Greek fire - Knowledge

532: 1282: 1082: 1261:). The brazier, burning a match of linen or flax that produced intense heat and the characteristic thick smoke, was used to heat oil and the other ingredients in an airtight tank above it, a process that also helped to dissolve the resins into a fluid mixture. The substance was pressurized by the heat and the usage of a force pump. After it had reached the proper pressure, a valve connecting the tank with the swivel was opened and the mixture was discharged from its end, being ignited at its mouth by some source of flame. The intense heat of the flame made necessary the presence of heat shields made of iron (βουκόλια, 1273:, even modern welding techniques failed to secure adequate insulation of the bronze tank under pressure. This led to the relocation of the pressure pump between the tank and the nozzle. The full-scale device built on this basis established the effectiveness of the mechanism's design, even with the simple materials and techniques available to the Byzantines. The experiment used crude oil mixed with wood resins, and achieved a flame temperature of over 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) and an effective range of up to 15 meters (49 ft). 1245: 1348: 31: 448:" and that the angel bound him "not to prepare this fire but for Christians, and only in the imperial city." As a warning, he adds that one official, who was bribed into handing some of it over to the Empire's enemies, was struck down by a "flame from heaven" as he was about to enter a church. As the latter incident demonstrates, the Byzantines could not avoid capture of their precious secret weapon: the Arabs captured at least one fireship intact in 827, and the Bulgars captured several 5579: 1415: 490:. One description of the memoir says "the tail of fire that trailed behind it was as big as a great spear; and it made such a noise as it came, that it sounded like the thunder of heaven. It looked like a dragon flying through the air. Such a bright light did it cast, that one could see all over the camp as though it were day, by reason of the great mass of fire, and the brilliance of the light that it shed." 2968:, pp. 297–315 An interesting characteristic displayed during these tests was that, contrary to expectations due to the flame's heat, the stream of fire projected through the tube did not curve upwards but downwards, as the fuel was not completely vaporized as it left the nozzle. This fact is important because medieval galleys had a low profile, and a high-arcing flame would miss them entirely. 765:"mystery" of the formula has long dominated the research into Greek fire. Despite this almost exclusive focus, however, Greek fire is best understood as a complete weapon system of many components, all of which were needed to operate together to render it effective. This comprised not only the formula of its composition, but also the specialized 263:

catches fire, one should seal it in some sort of copper receptacle; in this way you will have it available in a box, without exposing it to the sun. If you should wish to ignite enemy armaments, you will smear it on in the evening, either on the armaments or some other object, but in secret; when the sun comes up, everything will be burnt up.

483:, no report confirms the use of the actual Greek fire. This might be because of the general disarmament of the Empire in the 20 years leading up to the sacking, or because the Byzantines had lost access to the areas where the primary ingredients were to be found, or even perhaps because the secret had been lost over time. 1330:

was the same as in the static devices used on ships, Haldon and Byrne consider that the former were manifestly different from their larger cousins, and theorize that the device was fundamentally different, "a simple syringe squirted both liquid fire (presumably unignited) and noxious juices to repel

826:

This fire is made by the following arts: From the pine and certain such evergreen trees, inflammable resin is collected. This is rubbed with sulfur and put into tubes of reed, and is blown by men using it with violent and continuous breath. Then in this manner it meets the fire on the tip and catches

1268:

The process of operating Haldon and Byrne's design was fraught with danger, as the mounting pressure could easily make the heated oil tank explode, a flaw which was not recorded as a problem with the historical fire weapon. In the experiments conducted by Haldon in 2002 for the episode "Fireship" of

764:

As Constantine Porphyrogennetos' warnings show, the ingredients and the processes of manufacture and deployment of Greek fire were carefully guarded military secrets. So strict was the secrecy that the composition of Greek fire was lost forever and remains a source of speculation. Consequently, the

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are more sporadic, but it did secure a number of victories, especially in the phase of Byzantine expansion in the late 9th and early 10th centuries. Utilisation of the substance was prominent in Byzantine civil wars, chiefly the revolt of the thematic fleets in 727 and the large-scale rebellion led

1201:

were skilled in sea warfare and dreaded a battle with them, on the prow of each ship he had a head fixed of a lion or other land-animal, made in brass or iron with the mouth open and then gilded over, so that their mere aspect was terrifying. And the fire which was to be directed against the enemy

1240:

The account, albeit embellished, corresponds with many of the characteristics of Greek fire known from other sources, such as a loud roar that accompanied its discharge. These two texts are also the only two sources that explicitly mention that the substance was heated over a furnace before being

920:

indicates that Greek fire was often poured directly on the decks of enemy ships, although admittedly, decks were kept wet due to lack of sealants. Likewise, Leo describes the use of grenades, which further reinforces the view that contact with water was not necessary for the substance's ignition.

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and Zakynthian asphalt, the latter in a liquid form and free-flowing, resulting in a product that is sooty colored. Then add to the asphalt the tiniest amount of quicklime. But because the sun is at its zenith, one must pound it carefully and protect the face, for it will ignite suddenly. When it

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with a new type of Greek fire he claimed to have developed. Kavafian refused to reveal its composition when asked by the government, insisting that he be placed in command of its use during naval engagements. Not long after this, he was poisoned by imperial authorities, without their ever having

329:) by the Byzantines a couple of years before the supposed arrival of Kallinikos at Constantinople. If this is not due to chronological confusion of the events of the siege, it may suggest that Kallinikos merely introduced an improved version of an established weapon. The historian 257:

Automatic fire also by the following formula. This is the recipe: take equal amounts of sulphur, rock salt, ashes, thunder stone, and pyrite and pound fine in a black mortar at midday sun. Also in equal amounts of each ingredient mix together black mulberry

1252:

Based on these descriptions and the Byzantine sources, John Haldon and Maurice Byrne designed a hypothetical apparatus as consisting of three main components: a bronze pump, which was used to pressurize the oil; a brazier, used to heat the oil (πρόπυρον,

1235:

began blowing with smiths’ bellows at a furnace in which there was fire and there came from it a great din. There stood there also a brass tube and from it flew much fire against one ship, and it burned up in a short time so that all of it became white

914:. Although quicklime was certainly known and used by the Byzantines and the Arabs in warfare, the theory is refuted by literary and empirical evidence. A quicklime-based substance would have to come in contact with water to ignite, while Emperor Leo's 320:

At that time Kallinikos, an artificer from Heliopolis, fled to the Romans. He had devised a sea fire which ignited the Arab ships and burned them with all hands. Thus it was that the Romans returned with victory and discovered the sea

909:

A second view, based on the fact that Greek fire was inextinguishable by water (some sources suggest that water intensified the flames) suggested that its destructive power was the result of the explosive reaction between water and

935:

Consequently, although the presence of either quicklime or saltpeter in the mixture cannot be entirely excluded, they were not the primary ingredient. Most modern scholars agree that Greek fire was based on either crude or refined

1210:...having built a furnace right at the front of the ship, they set on it a copper vessel full of these things, having put fire underneath. And one of them, having made a bronze tube similar to that which the rustics call a 392:

in 821–823. In both cases, the rebel fleets were defeated by the Constantinople-based central Imperial Fleet through the use of Greek fire. The Byzantines also used the weapon to devastating effect against the various

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loaded with Greek fire onto enemy ships or spray it from tubes. Its ability to burn on water made it an effective and destructive naval incendiary weapon, and rival powers tried unsuccessfully to copy the material.

1540:, the Greek inventor Phanocles demonstrates explosives to the Roman Emperor. The Emperor decides that his empire is not ready for this or for Phanocles's other inventions and sends him on "a slow boat to China". 893:

This view has been rejected since saltpeter does not appear to have been used in warfare in Europe or the Middle East before the 13th century, and is absent from the accounts of the Muslim writers – the

1558:'s Greek storyline, Greek Fire is described as being a volatile green liquid. When it explodes, all of the substance is spread out over an area and burns continuously. It is very strong and dangerous. 122:

Usage of the term "Greek fire" has been general in English and most other languages since the Crusades, but original Byzantine sources called the substance a variety of names, such as "sea fire" (

3748: 781:, with operators and technicians aware of the secrets of only one component, ensuring that no enemy could gain knowledge of it in its entirety. This accounts for the fact that when the 846:

by water. Numerous writers testify that it could be extinguished only by a few substances, such as sand, strong vinegar, or old urine, some presumably by a sort of chemical reaction.

1387:, which, by then, had fallen out of use. While Greek fire remained a potent weapon, its limitations were significant when compared to more traditional forms of artillery: in its 456:). The Arabs, for instance, employed a variety of incendiary substances similar to the Byzantine weapon, but they were never able to copy the Byzantine method of deployment by 333:

further thinks it likely that Greek fire was not in fact the creation of any single person but "invented by chemists in Constantinople who had inherited the discoveries of the

4458: 345:, but most scholars reject this as an error. Kedrenos also records the story, considered rather implausible by modern scholars, that Kallinikos' descendants, a family called 1206:

Some sources provide more information on the composition and function of the whole mechanism. The Wolfenbüttel manuscript in particular provides the following description:

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In attempting to reconstruct the Greek fire system, the concrete evidence, as it emerges from the contemporary literary references, provides the following characteristics:

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Records of a 13th-century event in which "Greek fire" was used by the Saracens against the Crusaders can be read through the Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville during the

1394:

The Muslim navies eventually adapted themselves to it by staying out of its effective range and devising methods of protection such as felt or hides soaked in vinegar.

1326:

also advises their use in field armies, with the aim of disrupting the enemy formation. Although both Leo VI and Nikephoros Phokas claim that the substance used in the

1010:, who wore thick protective suits and used small copper vessels containing burning oil, which they threw onto the enemy troops. There is also a surviving 9th century 710: 1177:, but additional devices could also on occasion be placed elsewhere on the ship. Thus in 941, when the Byzantines were facing the vastly more numerous Rus' fleet, 416:

The importance placed on Greek fire during the Empire's struggle against the Arabs would lead to its discovery being ascribed to divine intervention. The Emperor

4691: 1193:) is amply attested in the contemporary sources. Anna Komnene gives this account of beast-shaped Greek fire projectors being mounted to the bow of warships: 921:

Furthermore, Zenghelis (1932) pointed out that, based on experiments, the actual result of the water–quicklime reaction would be negligible in the open sea.

325:

The accuracy and exact chronology of this account is open to question: elsewhere, Theophanes reports the use of fire-carrying ships equipped with nozzles (

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Pryor, John H. (2003), "Byzantium and the Sea: Byzantine Fleets and the History of the Empire in the Age of the Macedonian Emperors, c. 900–1025 CE", in

1202:

through tubes he made to pass through the mouths of the beasts, so that it seemed as if the lions and the other similar monsters were vomiting the fire.

2703: 3671: 932:, which ignites spontaneously. However, extensive experiments with calcium phosphide also failed to reproduce the described intensity of Greek fire. 1363:

In its earliest form, Greek fire was hurled onto enemy forces by firing a burning cloth-wrapped ball, perhaps containing a flask, using a form of

1304:, is extensively attested in the military documents of the 10th century, and recommended for use in both sea and land. They first appear in the 5567: 3921: 3822: 3221: 5255: 3832: 3765: 531: 3780: 3775: 751: 444:), to never reveal the secrets of its composition, as it was "shown and revealed by an angel to the great and holy first Christian emperor 4856: 3842: 3817: 1669: 778: 886:, several scholars adhered to this position, most notably the so-called "French school" during the 19th century, which included chemist 5207: 5190: 3847: 3827: 2272: 1609:, some old men who are the last ones who know the secret of Greek fire are mentioned as present in the last Christian services held in 1371:. These were capable of hurling light loads, around 6 to 9 kg (13 to 20 lb), a distance of 350–450 m (380–490 yd). 1636:, wildfire is similar to Greek fire. It was used in naval battles as it could remain lit on water, and its recipe was closely guarded. 4906: 4752: 4724: 4368: 4360: 3837: 3770: 210:

Incendiary and flaming weapons were used in warfare for centuries before Greek fire was invented. They included a number of sulfur-,

5102: 4463: 876:. This argument was based on the "thunder and smoke" description, as well as on the distance the flame could be projected from the 720: 682: 4951: 3091:

The Science of Michael Crichton An Unauthorized Exploration Into the Real Science Behind the Fictional Worlds of Michael Crichton

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noted by Constantine Porphyrogennetos) or in various locations throughout the Middle East. An alternate name for Greek fire was "

895: 410: 5641: 5431: 4956: 1391:-deployed version, it had a limited range, and it could be used safely only in a calm sea and with favourable wind conditions. 1038:, "sticky fire"), and to increase the duration and intensity of the flame. A modern theoretical concoction included the use of 902:

world – before the same period. In addition, the behavior of the proposed mixture would have been radically different from the

868:

The first and, for a long time, most popular theory regarding the composition of Greek fire held that its chief ingredient was

452:

s and much of the substance itself in 812/814. This, however, was apparently not enough to allow their enemies to copy it (see

1107:

The chief method of deployment of Greek fire, which sets it apart from similar substances, was its projection through a tube (

5611: 5355: 4115: 4108: 3664: 376: 5107: 4966: 4254: 849:

It was a liquid substance – not some sort of projectile – as verified both by descriptions and the very name "liquid fire".

1617:. The narrator is told that in the event of the city's fall, they will be killed so as to keep the secret from the Turks. 4098: 1479: 1356: 1241:

discharged; although the validity of this information is open to question, modern reconstructions have relied upon them.

1065:

recipe from the 16th century has been recorded for recreational use; it includes charcoal from a willow tree, saltpeter (

1022:

s used to project it. Although the text contains some inaccuracies, it clearly identifies the main component as naphtha.

352:

Kallinikos' development of Greek fire came at a critical moment in the Byzantine Empire's history: weakened by its long

5436: 4849: 3585: 3504: 3397: 3372: 3268: 2746: 2511: 2492: 2359: 1451: 1306: 916: 1551: (1960), the crusader Godfrey of Ware returns with a casket of Greek Fire given to him by an old man in Athens. 5537: 4103: 1498: 4600: 3657: 744: 690: 584: 406: 1458: 5572: 5394: 3926: 3694: 3286: 3074: 1684: 402: 3609:"The Rise of Gawain, Nephew of Arthur (De ortu Waluuanii)," ed. Mildred Leake Day, in Wilhelm, James J. (1994). 3105: 769:

ships that carried it into battle, the device used to prepare the substance by heating and pressurizing it, the

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and against defenders on the walls, by several 10th-century military authors, and their use is depicted in the

571: 476: 5399: 5389: 5304: 5059: 4844: 3171: 1593: 1536: 1281: 380: 218:-based mixtures. Incendiary arrows and pots or small pouches containing combustible substances surrounded by 4279: 2711: 1579:

to recover the secret of Greek fire, following its discovery in the library of a dissolved London monastery.

1465: 1220: 253:, records a mixture that ignited from adequate heat and intense sunlight, used in grenades or night attacks: 5473: 5441: 5345: 5054: 5026: 4834: 4373: 1714: 814:, Anna Komnene provides a description of an incendiary weapon, which was used by the Byzantine garrison of 24: 5626: 5621: 5197: 4839: 4686: 4443: 4194: 3460:

Pászthory, Emmerich (1986), "Über das 'Griechische Feuer'. Die Analyse eines spätantiken Waffensystems",

1432: 737: 653: 601: 928:, which can be made by boiling bones in urine within a sealed vessel. On contact with water it releases 249:, compiled in the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD and traditionally (but not conclusively) ascribed to 5631: 5517: 5463: 5202: 5074: 5064: 4764: 4644: 4522: 4453: 4341: 4310: 4153: 4093: 1447: 1116: 801: 715: 554: 342: 1383:

invincible. It was not, in the words of naval historian John Pryor, a "ship-killer" comparable to the

985: 5616: 5377: 4901: 4757: 4542: 4433: 4320: 3331: 3307: 1018:

in Germany, which mentions the ingredients of what appears to be Greek fire and the operation of the

686: 375:. Greek fire was used to great effect against the Muslim fleets, helping to repel the Muslims at the 3062:

Demigods and Monsters Your Favorite Authors on Rick Riordan's Percy Jackson and the Olympians Series

1093:"), a portable flamethrower, used from atop a flying bridge against a castle. Illumination from the 1081: 5651: 4676: 4428: 3915: 3794: 3563: 1688: 1567: 1228: 1046: 705: 657: 429: 349:, "brilliant," kept the secret of the fire's manufacture and continued doing so to Kedrenos' time. 305: 301: 81:

from the seventh through the fourteenth centuries. The recipe for Greek fire was a closely-guarded

3169:

Cheronis, Nicholas D. (1937), "Chemical Warfare in the Middle Ages: Kallinikos' 'Prepared Fire'",

5636: 5582: 5006: 4732: 4552: 4438: 1729: 1663: 1425: 835:

are largely unreliable, since they apply the name to any and all sorts of incendiary substances.

724: 611: 250: 3249: 1878: 1257:, "pre-heater"); and the nozzle, which was covered in bronze and mounted on a swivel (στρεπτόν, 1073:), wool and camphor; the concoction was guaranteed to "burn under water" and to be "beautiful". 856:, although earthenware pots or grenades filled with it – or similar substances – were also used. 5646: 5606: 5507: 5097: 4939: 4383: 4189: 4163: 4158: 3931: 3907: 3903: 3870: 3277: 1626: 1614: 782: 678: 361: 353: 313: 268: 82: 3513:

Roland, Alex (1992), "Secrecy, Technology, and War: Greek Fire and the Defense of Byzantium",

1914: 1244: 999:). This seems to corroborate the availability of naphtha as a basic ingredient of Greek fire. 5225: 5079: 4269: 4179: 4143: 4028: 3758: 3753: 3148: 1719: 1368: 201: 1919:. Corpus scriptorum historiae Byzantinae (in Italian). Impensis E. Weberi. 1839. p. 610 944:. The Byzantines had easy access to crude oil from the naturally occurring wells around the 800:

The information available on Greek fire is exclusively indirect, based on references in the

5468: 5451: 5272: 5031: 4996: 4879: 4816: 4811: 4346: 4289: 3302: 3180: 1516:, the Castilian army fabricates Greek Fire to use it in their crusade against the Almohads. 1401:

wrote: "It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of Greek fire in Byzantine history."

1323: 1218:

Another, possibly first-hand, account of the use of Greek fire comes from the 11th-century

40: 3201:

Proc. Tropis VI: 6th International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Lamia 1996

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Haldon, John; Byrne, Maurice (1977), "A Possible Solution to the Problem of Greek Fire",

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and various resins added. Any direct relation with the Byzantine formula is unlikely. An

1028: 887: 227: 3184: 1596:

is stuck in the past in 14th century Europe, and claims to have knowledge of Greek fire.

1472: 1170: 5456: 5446: 5320: 4991: 4874: 4791: 4654: 4006: 3986: 3966: 3956: 3722: 3597:, translated by Rex Warner; with an introduction and notes by M.I. Finley (London 1972) 3538: 3530: 3420: 3360: 3348: 309: 287: 47:

war ship using their "secret weapon" Greek Fire against a ship belonging to the rebel

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and even quantities of the substance itself, but were unable to make any use of them.

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Christides, Vassilios (1991), "Fireproofing of War Machines, Ships and Garments",

5527: 5360: 5340: 5335: 5290: 5280: 5240: 5235: 5185: 5180: 4961: 4567: 4484: 4479: 4219: 4209: 4045: 4039: 4023: 4001: 3991: 3976: 3571: 3474: 3441: 3043: 1632: 1572: 1527: 1314:, who claims to have invented them. Subsequent authors continued to refer to the 1311: 1136: 621: 596: 546: 487: 417: 389: 357: 338: 48: 1379:

Although the destructiveness of Greek fire is indisputable, it did not make the

1015: 5365: 5245: 4978: 4737: 4631: 4617: 4416: 4120: 3875: 3359:

Haldon, John (2006), "'Greek fire' revisited: recent and current research", in

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Arab sieges of the city. Records of its use in later naval battles against the

372: 205: 123: 3344: 1879:"Callinicus Of Heliopolis | Byzantine Empire, Hagia Sophia, Dome | Britannica" 1347: 5600: 5285: 5162: 5128: 4866: 4801: 4774: 4659: 4274: 4214: 3208: 2552: 1640: 924:

Another similar proposition suggested that Kallinikos had in fact discovered

883: 445: 94: 30: 3365:

Byzantine Style, Religion and Civilization: In Honour of Sir Steven Runciman

360:, the Byzantines had been unable to effectively resist the onslaught of the 5046: 5021: 5001: 4806: 4784: 4639: 3887: 3882: 3716: 3644: 1696: 1610: 1600: 1562: 1555: 1319: 1301: 1153: 1095: 805: 626: 464: 279: 56: 3649: 3624:

Zenghelis, C. (1932), "Le feu grégeois et les armes à feu des Byzantins",

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The discharge of Greek fire was accompanied by "thunder" and "much smoke".

241:

BC a long tube on wheels was used which blew flames forward using a large

5547: 5522: 5016: 4826: 4593: 4199: 4184: 3110: 1132: 980: 899: 815: 230:

and were extensively used in the Greco-Roman world as well. Furthermore,

4821: 4681: 4504: 4494: 4204: 3534: 1658: 1439: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1248:

Proposed reconstruction of the Greek fire mechanism by Haldon and Byrne

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especially were prescribed for use at land and in sieges, both against

949: 662: 434: 334: 231: 3192: 822:. It is often regarded as an at least partial "recipe" for Greek fire: 5370: 5250: 4742: 4610: 4557: 4489: 3281: 2763: 1993: 1709: 1384: 1135:

and soaked in the substance were thrown by catapults, while pivoting

1115:, χειροσίφωνες) were also invented, reputedly by Emperor Leo VI. The 963: 945: 937: 929: 911: 873: 808:

and Western European chroniclers, which are often inaccurate. In her

564: 494: 472: 398: 211: 187: 176: 165: 154: 143: 132: 98: 44: 3526: 1414: 983: 286:

called Proclus to use sulfur to burn the ships of the rebel general

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light and falls like a fiery whirlwind on the faces of the enemies.

790: 589: 467:

gives a vivid description of its use in a naval battle against the

223: 219: 2005: 1930: 1895: 1367:, most probably a seaborne variant of the Roman light catapult or 831:

At the same time, the reports by Western chroniclers of the famed

463:

Greek fire continued to be mentioned during the 12th century, and

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Medieval Warfare Source Book: Christian Europe and its Neighbours

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Ceramic grenades that were filled with Greek fire, surrounded by

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Science and Technology in Islam: Technology and applied sciences

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Nevertheless, it was still a decisive weapon in many battles.

16:

Incendiary weapon used by the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire

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It burned on water; according to some interpretations it was

259: 182: 171: 160: 149: 138: 127: 102: 34: 3011: 2987: 2850: 2684: 2630: 2574: 2424: 2375: 2373: 2322: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2287: 2254: 2242: 2230: 2089: 1954: 993:) by the Persians, was known to the Greeks as "Median oil" ( 882:, which suggested an explosive discharge. From the times of 85:; historians have variously speculated that it was based on 5170: 3231:

The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VII: Mif–Naz

2448: 2303: 1969: 1677: 1214:, "squirt," with which boys play, they spray at the enemy. 1198: 1111:), for use aboard ships or in sieges. Portable projectors ( 468: 2436: 2182: 2975: 2934: 2910: 2898: 2886: 2412: 2370: 2284: 2194: 1907: 1647:, there is a passage detailing Callinicus and Greek Fire. 497:

by the name of Kavafian approached the government of the

471:

in 1099. However, although the use of hastily improvised

97:, though most modern scholars agree that it was based on 52: 3550:

Greek Fire: The Fabulous Secret Weapon That Saved Europe

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The chronicle of Theophanes: an English translation of

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The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204

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who used it. Knowledge of the whole system was highly

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chemical school." Indeed, the 11th-century chronicler

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Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio

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The British army: its origin, progress, and equipment

2218: 2167: 2113: 1942: 906:-projected substance described by Byzantine sources. 804:

and a number of secondary historical sources such as

39:, "The Roman fleet burn the opposite fleet down" – A 3562: 3261:

Throwing Fire: Projectile Technology Through History

2826: 2212: 2164:, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980, p. 64. 2053: 1981: 1936: 1901: 1374: 19:

This article is about the weapon. For the band, see

3384:, translated by Leonard G. Meachim (Mytilene 2013) 2999: 1758: 3382:Greek Fire and its contribution to Byzantine might 226:, were used as early as the 9th century BC by the 3479:War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance 3322:More Studies in Early Petroleum History 1860–1880 1143:) were employed to pour it upon enemy ships. The 5598: 3406:Moravcsik, Gyula; Jenkins, R.J.H., eds. (1967), 3405: 3367:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 290–325, 3233:, Leiden and New York: Brill, pp. 884–886, 2047: 1265:), which are attested in the fleet inventories. 3495:Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006), 773:projecting it, and the special training of the 36:Στόλος Ρωμαίων πυρπολῶν τὸν τῶν ἐναντίων στόλον 4040:Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands) 3301: 2856: 2636: 2583: 2430: 2391: 2260: 1231:faces ships equipped with Greek fire weapons: 1181:s were placed also amidships and even astern. 1053:records an Arab version of Greek fire, called 1042:and animal fat, along with other ingredients. 3665: 3494: 3320:Forbes, R. J. (1959), "Naphtha Goes To War", 3017: 2993: 2969: 2952: 2928: 2868: 2844: 2820: 2796: 2769: 2732: 2690: 2663: 2516: 2497: 2364: 2333: 2236: 2107: 2095: 2071: 2035: 2023: 2011: 1999: 1963: 1865: 1752: 1676:An application of Greek fire is shown in the 1523:Greek Fire is described and used as a weapon. 1006:in the 9th century, with special troops, the 745: 293:Greek fire proper, however, was developed in 3149:"Alchemy, chemistry and chemical technology" 493:In the 19th century, it is reported that an 453: 3679: 3328: 3282:"Skeptoid #832: What Greek Fire Really Was" 2981: 2940: 2916: 2904: 2892: 2379: 1670:Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides 1512:In Paloma Recasens's historical 2021 novel 1331:enemy troops." The illustrations of Hero's 460:, and used catapults and grenades instead. 371:set out to conquer the imperial capital of 282:to have been advised by a philosopher from 3672: 3658: 3436: 3305:(1973), "The Secret Weapon of Byzantium", 3228: 3220:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3198: 2648: 2624: 2595: 2478: 2454: 2345: 2248: 2156:. "Հայոց դերը Օսմանյան կայսրության մեջ," 1975: 1853: 1807: 863: 752: 738: 510: 308:(Latinized Callinicus), an architect from 3623: 3459: 3387: 3146: 2557:The New Penguin Atlas of Medieval History 2540: 2442: 2162:The Economic History of Turkey, 1800–1914 1783: 1499:Learn how and when to remove this message 3168: 2751:. Venice: Giovanni Bariletto. p. 62 2568: 2316: 2138:The Middle Ages (www.lordsandladies.org) 1346: 1280: 1243: 1080: 1076: 1057:, which also had a petroleum base, with 1026:were probably added as a thickener (the 267:In naval warfare, the Byzantine emperor 29: 4928: 3645:Greek Fire – World History Encyclopedia 3613:. New York: Garland. pp. 369–397. 3601:Toutain, J. (1953), "Le feu grégeois", 3600: 3414: 3276: 2744: 1276: 5599: 3512: 3390:The historical background of chemistry 3358: 3319: 3258: 3229:Christides, Vassilios (1993), "Nafṭ", 3103: 2965: 2880: 2808: 2781: 2678: 2607: 2528: 2466: 2418: 2406: 2297: 2224: 2200: 2188: 2176: 2119: 2083: 2059: 1987: 1948: 1819: 1795: 1771: 1300:"), the earliest analogue to a modern 1189:The use of tubular projectors (σίφων, 105:, comparable in composition to modern 5496: 4927: 4712: 4404: 4071: 3692: 3653: 3472: 3443:A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder 3247: 3005: 2832: 2696: 1695:using a hand projector located on an 1651: 1339:also throwing the ignited substance. 852:At sea it was usually ejected from a 4713: 3580:, University of Pennsylvania Press, 3324:, Leiden: E.J. Brill, pp. 70–90 3254:, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 3064:. BenBella Books. 2013. p. 205. 1437:adding citations to reliable sources 1408: 1045:A 12th century treatise prepared by 4415: 3093:. BenBella Books. 2008. p. 87. 312:, in Syria, by then overrun by the 13: 3481:, Boydell Press, pp. 83–104, 3446:, Johns Hopkins University Press, 3388:Leicester, Henry Marshall (1971), 2131: 1069:), alcohol, sulfur, incense, tar ( 341:records that Kallinikos came from 300:and is ascribed by the chronicler 14: 5663: 5538:Greek scholars in the Renaissance 3638: 3248:Dawes, Elizabeth A., ed. (1928), 1375:Effectiveness and countermeasures 962:), and the 6th-century historian 5577: 3595:History of the Peloponnesian War 3118: 2964:For a detailed description, cf. 2213:Theophanes & Turtledove 1982 2160:1967; trans. in Charles Issawi, 1937:Theophanes & Turtledove 1982 1902:Theophanes & Turtledove 1982 1630:, and its television adaptation 1413: 1404: 966:records that crude oil, called " 530: 77:manufactured in and used by the 3927:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 3749:Constantinian–Valentinianic era 3097: 3083: 3068: 3054: 3036: 3023: 2958: 2738: 2613: 2546: 2503: 2484: 2351: 2266: 2144: 2125: 1871: 1645:Vox: collected works, 1999–2003 1424:needs additional citations for 439: 433:, admonishes his son and heir, 422: 273: 109:. Byzantine sailors would toss 5012:Great Palace of Constantinople 4753:Patriarchate of Constantinople 4072: 3392:, Courier Dover Publications, 3263:, Cambridge University Press, 1834: 1825: 505: 1: 5642:Technology in the Middle Ages 3499:, Brill Academic Publishers, 3172:Journal of Chemical Education 3151:, in al-Hassan, A. Y. (ed.), 1735: 1685:Assassin's Creed: Revelations 1318:, especially for use against 1184: 1127:) filled with Greek fire and 1002:Naphtha was also used by the 872:, making it an early form of 365: 294: 5612:Byzantine military equipment 5474:University of Constantinople 5055:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda 4405: 4205:Chartoularios tou vestiariou 3894:Byzantine successor states ( 3477:; Unger, Richard W. (eds.), 3203:, Athens, pp. 135–141, 3075:“A wherry across the Thames” 3029:Norwich, John Julius (1991) 2048:Moravcsik & Jenkins 1967 1740: 1715:List of Byzantine inventions 1624:'s fantasy series of novels 1565:'s historical mystery novel 1519:In Steve Berry's 2007 novel 418:Constantine Porphyrogennetos 278:) is recorded by chronicler 245:. The Graeco-Roman treatise 188: 177: 166: 155: 144: 133: 7: 5144:Saint Catherine's Monastery 4200:Chartoularios tou sakelliou 4195:Logothetes tou stratiotikou 3693: 3568:Turtledove, Harry (Transl.) 1703: 1691:, escapes from the port of 1534:, adapted from his novella 1514:Sevilla antes de la Giralda 1342: 551:'Classical' Byzantine army 181:), or "manufactured fire" ( 10: 5668: 5533:Neo-Byzantine architecture 5497: 4154:Comes sacrarum largitionum 3259:Crosby, Alfred W. (2002), 3155:, UNESCO, pp. 41–83, 3139: 2745:Cortese, Isabella (1565). 2273:Scott, James Sibbald David 2158:Banber Erevani Hamalsarani 1357:National Historical Museum 1117:Byzantine military manuals 1034: 1032:refer to the substance as 995: 984: 972: 958: 802:Byzantine military manuals 222:or spikes, or launched by 199: 195: 183: 172: 161: 150: 139: 128: 35: 18: 5560: 5503: 5492: 5413: 5313: 5271: 5216: 5161: 5116: 5103:Sant'Apollinare in Classe 5088: 5045: 4977: 4947: 4938: 4934: 4923: 4865: 4723: 4719: 4708: 4630: 4576: 4515: 4472: 4424: 4411: 4400: 4359: 4334: 4303: 4262: 4253: 4228: 4172: 4136: 4089: 4082: 4078: 4067: 3940: 3856: 3803: 3734: 3705: 3701: 3688: 3605:(in French), Paris: 77–80 3548:Spears, W.H. Jr. (1969). 3438:Partington, James Riddick 3345:10.1515/byzs.1977.70.1.91 3332:Byzantinische Zeitschrift 3308:Byzantinische Zeitschrift 3147:al-Hassan, A. Y. (2001), 3018:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2994:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2970:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2953:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2929:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2869:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2845:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2821:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2797:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2770:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2733:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2691:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2664:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2517:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2498:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2365:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2334:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2237:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2108:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2096:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2072:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2036:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2024:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2012:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 2000:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 1964:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 1866:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 1753:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006 1687:when the main character, 1594:Professor Edward Johnston 793:in 814, they captured 36 479:of Constantinople by the 4677:Droungarios of the Fleet 3577:6095–6305 (A.D. 602–813) 3303:Ellis Davidson, Hilda R. 3048:The Victor Canning Pages 2772:, pp. 378–379, 609. 2086:, pp. 660, 663–664. 2002:, pp. 26–27, 31–32. 1229:Ingvar the Far-Travelled 1119:also mention that jars ( 1047:Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi 948:(e.g., the wells around 658:Droungarios of the Fleet 475:is mentioned during the 430:De Administrando Imperio 411:Bulgarian war of 970–971 409:, as well as during the 302:Theophanes the Confessor 5191:Early Byzantine mosaics 4553:Domestic of the Schools 3415:Nicolle, David (1996), 3179:(8), Chicago: 360–365, 2982:Haldon & Byrne 1977 2941:Haldon & Byrne 1977 2917:Haldon & Byrne 1977 2905:Haldon & Byrne 1977 2893:Haldon & Byrne 1977 2748:I Segreti della signora 2380:Haldon & Byrne 1977 1657:Greek fire was used by 940:, comparable to modern 864:Theories on composition 725:Walls of Constantinople 612:Domestic of the Schools 518:Part of a series on the 511:General characteristics 117: 59:illustration from the " 5508:Byzantine commonwealth 4270:Praetorian prefectures 4190:Logothetes tou genikou 4164:Quaestor sacri palatii 4159:Comes rerum privatarum 3932:Fall of Constantinople 3871:Sack of Constantinople 3515:Technology and Culture 2704:"The Link: Greek Fire" 2026:, pp. 32, 46, 73. 1627:A Song of Ice and Fire 1615:Fall of Constantinople 1360: 1289: 1269:the television series 1249: 1238: 1216: 1204: 1104: 829: 683:revolts and civil wars 502:found out his secret. 401:, especially those of 323: 265: 64: 23:. For other uses, see 5208:Komnenian renaissance 5203:Macedonian period art 5108:Sant'Apollinare Nuovo 5080:Walls of Thessaloniki 4180:Logothetes tou dromou 3795:Twenty Years' Anarchy 3759:Valentinianic dynasty 3754:Constantinian dynasty 3611:The Romance of Arthur 3033:, London: BCA, p. 151 3031:Byzantium: The Apogee 2623:, IV.11.36, cited in 2559:, New York: Penguin. 2515:, XIX.63, transl. in 2496:, XIX.67, transl. in 2363:, XIX.59, transl. in 2014:, pp. 61–62, 72. 1720:List of flamethrowers 1521:The Venetian Betrayal 1355:, 10th–12th century, 1350: 1284: 1271:Machines Times Forgot 1247: 1233: 1221:Yngvars saga víðförla 1208: 1197:As he knew that the 1195: 1084: 1077:Methods of deployment 824: 318: 255: 234:mentions that in the 202:Early thermal weapons 200:Further information: 33: 5405:Units of measurement 5139:Panagia Gorgoepikoos 5032:Pammakaristos Church 4880:Corpus Juris Civilis 4831:Missionary activity 4290:Exarchate of Ravenna 4116:Imperial bureaucracy 2823:, pp. 203, 618. 2481:, pp. 6–10, 14. 2191:, pp. 660, 663. 1730:Archimedes' heat ray 1664:Queen Anne's Revenge 1433:improve this article 1324:Nikephoros II Phokas 1277:Hand-held projectors 818:in 1108 against the 698:Strategy and tactics 585:Palaiologan-era army 79:Eastern Roman Empire 41:Eastern Roman Empire 4929:Culture and society 4792:Ecumenical councils 4295:Exarchate of Africa 4285:Quaestura exercitus 4149:Magister officiorum 4144:Praetorian prefects 3787:Byzantine Dark Ages 3632:, Brussels: 265–286 3603:Journal des Savants 3475:Hattendorf, John B. 3361:Jeffreys, Elizabeth 3185:1937JChEd..14..360C 2955:, pp. 627–628. 2931:, pp. 624–626. 2871:, pp. 628–629. 2857:Ellis Davidson 1973 2847:, pp. 616–617. 2799:, pp. 617–619. 2735:, pp. 610–611. 2714:on October 21, 2012 2708:National Geographic 2666:, pp. 614–616. 2637:Ellis Davidson 1973 2584:Ellis Davidson 1973 2431:Ellis Davidson 1973 2421:, pp. 658–659. 2392:Ellis Davidson 1973 2319:, pp. 362–363. 2300:, pp. 657–658. 2261:Ellis Davidson 1973 2203:, pp. 663–664. 2110:, pp. 630–631. 2074:, pp. 609–611. 2038:, pp. 86, 189. 1868:, pp. 607–609. 1755:, pp. 608–609. 1667:, in the 2011 film 1622:George R. R. Martin 1537:Envoy Extraordinary 1532:The Brass Butterfly 1399:John Julius Norwich 1169:installed on their 1029:Praecepta Militaria 1014:text, preserved at 888:Marcellin Berthelot 343:Heliopolis in Egypt 5627:Medieval artillery 5622:Incendiary weapons 5346:Flags and insignia 4992:Baths of Zeuxippus 4875:Codex Theodosianus 4765:Oriental Orthodoxy 3723:Later Roman Empire 3421:Brockhampton Press 3130:www.wordplayer.com 3080:, 6 November 2004. 2251:, pp. 19, 29. 1883:www.britannica.com 1840:Julius Africanus, 1652:In popular culture 1361: 1290: 1250: 1105: 572:Komnenian-era army 539:Structural history 170:), "sticky fire" ( 159:), "liquid fire" ( 65: 5632:Byzantine science 5594: 5593: 5556: 5555: 5513:Byzantine studies 5488: 5487: 5484: 5483: 5299:Alexander Romance 5157: 5156: 5134:Nea Moni of Chios 4997:Blachernae Palace 4919: 4918: 4915: 4914: 4885:Code of Justinian 4733:Eastern Orthodoxy 4704: 4703: 4700: 4699: 4626: 4625: 4500:Scholae Palatinae 4396: 4395: 4392: 4391: 4361:Foreign relations 4355: 4354: 4249: 4248: 4063: 4062: 4059: 4058: 3862:(1204–1453) 3193:10.1021/ed014p360 3104:Hutchinson, Sam. 2784:, pp. 86–87. 2610:, pp. 82–84. 2469:, pp. 83–84. 2457:, pp. 21–22. 2445:, pp. 41–83. 2394:, pp. 69–70. 2154:Adjarian, Hrachia 2050:, pp. 68–71. 1978:, pp. 12–13. 1822:, pp. 70–74. 1798:, pp. 88–89. 1643:'s graphic novel 1577:Matthew Shardlake 1575:sends the lawyer 1509: 1508: 1501: 1483: 1159:Hero of Byzantium 1101:Hero of Byzantium 926:calcium phosphide 896:foremost chemists 779:compartmentalised 762: 761: 137:), "Roman fire" ( 21:Greek Fire (band) 5659: 5617:Greek inventions 5581: 5494: 5493: 5437:Imperial Library 5383:Byzantine Greeks 5124:Daphni Monastery 5075:Panagia Chalkeon 5070:Hagios Demetrios 5037:Prison of Anemas 4987:Basilica Cistern 4945: 4944: 4936: 4935: 4925: 4924: 4780:West Syriac Rite 4770:Alexandrian Rite 4721: 4720: 4714:Religion and law 4710: 4709: 4645:Maritime themata 4601:Palaiologan army 4454:Military manuals 4422: 4421: 4413: 4412: 4402: 4401: 4260: 4259: 4236:Megas logothetes 4087: 4086: 4080: 4079: 4069: 4068: 3942:By modern region 3863: 3810: 3809:(717–1204) 3741: 3703: 3702: 3690: 3689: 3681:Byzantine Empire 3674: 3667: 3660: 3651: 3650: 3633: 3606: 3590: 3545: 3509: 3491: 3469: 3456: 3433: 3411: 3410:, Dumbarton Oaks 3402: 3377: 3355: 3325: 3316: 3298: 3296: 3294: 3273: 3255: 3244: 3225: 3219: 3211: 3195: 3165: 3134: 3133: 3122: 3116: 3115: 3101: 3095: 3094: 3087: 3081: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3058: 3052: 3051: 3040: 3034: 3027: 3021: 3015: 3009: 3003: 2997: 2991: 2985: 2979: 2973: 2962: 2956: 2950: 2944: 2938: 2932: 2926: 2920: 2914: 2908: 2902: 2896: 2890: 2884: 2878: 2872: 2866: 2860: 2854: 2848: 2842: 2836: 2830: 2824: 2818: 2812: 2806: 2800: 2794: 2785: 2779: 2773: 2767: 2761: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2742: 2736: 2730: 2724: 2723: 2721: 2719: 2710:. Archived from 2700: 2694: 2688: 2682: 2676: 2667: 2661: 2652: 2646: 2640: 2634: 2628: 2621:De bello Gothico 2617: 2611: 2605: 2599: 2593: 2587: 2581: 2572: 2566: 2560: 2550: 2544: 2538: 2532: 2526: 2520: 2507: 2501: 2488: 2482: 2476: 2470: 2464: 2458: 2452: 2446: 2440: 2434: 2428: 2422: 2416: 2410: 2404: 2395: 2389: 2383: 2377: 2368: 2355: 2349: 2343: 2337: 2331: 2320: 2314: 2301: 2295: 2282: 2270: 2264: 2258: 2252: 2246: 2240: 2234: 2228: 2222: 2216: 2210: 2204: 2198: 2192: 2186: 2180: 2174: 2165: 2152: 2148: 2142: 2141: 2129: 2123: 2117: 2111: 2105: 2099: 2093: 2087: 2081: 2075: 2069: 2063: 2057: 2051: 2045: 2039: 2033: 2027: 2021: 2015: 2009: 2003: 1997: 1991: 1985: 1979: 1973: 1967: 1961: 1952: 1946: 1940: 1934: 1928: 1927: 1925: 1924: 1911: 1905: 1899: 1893: 1892: 1890: 1889: 1875: 1869: 1863: 1857: 1851: 1845: 1838: 1832: 1829: 1823: 1817: 1811: 1805: 1799: 1793: 1787: 1781: 1775: 1769: 1756: 1750: 1725:Molotov cocktail 1586:'s sci-fi novel 1584:Michael Crichton 1504: 1497: 1493: 1490: 1484: 1482: 1441: 1417: 1409: 1359:, Athens, Greece 1161:. The Byzantine 1037: 1036: 998: 997: 989: 988: 975: 974: 961: 960: 754: 747: 740: 716:Military manuals 672:Campaign history 607:Magister militum 534: 515: 514: 443: 441: 426: 424: 370: 367: 362:Muslim conquests 331:James Partington 314:Muslim conquests 299: 296: 277: 275: 251:Julius Africanus 191: 186: 185: 180: 175: 174: 169: 164: 163: 158: 153: 152: 147: 142: 141: 136: 131: 130: 61:Madrid Skylitzes 38: 37: 5667: 5666: 5662: 5661: 5660: 5658: 5657: 5656: 5652:Lost inventions 5597: 5596: 5595: 5590: 5587: 5552: 5528:Cyrillic script 5499: 5480: 5425: 5409: 5309: 5291:Digenes Akritas 5267: 5212: 5153: 5117:Other locations 5112: 5084: 5041: 4973: 4962:Cross-in-square 4930: 4911: 4861: 4715: 4696: 4622: 4572: 4568:Varangian Guard 4511: 4485:East Roman army 4480:Late Roman army 4468: 4407: 4388: 4351: 4330: 4299: 4245: 4224: 4220:Epi ton deeseon 4210:Epi tou eidikou 4168: 4132: 4074: 4055: 4042: 3945: 3943: 3936: 3922:Palaiologan era 3864: 3861: 3852: 3823:Nikephorian era 3811: 3808: 3799: 3742: 3740:(330–717) 3739: 3730: 3710: 3697: 3684: 3678: 3641: 3636: 3588: 3527:10.2307/3106585 3507: 3489: 3454: 3431: 3400: 3380:Karatolios K., 3375: 3292: 3290: 3280:(17 May 2022). 3271: 3241: 3213: 3212: 3163: 3142: 3137: 3124: 3123: 3119: 3102: 3098: 3089: 3088: 3084: 3073: 3069: 3060: 3059: 3055: 3044:"Honour Bright" 3042: 3041: 3037: 3028: 3024: 3016: 3012: 3004: 3000: 2992: 2988: 2980: 2976: 2963: 2959: 2951: 2947: 2939: 2935: 2927: 2923: 2915: 2911: 2903: 2899: 2891: 2887: 2879: 2875: 2867: 2863: 2855: 2851: 2843: 2839: 2831: 2827: 2819: 2815: 2807: 2803: 2795: 2788: 2780: 2776: 2768: 2764: 2754: 2752: 2743: 2739: 2731: 2727: 2717: 2715: 2702: 2701: 2697: 2689: 2685: 2677: 2670: 2662: 2655: 2649:Partington 1999 2647: 2643: 2635: 2631: 2625:Partington 1999 2618: 2614: 2606: 2602: 2596:Partington 1999 2594: 2590: 2582: 2575: 2567: 2563: 2551: 2547: 2539: 2535: 2527: 2523: 2508: 2504: 2489: 2485: 2479:Partington 1999 2477: 2473: 2465: 2461: 2455:Partington 1999 2453: 2449: 2441: 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Wise 1279: 1224:, in which the 1187: 1079: 866: 758: 622:Stratopedarches 597:Varangian Guard 547:East Roman army 513: 508: 488:Seventh Crusade 438: 427:), in his book 421: 390:Thomas the Slav 368: 358:Sassanid Persia 339:George Kedrenos 297: 272: 236:siege of Delium 208: 198: 148:), "war fire" ( 120: 75:chemical weapon 49:Thomas the Slav 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5665: 5655: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5637:Byzantine navy 5634: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5592: 5591: 5589: 5588: 5586: 5585: 5575: 5570: 5564: 5561: 5558: 5557: 5554: 5553: 5551: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5504: 5501: 5500: 5490: 5489: 5486: 5485: 5482: 5481: 5479: 5478: 5477: 5476: 5466: 5461: 5460: 5459: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5428: 5426: 5424: 5423: 5420: 5414: 5411: 5410: 5408: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5386: 5385: 5375: 5374: 5373: 5368: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5317: 5315: 5311: 5310: 5308: 5307: 5302: 5295: 5294: 5293: 5283: 5277: 5275: 5269: 5268: 5266: 5265: 5260: 5259: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5222: 5220: 5214: 5213: 5211: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5194: 5193: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5167: 5165: 5159: 5158: 5155: 5154: 5152: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5120: 5118: 5114: 5113: 5111: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5094: 5092: 5086: 5085: 5083: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5060:Byzantine Bath 5057: 5051: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5040: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4983: 4981: 4979:Constantinople 4975: 4974: 4972: 4971: 4970: 4969: 4964: 4954: 4948: 4942: 4932: 4931: 4921: 4920: 4917: 4916: 4913: 4912: 4910: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4888: 4887: 4877: 4871: 4869: 4863: 4862: 4860: 4859: 4854: 4853: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4788: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4762: 4761: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4738:Byzantine Rite 4729: 4727: 4717: 4716: 4706: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4698: 4697: 4695: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4663: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4642: 4636: 4634: 4628: 4627: 4624: 4623: 4621: 4620: 4618:Grand domestic 4615: 4614: 4613: 4608: 4598: 4597: 4596: 4591: 4584:Komnenian army 4580: 4578: 4574: 4573: 4571: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4519: 4517: 4513: 4512: 4510: 4509: 4508: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4482: 4476: 4474: 4470: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4461: 4459:Military units 4456: 4451: 4446: 4441: 4436: 4431: 4429:Battle tactics 4425: 4419: 4409: 4408: 4398: 4397: 4394: 4393: 4390: 4389: 4387: 4386: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4365: 4363: 4357: 4356: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4349: 4344: 4338: 4336: 4332: 4331: 4329: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4307: 4305: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4266: 4264: 4257: 4251: 4250: 4247: 4246: 4244: 4243: 4238: 4232: 4230: 4226: 4225: 4223: 4222: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4176: 4174: 4170: 4169: 4167: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4140: 4138: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4130: 4125: 4124: 4123: 4121:Medieval Greek 4113: 4112: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4090: 4084: 4076: 4075: 4065: 4064: 4061: 4060: 4057: 4056: 4054: 4053: 4048: 4043: 4038: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4015: 4014: 4009: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3948: 3946: 3941: 3938: 3937: 3935: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3892: 3891: 3890: 3880: 3879: 3878: 3876:Fourth Crusade 3867: 3865: 3857: 3854: 3853: 3851: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3833:Macedonian era 3830: 3825: 3820: 3814: 3812: 3804: 3801: 3800: 3798: 3797: 3792: 3791: 3790: 3778: 3773: 3768: 3766:Theodosian era 3763: 3762: 3761: 3756: 3745: 3743: 3735: 3732: 3731: 3729: 3728: 3727: 3726: 3713: 3711: 3706: 3699: 3698: 3686: 3685: 3677: 3676: 3669: 3662: 3654: 3648: 3647: 3640: 3639:External links 3637: 3635: 3634: 3621: 3607: 3598: 3591: 3587:978-0812211283 3586: 3560: 3546: 3521:(4): 655–679, 3510: 3506:978-9004151970 3505: 3492: 3487: 3470: 3457: 3452: 3434: 3429: 3412: 3403: 3399:978-0486610535 3398: 3385: 3378: 3374:978-0521834452 3373: 3356: 3326: 3317: 3299: 3278:Dunning, Brian 3274: 3270:978-0521791588 3269: 3256: 3245: 3239: 3226: 3196: 3166: 3161: 3143: 3141: 3138: 3136: 3135: 3117: 3096: 3082: 3067: 3053: 3035: 3022: 3020:, p. 384. 3010: 2998: 2996:, p. 627. 2986: 2974: 2957: 2945: 2933: 2921: 2909: 2897: 2885: 2883:, p. 315. 2873: 2861: 2849: 2837: 2835:, p. 292. 2825: 2813: 2811:, p. 295. 2801: 2786: 2774: 2762: 2737: 2725: 2695: 2693:, p. 618. 2683: 2681:, p. 310. 2668: 2653: 2641: 2629: 2612: 2600: 2588: 2573: 2571:, p. 363. 2561: 2545: 2543:, p. 270. 2541:Zenghelis 1932 2533: 2531:, p. 660. 2521: 2502: 2483: 2471: 2459: 2447: 2443:al-Hassan 2001 2435: 2423: 2411: 2409:, p. 659. 2396: 2384: 2369: 2350: 2338: 2336:, p. 617. 2321: 2302: 2283: 2265: 2253: 2241: 2239:, p. 609. 2229: 2227:, p. 663. 2217: 2215:, p. 178. 2205: 2193: 2181: 2179:, p. 290. 2166: 2143: 2124: 2122:, p. 316. 2112: 2100: 2098:, p. 110. 2088: 2076: 2064: 2052: 2040: 2028: 2016: 2004: 1992: 1980: 1968: 1966:, p. 608. 1953: 1951:, p. 657. 1941: 1929: 1906: 1894: 1870: 1858: 1846: 1833: 1824: 1812: 1800: 1788: 1784:Leicester 1971 1776: 1757: 1744: 1742: 1739: 1737: 1734: 1733: 1732: 1727: 1722: 1717: 1712: 1705: 1702: 1701: 1700: 1674: 1653: 1650: 1649: 1648: 1637: 1618: 1606:The Dark Angel 1597: 1580: 1559: 1552: 1547:'s stage play 1545:Victor Canning 1541: 1524: 1517: 1507: 1506: 1421: 1419: 1412: 1406: 1403: 1381:Byzantine navy 1376: 1373: 1365:light catapult 1344: 1341: 1328:cheirosiphōnes 1316:cheirosiphōnes 1278: 1275: 1186: 1183: 1165:usually had a 1149:siege machines 1145:cheirosiphōnes 1113:cheirosiphōnes 1078: 1075: 1035:πῦρ κολλητικόν 996:μηδικὸν ἔλαιον 865: 862: 861: 860: 857: 850: 847: 760: 759: 757: 756: 749: 742: 734: 731: 730: 729: 728: 721:Fortifications 718: 713: 708: 700: 699: 695: 694: 691:Constantinople 674: 673: 669: 668: 667: 666: 660: 651: 646: 640:Byzantine navy 634: 633: 632: 631: 630: 629: 624: 619: 617:Grand Domestic 614: 609: 599: 594: 593: 592: 582: 581: 580: 569: 568: 567: 562: 557: 549: 541: 540: 536: 535: 527: 526: 524:Byzantine army 520: 519: 512: 509: 507: 504: 499:Ottoman Empire 481:Fourth Crusade 442: 959–963 425: 945–959 373:Constantinople 276: 491–518 206:Byzantine navy 197: 194: 178:pŷr kollētikón 173:πῦρ κολλητικόν 134:pŷr thalássion 124:Medieval Greek 119: 116: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5664: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5647:Naval weapons 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5607:Flamethrowers 5605: 5604: 5602: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5565: 5563: 5562: 5559: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5505: 5502: 5495: 5491: 5475: 5472: 5471: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5458: 5455: 5454: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5432:Encyclopedias 5430: 5429: 5427: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5415: 5412: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5384: 5381: 5380: 5379: 5376: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5363: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5356:Hellenization 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5318: 5316: 5314:Everyday life 5312: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5289: 5288: 5287: 5286:Acritic songs 5284: 5282: 5279: 5278: 5276: 5274: 5270: 5264: 5261: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5243: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5223: 5221: 5219: 5215: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5192: 5189: 5188: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5168: 5166: 5164: 5160: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5129:Hosios Loukas 5127: 5125: 5122: 5121: 5119: 5115: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5095: 5093: 5091: 5087: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5052: 5050: 5048: 5044: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4984: 4982: 4980: 4976: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4959: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4949: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4926: 4922: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4886: 4883: 4882: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4872: 4870: 4868: 4864: 4858: 4855: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4832: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4802:Monophysitism 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4775:Armenian Rite 4773: 4771: 4768: 4767: 4766: 4763: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4735: 4734: 4731: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4711: 4707: 4693: 4692:Naval battles 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4647: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4629: 4619: 4616: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4603: 4602: 4599: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4586: 4585: 4582: 4581: 4579: 4575: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4520: 4518: 4514: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4487: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4477: 4475: 4471: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4437: 4435: 4432: 4430: 4427: 4426: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4403: 4399: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4366: 4364: 4362: 4358: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4339: 4337: 4333: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4308: 4306: 4302: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4252: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4233: 4231: 4227: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4215:Protasekretis 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4177: 4175: 4171: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4141: 4139: 4135: 4129: 4126: 4122: 4119: 4118: 4117: 4114: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4096: 4095: 4092: 4091: 4088: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4070: 4066: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4044: 4041: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4004: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3949: 3947: 3939: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3886: 3885: 3884: 3881: 3877: 3874: 3873: 3872: 3869: 3868: 3866: 3860: 3855: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3843:Komnenian era 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3815: 3813: 3807: 3802: 3796: 3793: 3788: 3784: 3783: 3782: 3781:Heraclian era 3779: 3777: 3776:Justinian era 3774: 3772: 3769: 3767: 3764: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3751: 3750: 3747: 3746: 3744: 3738: 3733: 3725: 3724: 3720: 3719: 3718: 3715: 3714: 3712: 3709: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3691: 3687: 3682: 3675: 3670: 3668: 3663: 3661: 3656: 3655: 3652: 3646: 3643: 3642: 3631: 3627: 3622: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3599: 3596: 3592: 3589: 3583: 3579: 3578: 3574: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3508: 3502: 3498: 3493: 3490: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3458: 3455: 3449: 3445: 3444: 3439: 3435: 3432: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3413: 3409: 3404: 3401: 3395: 3391: 3386: 3383: 3379: 3376: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3357: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3333: 3327: 3323: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3309: 3304: 3300: 3289: 3288: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3272: 3266: 3262: 3257: 3253: 3252: 3246: 3242: 3236: 3232: 3227: 3223: 3217: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3173: 3167: 3164: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3145: 3144: 3131: 3127: 3121: 3113: 3112: 3107: 3100: 3092: 3086: 3079: 3076: 3071: 3063: 3057: 3049: 3045: 3039: 3032: 3026: 3019: 3014: 3008:, p. 97. 3007: 3002: 2995: 2990: 2984:, p. 97. 2983: 2978: 2972:, p. 621 2971: 2967: 2961: 2954: 2949: 2943:, p. 96. 2942: 2937: 2930: 2925: 2919:, p. 95. 2918: 2913: 2907:, p. 94. 2906: 2901: 2895:, p. 93. 2894: 2889: 2882: 2877: 2870: 2865: 2859:, p. 72. 2858: 2853: 2846: 2841: 2834: 2829: 2822: 2817: 2810: 2805: 2798: 2793: 2791: 2783: 2778: 2771: 2766: 2750: 2749: 2741: 2734: 2729: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2699: 2692: 2687: 2680: 2675: 2673: 2665: 2660: 2658: 2651:, p. 22. 2650: 2645: 2639:, p. 62. 2638: 2633: 2626: 2622: 2616: 2609: 2604: 2597: 2592: 2586:, p. 70. 2585: 2580: 2578: 2570: 2569:Cheronis 1937 2565: 2558: 2554: 2553:Colin McEvedy 2549: 2542: 2537: 2530: 2525: 2519:, p. 509 2518: 2514: 2513: 2506: 2500:, p. 509 2499: 2495: 2494: 2487: 2480: 2475: 2468: 2463: 2456: 2451: 2444: 2439: 2433:, p. 69. 2432: 2427: 2420: 2415: 2408: 2403: 2401: 2393: 2388: 2382:, p. 92. 2381: 2376: 2374: 2367:, p. 507 2366: 2362: 2361: 2354: 2348:, p. 14. 2347: 2342: 2335: 2330: 2328: 2326: 2318: 2317:Cheronis 1937 2313: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2299: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2288: 2281: 2279: 2274: 2269: 2263:, p. 64. 2262: 2257: 2250: 2245: 2238: 2233: 2226: 2221: 2214: 2209: 2202: 2197: 2190: 2185: 2178: 2173: 2171: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151:(in Armenian) 2147: 2139: 2135: 2128: 2121: 2116: 2109: 2104: 2097: 2092: 2085: 2080: 2073: 2068: 2062:, p. 82. 2061: 2056: 2049: 2044: 2037: 2032: 2025: 2020: 2013: 2008: 2001: 1996: 1990:, p. 80. 1989: 1984: 1977: 1972: 1965: 1960: 1958: 1950: 1945: 1939:, p. 52. 1938: 1933: 1918: 1917: 1916:Chronographia 1910: 1904:, p. 53. 1903: 1898: 1884: 1880: 1874: 1867: 1862: 1855: 1850: 1843: 1837: 1831:Thuc. 4.100.1 1828: 1821: 1816: 1809: 1804: 1797: 1792: 1786:, p. 75. 1785: 1780: 1774:, p. 83. 1773: 1768: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1754: 1749: 1745: 1731: 1728: 1726: 1723: 1721: 1718: 1716: 1713: 1711: 1708: 1707: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1689:Ezio Auditore 1686: 1682: 1679: 1675: 1672: 1671: 1666: 1665: 1661:'s ship, the 1660: 1656: 1655: 1646: 1642: 1641:Leland Purvis 1638: 1635: 1634: 1629: 1628: 1623: 1619: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1607: 1602: 1598: 1595: 1591: 1590: 1585: 1581: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1569: 1564: 1560: 1557: 1553: 1550: 1549:Honour Bright 1546: 1542: 1539: 1538: 1533: 1530:'s 1958 play 1529: 1525: 1522: 1518: 1515: 1511: 1510: 1503: 1500: 1492: 1481: 1478: 1474: 1471: 1467: 1464: 1460: 1457: 1453: 1450: – 1449: 1445: 1444:Find sources: 1438: 1434: 1428: 1427: 1422:This section 1420: 1416: 1411: 1410: 1405:In literature 1402: 1400: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1372: 1370: 1366: 1358: 1354: 1349: 1340: 1338: 1334: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1292:The portable 1288: 1283: 1274: 1272: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1246: 1242: 1237: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1223: 1222: 1215: 1213: 1207: 1203: 1200: 1194: 1192: 1182: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1155: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1131:wrapped with 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1102: 1098: 1097: 1092: 1088: 1083: 1074: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1043: 1041: 1031: 1030: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1000: 992: 987: 982: 978: 970:" (in Greek: 969: 965: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 933: 931: 927: 922: 919: 918: 913: 907: 905: 901: 898:of the early 897: 891: 889: 885: 884:Isaac Vossius 881: 880: 875: 871: 858: 855: 851: 848: 845: 841: 840: 839: 836: 834: 833:ignis graecus 828: 823: 821: 817: 813: 812: 807: 803: 798: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 755: 750: 748: 743: 741: 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Retrieved 3285: 3260: 3250: 3230: 3200: 3176: 3170: 3152: 3129: 3120: 3109: 3099: 3090: 3085: 3078:The Guardian 3077: 3070: 3061: 3056: 3047: 3038: 3030: 3025: 3013: 3001: 2989: 2977: 2960: 2948: 2936: 2924: 2912: 2900: 2888: 2876: 2864: 2852: 2840: 2828: 2816: 2804: 2777: 2765: 2753:. Retrieved 2747: 2740: 2728: 2716:. Retrieved 2712:the original 2707: 2698: 2686: 2644: 2632: 2620: 2615: 2603: 2598:, p. 4. 2591: 2564: 2556: 2548: 2536: 2524: 2510: 2505: 2491: 2486: 2474: 2462: 2450: 2438: 2426: 2414: 2387: 2358: 2353: 2341: 2277: 2268: 2256: 2244: 2232: 2220: 2208: 2196: 2184: 2161: 2157: 2146: 2137: 2134:"Greek Fire" 2127: 2115: 2103: 2091: 2079: 2067: 2055: 2043: 2031: 2019: 2007: 1995: 1983: 1971: 1944: 1932: 1921:. Retrieved 1915: 1909: 1897: 1886:. Retrieved 1882: 1873: 1861: 1856:, p. 5. 1849: 1841: 1836: 1827: 1815: 1803: 1791: 1779: 1748: 1697:Ottoman ship 1668: 1662: 1644: 1631: 1625: 1611:Hagia Sophia 1604: 1601:Mika Waltari 1587: 1566: 1563:C. J. Sansom 1556:Rick Riordan 1548: 1535: 1531: 1520: 1513: 1495: 1486: 1476: 1469: 1462: 1455: 1448:"Greek fire" 1443: 1431:Please help 1426:verification 1423: 1396: 1393: 1388: 1378: 1362: 1337:cheirosiphōn 1336: 1333:Poliorcetica 1332: 1327: 1320:siege towers 1315: 1305: 1302:flamethrower 1297: 1294:cheirosiphōn 1293: 1291: 1287:cheirosiphōn 1286: 1285:Detail of a 1270: 1267: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1251: 1239: 1234: 1219: 1217: 1212:squitiatoria 1211: 1209: 1205: 1196: 1190: 1188: 1178: 1166: 1154:Poliorcetica 1152: 1144: 1140: 1124: 1120: 1112: 1108: 1106: 1096:Poliorcetica 1094: 1090: 1087:cheirosiphōn 1086: 1070: 1067:sale ardente 1066: 1054: 1044: 1027: 1019: 1016:Wolfenbüttel 1007: 1001: 990: 976: 934: 923: 915: 908: 903: 892: 877: 867: 853: 843: 837: 832: 830: 825: 809: 806:Anna Komnene 799: 794: 774: 770: 763: 643: 627:Protostrator 492: 485: 465:Anna Komnene 462: 457: 449: 428: 415: 351: 346: 326: 324: 319: 292: 280:John Malalas 269:Anastasius I 266: 256: 246: 239: 209: 140:πῦρ ῥωμαϊκόν 121: 83:state secret 67: 66: 57:12th century 5548:Megali Idea 5523:Byzantinism 5226:Agriculture 5017:Hagia Irene 4850:Kievan Rus' 4827:Mount Athos 4650:Cibyrrhaeot 4594:Vestiaritai 4449:Mercenaries 4326:Catepanates 4185:Sakellarios 4104:Family tree 4029:Mesopotamia 3848:Angelid era 3828:Amorian era 3462:Antike Welt 3251:The Alexiad 3111:Screen Rant 2966:Haldon 2006 2881:Haldon 2006 2809:Haldon 2006 2782:Forbes 1959 2755:23 February 2679:Haldon 2006 2627:, p. 3 2619:Procopius, 2608:Forbes 1959 2529:Roland 1992 2467:Forbes 1959 2419:Roland 1992 2407:Roland 1992 2298:Roland 1992 2225:Roland 1992 2201:Roland 1992 2189:Roland 1992 2177:Haldon 2006 2120:Haldon 2006 2084:Roland 1992 2060:Forbes 1959 1988:Forbes 1959 1949:Roland 1992 1820:Forbes 1959 1796:Crosby 2002 1772:Forbes 1959 1683:video game 1613:before the 1489:August 2023 1322:, although 1310:of emperor 981:Old Persian 959:μηδικὸν πῦρ 816:Dyrrhachium 775:siphōnarioi 506:Manufacture 446:Constantine 335:Alexandrian 101:mixed with 25:Greek fires 5601:Categories 5543:Third Rome 5469:University 5452:Philosophy 5442:Inventions 5305:Historians 5273:Literature 5256:Varangians 5098:San Vitale 5027:Hippodrome 5007:City Walls 4907:Mutilation 4902:Hexabiblos 4822:Bogomilism 4812:Iconoclasm 4682:Megas doux 4672:Greek fire 4655:Aegean Sea 4528:Kleisourai 4505:Excubitors 4495:Bucellarii 4347:Despotates 4316:Kleisourai 4255:Provincial 4099:Coronation 4073:Governance 3838:Doukid era 3771:Leonid era 3619:0815315112 3575:anni mundi 3564:Theophanes 3558:0960010637 3488:0851159036 3468:(2): 27–38 3453:0801859549 3430:1860198619 3240:9004094199 3162:9231038311 3006:Pryor 2003 2833:Dawes 1928 1923:2022-02-18 1888:2024-07-23 1842:The Cestus 1736:References 1659:Blackbeard 1459:newspapers 1185:Projectors 1175:forecastle 1173:under the 950:Tmutorakan 783:Bulgarians 663:Megas doux 644:Greek fire 477:1203 siege 435:Romanos II 369: 672 310:Heliopolis 306:Kallinikos 298: 672 232:Thucydides 167:hygròn pŷr 72:incendiary 68:Greek fire 5371:Octoechos 5251:Silk Road 4743:Hesychasm 4611:Paramonai 4558:Hetaireia 4490:Foederati 4379:Diplomacy 4374:Diplomats 4280:Provinces 4109:Empresses 3912:Trebizond 3708:Preceding 3626:Byzantion 3543:113017993 3353:191489863 3339:: 91–99, 3209:1105-7947 2280:, p. 190. 1741:Citations 1710:Fire ship 1603:'s novel 1568:Dark Fire 1385:naval ram 1335:show the 1085:Use of a 964:Procopius 946:Black Sea 938:petroleum 930:phosphine 912:quicklime 874:gunpowder 870:saltpeter 787:Mesembria 677:Lists of 565:Hetaireia 473:fireships 228:Assyrians 224:catapults 212:petroleum 162:ὑγρὸν πῦρ 99:petroleum 95:quicklime 87:saltpeter 45:Byzantine 5464:Scholars 5457:Rhetoric 5447:Medicine 5422:Learning 5321:Calendar 5198:Painters 4897:Basilika 4835:Bulgaria 4797:Arianism 4748:Hayhurum 4725:Religion 4687:Admirals 4606:Allagion 4538:Droungos 4444:Generals 4406:Military 4369:Treaties 4275:Dioceses 4094:Emperors 4007:Sardinia 3987:Dalmatia 3967:Bulgaria 3957:Anatolia 3916:Theodoro 3910: / 3906: / 3898: / 3570:(1982), 3440:(1999), 3287:Skeptoid 3216:citation 2718:22 April 2555:(1992), 2509:Leo VI, 2490:Leo VI, 2357:Leo VI, 1704:See also 1693:Istanbul 1589:Timeline 1353:caltrops 1343:Grenades 1263:boukolia 1259:strepton 1255:propyron 1236:ashes... 1129:caltrops 1125:tzykalia 1040:pine tar 1008:naffāṭūn 1004:Abbasids 900:medieval 791:Debeltos 654:Admirals 602:Generals 495:Armenian 399:Bosporus 385:Saracens 288:Vitalian 220:caltrops 111:grenades 5573:Outline 5518:Museums 5418:Science 5395:Slavery 5351:Gardens 5331:Cuisine 5263:Dynatoi 5231:Coinage 5218:Economy 5186:Mosaics 5149:Mystras 5090:Ravenna 4952:Secular 4840:Moravia 4589:Pronoia 4563:Akritai 4548:Tagmata 4523:Themata 4464:Revolts 4434:Battles 4342:Kephale 4311:Themata 4241:Mesazon 4083:Central 4019:Maghreb 3972:Corsica 3962:Armenia 3952:Albania 3695:History 3535:3106585 3363:(ed.), 3315:: 61–74 3181:Bibcode 3140:Sources 2512:Tactica 2493:Tactica 2360:Tactica 1681:Ubisoft 1473:scholar 1307:Tactica 1296:("hand- 1163:dromons 1141:gerania 1121:chytrai 1089:("hand- 1063:Italian 1051:Saladin 979:, from 977:naphtha 968:naphtha 956:fire" ( 917:Tactica 844:ignited 820:Normans 811:Alexiad 795:siphōns 706:Tactics 687:battles 590:allagia 577:pronoia 560:tagmata 347:Lampros 243:bellows 216:bitumen 214:-, and 196:History 70:was an 5583:Portal 5498:Impact 5378:People 5326:Cities 5176:Enamel 4957:Sacred 4892:Ecloga 4758:Saints 4667:Dromon 4543:Bandon 4533:Tourma 4516:Middle 4439:Beacon 4321:Bandon 4304:Middle 4173:Middle 4128:Senate 4051:Thrace 4034:Serbia 4012:Sicily 3997:Greece 3982:Cyprus 3900:Epirus 3896:Nicaea 3806:Middle 3683:topics 3617: 3584: 3556: 3541: 3533: 3503: 3485: 3450: 3427: 3396: 3371: 3351: 3293:20 May 3267: 3237: 3207: 3159: 1475: 1468: 1461: 1454: 1446: 1389:siphōn 1369:onager 1298:siphōn 1226:Viking 1199:Pisans 1191:siphōn 1179:siphōn 1167:siphōn 1137:cranes 1109:siphōn 1091:siphōn 1071:pegola 1059:sulfur 1024:Resins 1020:siphōn 986:𐎴𐎳𐎫 954:Median 942:napalm 904:siphōn 879:siphōn 854:siphōn 771:siphōn 767:dromon 685:, and 649:Dromon 555:themes 469:Pisans 458:siphōn 450:siphōn 381:second 327:siphōn 284:Athens 247:Kestoi 238:in 424 107:napalm 103:resins 91:sulfur 51:, AD 5568:Index 5400:Death 5390:Women 5361:Music 5341:Dress 5336:Dance 5281:Novel 5241:Trade 5236:Mints 5181:Glass 5171:Icons 4967:Domes 4845:Serbs 4660:Samos 4473:Early 4263:Early 4137:Early 4046:Syria 4024:Malta 4002:Italy 3992:Egypt 3977:Crete 3908:Morea 3737:Early 3539:S2CID 3531:JSTOR 3349:S2CID 1480:JSTOR 1466:books 1012:Latin 973:νάφθα 785:took 454:below 377:first 356:with 321:fire. 260:resin 93:, or 5366:Lyra 5246:silk 4857:Jews 4632:Navy 4577:Late 4417:Army 4384:Wars 4335:Late 4229:Late 3859:Late 3615:ISBN 3582:ISBN 3554:ISBN 3501:ISBN 3483:ISBN 3448:ISBN 3425:ISBN 3394:ISBN 3369:ISBN 3295:2022 3265:ISBN 3235:ISBN 3222:link 3205:ISSN 3157:ISBN 2757:2016 2720:2013 1678:2011 1452:news 1171:prow 1055:naft 1049:for 991:naft 789:and 679:wars 407:1043 405:and 395:Rus' 379:and 354:wars 204:and 118:Name 55:. 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