Tritium - Knowledge

1705:, but there is no practical separation technology on an industrial scale. Accordingly, a controlled environmental release is said to be the best way to treat low-tritium-concentration water." After a public information campaign sponsored by the Japanese government, the gradual release into the sea of the tritiated water began on 24 August 2023 and is the first of four releases through March 2024. The entire process will take "decades" to complete. China reacted with protest. The IAEA has endorsed the plan. The water released is diluted to reduce the tritium concentration to less than 1500 Bq/L, far below the limit recommended in drinking water by the WHO. 2974:, tritium can act as a transient tracer and can "outline" the biological, chemical, and physical paths throughout the world's oceans because of its evolving distribution. Tritium has thus been used as a tool to examine ocean circulation and ventilation and, for such purposes, is usually measured in tritium units, where 1 TU is defined as 1 tritium atom per 10 hydrogen atoms, equal to about 0.118 Bq/liter. As noted earlier, nuclear tests, mainly in the Northern Hemisphere at high latitudes, throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s introduced lots of tritium into the atmosphere, especially the 1467: 1427: 2978:. Before these nuclear tests, there were only about 3-4 kg of tritium on the Earth's surface; but these amounts rose by 2-3 orders of magnitude during the post-test period. Some sources reported natural background levels were exceeded by about 1,000 TU in 1963 and 1964 and the isotope is used in the northern hemisphere to estimate the age of groundwater and construct hydrogeologic simulation models. Estimated atmospheric levels at the height of weapons testing to approach 1,000 TU and pre-fallout levels of rainwater to be between 5 and 10 TU. In 1963 1387: 1588: 1548: 1507: 2162: 3102:. As for water vapor, the tritium concentration was about one order of magnitude greater than surface seawater concentrations (ranging from 0.46 to 1.15 Bq/L). Therefore, the water vapor tritium is not affected by the surface seawater concentration; thus, the high tritium concentrations in the vapor were concluded to be a direct consequence of the downward movement of natural tritium from the stratosphere to the troposphere (therefore, the ocean air showed a dependence on latitudinal change). 1225: 1184: 1629: 2278: 1347: 3202:. The largest tritium concentrations were found in 1963 at all the sampled locations throughout these rivers and correlate well with the peak concentrations in precipitation due to the nuclear bomb tests in 1962. The overall highest concentrations occurred in the Missouri River (1963) and were greater than 1,200 TU while the lowest concentrations were found in the Arkansas River (never greater than 850 TU and less than 10 TU in the mid-1980s). 2599: 2774:) neutrons. As the fission fuel depletes and also explodes outward, it falls below the density needed to stay critical by itself, but the fusion neutrons make the fission process progress faster and continue longer than it would without boosting. Increased yield comes overwhelmingly from the increased fission. The energy from the fusion itself is much smaller because the amount of fusion fuel is much smaller. Effects of boosting include: 1266: 2541: 2806:, helium-3, absorbs neutrons. This can offset or reverse the intended effect of the tritium, which was to generate many free neutrons, if too much helium-3 has accumulated. Therefore, boosted bombs need fresh tritium periodically. The estimated quantity needed is 4 grams (0.14 oz) per warhead. To maintain constant levels of tritium, about 0.20 grams (0.0071 oz) per warhead per year must be supplied to the bomb. 1307: 2638: 1698:(equivalent to 2.1 g of tritium or 14 mL of pure tritiated water) in a total of 860,000 m of stored water. This report also identified the reducing concentration of tritium in the water extracted from the buildings etc. for storage, seeing a factor of ten decrease over the five years considered (2011–2016), 3.3 MBq/L to 0.3 MBq/L (after correction for the 5% annual decay of tritium). 43: 1036:, an undesirable long-lived beta emitter, from O) they are net "neutron consumers" and are thus undesirable in a moderator of a natural uranium reactor which needs to keep neutron absorption outside the fuel as low as feasible. Some facilities that remove tritium also remove (or at least reduce the content of) O and O, which can – at least in principle – be used for 2252:, India, show that the biological half-life in winter is twice that of the summer. If tritium exposure is suspected or known, drinking uncontaminated water will help replace the tritium from the body. Increasing sweating, urination or breathing can help the body expel water and thereby the tritium contained in it. However, care should be taken that neither 3231:, data indicated that approximately 780 grams of tritium has flowed out of the River and into the Gulf between 1961 and 1997, an average of 21.7 grams/yr and 7.7 PBq/yr. Current fluxes through the Mississippi River are 1 to 2 grams, per year as opposed to the pre-bomb period fluxes of roughly 0.4 grams per year. 2770:" of fissile material. The early stages of the fission chain reaction supply enough heat and compression to start deuterium–tritium fusion; then both fission and fusion proceed in parallel, the fission assisting the fusion by continuing heating and compression, and the fusion assisting the fission with highly energetic (14.1- 2527:(BED) is set at 0.1 μSv, so the statutory limit in the US is set at 400 BED. Updated dose calculation standards based on International Commission on Radiological Protection Report 30 and used in the NRC Regulation 10CFR20 results in a dose of 0.9 millirem (9 μSv) per year at 740 Bq/L (20 nCi/L). 3126:

and there appeared to be a slow exchange of tritium (relative to shallower isopycnals) between this gyre and the anticyclonic gyre to the south; also, the tritium on the 23.90 and 26.02 surfaces appeared to be exchanged at a slower rate between the central gyre of the North Pacific and the equatorial regions.

3086:. Results indicated that the tritium concentration in surface seawater was highest at the Fremantle Bay (about 0.40 Bq/liter), which could be accredited to the mixing of runoff of freshwater from nearby lands due to large amounts found in coastal waters. Typically, lower concentrations were found between 3223:

For the Ohio River, the tritium data indicated that about 40% of the flow was composed of precipitation with residence times of less than one year (in the Ohio basin) and older waters consisted of residence times of about ten years. Thus, the short residence times (less than one year) corresponded to

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is an optional additional step in nuclear reprocessing that removes volatile fission products (such as all isotopes of hydrogen) before an aqueous process begins. This would in principle enable economic recovery of the produced tritium but even if the tritium is only disposed and not used, it has the

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into tritium and helium-4, while lithium-7 is split into helium-4, tritium, and one neutron. As these reactions occur, the fusion stage is compressed by photons from the primary and fission of the U or U/U jacket surrounding the fusion stage. Therefore, the fusion stage breeds its own tritium as the

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from the North Atlantic Ocean and then flows to the west and equatorward in deep boundary currents. This process was explained via the large-scale tritium distribution in the deep North Atlantic between 1981 and 1983. The sub-polar gyre tends to be freshened (ventilated) by the NADW and is directly

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extrema. In order to obtain the structure for ocean circulation, the tritium concentrations were mapped on 3 surfaces of constant potential density (23.90, 26.02, and 26.81). Results indicated that the tritium was well-mixed (at 6 to 7 TU) on the 26.81 isopycnal in the subarctic cyclonic gyre

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O. Plants convert HHO into organically bound tritium (OBT), and are consumed by animals. HHO is retained in humans for around 12 days, with a small portion of it remaining in the body. Tritium can be passed along the food chain as one organism feeds on another, though the metabolism of OBT is less

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A tritium nucleus (triton), containing one proton and two neutrons, has the same charge as any hydrogen nucleus, and it experiences the same electrostatic repulsion when close to another nucleus. However, the neutrons in the triton increase the attractive strong nuclear force when close enough to

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Several processes can be identified using the tritium data from the rivers: direct runoff and outflow of water from groundwater reservoirs. Using these processes, it becomes possible to model the response of the river basins to the transient tritium tracer. Two of the most common models are the

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between the late 1960s and late 1980s. There is a downward propagation of the tritium maximum from the surface (1960s) to 400 meters (1980s), which corresponds to a deepening rate of about 18 meters per year. There are also tritium increases at 1,500 m depth in the late 1970s and

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of continental hydrologic systems (as opposed to the usual oceanic hydrologic systems) which include surface waters such as lakes, streams, and rivers. Studying these systems can also provide societies and municipals with information for agricultural purposes and overall river water quality.

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the "prompt-flow" component of the two-member mixing model. As for the Missouri River, results indicated that residence times were approximately four years with the prompt-flow component being around 10% (these results are due to the series of dams in the area of the Missouri River).

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of HHO from the environment. The biological half-life of tritiated water in the human body, which is a measure of body water turn-over, varies with the season. Studies on the biological half-life of occupational radiation workers for free water tritium in a coastal region of

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225 kg (496 lb) of tritium was produced in the United States from 1955 to 1996. Since it continually decays into helium-3, the total amount remaining was about 75 kg (165 lb) at the time of the report, and about 16 kg (35 lb) as of 2023.

2523:) per year per EPA regulation 40CFR141, and is based on outdated dose calculation standards of National Bureau of Standards Handbook 69 circa 1963. Four millirem per year is about 1.3% of the natural background radiation (~3 mSv). For comparison, the 2207:

proved to be unexpectedly useful to oceanographers. The high levels of tritium oxide introduced into upper layers of the oceans have been used in the years since then to measure the rate of mixing of the upper layers of the oceans with their lower levels.

2752:. The quantity of neutrons produced is large in absolute numbers, allowing the pit to quickly achieve neutron levels that would otherwise need many more generations of chain reaction, though still small compared to the total number of nuclei in the pit. 1051:

technology), also removes at least some of the tritium produced in the moderator/coolant of its reactors but due to the dual use nature of tritium and the Indian nuclear bomb program, less information about this is publicly available than for Canada.

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released 665 Ci (24.6 TBq) (maximum: 174 Ci (6,400 GBq); minimum: 0 Ci; average: 27.7 Ci (1,020 GBq)), in liquid effluents. 40,600 Ci (1,500,000 GBq) of tritium weigh about 4.207 grams (0.1484 oz).

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While in the stratosphere (post-test period), the tritium interacted with and oxidized to water molecules and was present in much of the rapidly produced rainfall, making tritium a prognostic tool for studying the evolution and structure of the

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from tritium can penetrate only about 6.0 millimetres (0.24 in) of air, and they are incapable of passing through the dead outermost layer of human skin. Because of their low energy compared to other beta particles, the amount of

981:'s "Tritium Removal Facility" is capable of processing up to 2,500 tonnes (2,500 long tons; 2,800 short tons) of heavy water a year, and it separates out about 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) of tritium, making it available for other uses. 2813:

of deuterium-tritium gas contains about 3.0 grams (0.11 oz) of tritium and 2.0 grams (0.071 oz) of deuterium. In comparison, the 20 moles of plutonium in a nuclear bomb consists of about 4.5 kilograms (9.9 lb) of

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Total U.S. tritium production since 1955 has been about 225 kilograms, an estimated 150 kilograms of which have decayed into helium-3, leaving a current inventory of about 75 kg of tritium. — Zerriffi & Scoville

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is the shallowest layer and includes the deepest, ventilated layer in winter; it has received tritium via radioactive fallout and lost some due to advection and/or vertical diffusion and contains about 28% of the total amount of

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This figure is derived from the guideline dose of 1 mSv per year from all sources of radiation in drinking water in The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 6, assuming that tritium is the only radionuclide present in the

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Tritium has leaked from 48 of 65 nuclear sites in the US. In one case, leaking water contained 7.5 microcuries (280 kBq) of tritium per liter, which is 375 times the current EPA limit for drinking water, and 28 times the

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per year. The global equilibrium inventory of tritium created by natural sources remains approximately constant at 2,590 petabecquerels. This is due to a fixed production rate, and losses proportional to the inventory.

3109:, the tritium (introduced as bomb tritium in the Northern Hemisphere) spread in three dimensions. There were subsurface maxima in the middle and low latitude regions, which is indicative of lateral mixing (advection) and 431:

with deuterons (deuterium nuclei). Deuterium is another isotope of hydrogen, which occurs naturally with an abundance of 0.015%. Their experiment could not isolate tritium, which was first accomplished in 1939 by

2859:, a cylinder of U/Pu at the center of the fusion stage(s), begins to fission in a chain reaction, from excess neutrons channeled from the primary. The neutrons released from the fission of the sparkplug split 653:. Production of tritium from lithium-6 in such breeder ceramics is possible with neutrons of any energy, though the cross section is higher when the incident neutrons have lower energy, reaching more than 900 2926:

center-of-mass) of any potential fusion fuel. As tritium is very rare on earth, concepts for fusion reactors often include the breeding of tritium. During the operation of envisioned breeder fusion reactors,

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in Ontario. The total production at DTRF between 1989 and 2011 was 42.5 kilograms (94 lb) – with an activity of 409 megacuries (15,100 PBq): an average of about 2 kilograms (4.4 lb) per year.

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beginning in November 2006. Tritium leakage from the rods during reactor operations limits the number that can be used in any reactor without exceeding the maximum allowed tritium levels in the coolant.

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Singh, V. P.; Pai, R. K.; Veerender, D. D.; Vishnu, M. S.; Vijayan, P.; Managanvi, S. S.; Badiger, N. M.; Bhat, H. R. (2010). "Estimation of biological half-life of tritium in coastal region of India".

2139:). However, if the atoms have a high enough temperature and pressure (for example, in the core of the Sun), then their random motions can overcome such repulsion, and they can come close enough for the 3153:

and is no longer part of the mixed layer. Its two sources are diffusion downward from the mixed layer and lateral expansions outcropping strata (poleward); it contains about 58% of the total tritium.

3594: 2188:, tritium is difficult to confine. Rubber, plastic, and some kinds of steel are all somewhat permeable. This has raised concerns that if tritium were used in large quantities, in particular for 4441: 2998:

Bomb-tritium data were used from the Transient Tracers in the Ocean (TTO) program in order to quantify the replenishment and overturning rates for deep water located in the North Atlantic.

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released 40,600 curies (1,500,000 GBq) of tritium (maximum: 2,080 Ci (77,000 GBq); minimum: 0.1 Ci (3.7 GBq); average: 725 Ci (26,800 GBq)) and 24

977:, and relatively little tritium is produced. Even so, cleaning tritium from the moderator may be desirable after several years to reduce the risk of its escaping to the environment. 2220:, it is not dangerous externally (its β particles cannot penetrate the skin), but it can be a radiation hazard if inhaled, ingested via food or water, or absorbed through the skin. 3001:

Bomb-tritium also enters the deep ocean around the Antarctic. Most of the bomb tritiated water (HHO) throughout the atmosphere can enter the ocean through the following processes:

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device detonates. In the extreme heat and pressure of the explosion, some of the tritium is then forced into fusion with deuterium, and that reaction releases even more neutrons.

2676:), knives and a variety of other devices. As of 2000, commercial demand for tritium is 400 grams (0.88 lb) per year and the cost is $ 30,000 per gram ($ 850,000/oz) or more. 3162:

is representative of waters that are deeper than the outcrop isopycnal and can only receive tritium via vertical diffusion; it contains the remaining 14% of the total tritium.

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Since this fusion process requires an extremely high temperature for ignition, and it produces fewer and less energetic neutrons (only fission, deuterium-tritium fusion, and

1110: 1694:, as part of considering options for final disposal of the stored contaminated cooling water. This identified that the March 2016 holding of tritium on-site was 760 3190:

In a 2004 study, several rivers were taken into account during the examination of tritium concentrations (starting in the 1960s) throughout the Mississippi River Basin:

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Wunsch, Carl. (2015). Modern observational physical oceanography : understanding the global ocean. Princeton : Princeton University Press. p. 44 Figure 2.29.

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In a 1998 study, tritium concentrations in surface seawater and atmospheric water vapor (10 meters above the surface) were sampled at the following locations: the

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Since tritium undergoes radioactive decay, and is also difficult to confine physically, the much larger secondary charge of heavy hydrogen isotopes needed in a true

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of drug candidates allows detailed analysis of their absorption and metabolism. Tritium has also been used for biological radiometric assays, in a process akin to

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related to the high tritium values (>1.5 TU). Also evident was the decrease in tritium in the deep western boundary current by a factor of 10 from the

4757:. National Health and Medical Research Council, National Resource Management Ministerial Council, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. March 2015. p. 98. 5105: 985:

typically produce 130 grams (4.6 oz) of tritium per year, which is recovered at the Darlington Tritium Recovery Facility (DTRF) attached to the 3,512 MW

4173: 4049:[2020 Environmental Radiation Survey and Evaluation Report Around Nuclear Power Plant]. Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power. 26 April 2021. p. 25. 3708:

Hanaor, Dorian A.H.; Kolb, Matthias H.H.; Gan, Yixiang; Kamlah, Marc; Knitter, Regina (2015). "Solution based synthesis of mixed-phase materials in the Li

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for firearms, numerous instruments and tools, and novelty items such as self-illuminating key chains. It is used in a medical and scientific setting as a

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due to recirculation and ventilation in the upper portion of the Atlantic Ocean. To the north, the isosurface deepens and reaches the floor of the

2176:) 6 by 0.2 inches (152.4 mm × 5.1 mm) tritium vials are thin, tritium-gas-filled glass vials whose inner surfaces are coated with a 1092:. The production of tritium is not a goal, but a side-effect. It is discharged to the atmosphere in small quantities by some nuclear power plants. 4280: 3789: 3071: 2288: 461: 3098:. Results also indicated that (in general) tritium has decreased over the years (up to 1997) due to the physical decay of bomb tritium in the 4393: 3038:

2,500 m in the middle of the 1980s, both of which correspond to cooling events in the deep water and associated deep water ventilation.

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from the resulting fusion radiate in all directions. Some of these strike plutonium or uranium nuclei in the primary's pit, initiating a

5381: 4029: 2931:, often containing lithium as part of ceramic pebbles, are subjected to neutron fluxes to generate tritium to complete the fuel cycle. 4187: 2243:

in the human body of 7 to 14 days, which both reduces the total effects of single-incident ingestion and precludes long-term

4274:"Tritium: The environmental, health, budgetary, and strategic effects of the Department of Energy's decision to produce tritium" 2135:

All atomic nuclei contain protons as their only charged particles. They therefore repel one another because like charges repel (

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potential to reduce tritium contamination in the water used, reducing radioactivity released when the water is discharged since

600:'s kinetic energy varies, with an average of 5.7 keV, while the remaining energy is carried off by the nearly undetectable 3786:

Tritium: The environmental, health, budgetary, and strategic effects of the Department of Energy's decision to produce tritium

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not so stringent requirements on the implosion setup, allowing for a smaller and lighter amount of high explosives to be used

1558: 989: 649:. The release and diffusion of tritium and helium produced by the fission of lithium can take place within ceramics known as 4615:"Tritium in liquid releases on nuclear power plants with VVER and PWR reactors and some ways to solutions of its reduction" 4251: 1598: 4140:"China to Japanese official: If treated radioactive water from Fukushima is safe, 'please drink it' - The Washington Post" 2942:

dedicated to the development and demonstration of technologies required for fusion-relevant deuterium–tritium processing.

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generated is also lower. The unusually low energy released in the tritium beta decay makes the decay (along with that of

4710: 4284: 4061: 3942: 3878:"Section D: Safety and Liability – How does Ontario Power Generation manage tritium production in its CANDU moderators?" 4714: 4500: 4475:

Review of the Greenpeace report: "Tritium Hazard Report: Pollution and Radiation Risk from Canadian Nuclear Facilities"

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Using the data from these processes for 1981, the 1-TU isosurface lies between 500 and 1,000 meters deep in the

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Serot, O.; Wagemans, C.; Heyse, J. (2005). "New results on helium and tritium gas production from ternary fission".

2367:, self-illuminating exit signs improperly disposed in municipal landfills have been found to contaminate waterways. 4227: 3245: 3041:

From a study in 1991, the tritium profile was used as a tool for studying the mixing and spreading of newly formed

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or so needed for deuterium-tritium fusion and directs them into a metal target where the tritium and deuterium are

1517: 4614: 3982:. International Conference on Nuclear Data for Science and Technology. AIP Conference Proceedings. Vol. 769. 1276: 5572: 5108:. Fermilab Environmental Safety & Health Section (Report). Environmental Protection Note. Batavia, Illinois: 4685: 2364: 2236:

molecules within organisms which can lead to somatic and genetic impacts. These can emerge in later generations.

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another nucleus. As a result, tritium can fuse more easily with other light atoms, than ordinary hydrogen can.

693:, are being developed for tritium breeding within a helium-cooled pebble bed, also known as a breeder blanket. 5454: 5587: 5567: 5417: 4504: 4308:

27 years have passed since 1996, i.e. 2.25 half-lives, which reduce the 75kg of 1996 to 75/2^(2.25) ≈15.8 kg.

3983: 3905: 3045:(NADW), corresponding to tritium increases to 4 TU. This NADW tends to spill over sills that divide the 2935: 2348: 1690:

In June 2016 the Tritiated Water Task Force released a report on the status of tritium in tritiated water at

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The low energy of tritium's radiation makes it difficult to detect tritium-labeled compounds except by using

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from 2003 to 2005 followed by extraction of tritium from the rods at the Tritium Extraction Facility at the

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McCurry, Justin (16 April 2021). "Rosy-cheeked face of tritium dropped from Fukushima's publicity drive".

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Tritium is an important component in nuclear weapons; it is used to enhance the efficiency and yield of

1093: 2907: 1685: 1437: 1076:, with a production of about one atom per 10 fissions. The main pathways of tritium production include 3524:

Discovering Alvarez: Selected works of Luis W. Alvarez, with commentary by his students and colleagues

2034:(40.59 K vs. 32.94 K) and a higher critical pressure (1.8317 MPa vs. 1.2858 MPa). 1919:, the existing supplies were sufficient for the new, smaller number of nuclear weapons for some time. 4794:

Kopf, Sara; Bourriquen, Florian; Li, Wu; Neumann, Helfried; Junge, Kathrin; Beller, Matthias (2022).

4216: 3669:"Fusion neutrons: tritium breeding and impact on wall materials and components of diagnostic systems" 3042: 2649: 2352: 2333: 2193: 1639: 928: 4697: 1701:

According to a report by an expert panel considering the best approach to dealing with this issue, "

4926: 4083:"JP Gov "No drastic technology to remove Tritium was found in internationally collected knowledge"" 3179: 2837: 2673: 2558: 978: 20: 4622:

Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Safety and Reliability Systems of PWRS and VVERs

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which is directly related to the ventilation of the ocean floor over 10–20 year time-scales.

2196:, though its short half-life should prevent significant long-term accumulation in the atmosphere. 5577: 2551: 2512: 2240: 2200: 2065: 1951: 1721: 966: 164: 4950:"Thermal Discrete Element Analysis of EU Solid Breeder Blanket Subjected to Neutron Irradiation" 3529: 3314: 2761: 2749: 2693: 2524: 384: 294: 4754: 4474: 2915: 1803: 2827: 2356: 2068:

and the large amount of energy (17.6 MeV) produced through its reaction with deuterium:

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interacting with atmospheric gases. In the most important reaction for natural production, a

564: 5195: 4593:"Similarities and differences in the transfer of Tritium and Carbon-14 along the food chain" 952: 5496: 5389: 5343: 5285: 5224:

Kakiuchi, H.; Momoshima, N.; Okai, T.; Maeda, Y. (1999). "Tritium concentration in ocean".

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Michel, Robert; Williams, Peter M. (1973). "Bomb-produced tritium in the Antarctic Ocean".

5035: 4254:. Physics Department. Radiation Information Network. Idaho State University. Archived from 3987: 3914: 3819: 3743: 3562: 3494: 3450: 3390: 3058:, which is indicative of loss to ocean interior due to turbulent mixing and recirculation. 2856: 2767: 2725: 2140: 1085: 673:

releases about 17.6 MeV. For applications in proposed fusion energy reactors, such as

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Jenkins, William J.; et al. (1996). "Transient Tracers Track Ocean Climate Signals".

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As for the mass flux of tritium through the main stem of the Mississippi River into the

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is continually undergoing radioactive decay, becoming unavailable for fusion. Also, its

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Before detonation, a few grams of tritium–deuterium gas are injected into the hollow "

2158:) cannot fuse normal hydrogen, but they do fuse a small minority of deuterium nuclei. 772: 5538: 5440: 5363: 5203: 5123: 5084: 5061: 5008: 4874: 4829: 4817: 4656: 4344: 4160:"Japan Faces Growing Pressure to Rethink Releasing Fukushima's Wastewater into Ocean" 3839: 3694: 3621: 3533: 3434: 3374: 3114: 3083: 2887: 2697: 2661: 2155: 2038: 1669: 1013: 974: 416: 380: 354: 282: 118: 111: 55: 5416:(Report). London, UK: Health Protection Agency. November 2007. RCE-4. Archived from 5245: 4442:

Tritium Hazard Report: Pollution and Radiation Risk from Canadian Nuclear Facilities

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allowing the bomb to require a smaller amount of the very expensive fissile material

2264:(particularly in the short term) can be more severe than those of tritium exposure. 1702: 5562: 5351: 5293: 5233: 5199: 5162: 5051: 5043: 4974: 4864: 4856: 4807: 4700:. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (24 April 2012). Retrieved on 29 April 2013. 4648: 4318: 4217:"An evaluation of the neutron and gamma-ray production cross-sections for nitrogen" 3995: 3922: 3827: 3751: 3680: 3611: 3603: 3570: 3502: 3458: 3443:

Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

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The depth penetration of bomb tritium can be separated into three distinct layers:

2928: 2713: 2165: 2136: 1037: 650: 477: 65: 5024:"On the conversion of tritium units to mass fractions for hydrologic applications" 4501:

Backgrounder on Tritium, Radiation Protection Limits, and Drinking Water Standards

3901:"Tritium supply and use: a key issue for the development of nuclear fusion energy" 3899:

Pearson, Richard J.; Antoniazzi, Armando B.; Nuttall, William J. (November 2018).

3755: 5434: 5047: 4796:"Recent Developments for the Deuterium and Tritium Labeling of Organic Molecules" 3171: 2979: 2626: 2296: 2244: 2008: 1725: 1322: 1098: 1081: 1077: 1061: 1025: 997: 932: 658: 638: 373: 4812: 4795: 4568:"Impact of low-level radiation with special reference to tritium in environment" 4255: 4013: 3785: 3015:

These processes make HHO a great tracer for time scales of up to a few decades.

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as well as the ventilation and formation of water masses in the North Atlantic.

2922:) and it reaches this maximum cross section at the lowest energy (about 65 1080:. The release or recovery of tritium needs to be considered in the operation of 5436:

Tritium on Ice: The dangerous new alliance of nuclear weapons and nuclear power

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ISRE04. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Radiation Education

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Jones, Greg (2008). "Tritium Issues in Commercial Pressurized Water Reactors".

3228: 3199: 3195: 3183: 2955: 2782: 2745: 2709: 2376: 2189: 2161: 2061: 2022:

Compared to hydrogen in its natural composition on Earth, tritium has a higher

1900: 1482: 1230: 1189: 1029: 921: 610: 392: 347:) contains one proton and no neutrons, and that of non-radioactive hydrogen-2 ( 324: 211: 94: 4893: 3685: 3668: 5556: 5517: 4845:"Vitamin A Absorption Determined in Rats Using a Plasma Isotope Ratio Method" 4529:(Report). Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection. Archived from 3953: 3482: 3426: 3366: 3350: 3075: 3046: 3027: 2833: 2815: 2803: 2717: 2712:

which produce a pulse of neutrons when the bomb is detonated to initiate the

2689: 2217: 2027: 2023: 1981: 1714: 1645: 1634: 1442: 1317: 1069: 982: 940: 605: 441: 437: 420: 404: 267: 232: 188: 157: 77: 5167: 5150: 3574: 2778:

increased yield (for the same amount of fission fuel, compared to unboosted)

5065: 4878: 4821: 4660: 4124: 3625: 3553:

Kaufman, Sheldon; Libby, W. (1954). "The natural distribution of tritium".

3506: 3463: 3438: 3430: 3370: 3099: 3051: 2975: 2923: 2918:

is favorable since it has the largest fusion cross section (about 5.0

2848: 2771: 2733: 2685: 2401: 2336:'s recommended limit. This is equivalent to 0.777 nanograms per litre (5.45 2300: 2257: 2169: 2042: 1807: 1402: 1362: 593: 472:) – an annualized rate of approximately 5.5% per year. Tritium decays into 424: 376:

and is a low-abundance byproduct in normal operations of nuclear reactors.

258: 254: 204: 4747: 4673: 3590:"Comprehensive review and critical evaluation of the half-life of tritium" 1881:

Worldwide, the production of tritium from natural sources is 148 peta

5530: 4860: 4652: 3831: 3607: 3595:

Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology

3326: 3240: 3023: 3019: 2992: 2959: 2919: 2890:

is not used in boosted bombs, but rather for multi-stage hydrogen bombs.

2810: 2253: 2151: 1968: 1935: 1927: 1819: 1604: 1563: 1523: 1352: 1073: 1065: 1001: 970: 768: 654: 317: 151: 4688:"What are normal amounts of tritium released from nuclear power plants?" 4421:. OSEH (Report). Radionuclide Safety Data Sheets. University of Michigan 3219:

outflow concentration depends upon the residence time of the basin water

2654:

The beta particles from small amounts of tritium cause chemicals called

1724:, expelling a proton; hence, it is rapidly converted back to tritium in 1047:(initially CANDU technology but since indigenized and further developed 5523: 5509: 5237: 4978: 3191: 2910:(NIF) uses deuterium–tritium fuel, and the experimental fusion reactor 2737: 2716:

in the fissionable core (pit) of the bomb, after it is compressed to a

2565: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2150:

The same is true, albeit to a lesser extent, of deuterium. This is why

1799: 1235: 936: 662: 365: 361: 249: 4197:. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from 3999: 1101:

cannot be removed from "ordinary" water except by isotope separation.

771:

reaction, consuming 2.466 MeV. This was discovered when the 1954

5487: 5355: 4015:

Effluent Releases from Nuclear Power Plants and Fuel-Cycle Facilities

3403: 3150: 3118: 3110: 2860: 2669: 2598: 2249: 2173: 2054: 1882: 1840: 1695: 1673: 1282: 1241: 1200: 1170: 1151: 1033: 1021: 1009: 1005: 962: 779: 764: 697: 646: 428: 396: 349: 131: 5331: 4737:"Standards and Guidelines for Tritium in Drinking Water (INFO-0766)" 3121:) in the upper ocean. Some of these maxima even correlate well with 2668:, which are used for night illumination of firearm sights, watches, 2540: 920:

A more common result of boron-10 neutron capture is Li and a single

617:) useful for absolute neutrino mass measurements in the laboratory. 364:

has only trace amounts, formed by the interaction of its gases with

5544: 5500: 3329:, and its casual use has been banned in most countries for decades. 3175: 3122: 3067: 2898:

Tritium is an important fuel for controlled nuclear fusion in both

2656: 2520: 2379:

vary widely from country to country. Some figures are given below:

2185: 2177: 1916: 1811: 1733: 1717: 1016:

in both natural oxygen and heavy water; depending on the method of

935:

neutrons, the interaction between relatively fast neutrons and the

861: 804: 722: 597: 539: 513: 473: 237: 4969: 3738: 2791:

eliminating the risk of predetonation by nearby nuclear explosions

4772: 4686:

NRC: Frequently Asked Questions About Liquid Radioactive Releases

3095: 3055: 3034: 3022:

regions and then extends to 1,500–2,000 meters south of the

2799: 2741: 2721: 2516: 2129: 1947: 1943: 1931: 1912: 1271: 965:

nucleus captures a neutron. This reaction has a small absorption

843: 799: 717: 400: 369: 336: 5455:"Tritium production and recovery in the United States in FY2011" 4071:(Report). Tokyo, Japan: Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. 2637: 3322: 3318: 3033:

Also evident in the Atlantic Ocean is the tritium profile near

2641: 2004: 1593: 1553: 1512: 1392: 1312: 1012:(O) is about 240 millibarns. While O is by far the most common 353:) contains one proton and one neutron. Tritium is the heaviest 332: 4246: 4244: 2840:

as its source of deuterium and tritium, producing the tritium

1720:

has a very large cross section (5330 barns) for reacting with

2593: 2287:

deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a

1939: 1472: 1432: 1048: 677:, pebbles consisting of lithium bearing ceramics including Li 42: 3178:

weapons testing settled in the United States throughout the

360:

Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare on Earth. The

5405: 5299:

10.1175/1520-0485(1981)011<0003:COTITP>2.0.CO;2

4590: 4241: 2911: 2046: 674: 449: 5223: 4600:

Emergency Planning and Preparedness for Nuclear Facilities

2672:, map lights, navigational compasses (such as current-use 1672:

of tritium at 9,650 curies per gram (357 TBq/g), one

5272:

Fine, Rana A.; Reid, Joseph L.; Östlund, H. Göte (1981).

4769:"Forskrift om visse forurensende stoffer i næringsmidler" 4035:. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. 13 April 2021. 3425: 3365: 2729: 2233: 2229: 1676:

is equivalent to roughly 2.8 milligrams (0.043 gr).

943:

produces small but non-negligible quantities of tritium.

666: 4676:. NBC News (21 June 2011). Retrieved on 16 October 2014. 4272:

Zerriffi, Hisham; Scoville, Herbert Jr. (January 1996).

4006: 3898: 2228:

understood than that of HHO. Tritium can incorporate to

4793: 4637: 3182:. Tritium concentrations can be used to understand the 2821: 2732:

of tritium and deuterium to energies above the 15

2720:

by explosives. Actuated by an ultrafast switch like a

5175: 4591:

Van Den Hoek, J.; Gerber, G.B.; Kirchmann, R. (1986).

4354:. Factsheets. U.S. Department of Energy. December 2007 4101:"The science behind the Fukushima waste water release" 4215:

Young, P.G. & Foster, D.G. Jr. (September 1972).

2965: 4030:"Basic policy on handling of the ALPS treated water" 3439:"Transmutation Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen" 3379:"Transmutation effects observed with heavy hydrogen" 368:. It can be produced artificially by irradiation of 4674:

Radioactive tritium leaks found at 48 US nuke sites

3707: 3649:(Report). Nuclide safety data sheet. Archived from 1105:

Annual discharge of tritium from nuclear facilities

763:High-energy neutrons can also produce tritium from 5332:"Tritium hydrology of the Mississippi River basin" 4495: 4493: 4491: 4267: 4265: 3977: 3521: 775:nuclear test produced an unexpectedly high yield. 444:recognized in 1954 that tritium could be used for 2982:Ireland recorded 2,000 TU in precipitation. 2511:The American limit results in a dose of 4.0 5554: 5226:Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 4843:Green, Joanne Balmer; Green, Michael H. (2020). 4698:What does tritium do once it gets into the body? 4271: 4174:"Why is Japan dumping radioactive water at sea?" 3943:"Tritium (Hydrogen-3) – Human Health Fact sheet" 3855:"Nuclear Weapons FAQ Section 12.0 Useful Tables" 2664:is used in self-powered lighting devices called 2143:to take effect, fusing them into heavier atoms. 5388:. Washington and Lee University. Archived from 5271: 5144: 5142: 5140: 5138: 5136: 5011:(Report). Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 4488: 4281:Institute for Energy and Environmental Research 4262: 4018:. National Academies Press (US). 29 March 2012. 3790:Institute for Energy and Environmental Research 3587: 3194:(largest input to the Mississippi River flow), 5325: 5323: 5321: 5319: 5317: 5315: 5313: 5311: 5309: 5267: 5265: 5263: 5261: 5259: 5257: 5255: 5181: 4947: 2267: 2203:that took place prior to the enactment of the 1806:(which must have energy greater than 4.0 1020:, heavy water may be slightly richer in O and 462:National Institute of Standards and Technology 5274:"Circulation of Tritium in the Pacific Ocean" 4394:"Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB): 6467" 3519: 3477: 3149:is below the first layer but above the 26.81 1118: 440:, who also realized tritium's radioactivity. 5133: 5083:. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. pp. 6–39. 3588:Lucas, L.L. & Unterweger, M. P. (2000). 3552: 3061: 2893: 2351:states that in normal operation in 2003, 56 339:, whereas the nucleus of the common isotope 5467:"Tritium removal mass transfer coefficient" 5306: 5252: 4612: 4214: 3520:Alvarez, Luis W.; Trower, W. Peter (1987). 3166: 5433:Bergeron, Kenneth D. (17 September 2004). 5219: 5217: 5215: 5213: 5022:Stonestrom, David A.; et al. (2013). 5021: 5002: 5000: 4998: 4996: 4994: 4992: 4990: 4988: 4842: 4613:Šimek, Dalibor; Dubšek, Frantisek (1997). 4375:"GAO finds problems in tritium production" 2945: 2594:Radiometric assays in biology and medicine 2223:Organisms can take up HHO, as they would H 2060:Tritium figures prominently in studies of 2030:(25.04 K vs. 20.27 K), a higher 2026:(20.62 K vs. 13.99 K), a higher 1125: 1111: 460:The half life of tritium is listed by the 41: 5297: 5166: 5151:"Bomb tritium in the deep north Atlantic" 5055: 4968: 4868: 4811: 4546:"Metabolism of organically-bound tritium" 3926: 3737: 3684: 3660: 3615: 3485:(1939). "Helium and Hydrogen of Mass 3". 3462: 3402: 2581:Learn how and when to remove this message 2385:Tritium drinking water limits by country 2319:Learn how and when to remove this message 1032:) reactions (the latter of which produce 996:Deuterium's absorption cross section for 26:"3H" redirects here. For other uses, see 5593:Radionuclides used in radiometric dating 5432: 5103: 5078: 4755:"Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 6" 4188:"Helium-3 neutron proportional counters" 3852: 3783: 3528:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 3355:. Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 July 2023. 2636: 2632: 2597: 2340:10 gr/imp gal) or roughly 0.8 2160: 1703:Tritium could be separated theoretically 1008:(O) is about 0.19 millibarn and that of 379:Tritium is used as the energy source in 372:or lithium-bearing ceramic pebbles in a 323:with half-life ~12.3 years. The tritium 5210: 5006: 4985: 4836: 4472: 4439: 4121: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3213:tritium signal appears immediately; and 2985: 2629:was traced through the bodies of rats. 1911:until their closures in 1988. With the 1043:India, which also has a large fleet of 5555: 5329: 5104:Cossairt, J. Donald (September 2012). 4924: 4891: 4565: 4543: 4372: 4022: 2886:splitting are net neutron producers), 2285:The examples and perspective in this 1060:Tritium is an uncommon product of the 415:Tritium was first detected in 1934 by 5148: 5110:Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory 4948:Gan, Y; Hernandez, F; et, al (2017). 4633: 4631: 4586: 4584: 4054: 3809: 3666: 3274:Based on ICRP Report 30 calculation: 2847:During the detonation of the primary 1950:), at the reactors of the commercial 1889: 1559:Darlington Nuclear Generating Station 990:Darlington Nuclear Generating Station 953:Heavy water § Tritium production 857:, also occasionally produce tritium: 16:Isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons 5382:"Annotated bibliography for tritium" 3875: 3770: 2822:Tritium in hydrogen bomb secondaries 2785:by varying the amount of fusion fuel 2703: 2563:adding citations to reliable sources 2534: 2370: 2271: 1926:Tritium production was resumed with 1679: 1599:Pickering Nuclear Generating Station 5184:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 4391: 3935: 2262:health consequences of those things 2180:. The vial shown here is brand-new. 480:as shown in this nuclear equation: 13: 4741:Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission 4715:Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission 4628: 4581: 3113:processes along lines of constant 2966:Use as an oceanic transient tracer 2708:These are devices incorporated in 2679: 2303:, or create a new, as appropriate. 637:Tritium is most often produced in 14: 5604: 5374: 4892:Willms, Scott (14 January 2003). 4062:Tritiated Water Task Force Report 3784:Zerriffi, Hisham (January 1996). 3321:in this application. Exposure to 2851:stage in a thermonuclear weapon ( 2001:standard temperature and pressure 853:High-energy neutrons irradiating 5278:Journal of Physical Oceanography 5079:Maidment, David R., ed. (1993). 4373:Horner, Daniel (November 2010). 4228:Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 3246:List of elements facing shortage 2602:Partial tritiation of pyridine ( 2539: 2375:The legal limits for tritium in 2276: 1798:Tritium occurs naturally due to 1627: 1586: 1546: 1518:Bruce Nuclear Generating Station 1505: 1465: 1425: 1385: 1345: 1305: 1264: 1223: 1182: 1045:pressurized heavy water reactors 671:fusion of deuterium with tritium 5116: 5097: 5072: 5015: 4941: 4918: 4885: 4787: 4761: 4729: 4703: 4691: 4679: 4667: 4606: 4559: 4537: 4519: 4466: 4433: 4411: 4385: 4366: 4337: 4311: 4302: 4208: 4180: 4166: 4152: 4132: 4115: 4093: 4075: 4039: 3971: 3928:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2018.04.090 3892: 3869: 3853:Sublette, Carey (17 May 2006). 3846: 3803: 3701: 3307: 3297: 3268: 3258: 2550:needs additional citations for 2365:Environmental Protection Agency 2211: 2205:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 2199:The high levels of atmospheric 1913:Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 1692:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant 395:fuel, along with more abundant 4925:Jassby, Daniel (25 May 2022). 4905:Los Alamos National Laboratory 4641:Radiation Protection Dosimetry 4047:"2020년도 원전주변 환경방사능 조사 및 평가보고서" 3632: 3581: 3546: 3513: 3471: 3419: 3359: 3343: 2940:Los Alamos National Laboratory 2674:M-1950 U.S. military compasses 2614:). The catalyst is not shown. 2256:nor a depletion of the body's 2216:Since tritium is a low energy 2064:due to its favorable reaction 1793: 959:heavy water-moderated reactors 596:of energy in the process. The 1: 5406:"Nuclear Data Evaluation Lab" 4957:Fusion Science and Technology 4927:"The Quest for Fusion Energy" 4894:Tritium Supply Considerations 4553:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 4527:Tritium Facts and Information 4505:Nuclear Regulatory Commission 4473:Osborne, R.V. (August 2007). 4345:"Tritium Extraction Facility" 4252:"Tritium information section" 3984:American Institute of Physics 3952:. August 2005. Archived from 3906:Fusion Engineering and Design 3812:Fusion Science and Technology 3756:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2014.09.028 3336: 3216:Well-mixed reservoir approach 2938:(TSTA) was a facility at the 2936:Tritium Systems Test Assembly 2644:with tritium-illuminated face 2397: 2392: 2389: 2349:Nuclear Regulatory Commission 1962: 1915:(START) after the end of the 1810:) interacts with atmospheric 1277:Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant 1195:Heysham nuclear power station 627: 622:liquid scintillation counting 5414:Review of Risks from Tritium 5204:10.1016/0012-821X(73)90013-7 5106:Background Levels of Tritium 5048:10.1080/10256016.2013.766610 5028:Isotopes Environ Health Stud 3726:Journal of Nuclear Materials 3251: 1478:Sanmen Nuclear Power Station 1398:Maanshan Nuclear Power Plant 1358:Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant 1086:reprocessing of nuclear fuel 957:Tritium is also produced in 946: 665:reaction, yielding 4.8 391:. Tritium is also used as a 7: 4813:10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00795 4711:"Tritium in drinking water" 4325:. U.S. Department of Energy 4283:. p. 5. Archived from 3950:Argonne National Laboratory 3234: 2904:inertial confinement fusion 2844:during secondary ignition. 2755: 2698:external neutron initiators 2499: 2488: 2477: 2466: 2455: 2444: 2433: 2422: 2411: 2299:, discuss the issue on the 2268:Environmental contamination 2184:Like the other isotopes of 1708: 1318:La Hague reprocessing plant 484: 10: 5611: 5330:Michel, Robert L. (2004). 3980:AIP Conference Proceedings 2916:deuterium–tritium reaction 2908:National Ignition Facility 2825: 2759: 2688:and the fission stages of 2647: 2442:World Health Organization 2353:pressurized water reactors 1686:Fukushima disaster cleanup 1683: 1438:Fuqing Nuclear Power Plant 1055: 950: 929:pressurized water reactors 632: 410: 283:Complete table of nuclides 25: 18: 4440:Fairlie, I. (June 2007). 3857:. Nuclear Weapons Archive 3686:10.1007/s10894-018-0182-1 3062:Pacific and Indian oceans 3043:North Atlantic Deep Water 2950:Tritium can be used in a 2894:Controlled nuclear fusion 2650:Tritium radioluminescence 2334:World Health Organization 2194:radioactive contamination 2192:, it might contribute to 1640:Diablo Canyon Power Plant 277: 265: 248: 243: 231: 210: 187: 163: 150: 130: 117: 110: 93: 76: 64: 54: 49: 40: 5149:Doney, Scott C. (1992). 4849:The Journal of Nutrition 4447:(Report). Archived from 4398:pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 3673:Journal of Fusion Energy 3180:Mississippi River System 3167:Mississippi River system 1903:was produced in special 979:Ontario Power Generation 848: 455: 21:Tritium (disambiguation) 5196:1973E&PSL..20..381M 5168:10.5670/oceanog.1992.11 5112:. pp. 2–3. No. 28. 3913:. Elsevier: 1140–1148. 3575:10.1103/PhysRev.93.1337 2946:Electrical power source 2692:in a process known as " 2201:nuclear weapons testing 1952:Watts Bar Nuclear Plant 327:(t, sometimes called a 5573:Environmental isotopes 5336:Hydrological Processes 4069:www.meti.go.jp/english 3880:. Canadian Nuclear FAQ 3507:10.1103/PhysRev.56.613 3464:10.1098/rspa.1934.0077 3315:radioluminescent paint 3094:° south, and near the 2762:Boosted fission weapon 2750:nuclear chain reaction 2645: 2615: 2530: 2525:banana equivalent dose 2363:According to the U.S. 2357:boiling water reactors 2181: 1894: 5386:Alsos Digital Library 5081:Handbook of Hydrology 4566:Bhatia, A.L. (2005). 4544:Travis, C.C. (1984). 3313:Tritium has replaced 2914:will also do so. The 2906:reactor designs. The 2828:Nuclear weapon design 2640: 2633:Self-powered lighting 2601: 2164: 1934:(replacing the usual 1899:Tritium for American 1238:reprocessing facility 931:which only partially 602:electron antineutrino 357:isotope of hydrogen. 5588:Nuclear fusion fuels 5568:Isotopes of hydrogen 4204:on 21 November 2004. 3986:. pp. 857–860. 3832:10.13182/FST08-A1824 3608:10.6028/jres.105.043 3210:Piston-flow approach 2986:North Atlantic Ocean 2900:magnetic confinement 2726:particle accelerator 2642:Swiss Military watch 2559:improve this article 2241:biological half-life 2141:strong nuclear force 2032:critical temperature 1985:. Diatomic tritium ( 1905:heavy water reactors 1084:, especially in the 592:releasing 18.6 383:lights for watches, 279:Isotopes of hydrogen 19:For other uses, see 5348:2004HyPr...18.1255M 5290:1981JPO....11....3F 5040:2013IEHS...49..250S 4352:Savannah River Site 4323:Savannah River Site 4145:The Washington Post 3992:2005AIPC..769..857S 3919:2018FusED.136.1140P 3824:2008FuST...54..329J 3748:2015JNuM..456..151H 3567:1954PhRv...93.1337K 3499:1939PhRv...56..613A 3455:1934RSPSA.144..692O 3395:1934Natur.133..413O 3107:North Pacific Ocean 2972:chlorofluorocarbons 2853:Teller–Ulam staging 2781:the possibility of 2386: 1956:Savannah River Site 1930:of rods containing 1909:Savannah River Site 1133: 321:isotope of hydrogen 37: 28:3H (disambiguation) 5583:Radioisotope fuels 5238:10.1007/BF02349062 4979:10.13182/FST13-727 4861:10.1093/jn/nxaa092 4743:. 3 February 2014. 4653:10.1093/rpd/ncq219 4379:Arms Control Today 4319:"Defense Programs" 4290:on 16 October 2014 3959:on 8 February 2010 3876:Whitlock, Jeremy. 3667:Rubel, M. (2019). 2952:betavoltaic device 2700:for such weapons. 2646: 2623:radiocarbon dating 2616: 2384: 2342:parts per trillion 2182: 1890:Production history 1104: 1090:spent nuclear fuel 1018:isotope separation 1004:, whereas that of 643:neutron activation 470:12.32 ± 0.02 years 446:radiometric dating 389:radioactive tracer 304: 'third') or 35: 5551: 5550: 5459:Fissile Materials 5446:978-0-262-26172-2 5128:978-0-691-15882-2 4717:. 3 February 2014 4624:– via IAEA. 4602:– via IAEA. 4577:– via IAEA. 4555:– via IAEA. 4000:10.1063/1.1945141 3539:978-0-226-81304-2 3115:potential density 3084:Strait of Malacca 2929:Breeding blankets 2888:lithium deuteride 2838:lithium deuteride 2798:The tritium in a 2704:Neutron initiator 2662:radioluminescence 2591: 2590: 2583: 2515:(or 40 micro 2507: 2506: 2475:Canada (Ontario) 2371:Regulatory limits 2329: 2328: 2321: 2039:specific activity 1680:Fukushima Daiichi 1670:specific activity 1666: 1665: 1014:isotope of oxygen 975:neutron moderator 669:. In comparison, 588: 587: 427:after bombarding 417:Ernest Rutherford 288: 287: 119:Natural abundance 70:tritium, 3H, H-3, 5600: 5481: 5480: 5474: 5462: 5461:. February 2010. 5450: 5429: 5427: 5425: 5409: 5401: 5399: 5397: 5368: 5367: 5356:10.1002/hyp.1403 5327: 5304: 5303: 5301: 5269: 5250: 5249: 5221: 5208: 5207: 5179: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5146: 5131: 5120: 5114: 5113: 5101: 5095: 5094: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5059: 5019: 5013: 5012: 5004: 4983: 4982: 4972: 4954: 4945: 4939: 4938: 4922: 4916: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4898: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4872: 4855:(7): 1977–1981. 4840: 4834: 4833: 4815: 4806:(6): 6634–6718. 4800:Chemical Reviews 4791: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4771:(in Norwegian). 4765: 4759: 4758: 4751: 4745: 4744: 4733: 4727: 4726: 4724: 4722: 4707: 4701: 4695: 4689: 4683: 4677: 4671: 4665: 4664: 4647:(2–4): 153–159. 4635: 4626: 4625: 4619: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4597: 4588: 4579: 4578: 4572: 4563: 4557: 4556: 4550: 4541: 4535: 4534: 4523: 4517: 4516: 4514: 4512: 4497: 4486: 4485: 4479: 4470: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4453: 4446: 4437: 4431: 4430: 4428: 4426: 4415: 4409: 4408: 4406: 4404: 4389: 4383: 4382: 4381:(Press release). 4370: 4364: 4363: 4361: 4359: 4349: 4341: 4335: 4334: 4332: 4330: 4315: 4309: 4306: 4300: 4299: 4297: 4295: 4289: 4278: 4269: 4260: 4259: 4258:on 3 March 2016. 4248: 4239: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4221: 4212: 4206: 4205: 4203: 4192: 4184: 4178: 4177: 4176:. 13 April 2021. 4170: 4164: 4163: 4156: 4150: 4149: 4136: 4130: 4129: 4119: 4113: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4103:. 26 August 2023 4097: 4091: 4090: 4089:. December 2013. 4079: 4073: 4072: 4066: 4058: 4052: 4050: 4043: 4037: 4036: 4034: 4026: 4020: 4019: 4010: 4004: 4003: 3975: 3969: 3968: 3966: 3964: 3958: 3947: 3939: 3933: 3932: 3930: 3896: 3890: 3889: 3887: 3885: 3873: 3867: 3866: 3864: 3862: 3850: 3844: 3843: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3798: 3796: 3781: 3768: 3767: 3741: 3705: 3699: 3698: 3688: 3679:(3–4): 315–329. 3664: 3658: 3657: 3655: 3644: 3636: 3630: 3629: 3619: 3585: 3579: 3578: 3550: 3544: 3543: 3527: 3517: 3511: 3510: 3475: 3469: 3468: 3466: 3427:Oliphant, M.L.E. 3423: 3417: 3416: 3406: 3404:10.1038/133413a0 3363: 3357: 3356: 3347: 3330: 3311: 3305: 3301: 3295: 3293: 3291: 3285: 3281: 3279: 3272: 3266: 3262: 2885: 2884: 2883: 2876: 2875: 2714:fission reaction 2696:" as well as in 2625:. For example, 2613: 2586: 2579: 2575: 2572: 2566: 2543: 2535: 2387: 2383: 2339: 2324: 2317: 2313: 2310: 2304: 2280: 2279: 2272: 2260:results, as the 2239:HHO has a short 2218:beta (β) emitter 2166:Radioluminescent 2127: 2126: 2125: 2118: 2117: 2108: 2107: 2106: 2099: 2098: 2089: 2088: 2087: 2080: 2079: 2052: 2018: 2003:. Combined with 1998: 1991: 1984: 1979: 1976: 1877: 1876: 1875: 1868: 1867: 1858: 1856: 1855: 1848: 1847: 1837: 1835: 1834: 1827: 1826: 1789: 1788: 1787: 1780: 1779: 1770: 1769: 1768: 1761: 1760: 1751: 1749: 1748: 1741: 1740: 1726:nuclear reactors 1722:thermal neutrons 1633: 1631: 1630: 1592: 1590: 1589: 1552: 1550: 1549: 1511: 1509: 1508: 1471: 1469: 1468: 1431: 1429: 1428: 1391: 1389: 1388: 1351: 1349: 1348: 1311: 1309: 1308: 1270: 1268: 1267: 1229: 1227: 1226: 1188: 1186: 1185: 1140:Nuclear facility 1134: 1127: 1120: 1113: 1103: 1082:nuclear reactors 1038:isotope labeling 998:thermal neutrons 917: 916: 915: 908: 907: 898: 897: 896: 889: 888: 879: 877: 876: 869: 868: 841: 840: 839: 832: 831: 822: 820: 819: 812: 811: 797: 795: 794: 787: 786: 759: 758: 757: 750: 749: 740: 738: 737: 730: 729: 715: 713: 712: 705: 704: 659:thermal neutrons 651:breeder ceramics 639:nuclear reactors 584: 582: 581: 574: 571: 570: 556: 554: 553: 546: 545: 531: 529: 528: 521: 520: 505: 504: 503: 496: 495: 485: 478:beta-minus decay 471: 467: 403:reactors and in 381:radioluminescent 316:) is a rare and 270: 226: 224: 220: 203: 201: 197: 183: 181: 180: 177: 174: 146:12.32 years 143: 103: 86: 72:hydrogen-3, T, T 45: 38: 34: 5610: 5609: 5603: 5602: 5601: 5599: 5598: 5597: 5553: 5552: 5542: 5534: 5521: 5507: 5494: 5485: 5478: 5465: 5453: 5447: 5423: 5421: 5412: 5404: 5395: 5393: 5380: 5377: 5372: 5371: 5328: 5307: 5270: 5253: 5222: 5211: 5180: 5176: 5147: 5134: 5121: 5117: 5102: 5098: 5091: 5077: 5073: 5020: 5016: 5005: 4986: 4952: 4946: 4942: 4923: 4919: 4909: 4907: 4896: 4890: 4886: 4841: 4837: 4792: 4788: 4778: 4776: 4767: 4766: 4762: 4753: 4752: 4748: 4735: 4734: 4730: 4720: 4718: 4709: 4708: 4704: 4696: 4692: 4684: 4680: 4672: 4668: 4636: 4629: 4617: 4611: 4607: 4595: 4589: 4582: 4570: 4564: 4560: 4548: 4542: 4538: 4533:on 15 May 2013. 4525: 4524: 4520: 4510: 4508: 4507:. 15 March 2011 4503:(Report). U.S. 4499: 4498: 4489: 4477: 4471: 4467: 4457: 4455: 4451: 4444: 4438: 4434: 4424: 4422: 4417: 4416: 4412: 4402: 4400: 4390: 4386: 4371: 4367: 4357: 4355: 4347: 4343: 4342: 4338: 4328: 4326: 4317: 4316: 4312: 4307: 4303: 4293: 4291: 4287: 4276: 4270: 4263: 4250: 4249: 4242: 4232: 4230: 4219: 4213: 4209: 4201: 4190: 4186: 4185: 4181: 4172: 4171: 4167: 4158: 4157: 4153: 4138: 4137: 4133: 4120: 4116: 4106: 4104: 4099: 4098: 4094: 4087:Fukushima Diary 4081: 4080: 4076: 4064: 4060: 4059: 4055: 4045: 4044: 4040: 4032: 4028: 4027: 4023: 4012: 4011: 4007: 3976: 3972: 3962: 3960: 3956: 3945: 3941: 3940: 3936: 3897: 3893: 3883: 3881: 3874: 3870: 3860: 3858: 3851: 3847: 3808: 3804: 3794: 3792: 3782: 3771: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3706: 3702: 3665: 3661: 3656:on 20 May 2013. 3653: 3642: 3638: 3637: 3633: 3586: 3582: 3555:Physical Review 3551: 3547: 3540: 3518: 3514: 3487:Physical Review 3476: 3472: 3424: 3420: 3364: 3360: 3349: 3348: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3333: 3312: 3308: 3302: 3298: 3289: 3287: 3283: 3277: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3263: 3259: 3254: 3237: 3184:residence times 3172:Nuclear fallout 3169: 3064: 2988: 2980:Valentia Island 2968: 2948: 2896: 2882: 2880: 2879: 2878: 2874: 2871: 2870: 2869: 2868: 2830: 2824: 2764: 2758: 2746:fusion neutrons 2710:nuclear weapons 2706: 2682: 2680:Nuclear weapons 2652: 2635: 2627:retinyl acetate 2611: 2607: 2603: 2596: 2587: 2576: 2570: 2567: 2556: 2544: 2533: 2399: 2398:Equivalent dose 2394: 2373: 2337: 2325: 2314: 2308: 2305: 2294: 2281: 2277: 2270: 2245:bioaccumulation 2226: 2214: 2190:fusion reactors 2124: 2122: 2121: 2120: 2116: 2113: 2112: 2111: 2110: 2105: 2103: 2102: 2101: 2097: 2094: 2093: 2092: 2091: 2086: 2084: 2083: 2082: 2078: 2075: 2074: 2073: 2072: 2050: 2016: 2012: 2009:tritiated water 1997: 1993: 1990: 1986: 1977: 1974: 1972: 1967:Tritium has an 1965: 1901:nuclear weapons 1897: 1892: 1874: 1872: 1871: 1870: 1866: 1863: 1862: 1861: 1860: 1854: 1852: 1851: 1850: 1846: 1843: 1842: 1841: 1839: 1833: 1831: 1830: 1829: 1825: 1822: 1821: 1820: 1818: 1796: 1786: 1784: 1783: 1782: 1778: 1775: 1774: 1773: 1772: 1767: 1765: 1764: 1763: 1759: 1756: 1755: 1754: 1753: 1747: 1745: 1744: 1743: 1739: 1736: 1735: 1734: 1732: 1711: 1688: 1682: 1628: 1626: 1587: 1585: 1547: 1545: 1506: 1504: 1466: 1464: 1426: 1424: 1386: 1384: 1346: 1344: 1323:English Channel 1306: 1304: 1265: 1263: 1224: 1222: 1183: 1181: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1149: 1144: 1132: 1131: 1099:tritiated water 1088:and storage of 1078:ternary fission 1062:nuclear fission 1058: 1026:neutron capture 988: 955: 949: 914: 912: 911: 910: 906: 903: 902: 901: 900: 895: 893: 892: 891: 887: 884: 883: 882: 881: 875: 873: 872: 871: 867: 864: 863: 862: 860: 851: 838: 836: 835: 834: 830: 827: 826: 825: 824: 818: 816: 815: 814: 810: 807: 806: 805: 803: 793: 791: 790: 789: 785: 782: 781: 780: 778: 756: 754: 753: 752: 748: 745: 744: 743: 742: 736: 734: 733: 732: 728: 725: 724: 723: 721: 711: 709: 708: 707: 703: 700: 699: 698: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 635: 630: 580: 577: 576: 575: 572: 569: 567: 566: 565: 563: 552: 550: 549: 548: 544: 542: 541: 540: 538: 527: 525: 524: 523: 519: 516: 515: 514: 512: 502: 500: 499: 498: 494: 491: 490: 489: 488: 469: 465: 458: 413: 374:nuclear reactor 331:) contains one 281: 266: 222: 218: 216: 199: 195: 193: 178: 175: 172: 171: 169: 141: 134: 97: 80: 71: 36:Tritium, H 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5608: 5607: 5596: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5578:Radiochemistry 5575: 5570: 5565: 5549: 5548: 5536: 5527: 5514: 5513: 5504: 5493:Tritium is an 5491: 5476: 5475: 5463: 5451: 5445: 5430: 5420:on 17 May 2013 5410: 5402: 5392:on 14 May 2006 5376: 5375:External links 5373: 5370: 5369: 5305: 5251: 5209: 5190:(3): 381–384. 5174: 5161:(3): 169–170. 5132: 5115: 5096: 5089: 5071: 5034:(2): 250–256. 5014: 4984: 4940: 4917: 4901:Los Alamos, NM 4884: 4835: 4786: 4775:. 10 July 2015 4760: 4746: 4728: 4702: 4690: 4678: 4666: 4627: 4605: 4580: 4558: 4536: 4518: 4487: 4465: 4454:on 20 May 2010 4432: 4410: 4384: 4365: 4336: 4310: 4301: 4261: 4240: 4224:Los Alamos, NM 4207: 4179: 4165: 4151: 4131: 4114: 4092: 4074: 4053: 4038: 4021: 4005: 3970: 3934: 3891: 3868: 3845: 3818:(2): 329–332. 3802: 3769: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3700: 3659: 3647:ehso.emory.edu 3631: 3602:(4): 541–549. 3580: 3545: 3538: 3512: 3483:Cornog, Robert 3470: 3435:Rutherford, L. 3418: 3375:Rutherford, L. 3367:Oliphant, M.L. 3358: 3341: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3332: 3331: 3306: 3296: 3292:10 μSv/Sv 3267: 3256: 3255: 3253: 3250: 3249: 3248: 3243: 3236: 3233: 3229:Gulf of Mexico 3221: 3220: 3217: 3214: 3211: 3200:Arkansas River 3196:Missouri River 3168: 3165: 3164: 3163: 3157: 3154: 3144: 3141: 3134: 3063: 3060: 3013: 3012: 3009: 3008:vapor exchange 3006: 2987: 2984: 2967: 2964: 2956:atomic battery 2947: 2944: 2895: 2892: 2881: 2872: 2823: 2820: 2796: 2795: 2792: 2789: 2786: 2783:variable yield 2779: 2760:Main article: 2757: 2754: 2744:. High-energy 2705: 2702: 2690:hydrogen bombs 2681: 2678: 2660:to glow. This 2648:Main article: 2634: 2631: 2609: 2605: 2595: 2592: 2589: 2588: 2547: 2545: 2538: 2532: 2529: 2509: 2508: 2505: 2504: 2501: 2498: 2494: 2493: 2490: 2487: 2486:United States 2483: 2482: 2479: 2476: 2472: 2471: 2468: 2465: 2461: 2460: 2457: 2454: 2450: 2449: 2446: 2443: 2439: 2438: 2435: 2432: 2428: 2427: 2424: 2421: 2417: 2416: 2413: 2410: 2406: 2405: 2396: 2391: 2377:drinking water 2372: 2369: 2327: 2326: 2291:of the subject 2289:worldwide view 2284: 2282: 2275: 2269: 2266: 2224: 2213: 2210: 2133: 2132: 2123: 2114: 2104: 2095: 2085: 2076: 2062:nuclear fusion 2014: 1999:) is a gas at 1995: 1988: 1964: 1961: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1879: 1878: 1873: 1864: 1853: 1844: 1832: 1823: 1795: 1792: 1791: 1790: 1785: 1776: 1766: 1757: 1746: 1737: 1710: 1707: 1684:Main article: 1681: 1678: 1664: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1654: 1651: 1648: 1643: 1637: 1623: 1622: 1619: 1616: 1613: 1610: 1607: 1602: 1596: 1582: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1561: 1556: 1542: 1541: 1538: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1526: 1521: 1515: 1501: 1500: 1497: 1494: 1491: 1488: 1485: 1483:East China Sea 1480: 1475: 1461: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1448: 1445: 1440: 1435: 1421: 1420: 1417: 1414: 1411: 1408: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1381: 1380: 1377: 1374: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1360: 1355: 1341: 1340: 1337: 1334: 1331: 1328: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1301: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1291: 1288: 1285: 1280: 1274: 1260: 1259: 1256: 1253: 1250: 1247: 1244: 1239: 1233: 1231:United Kingdom 1219: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1203: 1198: 1192: 1190:United Kingdom 1178: 1177: 1174: 1165: 1160: 1155: 1146: 1141: 1138: 1130: 1129: 1122: 1115: 1107: 1106: 1057: 1054: 1024:. Due to both 1000:is about 0.52 986: 983:CANDU reactors 948: 945: 927:Especially in 922:alpha particle 913: 904: 894: 885: 874: 865: 850: 847: 837: 828: 817: 808: 792: 783: 755: 746: 735: 726: 710: 701: 690: 686: 682: 678: 634: 631: 629: 626: 611:bremsstrahlung 606:Beta particles 590: 589: 586: 585: 578: 568: 561: 558: 551: 543: 536: 533: 526: 517: 510: 507: 501: 492: 466:4,500 ± 8 days 457: 454: 412: 409: 405:hydrogen bombs 393:nuclear fusion 355:particle-bound 286: 285: 275: 274: 271: 263: 262: 252: 246: 245: 241: 240: 235: 233:Decay products 229: 228: 214: 212:Binding energy 208: 207: 191: 185: 184: 167: 161: 160: 154: 148: 147: 144: 139: 128: 127: 121: 115: 114: 108: 107: 104: 91: 90: 87: 74: 73: 68: 62: 61: 58: 52: 51: 47: 46: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5606: 5605: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5547: 5546: 5540: 5537: 5533: 5532: 5528: 5526: 5525: 5519: 5518:Decay product 5516: 5515: 5512: 5511: 5505: 5503: 5502: 5498: 5492: 5490: 5489: 5483: 5482: 5479: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5442: 5439:. MIT Press. 5438: 5437: 5431: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5378: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5326: 5324: 5322: 5320: 5318: 5316: 5314: 5312: 5310: 5300: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5268: 5266: 5264: 5262: 5260: 5258: 5256: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5220: 5218: 5216: 5214: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5178: 5169: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5145: 5143: 5141: 5139: 5137: 5129: 5125: 5119: 5111: 5107: 5100: 5092: 5090:0-07-039732-5 5086: 5082: 5075: 5067: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5018: 5010: 5003: 5001: 4999: 4997: 4995: 4993: 4991: 4989: 4980: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4951: 4944: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4921: 4906: 4902: 4895: 4888: 4880: 4876: 4871: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4839: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4790: 4774: 4770: 4764: 4756: 4750: 4742: 4738: 4732: 4716: 4712: 4706: 4699: 4694: 4687: 4682: 4675: 4670: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4634: 4632: 4623: 4616: 4609: 4601: 4594: 4587: 4585: 4576: 4569: 4562: 4554: 4547: 4540: 4532: 4528: 4522: 4506: 4502: 4496: 4494: 4492: 4483: 4482:nuclearfaq.ca 4476: 4469: 4450: 4443: 4436: 4420: 4414: 4399: 4395: 4388: 4380: 4376: 4369: 4353: 4346: 4340: 4324: 4320: 4314: 4305: 4286: 4282: 4275: 4268: 4266: 4257: 4253: 4247: 4245: 4229: 4225: 4218: 4211: 4200: 4196: 4189: 4183: 4175: 4169: 4161: 4155: 4147: 4146: 4141: 4135: 4128:. p. 29. 4127: 4126: 4118: 4102: 4096: 4088: 4084: 4078: 4070: 4063: 4057: 4048: 4042: 4031: 4025: 4017: 4016: 4009: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3974: 3955: 3951: 3944: 3938: 3929: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3907: 3902: 3895: 3879: 3872: 3856: 3849: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3806: 3791: 3787: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3740: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3704: 3696: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3663: 3652: 3648: 3641: 3635: 3627: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3596: 3591: 3584: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3549: 3541: 3535: 3531: 3526: 3525: 3516: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3479:Alvarez, Luis 3474: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3422: 3414: 3410: 3405: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3389:(3359): 413. 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3362: 3354: 3353: 3346: 3342: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3310: 3300: 3294:; quoted in 3280:10 Sv/Bq 3271: 3261: 3257: 3247: 3244: 3242: 3239: 3238: 3232: 3230: 3225: 3218: 3215: 3212: 3209: 3208: 3207: 3203: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3188: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3161: 3158: 3155: 3152: 3148: 3145: 3142: 3138: 3135: 3132: 3131: 3130: 3127: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3076:Bay of Bengal 3073: 3072:Fremantle Bay 3069: 3059: 3057: 3053: 3048: 3047:Norwegian Sea 3044: 3039: 3036: 3031: 3029: 3028:abyssal plain 3025: 3021: 3016: 3010: 3007: 3005:precipitation 3004: 3003: 3002: 2999: 2996: 2994: 2983: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2963: 2961: 2957: 2954:to create an 2953: 2943: 2941: 2937: 2932: 2930: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2891: 2889: 2865: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2845: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2834:hydrogen bomb 2829: 2819: 2817: 2816:plutonium-239 2812: 2807: 2805: 2804:decay product 2801: 2793: 2790: 2787: 2784: 2780: 2777: 2776: 2775: 2773: 2769: 2763: 2753: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2718:critical mass 2715: 2711: 2701: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2686:fission bombs 2677: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2658: 2651: 2643: 2639: 2630: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2600: 2585: 2582: 2574: 2564: 2560: 2554: 2553: 2548:This section 2546: 2542: 2537: 2536: 2528: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2502: 2496: 2495: 2491: 2485: 2484: 2480: 2474: 2473: 2469: 2463: 2462: 2458: 2452: 2451: 2447: 2441: 2440: 2436: 2430: 2429: 2425: 2419: 2418: 2414: 2408: 2407: 2403: 2393:Tritium limit 2388: 2382: 2381: 2380: 2378: 2368: 2366: 2361: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2345: 2343: 2335: 2323: 2320: 2312: 2302: 2298: 2297:improve this 2292: 2290: 2283: 2274: 2273: 2265: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2246: 2242: 2237: 2235: 2231: 2221: 2219: 2209: 2206: 2202: 2197: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2157: 2153: 2148: 2144: 2142: 2138: 2137:Coulomb's law 2131: 2071: 2070: 2069: 2067: 2066:cross section 2063: 2058: 2056: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2033: 2029: 2028:boiling point 2025: 2024:melting point 2020: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1983: 1970: 1960: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1924: 1920: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1887: 1884: 1857: 1836: 1817: 1816: 1815: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1750: 1731: 1730: 1729: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1716: 1715:decay product 1706: 1704: 1699: 1697: 1693: 1687: 1677: 1675: 1671: 1661: 1658: 1655: 1652: 1649: 1647: 1646:Pacific Ocean 1644: 1641: 1638: 1636: 1635:United States 1625: 1624: 1620: 1617: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1584: 1583: 1579: 1576: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1544: 1543: 1539: 1536: 1533: 1530: 1527: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1503: 1502: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1484: 1481: 1479: 1476: 1474: 1463: 1462: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1443:Taiwan Strait 1441: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1423: 1422: 1418: 1415: 1412: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1383: 1382: 1378: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1343: 1342: 1338: 1335: 1332: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1314: 1303: 1302: 1298: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1262: 1261: 1257: 1254: 1251: 1248: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1221: 1220: 1216: 1213: 1210: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1196: 1193: 1191: 1180: 1179: 1175: 1172: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1153: 1147: 1142: 1139: 1136: 1135: 1128: 1123: 1121: 1116: 1114: 1109: 1108: 1102: 1100: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1070:plutonium-239 1067: 1063: 1053: 1050: 1046: 1041: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 994: 991: 984: 980: 976: 972: 968: 967:cross section 964: 960: 954: 944: 942: 941:chemical shim 938: 934: 930: 925: 923: 918: 878: 858: 856: 846: 845: 842:(2.75 MeV) + 823:(2.05 MeV) + 821: 801: 796: 776: 774: 770: 766: 761: 741:(2.05 MeV) + 739: 719: 714: 694: 676: 672: 668: 664: 661:. 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