thermonuclear weapon can be chained together in stages, with the

576: 421: 2370:, used an extra-large fission bomb as a "trigger" and liquid deuterium—kept in its liquid state by 20 1566:

bomb casing), causing it to undergo a fast fission reaction, providing about half of the total energy.

1486:

The high explosives surrounding the core of the primary fire, compressing the fissile material into a

1004:

that can undergo nuclear fusion, along with the deuterium present in the mixture. (See the article on

321:

neutrons that collide with lithium nuclei and supply the tritium component of the thermonuclear fuel.

7782: 7631: 6945: 6549: 4965: 4452: 3193: 3111: 2597: 2174: 1778:) in the Ivy Mike device and 64 billion bars (6.4 quadrillion pascals) in the W-80 device. 1069: 8061: 7699: 7601: 7307: 6796: 6374:

Annotated bibliography for nuclear weapons design from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues

6136: 5791: 5285:"The nuclear explosion in North Korea on 3 September 2017: A revised magnitude assessment – NORSAR" 2966: 2469: 1610: 1512: 1422: 628: 441: 262: 1606:

Polystyrene foam becomes plasma, compressing secondary, and plutonium sparkplug begins to fission.

745:" (though the constitutional standing of the doctrine has been at times called into question; see 8009: 7755: 7684: 7643: 7411: 6783: 6668: 6643: 6599: 6413: 5836:(1 January 1989). "In Any Light: Scientists and the Decision to Build the Superbomb, 1952–1954". 4828: 3908: 3502: 2473: 1571: 1426: 961: 676: 470: 436: 317: 300: 3687:(CD-ROM & download available) (2nd ed.). Sunnyvale, California: Chukelea Publications. 2264:

The idea of a thermonuclear fusion bomb ignited by a smaller fission bomb was first proposed by

1008:

for a more detailed technical discussion of fusion reactions.) Inside the layer of fuel is the "

7570: 6950: 6717: 6663: 6648: 5886:(31 October 1996). "American and Soviet H-bomb development programmes: historical background". 5166: 3933: 3619: 3205: 3065: 2978: 2949: 2864: 2704: 1851:

suggested, making ablation apparently unavoidable. The other mechanisms appear to be unneeded.

1772: 954: 890: 730: 313: 138:. Its greater sophistication affords it vastly greater destructive power than first-generation 4456: 1760:

of the total tamper/pusher mass is ablated off, the most energy efficient proportion. For the

7606: 7302: 7022: 6884: 6867: 6449: 5962: 4776: 3980: 3217: 3178: 3166: 3115: 2998: 2296: 2216: 2178: 1809: 1761: 1131: 802: 510: 495: 431: 135: 6239: 6053:

In the Shadow of the Bomb: Oppenheimer, Bethe, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist

6050: 5670: 3585: 3518:"So far as is known all high yield nuclear weapons today (>50 kt or so) use this design." 3197: 1272:

Energy released by the fusion events continues heating the fuel, keeping the reaction going.

886:

The primary is thought to be a standard implosion method fission bomb, though likely with a

142:, a more compact size, a lower mass, or a combination of these benefits. Characteristics of 7616: 7485: 7232: 6727: 6658: 6611: 6588: 6559: 6285: 6235: 5897: 5565:"US B-52 nuclear bomber crash in Greenland 51 years ago has ill Danes seeking compensation" 3170: 2667: 2339: 2140: 2123: 1242: 1188: 887: 857: 458: 446: 353: 338: 309: 4717: 4644: 2752:

In 2015 France confirmed that its nuclear arsenal contains about 300 warheads, carried by

820:

of each stage providing the energy to ignite the next stage. At a minimum, this implies a

8: 7426: 6889: 6128: 6107: 6008: 4670: 4240: 4034:

Weapons of Mass Destruction: An Encyclopedia of Worldwide Policy, Technology, and History

3764: 2906: 2629:, was used in the third test, but only produced approximately 150 kt (630 TJ). 2273: 1765: 1732: 1233:

has been suggested as a possibility. It was first used in thermonuclear weapons with the

1192: 845: 781: 500: 334: 6289: 5901: 4829:"We have an adequate scientific database for designing ... a credible nuclear deterrent" 1720:

radiation case is also ablating and expanding outwards (omitted for clarity of diagram).

7508: 7254: 7209: 7078: 6990: 6722: 6301: 6046: 5945: 5913: 5871: 5855: 5449: 5234:"US Intelligence: North Korea's Sixth Test Was a 140 Kiloton 'Advanced Nuclear' Device" 3955: 3851:"Improved Security, Safety & Manufacturability of the Reliable Replacement Warhead" 3829: 3612: 3558:"A physicist might be in trouble for what he revealed in his new book about the H bomb" 3534: 3376: 3351: 3320: 3251: 3085: 2679: 1313: 7948: 6441: 6349: 4298: 3712: 3409: 3001:

nuclear warhead, allow for some speculation as to the relative size and shapes of the

1944:

in depleted or natural uranium, but its fission-efficiency is higher. This is because

6773: 6754: 6621: 6521: 6516: 6367: 6325: 6317: 6309: 6259: 6251: 6193: 6183: 6150: 6140: 6112: 6072: 6062: 6051: 6022: 6012: 6001: 5976: 5966: 5949: 5937: 5929: 5921: 5863: 5805: 5795: 5762: 5754: 5744: 5692: 5682: 5601: 5593: 5469: 5459: 5392: 5384: 5374: 5047: 5039: 5029: 5022: 4987: 4979: 4969: 4918: 4910: 4900: 4616: 4557: 4397: 4387: 4337: 4327: 4258: 4248: 4211: 4180: 4172: 4162: 4125: 4115: 4109: 4048: 4038: 4002: 3992: 3985: 3872:

that depicts an interstage that absorbs and re-radiates X-rays. From Howard Morland,

3786: 3778: 3768: 3688: 3641: 3633: 3623: 3457: 3182: 2848: 2671: 2616: 2577: 2277: 2221: 2135: 2122:, but rather the reflector material is heated by the X-rays, causing the material to 1073: 993: 734: 505: 490: 485: 480: 416: 249:) and a separate nuclear fusion secondary stage containing thermonuclear fuel: heavy 94: 5909: 2956:

revised its estimate of the explosion magnitude upward to 6.1, matching that of the

368: 7936: 7672: 7513: 7144: 7002: 6824: 6700: 6569: 6554: 6361: 6355: 6297: 6293: 6243: 6209: 6172: 6088: 6038: 5905: 5883: 5847: 5833: 5821: 5645: 5485: 5024:

The Bomb in the Basement: How Israel Went Nuclear and What That Means for the World

5003: 4934: 4380: 4090: 3802: 3664: 3213: 3201: 2723:

of 1963, which banned nuclear test explosions in the atmosphere, underwater, or in

2712: 2642: 2601: 2554: 2311: 2169:(with apparently as many fusion stages as desired), potentially to the level of a " 2144: 2109: 1505: 1501:, which "reflect" along the inside of the casing, irradiating the polystyrene foam. 1086: 1065: 372: 330: 296:) cannot disassemble the secondary before the fusion explosion runs to completion. 151: 147: 6274:; Smirnov, Yuri; Rothstein, Linda; Leskov, Sergei (1993). "The Khariton Version". 4609:"India Sets 3 Nuclear Blasts, Defying a Worldwide Ban; Tests Bring a Sharp Outcry" 3987:

The Release of Thermonuclear Energy by Inertial Confinement: Ways Towards Ignition

3869: 3727: 2843:

On 11 May 1998, India announced that it had detonated a thermonuclear bomb in its

2573: 7853: 7657: 7518: 7244: 7185: 7149: 6995: 6705: 6653: 6539: 6430: 6392: 6201: 6158: 6080: 6030: 5984: 5888: 5813: 5770: 5700: 5671: 5477: 5445: 5441: 5400: 5055: 4995: 4926: 4714:"Press Statement by Dr. Anil Kakodkar and Dr. R. Chidambaram on Pokhran-II tests" 4405: 4345: 4266: 4188: 4133: 4056: 4010: 3857: 3794: 3649: 3450:"Nuclear Anxiety: The Overview; India Detonated a Hydrogen Bomb, Experts Confirm" 3098: 3051: 2914: 2852: 2785: 2757: 2530: 2526: 2407: 2300: 2241: 2170: 1575: 1322: 1191:

more evenly spread X-rays that travel to the secondary, causing what is known as

825: 769: 761: 738: 426: 346: 210: 5310: 3348:

Fourth Generation Nuclear Weapons: Military effectiveness and collateral effects

1199:, gold was used as a coating over the uranium to enhance the blackbody effect. 7770: 7336: 6544: 6496: 6488: 6271: 5996: 5732: 5455: 5362: 5188: 5148: 5017: 4959: 4424:"17 June 1967 – China's first thermonuclear test: CTBTO Preparatory Commission" 4154: 3756: 3405: 3282:

test in 1954 revealed the extent to which the design relies on fission as well.

3229: 3225: 3055: 2605: 2439: 2419: 2355: 2351: 2343: 2326: 2306: 2220:

reported that the U.S. W88 nuclear warhead, a small MIRVed warhead used on the

2198: 1864: 1516: 1491: 1317: 1005: 950: 946: 945:

core would be compressed to a smaller sphere by special layers of conventional

849: 755:

is rarely invoked for cases of private speculation. The official policy of the

515: 463: 393: 380: 289: 143: 52: 6410:– "The H-Bomb Secret: How we got it, why we're telling" (entire issue online). 6247: 6154: 5343: 4922: 4873: 4262: 4094: 3889: 1904:(highly enriched uranium) in the final fission jacket. The far more expensive 1225:

Candidates for the "special material" are polystyrene and a substance called "

383:(210 TJ), virtually all the nuclear weapons of this size deployed by the 8050: 8004: 7838: 7792: 7285: 7056: 6985: 6814: 6606: 6534: 6329: 6313: 6305: 6255: 6226:

De Geer, Lars-Erik (1991). "The radioactive signature of the hydrogen bomb".

6197: 6179: 6116: 6076: 6026: 5980: 5925: 5917: 5867: 5859: 5829: 5784: 5766: 5696: 5597: 5473: 5051: 4894: 4890: 4768: 4620: 4401: 4341: 4184: 4052: 4006: 3790: 3645: 3484:"Russia Declassifies Video From 1961 of Largest Hydrogen Bomb Ever Detonated" 3461: 3401: 2909:

on general topics in theoretical physics. It took him a year to convince the

2898: 2803: 2773: 2765: 2684: 2621: 2269: 1796: 1775: 1736: 1706: 1487: 1395: 1377: 1164: 1014: 907: 861: 722: 364: 342: 177: 6263: 6205: 6162: 6133:

Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb

5941: 5809: 5774: 5704: 5605: 4991: 4409: 4270: 4245:

Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb

4192: 4014: 3806: 718: 7977: 7965: 7868: 7589: 6636: 6626: 6472: 6084: 6034: 5988: 5817: 5740: 5715: 5481: 5404: 5396: 5370: 5059: 4930: 4516:, esp. Ch. 2, "PRC Theft of U.S. Thermonuclear Warhead Design Information". 4349: 4137: 4060: 3798: 3653: 3607: 3411:

On Heterocatalytic Detonations I. Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors

3279: 3186: 3123: 3096:

before igniting it. When an early draft of the article, to be published in

3031: 2688: 2609: 2411: 2363: 2317: 2265: 2162: 2158: 1583: 1527: 1523: 1330: 1246: 1121:

On Heterocatalytic Detonations I: Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors

1090: 833: 139: 6423: 6414:

Annotated bibliography on the hydrogen bomb from the Alsos Digital Library

6398: 4999: 3873: 3315: 2847:

tests ("Shakti-I", specifically, in Hindi the word 'Shakti' means power).

2674:

had become so great that the Soviet Union ceased all assistance to China.

7878: 7843: 7833: 7480: 7384: 6744: 6732: 6710: 5260:"North Korea nuclear test may have been twice as strong as first thought" 4955: 4896:

The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal & American Foreign Policy

3909:"Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions 4.4.3.3 The Ablation Process" 3107: 2918: 2724: 2362:) (over 450 times more powerful than the bomb dropped on Nagasaki during 2086: 2066: 2046: 2026: 2006: 1986: 1966: 1946: 1926: 1906: 1886: 1229:", an unclassified codename. Fogbank's composition is classified, though 1208: 1144: 1082: 1034: 970: 965: 927: 905:

when heated and compressed, inducing additional fission. When fired, the

742: 288:. These X-rays flood the void (the "radiation channel" often filled with 155: 85: 58: 5875: 3381: 3356: 2533:

in 1949 (before the Soviets had a working fission bomb), was dubbed the

2303:

made the decision to go forward with the development of the new weapon.

1743:

balance, the velocity at which the rest of the tamper implodes inwards.

1705:

Fission primary's explosives have detonated and collapsed the primary's

772:

defied government orders to remove classified information from his book

737:. In the United States, such knowledge can by default be classified as " 32: 7863: 4691: 4285:"The 'George' shot, Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organisation website" 4031:

Croddy, Eric A.; Wirtz, James J.; Larsen ear, Jeffrey A., eds. (2004).

3311: 3174: 3103: 2872: 2860: 2844: 2708: 2692: 2659: 2654: 2581: 2538: 2379: 1768: 1635:) and begins the fusion reaction. The neutron flux produced causes the 1482:

The sequence of firing the weapon (with the foam) would be as follows:

1475:

plasma pressure is the concept that Chuck Hansen introduced during the

1391: 1373: 1135: 1068:

that was originally the bomb's fissile material and its tamper; 3) the

1009: 853: 817: 690: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 376: 277: 265:. For this reason, thermonuclear weapons are often colloquially called 101: 6404: 5418: 4530:"24 August 1968 – French 'Canopus' test: CTBTO Preparatory Commission" 2993: 2325:

Teller and other U.S. physicists struggled to find a workable design.

150:

as the weapon's main fuel, thus allowing more efficient use of scarce

7901: 7542: 7039: 6759: 6678: 6673: 6616: 6124: 6096: 5851: 4236: 3059: 2801:

uranium, but it still relies on nuclear energy for electricity, with

2383: 2371: 2347: 1694: 1666: 1294: 1219: 894: 867: 304: 280:

of the fission primary stage. Its temperature soars past 100 million

254: 74: 5737:

Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years

5529:"US to clean up Spanish radioactive site 49 years after plane crash" 4159:

Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years

3934:"Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions 4.4.4 Implosion Systems" 2458: 1411: 665: 655: 209:

Modern fusion weapons essentially consist of two main components: a

7953: 7171: 6847: 5451:

Born Secret: The H-Bomb, the Progressive Case and National Security

4583:"Overview of the verification regime: CTBTO Preparatory Commission" 2948:

was conducted that resulted in "perfect success". According to the

2331: 1858: 1804: 1740: 1713: 1675: 1354: 1337: 1196: 1001: 876: 199: 5959:

Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956

5043: 4511: 4324:

Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956

4129: 4111:

A Convenient Spy: Wen Ho Lee and the Politics of Nuclear Espionage

2901:

of 1979 may have been a joint Israeli–South African nuclear test.

1589: 1265:

A (relatively) small fission bomb known as the "primary" explodes.

7741: 7312: 6925: 6764: 6749: 6737: 6564: 4799:"Former NSA disagrees with scientist, says Pokhran II successful" 3956:"The B-41 (Mk-41) Bomb – High yield strategic thermonuclear bomb" 3822:"The W76 Warhead: Intermediate Yield Strategic SLBM MIRV Warhead" 3681:

Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development Since 1945

3275: 3246: 1884:

Either the tamper or the casing have been proposed to be made of

1614: 1250: 1230: 1226: 997: 902: 898: 785: 326: 258: 250: 78: 70: 6321: 5933: 5758: 5388: 5348:. Vol. 7. United States Department of Energy. January 2001. 4983: 4914: 4671:"Pakistan's Nuclear Weapons Program - 1998: The Year of Testing" 4176: 3782: 3637: 3530:"Hydrogen Bomb Physicist's Book Runs Afoul of Energy Department" 2734: 7324: 7290: 7132: 5345:

Restricted Data Declassification Decisions, 1946 to the present

4449:"China's Nuclear Weapon Development, Modernization and Testing" 2953: 2944:

On 3 September 2017, the country's state media reported that a

2731:

that same year, and then ratified the Treaty within two years.

2562: 2149: 2134:

The U.S. tested three-stage bombs in several explosions during

2119: 1350: 293: 281: 64: 6350:"Basic Principles of Staged Radiation Implosion (Teller–Ulam)" 6270: 2662:

decided to begin a Chinese nuclear-weapons program during the

2201:

describes in detail the internal components of the "Ivy Mike"

1786:

Comparing the three mechanisms proposed, it can be seen that:

1349:

The radiation pressure exerted by the large quantity of X-ray

7924: 7530: 7468: 7443: 7197: 7161: 7127: 7122: 6872: 6842: 4716:. Press Information Bureau. 24 September 2009. Archived from 4479:"Spies versus sweat, the debate over China's nuclear advance" 2835: 2797: 2793: 2777: 2545: 2423: 2387: 2375: 2359: 2288: 2177:). Even such large bombs have been replaced by smaller yield 1880:

Possible variations to the weapon design have been proposed:

1670: 1498: 1183: 784:

from known information, or comparison with similar fields of

401: 387:

today are thermonuclear weapons using the Teller–Ulam design.

385:

five nuclear-weapon states under the Non-Proliferation Treaty

285: 108: 6433:– documentary film on the history of nuclear weapon testing. 5149:"North Korea nuclear: State claims first hydrogen bomb test" 4950: 4948: 4946: 4944: 3503:"Nuclear Weapons FAQ Section 4.4.1.4 The Teller–Ulam Design" 3076:

Morland eventually concluded that the "secret" was that the

1316:

exerted by the X-rays. This was the first idea put forth by

7115: 6940: 6631: 5439: 5419:"The H-Bomb Secret: How we got it and why we're telling it" 5121: 3679: 1579: 1472: 989: 901:

gas) for extra efficiency; the fusion fuel releases excess

357:

thermonuclear weapons in the United States is known as the

6395:(with U.S. and USSR bomb designers as well as historians). 5839:

Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences

5681:] (in Portuguese) (2nd ed.). Livraria da Física. 1340:. This is the concept best supported by physical analysis. 4941: 4503: 3417:(Technical report). A. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. 3316:"Sixty Years of Trying to Control the Bomb (Transcripts)" 3165:

On 5 February 1958, during a training mission flown by a

2435: 2276:

in September 1941, at the start of what would become the

2105: 1234: 5207:"North Korea says conducts 'perfect' hydrogen bomb test" 4732:"Nukes of 200kt yield possible: Architect of Pokhran-II" 3196:

occurred between a B-52G and a KC-135 Stratotanker over

2997:

Photographs of warhead casings, such as this one of the

2292:

alternatively strategic, pragmatic, and moral. In their

6471: 6399:

Howard Morland on how he discovered the "H-bomb secret"

6386:

PBS: Race for the Superbomb: Interviews and Transcripts

5646:"Section 4.0 Engineering and Design of Nuclear Weapons" 2988: 4662: 3274:

was already in wide public use before fission product

2792:

France has about 60 air-launched missiles tipped with

1522:

The fuel undergoing the fusion reaction emits a large

299:

The secondary fusion stage—consisting of outer pusher/

5189:"North Korea nuclear H-bomb claims met by scepticism" 4030: 3728:"British H-bomb posted on the Internet by Greenpeace" 2410:

fusion fuel instead. In 1954 this was tested in the "

1237:

thermonuclear warhead and produced at a plant in the

1119:

Classified paper by Teller and Ulam on 9 March 1951:

871:

One possible version of the Teller–Ulam configuration

337:

and undergoes fission itself, increasing the overall

284:, causing it to glow intensely with thermal ("soft") 4848:"India, Pakistan can build hydrogen bomb: Scientist" 4839: 3019:

Any elaboration of this statement will be classified

2382:

equipment—as its fusion fuel, and weighed around 80

1211:

Polarizer/Plasma Source" is also shown (see below).

729:

Detailed knowledge of fission and fusion weapons is

8027:

International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility

5575: 5257: 3200:, Spain. The conventional explosives in two of the 3037: 6171: 6100: 6000: 5783: 5583: 5167:M5.1 – 21 km ENE of Sungjibaegam, North Korea 5021: 4379: 3984: 3611: 1261:A simplified summary of the above explanation is: 5511:"For 50 Years, Nuclear Bomb Lost in Watery Grave" 5225: 5122:Kang Seung-woo; Chung Min-uck (4 February 2013). 5098:"North Korea could be developing a hydrogen bomb" 4231: 4229: 4227: 4080: 3054:a magazine article by U.S. anti-weapons activist 1781: 1285:How exactly the energy is "transported" from the 1060:Separating the secondary from the primary is the 656:Public knowledge concerning nuclear weapon design 8048: 5828: 3432:– via Nuclear Non-Proliferation Institute. 3021:." The only information that may pertain to the 1924:is also fissionable with fast neutrons like the 6352:from Carey Sublette's NuclearWeaponArchive.org. 5585:"US left nuclear weapon under ice in Greenland" 5357: 5355: 4958:(1998). "Chapter 16: The Battle over the NPT". 4749:PTI, Press Trust of India (25 September 2009). 4742: 2913:about Israel's capability and finally in 1976, 2143:per unit bomb weight) 25 Mt (100 PJ) 2064:jacket fosters neutron multiplication, whereas 1515:(Li) atom splits into one tritium atom and one 1280: 807: 146:reactions make possible the use of non-fissile 6587: 6123: 4235: 4224: 4101: 4074: 3903: 3901: 3751: 3749: 3747: 3745: 1964:nuclei also undergo fission by slow neutrons ( 762:censor weapons information in the public press 6487: 6457: 6356:"Matter, Energy, and Radiation Hydrodynamics" 6111:. Vol. 281, no. 4. pp. 42–43. 5075:"The Hungarian Phenomenon in Israeli Science" 4107: 3975: 3973: 3709:"Figure 5 – Thermonuclear Warhead Components" 3671: 3375:. Independent Scientific Research Institute. 3350:. Independent Scientific Research Institute. 2525:The first Soviet fusion design, developed by 1653:tamper to fission. A fireball starts to form. 893:by small amounts of fusion fuel (usually 1:1 636: 5352: 4751:"AEC ex-chief backs Santhanam on Pokhran-II" 3481: 3114:, and (3) was dangerous and would encourage 2719:France and China did not sign or ratify the 2024:supports the nuclear chain reaction whereas 1089:is a good example; a small flaw allowed the 957:that powers the conventional "atomic bomb". 848:, at which point it is heated and undergoes 198:). The first full-scale thermonuclear test ( 6362:"Engineering and Design of Nuclear Weapons" 5251: 5095: 5072: 4779:. What Are the Real Yields of India's Test? 4373: 4371: 4369: 4367: 4365: 4363: 4361: 4359: 3928: 3926: 3898: 3742: 3586:"Complete List of All U.S. Nuclear Weapons" 3580: 3578: 2931:North Korea and weapons of mass destruction 2487:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2108:warheads retrofitted to currently deployed 1440:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1301:. This energy is then used to compress the 824:section that consists of an implosion-type 261:) as the pure element or in modern weapons 6464: 6450: 6370:from Carey Sublette's Nuclear Weapons FAQ. 6364:from Carey Sublette's Nuclear Weapons FAQ. 6358:from Carey Sublette's Nuclear Weapons FAQ. 4777:"What are the real yield of India's Test?" 3979: 3970: 3600: 3482:Magazine, Smithsonian; Machemer, Theresa. 3400: 2687:reported that in 1995, a supposed Chinese 2289:first atomic bomb test by the Soviet Union 643: 629: 400: 36:A basic diagram of a thermonuclear weapon. 6368:"Elements of Thermonuclear Weapon Design" 6003:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb 5882: 5258:Michelle Ye Hee Lee (13 September 2017). 4441: 4208:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb 4026: 4024: 3761:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb 3380: 3355: 3228:while attempting an emergency landing at 2740:Triomphant-class nuclear-armed submarines 2592:to develop the British fusion bomb, with 2584:was the first British hydrogen bomb test. 2507:Learn how and when to remove this message 2294:Report of the General Advisory Committee, 2195:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb 1681: 1460:Learn how and when to remove this message 1182:Spark Plug while the latter refers to an 764:, with limited success. According to the 706:Learn how and when to remove this message 61:("tamper") lined with beryllium reflector 6045: 5956: 5643: 5010: 4668: 4356: 4321: 4315: 4149: 4147: 3923: 3819: 3614:U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History 3575: 3500: 3396: 3394: 3392: 2992: 2834: 2733: 2572: 2392: 2305: 1693: 1593:Foam plasma mechanism firing sequence. 1588: 1012:", a hollow column of fissile material ( 866: 717: 31: 6225: 6169: 5781: 5668: 5361: 4845: 4377: 3991:. World Scientific Publishing Company. 3370: 3345: 3304: 3212:On 21 January 1968, a B-52G, with four 2772:, was commissioned in 2010, and it has 2672:rift between the Soviet Union and China 1401: 774:Building the H Bomb: A Personal History 38:Some designs use spherical secondaries. 14: 8049: 5995: 5581: 5016: 4205: 4021: 3755: 3677: 3606: 3555: 2004:nuclei in the jacket (in other words, 1716:and the shield and secondary's tamper. 875:Surrounding the other components is a 6445: 5731: 5323: 5231: 4954: 4889: 4708: 4706: 4704: 4702: 4669:Sublette, Carey (10 September 2001). 4639: 4637: 4606: 4552: 4550: 4524: 4522: 4153: 4144: 3527: 3447: 3424:from the original on 28 November 2020 3389: 3310: 2881:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty 2831:India and weapons of mass destruction 2754:submarine-launched ballistic missiles 2729:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty 2645:and were able to manufacture copies. 2432:submarine-launched ballistic missiles 2402:Castle Bravo detonation, 1st Mar 1954 2126:, which then travel to the secondary. 1497:The fissioning primary emits thermal 1344: 1297:that are emitted from the fissioning 6218: 6095: 5656:from the original on 6 February 2021 5324:Lewis, Jeffrey (13 September 2017). 4774: 3443: 3441: 3439: 3154: 2989:U.S. Department of Energy statements 2485:adding citations to reliable sources 2452: 1875: 1698:Ablation mechanism firing sequence. 1438:adding citations to reliable sources 1405: 688:adding citations to reliable sources 659: 5636: 5547:"The Cold War's Missing Atom Bombs" 4748: 4681:from the original on 10 August 2011 4455:. 26 September 2003. Archived from 3813: 3730:. Federation of American Scientists 3528:Broad, William J. (23 March 2015). 3242:COLEX process (isotopic separation) 2972: 2639:1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement 2428:intercontinental ballistic missiles 1855:United States Department of Defense 1526:of high energy neutrons (17.6 1380:) for the Ivy Mike design and 1,400 276:A fusion explosion begins with the 24: 6424:Peter Kuran's "Trinity and Beyond" 5631: 4699: 4634: 4575: 4547: 4519: 4504:Christopher Cox, chairman (1999). 4108:Stober, Dan; Hoffman, Ian (2001). 3820:Sublette, Carey (9 January 2007). 3161:List of military nuclear accidents 2983:United States Department of Energy 2604:and used sampling aircraft in the 2414:" shot (the device was code-named 1504:The irradiated foam becomes a hot 796: 757:United States Department of Energy 748:United States v. Progressive, Inc. 733:to some degree in virtually every 333:or plutonium, the tamper captures 25: 8073: 6338: 6277:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 5679:The Physics of Nuclear Explosives 5673:A Fisica dos Explosivos Nucleares 5644:Sublette, Carey (19 March 2019). 5232:Panda, Ankit (6 September 2017). 5124:"North Korea may detonate H-bomb" 3436: 2869:Atomic Energy Commission of India 2568: 2255:History of the Teller–Ulam design 303:, fusion fuel filler and central 107:Radiation case (confines thermal 7998: 7971: 7959: 7942: 7930: 7918: 7895: 7827: 7776: 7764: 7735: 7718: 7678: 7666: 7637: 7625: 7595: 7583: 7536: 7524: 7502: 7474: 7462: 7437: 7400: 7354: 7342: 7330: 7318: 7296: 7279: 7262: 7238: 7226: 7203: 7191: 7179: 7155: 7138: 7099: 7067: 7050: 6979: 6967: 5612:from the original on 1 June 2009 5582:Swaine, Jon (11 November 2008). 4846:Samdani, Zafar (25 March 2000). 4805:. 27 August 2009. Archived from 3046:United States v. The Progressive 3039:United States v. The Progressive 2457: 2418:), which had a yield of 15 2259: 1490:state and beginning the fission 1410: 1109: 1100: 664: 363:for its two chief contributors, 206:in the design of their weapons. 8032:ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility 6057:. Princeton Series in Physics. 5910:10.1070/PU1996v039n10ABEH000174 5557: 5539: 5521: 5503: 5492: 5433: 5411: 5336: 5317: 5303: 5277: 5199: 5181: 5159: 5141: 5115: 5096:Kim Kyu-won (7 February 2013). 5089: 5066: 4883: 4865: 4821: 4791: 4724: 4600: 4497: 4471: 4416: 4291: 4277: 4199: 3948: 3883: 3863: 3844: 3701: 3549: 3501:Sublette, Carey (3 July 2007). 3285: 2721:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 2448: 675:needs additional citations for 6298:10.1080/00963402.1993.11456341 5669:Barroso, Dalton E. G. (2009). 5169:(Report). USGS. 6 January 2016 5077:. Hungarian Academy of Science 4607:Burns, John F. (12 May 1998). 4412:– via Internet Archive]. 3521: 3494: 3475: 3448:Burns, John F. (18 May 1998). 3364: 3339: 3264: 3009:in U.S. thermonuclear weapons. 2924: 2857:Los Alamos National Laboratory 2544:The first Sloika design test, 1782:Comparing implosion mechanisms 1530: ), which irradiates the 314:nuclear fission chain reaction 84:Radiation channel filled with 13: 1: 6343: 6228:Science & Global Security 5062:– via Internet Archive. 4775:Sublette, Carey; et al. 4562:The Nuclear Threat Initiative 4299:"Photograph of a W47 warhead" 4140:– via Internet Archive. 4083:Science & Global Security 4017:– via Internet Archive. 3809:– via Internet Archive. 3556:Greene, Jes (25 March 2015). 3298: 2938:South Korean Defense Ministry 2776:missiles capable of carrying 1140:"Dual Use Nuclear Technology" 1055: 836:. The energy released by the 6696:Field-reversed configuration 6379: 6170:Younger, Stephen M. (2009). 5724: 4378:Younger, Stephen M. (2009). 4247:. Cornell University Press. 3177:, was lost off the coast of 3084:were kept separate and that 2917:of the CIA testified to the 2443:ballistic missile submarines 2354:, with a yield of 10.4 1333:and later by Howard Morland. 1281:Compression of the secondary 1216:Reliable Replacement Warhead 1205:Sandia National Laboratories 1134:warhead. It was released by 808:Primary and secondary stages 7: 5782:DeGroot, Gerard J. (2005). 5448:; Stanford, George (1981). 3235: 2960:but less powerful than the 2214:In 1999 a reporter for the 2188: 1843: 1840: 1832: 1829: 1821: 1818: 812:The basic principle of the 790:inertial confinement fusion 10: 8078: 6059:Princeton University Press 4899:. New York: Random House. 4675:The Nuclear Weapon Archive 4558:"France | Countries | NTI" 3158: 3043: 2928: 2893:Nuclear weapons and Israel 2890: 2828: 2664:First Taiwan Strait Crisis 2652: 2521:Soviet atomic bomb project 2518: 2366:). The device, dubbed the 2272:when they were talking at 2252: 2248: 2044:does not). Furthermore, a 1256: 828:bomb (a "trigger"), and a 800: 73:"boost" gas (blue) within 8022: 7990: 7910: 7887: 7819: 7812: 7801: 7754: 7710: 7656: 7615: 7578: 7569: 7494: 7452: 7392: 7383: 7218: 7089: 6959: 6933: 6924: 6913: 6902: 6860: 6833: 6805: 6782: 6686: 6598: 6578: 6550:Fusion energy gain factor 6480: 6248:10.1080/08929889108426372 5326:"SAR Image of Punggye-ri" 4966:Columbia University Press 4453:Nuclear Threat Initiative 4326:. Yale University Press. 4095:10.1080/08929889408426405 4070:– via Google Books. 3214:B28FI thermonuclear bombs 2886: 2867:, former chairman of the 2855:, former director of the 2698: 2598:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 2175:Cheyenne Mountain Complex 1794: 1791: 1070:electromagnetic radiation 949:arranged around it in an 832:section that consists of 814:Teller–Ulam configuration 360:Teller–Ulam configuration 213:primary stage (fueled by 134:) is a second-generation 91:Uranium ("pusher/tamper") 6137:Cornell University Press 5957:Holloway, David (1994). 5792:Harvard University Press 5367:The secret that exploded 5028:. Simon & Schuster. 4322:Holloway, David (1994). 4210:. Simon & Schuster. 4114:. Simon & Schuster. 3936:. 2.04. 20 February 1999 3911:. 2.04. 20 February 1999 3257: 3071:interpersonal strategies 2967:synthetic-aperture radar 2824: 2768:. The newest submarine, 2648: 2284:, as it was then known. 1305:. The crucial detail of 953:pattern, initiating the 6475:, processes and devices 6429:9 December 2018 at the 6401:(includes many slides). 6240:1991S&GS....2..351D 6174:The Bomb: A New History 4382:The Bomb: A New History 3371:Gsponer, Andre (2005). 3346:Gsponer, Andre (2005). 1609:Compressed and heated, 844:through the process of 312:state, and it begins a 5650:Nuclear Weapon Archive 3981:Winterberg, Friedwardt 3890:Speculation on Fogbank 3826:Nuclear Weapon Archive 3725:A cleaned up version: 3678:Hansen, Chuck (2007). 3066:Encyclopedia Americana 3010: 2950:U.S. Geological Survey 2865:Rajagopala Chidambaram 2840: 2749: 2588:In 1954 work began at 2585: 2403: 2322: 2209: 1727: 1682:Tamper-pusher ablation 1657: 955:nuclear chain reaction 872: 735:industrialized country 726: 115: 45:fusion secondary stage 27:2-stage nuclear weapon 8057:Nuclear weapon design 6391:11 March 2017 at the 5963:Yale University Press 5440:De Volpi, Alexander; 3880:, March 2005, p 1374. 3218:Operation Chrome Dome 3116:nuclear proliferation 3110:" clause of the 1954 2996: 2838: 2737: 2576: 2401: 2338:The "George" shot of 2309: 2217:San Jose Mercury News 2179:nuclear bunker buster 2167:arbitrary large yield 1697: 1592: 870: 803:Nuclear weapon design 721: 136:nuclear weapon design 42:fission primary stage 35: 6612:Triple-alpha process 6560:Magnetohydrodynamics 6512:List of technologies 6129:Schilling, Warner R. 6009:Simon & Schuster 5884:Goncharov, German A. 5834:Bernstein, Barton J. 5429:(11). November 1979. 5313:. 12 September 2017. 5291:on 13 September 2017 5073:Gábor Palló (2000). 4852:Dawn News Interviews 4738:. 25 September 2009. 4241:Schilling, Warner R. 3765:Simon & Schuster 3488:Smithsonian Magazine 3291:emphasis in original 3270:The misleading term 3192:On 17 January 1966, 3173:, also known as the 3171:Mark 15 nuclear bomb 2875:thermonuclear test. 2481:improve this section 2438:warhead deployed on 2434:. By 1960, with the 2340:Operation Greenhouse 2335:or radiation case. 2315:thermonuclear test, 2224:SLBM, had a prolate 2141:nuclear weapon yield 1574:or large amounts of 1572:radioactive products 1434:improve this section 1402:Foam plasma pressure 1243:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 964:", a heavy layer of 684:improve this article 525:Nuclear-armed states 354:Operation Greenhouse 335:fast fusion neutrons 120:thermonuclear weapon 7690:Lockheed Martin CFR 6644:Proton–proton chain 6507:List of experiments 6408:November 1979 issue 6290:1993BuAtS..49d..20K 6108:Scientific American 6099:(20 October 1999). 6047:Schweber, Silvan S. 5902:1996PhyU...39.1033G 5590:The Daily Telegraph 5553:. 14 November 2008. 4961:Israel and the Bomb 4720:on 24 October 2017. 3507:Nuclear Weapons FAQ 3314:(8 November 2005). 2907:Tel Aviv University 2274:Columbia University 1733:thermal equilibrium 1611:lithium-6 deuteride 1193:radiation implosion 1138:in a report titled 864:becomes too great. 846:radiation implosion 782:reverse engineering 95:Lithium-6 deuteride 6723:Dense plasma focus 5535:. 19 October 2015. 5517:. 3 February 2008. 5213:. 3 September 2017 5018:Karpin, Michael I. 4968:(published 1999). 4803:The Times of India 4736:The Times of India 4613:The New York Times 4485:. 7 September 1999 4483:The New York Times 3878:Cardozo Law Review 3860:, NNSA March 2007. 3856:2008-12-17 at the 3832:on 26 January 2021 3535:The New York Times 3454:The New York Times 3321:Talk of the Nation 3252:Pure fusion weapon 3222:crashed on the ice 3216:aboard as part of 3135:, and that in the 3086:radiation pressure 3011: 2946:hydrogen bomb test 2841: 2760:. France has four 2750: 2680:The New York Times 2594:Sir William Penney 2586: 2537:, after a Russian 2404: 2323: 2297:Robert Oppenheimer 2232:) and a spherical 1816:Radiation pressure 1728: 1658: 1345:Radiation pressure 1314:Radiation pressure 873: 727: 116: 67:("levitated core") 8044: 8043: 8040: 8039: 8018: 8017: 7986: 7985: 7937:Asterix IV (PALS) 7750: 7749: 7652: 7651: 7565: 7564: 7379: 7378: 6898: 6897: 6856: 6855: 6815:Bubble (acoustic) 6797:Magnetized target 6774:Toroidal solenoid 6530: 6529: 6219:Analyzing fallout 5896:(10): 1033–1044. 5330:Arms Control Wonk 5195:. 6 January 2016. 5155:. 6 January 2016. 4891:Hersh, Seymour M. 4835:. 2 January 1999. 4809:on 30 August 2009 4514:on 4 August 2005. 4459:on 8 October 2011 4386:. HarperCollins. 4217:978-0-684-80400-2 4206:Rhodes R (1995). 3958:. 21 October 1997 3894:Arms Control Wonk 3774:978-0-68-480400-2 3759:(1 August 1995). 3194:a fatal collision 3183:Savannah, Georgia 3155:Notable accidents 3112:Atomic Energy Act 2849:Samar Mubarakmand 2668:Lop Nor Test Site 2617:Operation Grapple 2578:Operation Grapple 2517: 2516: 2509: 2408:lithium deuteride 2399: 2278:Manhattan Project 2268:to his colleague 2245:speed and range. 2193:In his 1995 book 2136:Operation Redwing 1876:Design variations 1848: 1847: 1838:Ablation pressure 1737:optical thickness 1470: 1469: 1462: 1320:in an article in 994:lithium deuteride 716: 715: 708: 653: 652: 417:Nuclear explosion 352:Before Ivy Mike, 263:lithium deuteride 16:(Redirected from 8069: 8003: 8002: 8001: 7976: 7975: 7974: 7964: 7963: 7962: 7947: 7946: 7945: 7935: 7934: 7933: 7923: 7922: 7921: 7900: 7899: 7898: 7832: 7831: 7830: 7817: 7816: 7810: 7809: 7781: 7780: 7779: 7769: 7768: 7767: 7756:Magneto-inertial 7740: 7739: 7738: 7723: 7722: 7721: 7683: 7682: 7681: 7671: 7670: 7669: 7642: 7641: 7640: 7630: 7629: 7628: 7600: 7599: 7598: 7588: 7587: 7586: 7576: 7575: 7556: 7541: 7540: 7539: 7529: 7528: 7527: 7514:Wendelstein 7-AS 7507: 7506: 7505: 7479: 7478: 7477: 7467: 7466: 7465: 7442: 7441: 7440: 7405: 7404: 7403: 7390: 7389: 7359: 7358: 7357: 7347: 7346: 7345: 7335: 7334: 7333: 7323: 7322: 7321: 7301: 7300: 7299: 7284: 7283: 7282: 7267: 7266: 7265: 7258: 7243: 7242: 7241: 7231: 7230: 7229: 7208: 7207: 7206: 7196: 7195: 7194: 7184: 7183: 7182: 7175: 7160: 7159: 7158: 7143: 7142: 7141: 7104: 7103: 7102: 7082: 7072: 7071: 7070: 7055: 7054: 7053: 7008:Electric Tokamak 6984: 6983: 6982: 6972: 6971: 6970: 6931: 6930: 6922: 6921: 6911: 6910: 6792:Magnetized liner 6784:Magneto-inertial 6701:Levitated dipole 6596: 6595: 6585: 6584: 6555:Lawson criterion 6485: 6484: 6466: 6459: 6452: 6443: 6442: 6333: 6267: 6213: 6210:Internet Archive 6177: 6166: 6120: 6104: 6092: 6089:Internet Archive 6056: 6042: 6039:Internet Archive 6006: 5992: 5953: 5879: 5852:10.2307/27757627 5825: 5822:Internet Archive 5789: 5786:The Bomb: A Life 5778: 5719: 5713: 5711: 5676: 5665: 5663: 5661: 5637:Basic principles 5626: 5625: 5619: 5617: 5587: 5579: 5573: 5572: 5561: 5555: 5554: 5543: 5537: 5536: 5525: 5519: 5518: 5507: 5501: 5500: 5496: 5490: 5489: 5486:Internet Archive 5442:Marsh, Gerald E. 5437: 5431: 5430: 5415: 5409: 5408: 5359: 5350: 5349: 5340: 5334: 5333: 5321: 5315: 5314: 5307: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5296: 5287:. Archived from 5281: 5275: 5274: 5272: 5270: 5255: 5249: 5248: 5246: 5244: 5229: 5223: 5222: 5220: 5218: 5203: 5197: 5196: 5185: 5179: 5178: 5176: 5174: 5163: 5157: 5156: 5145: 5139: 5138: 5136: 5134: 5119: 5113: 5112: 5110: 5108: 5093: 5087: 5086: 5084: 5082: 5070: 5064: 5063: 5027: 5014: 5008: 5007: 5004:Internet Archive 4952: 4939: 4938: 4935:Internet Archive 4887: 4881: 4879: 4869: 4863: 4862: 4860: 4858: 4843: 4837: 4836: 4825: 4819: 4818: 4816: 4814: 4795: 4789: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4772: 4766: 4765: 4763: 4761: 4746: 4740: 4739: 4728: 4722: 4721: 4710: 4697: 4696: 4688: 4686: 4666: 4660: 4659: 4657: 4655: 4641: 4632: 4631: 4629: 4627: 4604: 4598: 4597: 4595: 4593: 4579: 4573: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4554: 4545: 4544: 4542: 4540: 4526: 4517: 4515: 4510:. Archived from 4501: 4495: 4494: 4492: 4490: 4475: 4469: 4468: 4466: 4464: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4436: 4434: 4420: 4414: 4413: 4385: 4375: 4354: 4353: 4319: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4308: 4303: 4295: 4289: 4288: 4281: 4275: 4274: 4233: 4222: 4221: 4203: 4197: 4196: 4161:. Random House. 4151: 4142: 4141: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4078: 4072: 4071: 4069: 4067: 4028: 4019: 4018: 3990: 3977: 3968: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3952: 3946: 3945: 3943: 3941: 3930: 3921: 3920: 3918: 3916: 3905: 3896: 3887: 3881: 3867: 3861: 3848: 3842: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3828:. Archived from 3817: 3811: 3810: 3753: 3740: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3724: 3722: 3720: 3711:. Archived from 3705: 3699: 3698: 3686: 3675: 3669: 3668: 3665:Internet Archive 3662: 3660: 3617: 3604: 3598: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3588:. 1 October 1997 3582: 3573: 3572: 3570: 3568: 3562:Business Insider 3553: 3547: 3546: 3544: 3542: 3525: 3519: 3517: 3515: 3513: 3498: 3492: 3491: 3479: 3473: 3472: 3470: 3468: 3445: 3434: 3433: 3431: 3429: 3423: 3416: 3408:(9 March 1951). 3398: 3387: 3386: 3384: 3368: 3362: 3361: 3359: 3343: 3337: 3336: 3331: 3329: 3308: 3292: 3289: 3283: 3268: 3016: 2973:Public knowledge 2845:Operation Shakti 2821:as a byproduct. 2820: 2818: 2817: 2810: 2809: 2784:aircraft and 20 2762:Triomphant-class 2738:One of France's 2713:French Polynesia 2582:Christmas Island 2559:Yakov Zel'dovich 2555:Viktor Davidenko 2512: 2505: 2501: 2498: 2492: 2461: 2453: 2400: 2312:Operation Castle 2145:B41 nuclear bomb 2110:LGM-30 Minuteman 2103: 2101: 2100: 2093: 2092: 2083: 2081: 2080: 2073: 2072: 2063: 2061: 2060: 2053: 2052: 2043: 2041: 2040: 2033: 2032: 2023: 2021: 2020: 2013: 2012: 2003: 2001: 2000: 1993: 1992: 1983: 1981: 1980: 1973: 1972: 1963: 1961: 1960: 1953: 1952: 1943: 1941: 1940: 1933: 1932: 1923: 1921: 1920: 1913: 1912: 1903: 1901: 1900: 1893: 1892: 1789: 1788: 1759: 1758: 1754: 1751: 1663:small multiplier 1652: 1651: 1650: 1643: 1642: 1634: 1633: 1632: 1625: 1624: 1565: 1564: 1563: 1556: 1555: 1547: 1546: 1545: 1538: 1537: 1465: 1458: 1454: 1451: 1445: 1414: 1406: 1398:) for the W-80. 1386: 1385: 1368: 1367: 1203:(seen here from 1181: 1179: 1178: 1171: 1170: 1161: 1159: 1158: 1151: 1150: 1113: 1104: 1087:Operation Castle 1051: 1049: 1048: 1041: 1040: 1031: 1029: 1028: 1021: 1020: 987: 985: 984: 977: 976: 944: 942: 941: 934: 933: 924: 922: 921: 914: 913: 711: 704: 700: 697: 691: 668: 660: 645: 638: 631: 582: 476:Target selection 404: 390: 389: 373:John von Neumann 345:fission product 331:enriched uranium 318:fission products 290:polystyrene foam 248: 247: 246: 239: 238: 230: 229: 228: 221: 220: 197: 196: 195: 188: 187: 175: 174: 173: 166: 165: 152:fissile material 148:depleted uranium 21: 8077: 8076: 8072: 8071: 8070: 8068: 8067: 8066: 8062:Nuclear secrecy 8047: 8046: 8045: 8036: 8014: 7999: 7997: 7982: 7972: 7970: 7960: 7958: 7943: 7941: 7931: 7929: 7919: 7917: 7906: 7896: 7894: 7883: 7828: 7826: 7804: 7797: 7777: 7775: 7765: 7763: 7746: 7736: 7734: 7719: 7717: 7706: 7679: 7677: 7667: 7665: 7648: 7638: 7636: 7626: 7624: 7611: 7596: 7594: 7584: 7582: 7561: 7550: 7537: 7535: 7525: 7523: 7519:Wendelstein 7-X 7503: 7501: 7490: 7475: 7473: 7463: 7461: 7454: 7448: 7438: 7436: 7401: 7399: 7375: 7355: 7353: 7343: 7341: 7331: 7329: 7319: 7317: 7297: 7295: 7280: 7278: 7263: 7261: 7252: 7239: 7237: 7227: 7225: 7214: 7204: 7202: 7192: 7190: 7180: 7178: 7169: 7156: 7154: 7139: 7137: 7100: 7098: 7091: 7085: 7076: 7068: 7066: 7051: 7049: 6980: 6978: 6968: 6966: 6955: 6916: 6905: 6894: 6852: 6829: 6801: 6778: 6706:Magnetic mirror 6682: 6669:Silicon-burning 6654:Lithium burning 6591: 6580: 6574: 6540:Nuclear reactor 6526: 6476: 6470: 6431:Wayback Machine 6406:The Progressive 6393:Wayback Machine 6382: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6221: 6216: 6190: 6147: 6069: 6019: 5997:Rhodes, Richard 5973: 5889:Physics-Uspekhi 5802: 5751: 5733:Bundy, McGeorge 5727: 5722: 5709: 5707: 5689: 5659: 5657: 5639: 5634: 5632:Further reading 5629: 5615: 5613: 5580: 5576: 5563: 5562: 5558: 5545: 5544: 5540: 5527: 5526: 5522: 5509: 5508: 5504: 5498: 5497: 5493: 5466: 5438: 5434: 5423:The Progressive 5417: 5416: 5412: 5381: 5363:Morland, Howard 5360: 5353: 5342: 5341: 5337: 5322: 5318: 5309: 5308: 5304: 5294: 5292: 5283: 5282: 5278: 5268: 5266: 5264:Washington Post 5256: 5252: 5242: 5240: 5230: 5226: 5216: 5214: 5205: 5204: 5200: 5187: 5186: 5182: 5172: 5170: 5165: 5164: 5160: 5147: 5146: 5142: 5132: 5130: 5120: 5116: 5106: 5104: 5094: 5090: 5080: 5078: 5071: 5067: 5036: 5015: 5011: 4976: 4953: 4942: 4907: 4888: 4884: 4871: 4870: 4866: 4856: 4854: 4844: 4840: 4827: 4826: 4822: 4812: 4810: 4797: 4796: 4792: 4782: 4780: 4773: 4769: 4759: 4757: 4755:The Hindu, 2009 4747: 4743: 4730: 4729: 4725: 4712: 4711: 4700: 4684: 4682: 4667: 4663: 4653: 4651: 4643: 4642: 4635: 4625: 4623: 4605: 4601: 4591: 4589: 4581: 4580: 4576: 4566: 4564: 4556: 4555: 4548: 4538: 4536: 4528: 4527: 4520: 4502: 4498: 4488: 4486: 4477: 4476: 4472: 4462: 4460: 4447: 4446: 4442: 4432: 4430: 4422: 4421: 4417: 4394: 4376: 4357: 4334: 4320: 4316: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4297: 4296: 4292: 4283: 4282: 4278: 4255: 4234: 4225: 4218: 4204: 4200: 4169: 4155:Bundy, McGeorge 4152: 4145: 4122: 4106: 4102: 4079: 4075: 4065: 4063: 4045: 4029: 4022: 3999: 3978: 3971: 3961: 3959: 3954: 3953: 3949: 3939: 3937: 3932: 3931: 3924: 3914: 3912: 3907: 3906: 3899: 3888: 3884: 3868: 3864: 3858:Wayback Machine 3849: 3845: 3835: 3833: 3818: 3814: 3775: 3757:Rhodes, Richard 3754: 3743: 3733: 3731: 3726: 3718: 3716: 3715:on 12 July 2010 3707: 3706: 3702: 3695: 3684: 3676: 3672: 3658: 3656: 3630: 3605: 3601: 3591: 3589: 3584: 3583: 3576: 3566: 3564: 3554: 3550: 3540: 3538: 3526: 3522: 3511: 3509: 3499: 3495: 3480: 3476: 3466: 3464: 3446: 3437: 3427: 3425: 3421: 3414: 3406:Ulam, Stanislaw 3399: 3390: 3382:physics/0510052 3369: 3365: 3357:physics/0510071 3344: 3340: 3327: 3325: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3296: 3295: 3290: 3286: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3238: 3163: 3157: 3145:The Progressive 3128:The Progressive 3099:The Progressive 3092:compressed the 3048: 3042: 3014: 2991: 2975: 2933: 2927: 2895: 2889: 2853:Harold M. Agnew 2833: 2827: 2816: 2814: 2813: 2812: 2808: 2806: 2805: 2804: 2802: 2758:fighter-bombers 2701: 2657: 2651: 2637:leading to the 2606:mushroom clouds 2571: 2531:Vitaly Ginzburg 2527:Andrei Sakharov 2523: 2513: 2502: 2496: 2493: 2478: 2462: 2451: 2393: 2301:Harry S. Truman 2262: 2257: 2251: 2242:physics package 2212: 2191: 2171:doomsday device 2099: 2097: 2096: 2095: 2091: 2089: 2088: 2087: 2085: 2079: 2077: 2076: 2075: 2071: 2069: 2068: 2067: 2065: 2059: 2057: 2056: 2055: 2051: 2049: 2048: 2047: 2045: 2039: 2037: 2036: 2035: 2031: 2029: 2028: 2027: 2025: 2019: 2017: 2016: 2015: 2011: 2009: 2008: 2007: 2005: 1999: 1997: 1996: 1995: 1991: 1989: 1988: 1987: 1985: 1979: 1977: 1976: 1975: 1971: 1969: 1968: 1967: 1965: 1959: 1957: 1956: 1955: 1951: 1949: 1948: 1947: 1945: 1939: 1937: 1936: 1935: 1931: 1929: 1928: 1927: 1925: 1919: 1917: 1916: 1915: 1911: 1909: 1908: 1907: 1905: 1899: 1897: 1896: 1895: 1891: 1889: 1888: 1887: 1885: 1878: 1827:Plasma pressure 1784: 1756: 1752: 1749: 1748: 1726: 1684: 1656: 1649: 1647: 1646: 1645: 1641: 1639: 1638: 1637: 1636: 1631: 1629: 1628: 1627: 1623: 1621: 1620: 1619: 1618: 1576:nuclear fallout 1562: 1560: 1559: 1558: 1554: 1552: 1551: 1550: 1549: 1548:tamper (or the 1544: 1542: 1541: 1540: 1536: 1534: 1533: 1532: 1531: 1466: 1455: 1449: 1446: 1431: 1415: 1404: 1383: 1381: 1365: 1363: 1347: 1323:The Progressive 1283: 1259: 1177: 1175: 1174: 1173: 1169: 1167: 1166: 1165: 1163: 1157: 1155: 1154: 1153: 1149: 1147: 1146: 1145: 1143: 1127: 1126: 1125: 1124: 1116: 1115: 1114: 1106: 1105: 1058: 1047: 1045: 1044: 1043: 1039: 1037: 1036: 1035: 1033: 1027: 1025: 1024: 1023: 1019: 1017: 1016: 1015: 1013: 983: 981: 980: 979: 975: 973: 972: 971: 969: 947:high explosives 940: 938: 937: 936: 932: 930: 929: 928: 926: 920: 918: 917: 916: 912: 910: 909: 908: 906: 840:compresses the 810: 805: 799: 797:Basic principle 770:Kenneth W. Ford 739:Restricted Data 712: 701: 695: 692: 681: 669: 658: 649: 600: 580: 570: 539: 394:Nuclear weapons 381:kilotons of TNT 339:explosive yield 245: 243: 242: 241: 237: 235: 234: 233: 232: 227: 225: 224: 223: 219: 217: 216: 215: 214: 211:nuclear fission 194: 192: 191: 190: 186: 184: 183: 182: 181: 172: 170: 169: 168: 164: 162: 161: 160: 159: 114: 48: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8075: 8065: 8064: 8059: 8042: 8041: 8038: 8037: 8035: 8034: 8029: 8023: 8020: 8019: 8016: 8015: 8013: 8012: 8007: 7994: 7992: 7988: 7987: 7984: 7983: 7981: 7980: 7968: 7956: 7951: 7939: 7927: 7914: 7912: 7908: 7907: 7905: 7904: 7891: 7889: 7885: 7884: 7882: 7881: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7823: 7821: 7814: 7807: 7799: 7798: 7796: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7773: 7760: 7758: 7752: 7751: 7748: 7747: 7745: 7744: 7732: 7727: 7714: 7712: 7708: 7707: 7705: 7704: 7703: 7702: 7692: 7687: 7675: 7662: 7660: 7654: 7653: 7650: 7649: 7647: 7646: 7634: 7621: 7619: 7613: 7612: 7610: 7609: 7604: 7592: 7579: 7573: 7567: 7566: 7563: 7562: 7560: 7559: 7558: 7557: 7533: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7498: 7496: 7492: 7491: 7489: 7488: 7483: 7471: 7458: 7456: 7450: 7449: 7447: 7446: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7396: 7394: 7387: 7381: 7380: 7377: 7376: 7374: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7351: 7339: 7327: 7315: 7310: 7305: 7293: 7288: 7276: 7271: 7259: 7247: 7235: 7222: 7220: 7216: 7215: 7213: 7212: 7200: 7188: 7176: 7164: 7152: 7147: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7119: 7118: 7108: 7095: 7093: 7087: 7086: 7084: 7083: 7064: 7059: 7047: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7031: 7030: 7025: 7015: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6999: 6998: 6988: 6976: 6963: 6961: 6957: 6956: 6954: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6937: 6935: 6928: 6919: 6908: 6900: 6899: 6896: 6895: 6893: 6892: 6887: 6885:Muon-catalyzed 6882: 6877: 6876: 6875: 6868:Colliding beam 6864: 6862: 6858: 6857: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6850: 6845: 6839: 6837: 6831: 6830: 6828: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6811: 6809: 6803: 6802: 6800: 6799: 6794: 6788: 6786: 6780: 6779: 6777: 6776: 6771: 6770: 6769: 6768: 6767: 6757: 6747: 6742: 6741: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6728:Reversed field 6725: 6715: 6714: 6713: 6703: 6698: 6692: 6690: 6684: 6683: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6664:Oxygen-burning 6661: 6656: 6651: 6649:Carbon-burning 6646: 6641: 6640: 6639: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6602: 6593: 6582: 6576: 6575: 6573: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6545:Atomic nucleus 6542: 6537: 6531: 6528: 6527: 6525: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6497:Burning plasma 6493: 6491: 6489:Nuclear fusion 6482: 6478: 6477: 6469: 6468: 6461: 6454: 6446: 6440: 6439: 6434: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6402: 6396: 6381: 6378: 6377: 6376: 6371: 6365: 6359: 6353: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6339:External links 6337: 6335: 6334: 6272:Khariton, Yuli 6268: 6234:(4): 351–363. 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6214: 6189:978-0061537196 6188: 6167: 6146:978-1501745164 6145: 6121: 6093: 6068:978-0691127859 6067: 6043: 6018:978-0684804002 6017: 5993: 5972:978-0300060560 5971: 5954: 5880: 5846:(2): 267–347. 5830:Galison, Peter 5826: 5801:978-0674017245 5800: 5779: 5750:978-0394522784 5749: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5720: 5688:978-8578610166 5687: 5666: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5627: 5574: 5571:. 3 June 2019. 5556: 5538: 5520: 5502: 5491: 5465:978-0080259956 5464: 5456:Pergamon Press 5432: 5410: 5380:978-0394512976 5379: 5351: 5335: 5316: 5302: 5276: 5250: 5224: 5198: 5180: 5158: 5140: 5114: 5088: 5065: 5035:978-0743265942 5034: 5009: 4975:978-0585041506 4974: 4940: 4906:978-0394570068 4905: 4882: 4864: 4838: 4820: 4790: 4767: 4741: 4723: 4698: 4661: 4633: 4599: 4574: 4546: 4518: 4496: 4470: 4440: 4415: 4393:978-0061537196 4392: 4355: 4333:978-0300060560 4332: 4314: 4290: 4276: 4254:978-1501745164 4253: 4223: 4216: 4198: 4168:978-0394522784 4167: 4143: 4121:978-0743223782 4120: 4100: 4073: 4044:978-1851094905 4043: 4020: 3998:978-9814295901 3997: 3969: 3947: 3922: 3897: 3882: 3870:A 1976 drawing 3862: 3843: 3812: 3773: 3741: 3700: 3694:978-0979191503 3693: 3670: 3629:978-0517567401 3628: 3599: 3574: 3548: 3520: 3493: 3474: 3435: 3402:Teller, Edward 3388: 3363: 3338: 3324:(Podcast). NPR 3302: 3300: 3297: 3294: 3293: 3284: 3262: 3261: 3259: 3256: 3255: 3254: 3249: 3244: 3237: 3234: 3230:Thule Air Base 3226:North Star Bay 3206:hydrogen bombs 3156: 3153: 3056:Howard Morland 3044:Main article: 3041: 3036: 2990: 2987: 2979:classification 2974: 2971: 2929:Main article: 2926: 2923: 2891:Main article: 2888: 2885: 2826: 2823: 2815: 2807: 2705:"Canopus" test 2700: 2697: 2653:Main article: 2650: 2647: 2627:Purple Granite 2570: 2569:United Kingdom 2567: 2515: 2514: 2465: 2463: 2456: 2450: 2447: 2352:Enewetak Atoll 2327:Stanislaw Ulam 2261: 2258: 2253:Main article: 2250: 2247: 2211: 2208: 2199:Richard Rhodes 2190: 2187: 2128: 2127: 2116: 2113: 2098: 2090: 2078: 2070: 2058: 2050: 2038: 2030: 2018: 2010: 1998: 1990: 1978: 1970: 1958: 1950: 1938: 1930: 1918: 1910: 1898: 1890: 1877: 1874: 1865:Richard Rhodes 1846: 1845: 1842: 1839: 1835: 1834: 1831: 1828: 1824: 1823: 1820: 1817: 1813: 1812: 1807: 1801: 1800: 1793: 1783: 1780: 1725: 1724: 1721: 1717: 1710: 1703: 1699: 1683: 1680: 1655: 1654: 1648: 1640: 1630: 1622: 1613:fuel produces 1607: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1594: 1568: 1567: 1561: 1553: 1543: 1535: 1520: 1517:alpha particle 1509: 1502: 1495: 1492:chain reaction 1468: 1467: 1418: 1416: 1409: 1403: 1400: 1346: 1343: 1342: 1341: 1336:Tamper/pusher 1334: 1327: 1318:Howard Morland 1282: 1279: 1278: 1277: 1273: 1270: 1269:induce fusion. 1266: 1258: 1255: 1176: 1168: 1156: 1148: 1118: 1117: 1108: 1107: 1099: 1098: 1097: 1096: 1095: 1079:fissile fizzle 1057: 1054: 1046: 1038: 1026: 1018: 1006:nuclear fusion 982: 974: 951:explosive lens 939: 931: 919: 911: 881:radiation case 850:nuclear fusion 809: 806: 801:Main article: 798: 795: 766:New York Times 714: 713: 672: 670: 663: 657: 654: 651: 650: 648: 647: 640: 633: 625: 622: 621: 620: 619: 614: 609: 604: 594: 593: 588: 583: 574: 564: 563: 558: 553: 551:United Kingdom 548: 543: 528: 527: 521: 520: 519: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 473: 467: 466: 461: 456: 450: 449: 444: 439: 434: 429: 424: 419: 411: 410: 406: 405: 397: 396: 369:Stanisław Ulam 267:hydrogen bombs 244: 236: 226: 218: 204:nuclear powers 193: 185: 171: 163: 144:nuclear fusion 113: 112: 111:by reflection) 105: 98: 92: 89: 82: 68: 62: 56: 53:High-explosive 49: 47: 46: 43: 39: 26: 18:Hydrogen bombs 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8074: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8054: 8052: 8033: 8030: 8028: 8025: 8024: 8021: 8011: 8008: 8006: 7996: 7995: 7993: 7989: 7979: 7969: 7967: 7957: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7940: 7938: 7928: 7926: 7916: 7915: 7913: 7909: 7903: 7893: 7892: 7890: 7886: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7825: 7824: 7822: 7818: 7815: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7800: 7794: 7793:Fusion Engine 7791: 7789: 7788:FRX-L – FRCHX 7786: 7784: 7774: 7772: 7762: 7761: 7759: 7757: 7753: 7743: 7733: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7716: 7715: 7713: 7709: 7701: 7698: 7697: 7696: 7693: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7676: 7674: 7664: 7663: 7661: 7659: 7655: 7645: 7635: 7633: 7623: 7622: 7620: 7618: 7614: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7593: 7591: 7581: 7580: 7577: 7574: 7572: 7568: 7554: 7549: 7546: 7545: 7544: 7534: 7532: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7500: 7499: 7497: 7493: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7472: 7470: 7460: 7459: 7457: 7451: 7445: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7398: 7397: 7395: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7382: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7352: 7350: 7340: 7338: 7328: 7326: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7286:ASDEX Upgrade 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7260: 7256: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7236: 7234: 7224: 7223: 7221: 7217: 7211: 7201: 7199: 7189: 7187: 7177: 7173: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7117: 7114: 7113: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7097: 7096: 7094: 7088: 7080: 7075: 7065: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7020: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6997: 6994: 6993: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6986:Alcator C-Mod 6977: 6975: 6965: 6964: 6962: 6958: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6938: 6936: 6934:International 6932: 6929: 6927: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6901: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6880:Metal lattice 6878: 6874: 6871: 6870: 6869: 6866: 6865: 6863: 6859: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6840: 6838: 6836: 6835:Electrostatic 6832: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6812: 6810: 6808: 6804: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6789: 6787: 6785: 6781: 6775: 6772: 6766: 6763: 6762: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6752: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6720: 6719: 6716: 6712: 6709: 6708: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6693: 6691: 6689: 6685: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6638: 6635: 6634: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6607:Alpha process 6605: 6603: 6601: 6600:Gravitational 6597: 6594: 6590: 6586: 6583: 6577: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6535:Nuclear power 6533: 6532: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6494: 6492: 6490: 6486: 6483: 6479: 6474: 6467: 6462: 6460: 6455: 6453: 6448: 6447: 6444: 6438: 6435: 6432: 6428: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6403: 6400: 6397: 6394: 6390: 6387: 6384: 6383: 6375: 6372: 6369: 6366: 6363: 6360: 6357: 6354: 6351: 6348: 6347: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6278: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6257: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6224: 6223: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6185: 6181: 6180:HarperCollins 6176: 6175: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6109: 6103: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6064: 6060: 6055: 6054: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6014: 6010: 6005: 6004: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5890: 5885: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5840: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5797: 5793: 5788: 5787: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5729: 5717: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5684: 5680: 5675: 5674: 5667: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5642: 5641: 5624: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5586: 5578: 5570: 5566: 5560: 5552: 5548: 5542: 5534: 5530: 5524: 5516: 5512: 5506: 5495: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5452: 5447: 5443: 5436: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5414: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5358: 5356: 5347: 5346: 5339: 5331: 5327: 5320: 5312: 5306: 5290: 5286: 5280: 5265: 5261: 5254: 5239: 5235: 5228: 5212: 5208: 5202: 5194: 5190: 5184: 5168: 5162: 5154: 5150: 5144: 5129: 5125: 5118: 5103: 5102:The Hankyoreh 5099: 5092: 5076: 5069: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5031: 5026: 5025: 5019: 5013: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4962: 4957: 4951: 4949: 4947: 4945: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4902: 4898: 4897: 4892: 4886: 4877: 4876: 4868: 4853: 4849: 4842: 4834: 4830: 4824: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4794: 4778: 4771: 4756: 4752: 4745: 4737: 4733: 4727: 4719: 4715: 4709: 4707: 4705: 4703: 4695: 4693: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4665: 4650: 4646: 4640: 4638: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4603: 4588: 4587:www.ctbto.org 4584: 4578: 4563: 4559: 4553: 4551: 4535: 4534:www.ctbto.org 4531: 4525: 4523: 4513: 4509: 4508: 4500: 4484: 4480: 4474: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4444: 4429: 4428:www.ctbto.org 4425: 4419: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4389: 4384: 4383: 4374: 4372: 4370: 4368: 4366: 4364: 4362: 4360: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4329: 4325: 4318: 4300: 4294: 4286: 4280: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4219: 4213: 4209: 4202: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4150: 4148: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4117: 4113: 4112: 4104: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4077: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4040: 4036: 4035: 4027: 4025: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3994: 3989: 3988: 3982: 3976: 3974: 3957: 3951: 3935: 3929: 3927: 3910: 3904: 3902: 3895: 3891: 3886: 3879: 3875: 3874:"The Article" 3871: 3866: 3859: 3855: 3852: 3847: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3816: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3746: 3729: 3714: 3710: 3704: 3696: 3690: 3683: 3682: 3674: 3666: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3625: 3621: 3616: 3615: 3609: 3608:Hansen, Chuck 3603: 3587: 3581: 3579: 3563: 3559: 3552: 3537: 3536: 3531: 3524: 3508: 3504: 3497: 3489: 3485: 3478: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3444: 3442: 3440: 3420: 3413: 3412: 3407: 3403: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3385:. ISRI-03-08. 3383: 3378: 3374: 3367: 3360:. ISRI-05-03. 3358: 3353: 3349: 3342: 3335: 3323: 3322: 3317: 3313: 3307: 3303: 3288: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3272:hydrogen bomb 3267: 3263: 3253: 3250: 3248: 3245: 3243: 3240: 3239: 3233: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3210: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3190: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3162: 3152: 3148: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3129: 3125: 3119: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3100: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3074: 3072: 3068: 3067: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3047: 3040: 3035: 3033: 3027: 3024: 3020: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2995: 2986: 2984: 2980: 2970: 2968: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2939: 2932: 2922: 2920: 2919:U.S. Congress 2916: 2912: 2908: 2902: 2900: 2899:Vela incident 2894: 2884: 2882: 2876: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2837: 2832: 2822: 2819: 2799: 2795: 2790: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2770:"Le Terrible" 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2748: 2746: 2741: 2736: 2732: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2717: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2696: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2685:William Broad 2682: 2681: 2675: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2656: 2646: 2644: 2643:Mk 28 warhead 2640: 2634: 2630: 2628: 2623: 2622:Orange Herald 2618: 2613: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2551: 2547: 2542: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2522: 2511: 2508: 2500: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2476: 2475: 2471: 2466:This section 2464: 2460: 2455: 2454: 2446: 2444: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2391: 2390:) altogether. 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2336: 2334: 2333: 2328: 2320: 2319: 2314: 2313: 2308: 2304: 2302: 2298: 2295: 2290: 2285: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2270:Edward Teller 2267: 2260:United States 2256: 2246: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2218: 2207: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2186: 2182: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2159:neutron bombs 2154: 2152: 2151: 2146: 2142: 2137: 2132: 2131:terminology. 2125: 2121: 2117: 2114: 2111: 2107: 2102: 2082: 2062: 2042: 2022: 2002: 1982: 1962: 1942: 1922: 1902: 1883: 1882: 1881: 1873: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1837: 1836: 1826: 1825: 1815: 1814: 1811: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1802: 1798: 1790: 1787: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1770: 1767: 1763: 1744: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1722: 1718: 1715: 1711: 1708: 1704: 1701: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1679: 1677: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1507: 1503: 1500: 1496: 1493: 1489: 1488:supercritical 1485: 1484: 1483: 1480: 1478: 1474: 1464: 1461: 1453: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1429: 1428: 1424: 1419:This section 1417: 1413: 1408: 1407: 1399: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1359: 1356: 1352: 1339: 1335: 1332: 1328: 1325: 1324: 1319: 1315: 1312: 1311: 1310: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1274: 1271: 1267: 1264: 1263: 1262: 1254: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1212: 1210: 1206: 1200: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1160: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1122: 1112: 1103: 1094: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1053: 1050: 1030: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 986: 967: 963: 958: 956: 952: 948: 943: 923: 904: 900: 896: 892: 889: 884: 882: 878: 869: 865: 863: 862:supercritical 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 804: 794: 791: 787: 783: 777: 775: 771: 767: 763: 758: 754: 750: 749: 744: 740: 736: 732: 724: 723:Edward Teller 720: 710: 707: 699: 696:December 2015 689: 685: 679: 678: 673:This section 671: 667: 662: 661: 646: 641: 639: 634: 632: 627: 626: 624: 623: 618: 615: 613: 610: 608: 605: 603: 599: 596: 595: 592: 589: 587: 584: 578: 575: 573: 569: 566: 565: 562: 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 547: 544: 542: 541:United States 538: 536: 532: 531: 530: 529: 526: 523: 522: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 496:Proliferation 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 468: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 451: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 414: 413: 412: 408: 407: 403: 399: 398: 395: 392: 391: 388: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 365:Edward Teller 362: 361: 355: 350: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 322: 319: 315: 311: 310:supercritical 306: 302: 297: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 274: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 253:of hydrogen ( 252: 212: 207: 205: 201: 179: 178:plutonium-239 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 140:nuclear bombs 137: 133: 129: 128:hydrogen bomb 125: 124:fusion weapon 121: 110: 106: 103: 99: 97:(fusion fuel) 96: 93: 90: 87: 83: 80: 76: 72: 69: 66: 63: 60: 57: 54: 51: 50: 44: 41: 40: 34: 30: 19: 7590:Perhapsatron 6890:Pyroelectric 6820:Laser-driven 6659:Neon-burning 6627:Helium flash 6473:Fusion power 6405: 6284:(4): 20–31. 6281: 6275: 6231: 6227: 6208:– via 6173: 6132: 6106: 6087:– via 6052: 6037:– via 6007:. New York: 6002: 5958: 5893: 5887: 5843: 5837: 5820:– via 5785: 5741:Random House 5736: 5716:Google Books 5714:– via 5708:. Retrieved 5678: 5672: 5658:. Retrieved 5649: 5621: 5614:. Retrieved 5589: 5577: 5568: 5559: 5550: 5541: 5533:The Guardian 5532: 5523: 5514: 5505: 5494: 5484:– via 5450: 5435: 5426: 5422: 5413: 5371:Random House 5366: 5344: 5338: 5329: 5319: 5305: 5293:. Retrieved 5289:the original 5279: 5269:28 September 5267:. Retrieved 5263: 5253: 5241:. Retrieved 5238:The Diplomat 5237: 5227: 5217:10 September 5215:. Retrieved 5210: 5201: 5192: 5183: 5171:. Retrieved 5161: 5152: 5143: 5131:. Retrieved 5127: 5117: 5105:. Retrieved 5101: 5091: 5079:. Retrieved 5068: 5023: 5012: 5002:– via 4960: 4956:Cohen, Avner 4933:– via 4895: 4885: 4874: 4872:"Doctrine", 4867: 4855:. Retrieved 4851: 4841: 4832: 4823: 4811:. Retrieved 4807:the original 4802: 4793: 4781:. Retrieved 4770: 4758:. Retrieved 4754: 4744: 4735: 4726: 4718:the original 4690: 4683:. Retrieved 4674: 4664: 4652:. Retrieved 4648: 4624:. Retrieved 4612: 4602: 4590:. Retrieved 4586: 4577: 4565:. Retrieved 4561: 4537:. Retrieved 4533: 4512:the original 4506: 4499: 4487:. Retrieved 4482: 4473: 4461:. Retrieved 4457:the original 4443: 4431:. Retrieved 4427: 4418: 4381: 4323: 4317: 4305:. Retrieved 4293: 4279: 4244: 4207: 4201: 4158: 4110: 4103: 4086: 4082: 4076: 4064:. Retrieved 4037:. ABC-Clio. 4033: 3986: 3960:. Retrieved 3950: 3938:. Retrieved 3913:. Retrieved 3893: 3885: 3877: 3865: 3846: 3834:. Retrieved 3830:the original 3825: 3815: 3760: 3732:. Retrieved 3717:. Retrieved 3713:the original 3703: 3680: 3673: 3663:– via 3657:. Retrieved 3613: 3602: 3590:. Retrieved 3565:. Retrieved 3561: 3551: 3539:. Retrieved 3533: 3523: 3510:. Retrieved 3506: 3496: 3487: 3477: 3465:. Retrieved 3453: 3426:. Retrieved 3410: 3372: 3366: 3347: 3341: 3333: 3326:. Retrieved 3319: 3306: 3287: 3280:Castle Bravo 3271: 3266: 3211: 3191: 3187:Wassaw Sound 3179:Tybee Island 3164: 3149: 3144: 3140: 3139:there was a 3136: 3132: 3127: 3124:Chuck Hansen 3120: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3081: 3077: 3075: 3064: 3049: 3038: 3032:Smyth Report 3028: 3022: 3018: 3012: 3006: 3002: 2976: 2943: 2934: 2915:Carl Duckett 2903: 2896: 2877: 2842: 2791: 2782:Mirage 2000N 2766:M45 missiles 2751: 2745:Le Téméraire 2744: 2718: 2702: 2689:double agent 2678: 2676: 2658: 2635: 2631: 2615:In 1957 the 2614: 2610:Anthony Eden 2602:Castle tests 2587: 2549: 2543: 2534: 2524: 2503: 2497:October 2022 2494: 2479:Please help 2467: 2449:Soviet Union 2415: 2412:Castle Bravo 2405: 2367: 2364:World War II 2337: 2330: 2324: 2318:Castle Romeo 2316: 2310: 2293: 2286: 2281: 2266:Enrico Fermi 2263: 2237: 2236:(code-named 2233: 2229: 2228:(code-named 2225: 2215: 2213: 2202: 2194: 2192: 2183: 2163:neutron flux 2155: 2148: 2133: 2129: 1879: 1868: 1863: 1853: 1849: 1785: 1745: 1729: 1689: 1685: 1662: 1659: 1584:neutron bomb 1569: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1456: 1450:October 2022 1447: 1432:Please help 1420: 1387: 1369: 1360: 1348: 1331:Chuck Hansen 1321: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1290: 1286: 1284: 1260: 1247:acetonitrile 1239:Y-12 Complex 1224: 1213: 1201: 1139: 1128: 1120: 1091:neutron flux 1059: 959: 885: 880: 874: 841: 837: 829: 821: 811: 778: 773: 768:, physicist 765: 752: 746: 728: 702: 693: 682:Please help 677:verification 674: 602:South Africa 597: 581:(undeclared) 567: 533: 359: 351: 323: 298: 275: 270: 266: 208: 131: 127: 123: 119: 117: 100:Plutonium (" 29: 7805:confinement 7551: [ 7481:Heliotron J 7385:Stellarator 7253: [ 7170: [ 7077: [ 6917:confinement 6906:experiments 6861:Other forms 6745:Stellarator 6711:Bumpy torus 6589:Confinement 6481:Core topics 5616:10 February 5551:Der Spiegel 5446:Postol, Ted 5295:18 November 5243:6 September 5128:Korea Times 5081:11 December 4857:23 December 4813:20 November 4626:24 December 3659:10 November 3567:20 November 3541:20 November 3428:10 February 3328:10 February 3312:Conan, Neal 3108:born secret 3007:secondaries 2925:North Korea 2725:outer space 2677:A story in 2590:Aldermaston 2124:emit X-rays 1707:fissile pit 1477:Progressive 1209:polystyrene 1083:Castle Koon 966:uranium-238 834:fusion fuel 753:Born secret 743:born secret 591:North Korea 501:Disarmament 343:radioactive 156:uranium-235 132:H bomb 86:polystyrene 81:hollow core 59:Uranium-238 8051:Categories 6825:Ion-driven 6579:Processes, 6522:Aneutronic 6517:Commercial 6344:Principles 6155:1164620354 6125:Young, Ken 6097:Stix, Gary 5710:9 February 5660:9 February 5133:8 February 5107:8 February 5044:2005051689 4923:1159416022 4783:18 January 4760:18 January 4692:A. 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