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commercial nuclear power reactor designs require the entire reactor to shut down, often for weeks, in order to change the fuel elements. They therefore produce plutonium in a mix of isotopes that is not well-suited to weapon construction. Such a reactor could have machinery added that would permit U slugs to be placed near the core and changed frequently, or it could be shut down frequently, so proliferation is a concern; for this reason, the
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38:
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is fissioned in the same fuel rods in which it is produced. Fissioning of plutonium-239 provides more than one-third of the total energy produced in a typical commercial nuclear power plant. Reactor fuel would accumulate much more than 0.8% plutonium-239 during its service life if some plutonium-239 were not constantly being "burned off" by fissioning.
1123:. It has been estimated that a pound (454 grams) of plutonium inhaled as plutonium oxide dust could give cancer to two million people. However, ingested plutonium is by far less dangerous as only a tiny fraction is absorbed in gastrointestinal tract; 800 mg would be unlikely to cause a major health risk as far as radiation is concerned. As a
832:" in which a small explosion occurs, destroying the weapon but not causing fission of a significant fraction of the fuel. It is because of this limitation that plutonium-based weapons must be implosion-type, rather than gun-type. Moreover, Pu and Pu cannot be chemically distinguished, so expensive and difficult
1091:
Plutonium-239 present in reactor fuel can absorb neutrons and fission just as uranium-235 can. Since plutonium-239 is constantly being created in the reactor core during operation, the use of plutonium-239 as nuclear fuel in power plants can occur without reprocessing of spent fuel; the plutonium-239
920:
because they produce more plutonium than they consume fuel; in principle, such reactors make extremely efficient use of natural uranium. In practice, their construction and operation is sufficiently difficult that they are generally only used to produce plutonium. Breeder reactors are generally (but
1083:
In any operating nuclear reactor containing U, some plutonium-239 will accumulate in the nuclear fuel. Unlike reactors used to produce weapons-grade plutonium, commercial nuclear power reactors typically operate at a high burnup that allows a significant amount of plutonium to build up in irradiated
1058:
The "supergrade" fission fuel, which has less radioactivity, is used in the primary stage of US Navy nuclear weapons in place of the conventional plutonium used in the Air Force's versions. "Supergrade" is industry parlance for plutonium alloy bearing an exceptionally high fraction of Pu (>95%),
827:
due to the tendency of Pu to absorb an additional neutron during production. Pu has a high rate of spontaneous fission events (415,000 fission/s-kg), making it an undesirable contaminant. As a result, plutonium containing a significant fraction of Pu is not well-suited to use in nuclear weapons; it
1063:. Such low irradiation times limit the amount of additional neutron capture and therefore buildup of alternate isotope products such as Pu in the rod, and also by consequence is considerably more expensive to produce, needing far more rods irradiated and processed for a given amount of plutonium.
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emitter, and so is responsible for a large fraction of the radiation from stored nuclear weapons. Whether out on patrol or in port, submarine crew members routinely live and work in very close proximity to nuclear weapons stored in torpedo rooms and missile tubes, unlike Air Force missiles where
912:, which cannot be easily burned except in a fast reactor. Also IFR fuel has a high proportion of burnable isotopes, while in CANDU an inert material is needed to dilute the fuel; this means the IFR can burn a higher fraction of its fuel before needing reprocessing. Most plutonium is produced in
1134:
Weapons grade plutonium (with greater than 90% Pu) is used to make nuclear weapons and has many advantages over other fissile material for that purpose. Lower proportions of Pu would make a reliable weapon design difficult or impossible; this is due to the spontaneous fission (and thus neutron
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A nuclear reactor that is used to produce plutonium for weapons therefore generally has a means for exposing U to neutron radiation and for frequently replacing the irradiated U with new U. A reactor running on unenriched or moderately enriched uranium contains a great deal of U. However, most
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would be necessary to separate them. Weapons-grade plutonium is defined as containing no more than 7% Pu; this is achieved by only exposing U to neutron sources for short periods of time to minimize the Pu produced.
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Fission activity is relatively rare, so even after significant exposure, the Pu is still mixed with a great deal of U (and possibly other isotopes of uranium), oxygen, other components of the original material, and
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Pu has a higher probability for fission than U and a larger number of neutrons produced per fission event, so it has a smaller critical mass. Pure Pu also has a reasonably low rate of neutron emission due to
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leaving a very low amount of Pu, which is a high spontaneous fission isotope (see above). Such plutonium is produced from fuel rods that have been irradiated a very short time as measured in MW-day/ton
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exposures are relatively brief. The need to reduce radiation exposure justifies the additional costs of the premium supergrade alloy used on many naval nuclear weapons. Supergrade plutonium is used in
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to become uranium-235. As an alpha emitter, plutonium-239 is not particularly dangerous as an external radiation source, but if it is ingested or breathed in as dust it is very dangerous and
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Plutonium-239 is more frequently used in nuclear weapons than uranium-235, as it is easier to obtain in a quantity of critical mass. Both plutonium-239 and uranium-235 are obtained from
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that has been removed from the reactor at the end of the fuel assembly's service life (typically several years). Spent nuclear fuel commonly contains about 0.8% plutonium-239.
940:, i.e. increasing the ratio of U to U to weapons grade, is generally a more lengthy and costly process than the production of plutonium-239 from U and subsequent reprocessing.
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339:. A spherical untamped critical mass is about 11 kg (24.2 lbs), 10.2 cm (4") in diameter. Using appropriate triggers, neutron reflectors, implosion geometry and
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by uranium-238 to produce plutonium-239 and other isotopes. Plutonium-239 can also absorb neutrons and fission along with the uranium-235 in a reactor.
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heavy-water moderated, natural-uranium fueled reactor can also be refueled while operating, but it normally consumes most of the Pu it produces
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The nuclear properties of plutonium-239, as well as the ability to produce large amounts of nearly pure Pu more cheaply than highly enriched
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is also used for that purpose. Plutonium-239 is also one of the three main isotopes demonstrated usable as fuel in thermal spectrum
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1413:
936:, which primarily consists of uranium-238 but contains traces of other isotopes of uranium such as uranium-235. The process of
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of individual atoms of one of the isotopes of uranium present in the fuel rods. Occasionally, when an atom of U is exposed to
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of an atom of uranium-235 in the reactor of a nuclear power plant produces two to three neutrons, and these neutrons can be
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904:(Integral Fast Reactor) can also be operated in an incineration mode, having some advantages in not accumulating the
789:{\displaystyle {\ce {{}^{238}_{92}U + {}^{1}_{0}n -> {}^{239}_{92}U -> {}^{239}_{93}Np -> {}^{239}_{94}Pu}}}
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888:), do permit refueling without shutdowns, and they may pose a proliferation risk. By contrast, the Canadian
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816:(10 fission/s·kg), making it feasible to assemble a mass that is highly supercritical before a detonation
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A small percentage of plutonium-239 can be deliberately added to fresh nuclear fuel. Such fuel is called
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thus, it is not only inherently less proliferative than most reactors, but can even be operated as an "
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Plutonium is classified according to the percentage of the contaminant plutonium-240 that it contains:
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reactor fuel. Plutonium-239 will be present both in the reactor core during operation and in
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emits neutron radiation, making handling more difficult, and its presence can lead to a "
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In practice, however, reactor-bred plutonium will invariably contain a certain amount of
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inspects licensed reactors often. A few commercial power reactor designs, such as the
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1107:). The addition of plutonium-239 reduces the need to enrich the uranium in the fuel.
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1237:"The Evolution of CANDU Fuel Cycles and their Potential Contribution to World Peace"
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Total heat released in a thermal-spectrum reactor (anti-neutrinos do not contribute)
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804:. Only if the fuel has been exposed for a few days in the reactor, can the Pu be
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uranium-235, led to its use in nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants. The
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Plutonium-240, in addition to being a neutron emitter after fission, is a
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This article is about an isotope of plutonium. For the film also known as
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484: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1350:"Chapter 11, HAZARDS OF HIGH-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE — THE GREAT MYTH"
1211:"Table of Physical and Chemical Constants, Sec 4.7.1: Nuclear Fission"
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493:"plutonium-239" supergrade, rbmk, phwr, ifr, nuclear weapons
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from the rest of the material to yield high-purity Pu metal.
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881:
1414:
NLM Hazardous
Substances Databank – Plutonium, Radioactive
1390:. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press. pp. 324–329.
1164:"Physical, Nuclear, and Chemical Properties of Plutonium"
432:
Energy released by radiative capture of prompt neutrons
1419:
Table of nuclides with Pu data at Kaye and Laby Online
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Nature's
Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements
628:, and the second β decay transforming the Np into Pu:
1253:
Radioactivity, Ionizing
Radiation, and Nuclear Energy
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are somewhat more efficient at plutonium production.
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Of all the common nuclear fuels, Pu has the smallest
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1099:, as it contains a mixture of uranium dioxide (UO
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560:. Pu is normally created in nuclear reactors by
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1168:Institute for Energy and Environmental Research
1127:, plutonium is also chemically toxic. See also
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354:= 83.61 TJ/kg, or about 23 gigawatt hours/kg.
346:The fission of one atom of Pu generates 207.1
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1280:. World Nuclear Association. Archived from
982:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
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36:
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1046:Learn how and when to remove this message
544:Learn how and when to remove this message
1234:
1213:. Kaye & Laby Online. Archived from
916:or plutonium production reactors called
360:radiation source (thermal fission of Pu)
1250:Hala, Jiri; Navratil, James D. (2003).
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884:) and pressurized heavy water reactor (
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1235:Whitlock, Jeremy J. (April 14, 2000).
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1305:
315:
980:adding citations to reliable sources
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878:reaktor bolshoy moshchnosti kanalniy
482:adding citations to reliable sources
453:
424:Total from decaying fission products
1135:production) of the undesirable Pu.
368:Kinetic energy of fission fragments
288:isotope used for the production of
13:
874:International Atomic Energy Agency
14:
1663:
1407:
1312:"Chapter 13, Plutonium and bombs"
1278:"Information Paper 15: Plutonium"
617:{\displaystyle {\bar {\nu }}_{e}}
376:Kinetic energy of prompt neutrons
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458:
21:The Half Life of Timofey Berezin
469:needs additional citations for
384:Energy carried by prompt γ-rays
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284:. Plutonium-239 is the primary
42:A 99.96% pure ring of plutonium
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1188:FAS Nuclear Weapons Design FAQ
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350:= 3.318 × 10 J, i.e. 19.98 TJ/
1:
1256:. Brno: Konvoj. p. 102.
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568:, its nucleus will capture a
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1103:) and plutonium dioxide (PuO
68:plutonium-239, 239Pu, Pu-239
7:
1138:
10:
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1424:Half-life of Plutonium-239
1193:December 26, 2008, at the
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908:isotope or the long-lived
392:Total instantaneous energy
258:Complete table of nuclides
18:
1652:Radioactive contamination
1647:Special nuclear materials
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1357:The Nuclear Energy Option
1319:The Nuclear Energy Option
1079:In nuclear power reactors
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416:Energy of delayed γ-rays
556:Plutonium is made from
408:Energy of antineutrinos
1097:MOX (mixed oxide) fuel
995:"supergrade plutonium"
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767:
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400:Energy of β− particles
308:. Plutonium-239 has a
31:Plutonium-239, Pu
1642:Isotopes of plutonium
1575:isotopes of plutonium
1382:Emsley, John (2001).
1129:Plutonium#Precautions
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740:
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254:Isotopes of plutonium
1451:Plutonium-239 is an
1115:Plutonium-239 emits
976:improve this section
944:Supergrade plutonium
898:actinide incinerator
806:chemically separated
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580:— an emission of an
478:improve this article
16:Isotope of plutonium
1197:, Accessed 2010-9-2
814:spontaneous fission
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1429:2011-08-15 at the
1145:Teller-Ulam design
1086:spent nuclear fuel
834:isotope separation
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419: 5.2
411: 7.1
403: 5.3
387: 7.8
379: 5.9
316:Nuclear properties
30:
1637:Fissile materials
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1522:of plutonium-239
1368:978-0-306-43567-6
1345:Cohen, Bernard L.
1330:978-0-306-43567-6
1307:Cohen, Bernard L.
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1323:. Plenum Press.
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745:
741:
735:
732:
716:
713:
699:
695:
689:
686:
670:
667:
655:
651:
648:
631:
630:
629:
627:
626:neptunium-239
609:
599:
587:
586:anti-neutrino
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
562:transmutation
559:
548:
545:
537:
526:
523:
519:
516:
512:
509:
505:
502:
498:
495: –
494:
490:
489:Find sources:
483:
479:
473:
472:
467:This section
465:
461:
456:
455:
442:
439:
438:
434:
431:
430:
426:
423:
422:
418:
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414:
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378:
375:
374:
370:
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366:
362:
359:
358:
355:
353:
349:
344:
342:
338:
337:critical mass
333:
331:
327:
323:
322:weapons-grade
313:
311:
307:
303:
300:, along with
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
266:Plutonium-239
259:
255:
251:
247:
244:
239:
235:
231:
228:
226:
222:
217:
214:
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88:
84:
80:
75:
71:
67:
65:
61:
57:
55:
51:
46:
39:
34:
26:
25:Pu-239 (film)
22:
1590:
1536:
1530:
1516:
1512:
1501:
1490:
1480:
1466:
1453:
1444:
1435:
1387:
1377:
1356:
1339:
1318:
1286:. Retrieved
1282:the original
1272:
1252:
1245:
1230:
1219:. Retrieved
1215:the original
1183:
1171:. Retrieved
1167:
1158:
1133:
1121:carcinogenic
1114:
1094:
1090:
1082:
1065:
1057:
1042:
1033:
1023:
1016:
1009:
1002:
990:
974:Please help
962:
931:
921:not always)
893:
877:
870:
862:
856:
850:
844:
839:
822:
810:
798:
555:
540:
531:
521:
514:
507:
500:
488:
476:Please help
471:verification
468:
435: 11.5
427: 17.6
345:
334:
319:
273:
269:
265:
264:
230:Decay energy
145:239.0521634
141:Isotope mass
119:
108:Nuclide data
95:
78:
20:
1532:uranium-235
1518:Decay chain
1384:"Plutonium"
1173:20 November
1125:heavy metal
1075:warheads.
867:18% or more
558:uranium-238
306:uranium-233
302:uranium-235
294:uranium-235
292:, although
243:Alpha decay
219:Decay modes
134: years
1626:Categories
1482:curium-243
1221:2009-02-01
1151:References
1006:newspapers
857:Fuel grade
845:Supergrade
504:newspapers
450:Production
326:fissioning
225:Decay mode
1632:Actinides
1464:Heavier:
1459:plutonium
1442:Lighter:
1036:July 2024
963:does not
910:actinides
763:−
760:β
717:−
714:β
675:⟶
603:¯
600:ν
534:July 2024
310:half-life
282:plutonium
115:Half-life
1427:Archived
1347:(1990).
1309:(1990).
1191:Archived
1139:See also
925:, since
894:in situ;
820:begins.
742:→
696:→
582:electron
578:β decays
330:absorbed
276:) is an
91:Neutrons
1455:isotope
1288:15 July
1111:Hazards
1020:scholar
984:removed
969:sources
584:and an
570:neutron
518:scholar
341:tampers
286:fissile
278:isotope
198: (
189: (
180: (
163:⁄
74:Protons
48:General
1526:Decays
1394:
1365:
1327:
1260:
1061:burnup
1022:
1015:
1008:
1001:
993:
830:fizzle
749:
703:
520:
513:
506:
499:
491:
443:211.5
395:189.5
371:175.8
274:Pu-239
200:β
182:α
54:Symbol
23:, see
1573:Main
1068:gamma
1027:JSTOR
1013:books
890:CANDU
859:7–18%
746:2.356
525:JSTOR
511:books
248:5.156
64:Names
1528:to:
1478:of:
1392:ISBN
1363:ISBN
1325:ISBN
1290:2020
1258:ISBN
1175:2015
999:news
967:any
965:cite
886:PHWR
882:RBMK
853:3–7%
847:2–3%
700:23.5
497:news
304:and
154:Spin
1535:(α)
1457:of
1073:W80
978:by
902:IFR
782:239
736:239
707:min
690:239
652:238
480:by
352:mol
348:MeV
280:of
272:or
234:MeV
132:110
123:1/2
102:145
1628::
1611:Pu
1606:Pu
1601:Pu
1596:Pu
1591:Pu
1586:Pu
1498:EC
1386:.
1353:.
1315:.
1298:^
1202:^
1166:.
1131:.
825:Pu
779:94
773:Pu
733:93
727:Np
687:92
649:92
270:Pu
196:Np
191:EC
187:Am
178:Cm
147:Da
130:24
85:94
58:Pu
1566:e
1559:t
1552:v
1511:)
1509:β
1507:(
1500:)
1496:(
1489:)
1487:α
1485:(
1400:.
1371:.
1333:.
1292:.
1266:.
1239:.
1224:.
1177:.
1105:2
1101:2
1049:)
1043:(
1038:)
1034:(
1024:·
1017:·
1010:·
1003:·
986:.
972:.
880:(
753:d
681:U
671:1
668:0
662:n
656:+
643:U
610:e
588:(
574:U
547:)
541:(
536:)
532:(
522:·
515:·
508:·
501:·
474:.
268:(
236:)
232:(
213:U
202:)
193:)
184:)
165:2
161:1
158:+
125:)
120:t
118:(
98:)
96:N
94:(
81:)
79:Z
77:(
27:.
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