84:(push to the east). Whilst conquest was predominately violent and entailed large scale resettlement measures, there were cases of native nobles utilising the presence of foreigners in order to gain a local advantage, resembling to some extent a capacity for cooperation. However, the subjugation of native tribes did not ensure their immediate eradication, as natives otherwise retained their lifestyle, resulting in their gradual absorption into larger population sects over the following centuries. It is speculated that this preservation of local inhabitants' rights for so long can be attributed to their importance in fulfilling military functions for their new rulers. Conversely, the worth of Prussia and neighbouring territory has been questioned by some academics, thereby explaining the neglect of the broader Baltic region by its Christian neighbours until the 13th century. It is argued that in seeking to develop its trade networks with Russia, the
146:, which retained the territory the Knights of the Cross had garnered in Prussia. Aside from ensuring a long-term German presence in Prussia, these developments did little more to rapidly alter the religious or ethnic composition of the region, due to the aforementioned concerns of Teutonic leadership with the compliant mobilisation of its subjects for military functions. Nonetheless, the inclusion of civilising measures taken by the Teutonic Order by past academics does imply some degree of Germanisation. As a consequence, the Teutonic Order's contributions include productive agrarian reforms and infrastructure construction: namely towns, roads and canals. Once again, the implementation of a feudal hierarchy and the civic notion of conscription duties are central to the Order's impact on Prussia, although whether this constitutes Germanisation is implicitly contentious.
185:
349:
academics have noted the severity of this policy agenda shift, in numerical terms the success of its outcomes are less emphatic. Although, there is consensus among experts as to the high extent to which these policies stoked nationalism in
Prussia's Polish citizens' collective conscience, encouraging their continued resistance to assimilation. For instance, newspapers such as the Torun Gazette (Gazeta Toruńska) specifically opposed the Germanisation of Polish-speaking provinces, contributing to the cultural resistance of the Polish. Overall, opposition to German rule was successful as in the wake of the
63:
340:, forcing Caprivi's eventual resignation. By 1900, religious teaching had reverted to once again being taught solely in German. Accordingly, strikes ensued as in 1906-7 Polish students in Western Prussia sought to defend their language and culture, garnering international attention. In response to protests and objections from the imposed curriculum, corporal punishment and detention were utilised, with resistance to these germanising policies framed under various criminal charges.
300:
103:
283:
with approximately 750 schools having been constructed, comprehensively improving education in areas previously left untouched. Importantly, this expansion did include a preference for teachers competent in Polish, as well as German, which experts identify as indicative of the extent to which
Germanisation was comparatively soft-handed at this stage. Later, following
332:, brought with it the possibility of policy change. Caprivi particularly sought to moderate the oppressive measures of his predecessors through the provision of religious exemptions from Polish language restrictions, as well as offering voluntary Polish language education. However, such reforms were met with opposition from groups such as the
158:. Increasingly pressured by their Polish neighbours with the theatres of continual conflict shifting away from neighbouring lands to within their domain, the financial burden on the Order's subjects was especially taxing. As a consequence, opposition to the Order had begun with the establishment of the
274:
Importantly, Frederick the Great considered the Polish to be an inferior people, underscoring the resumption of
Germanisation policies, albeit with greater vigour than previous historical occurrences. Altogether, his reforms were numerous and formative in encouraging efficient integration, with every
327:
Especially in the aftermath of
Germany's formation, education in schools became a major tool in government efforts to unify various ethnic groups, albeit primarily Germanic ones, residing within the newly created state. As such, the intensification of Germanisation policies pertaining to education
282:
was effectively abolished as it was under Polish standards, through being modified to meet
Prussian standards. This was also the case for the replacement of previously existing legal and bureaucratic systems in West Prussia. Finally, following partition, large-scale educational expansion occurred,
118:
From the early 13th century the establishment of trade settlements in the Baltic began, advancing the economic interests of a powerful German, mercantile, ruling-class. Consequently, this settlement coincided with growth of the
Hanseatic League, particularly north of Prussia with the growth of the
319:
was significant. Correspondingly, a determination to eradicate non-German cultural aspects exhibited themselves again amongst the
Prussian region, targeting particularly education and land ownership. Moreover, the targeting and disempowerment of the Polish and other minorities was also driven by
127:. This was especially the case for Prussia, which scholars have contrasted to other incursions such as those into Livonia and Lithuania as the best example of conventional crusading, with religious justifications remaining central rather than political or economic motivations taking precedence.
348:
was formed by the
Bismarck government, with the hope of reinvigorating German settlement, particularly in the countryside, at the expense of the Polish. By 1908, this sentiment had progressed to the point where the Commission could confiscate Polish estates under an Expropriation Law. Whilst
170:
began, resulting in the
Teutonic Order's defeat. Thus, Prussia was partitioned, with the western portion being reclaimed by the Polish crown and the east remaining a largely autonomous fief. Yet, as a result, this minor state was forced to abide by Polish laws alongside their own, with local
166:(PreuĂźischer Bund), composed of various dissatisfied local estates, later grew to oppose Teutonic rule. Over the course of 1454 the Union not only withdrew from the rule of the Order but allied themselves with the Poland, offering themselves as subjects. In doing so, the
88:
opened the Baltic to foreign interests. This assertion is supported by the absence of written sources pre-Christianity regionally, as well as archaeological analysis of maritime infrastructure indicating that any mercantile activity was limited.
343:
In 1885, the state government of
Prussia specifically pursued increased land possession, when 30,000 Poles, as well as Jews, were expelled based on their retention of solely either Russian or Austrian citizenship. The following year, the
328:
saw stringent restrictions on the speaking of Polish as well as its education in schools. Although, policies across this period were, at times, subject to adjustment. The appointment of different chancellors, such as
114:
at their peak in the early 15th century. Overall, this displays the extent of German influence beyond traditional ethnic borders. Cities underlined in red are members of the Hanseatic League's trade network.
228:. The 'in' rather than 'of' in 'King in Prussia' was stipulated so as to reconcile a desire for greater political clout with the appeasement of the Polish crown by not directly threatening its titles.
324:. Here, the security interests of the military additionally saw Polish soldiers diffused throughout the German army, so as to prevent a concentration of Polish soldiers at a regimental level.
78:
tribes inhabited Prussia, exhibiting pagan beliefs. Accordingly, religious as well as economic and political factors inspired eastward German expansion, in what was later regarded as the
278:
On top of this, the resumption in the flow of German settlers to the region entailed the implementation of numerous reforms also aimed at germanising Prussia's new subjects. Of these,
255:
which remained for a short while longer in Poland's possession. Moreover, this united the region of Prussia with the remainder of the Kingdom as predominately a singular landmass.
311:
While policy norms established by Frederick the Great focused upon tolerance, regarding Poles as inferior but still respecting their cultural differences, the policy shift under
34:’s inclusion in various German states. Originating with the arrival of ethnically German groups in the Baltic region, it progressed sporadically with the development of the
937:
154:
Ultimately, the Teutonic Order did not survive as a dominant force in the region, with their decline markedly accelerating with their defeat at the
952:
267:, any historical records linking Prussia to the Polish crown were erased, so as to assert the region's independence and justify the continuance of
1088:
799:
627:
932:
1161:
1598:
1093:
839:
217:
42:, which continued to impact the region with germanising policies generally aimed at enhancing state control. Ultimately, attempts at
167:
123:
Order. This established a definitively German presence in the region, allowing for future expansion, contemporarily promoted as
1319:
208:(then Frederick I of Prussia) cemented the unification of the remaining secularised possessions of the Teutonic Order with the
1573:
1563:
738:
Daheur, Jawad (2018). "'They Handle Negroes Just Like Us': German Colonialism in Cameroon in the Eyes of Poles (1885–1914)".
1603:
905:
792:
1568:
699:
663:
603:
527:
520:
From Soviet republics to EU member states: a legal and political assessment of the Baltic states' accession to the EU
477:
303:
West and East Prussia (red) within the Kingdom of Prussia (blue). Combined with the states in Black they formed the
1440:
1386:
247:. Thus, Frederick restored much of the Teutonic Order's former territory to Germanic ownership, bar the cities of
184:
1578:
235:, the grandson of Frederick I, sought to remedy. By 1772, Frederick the Great had acquired the vast majority of
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785:
345:
337:
264:
120:
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834:
1297:
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1583:
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143:
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personal union at its inception in 1618 (red). The Prussian territories are visibly located outside the
1445:
501:
209:
596:
The Oxford history of Poland-Lithuania. Volume I, The making of the Polish-Lithuanian union, 1385-1569
244:
231:
This re-iterated geographical concerns associated with the separation of Prussian possessions, which
162:
in 1397, a group which notably retained a Polish element in its allegiances. Similarly, the emergent
66:
Map of native Prussian clans during the 13th century. The line in pink displays present-day borders.
472:. Murray, Alan V., International Medieval Congress (5th : 1998 : Leeds, England). London.
50:, which affected Germany's Lithuanian and Polish subjects, only to be halted by the outbreak of the
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1208:
1059:
994:
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159:
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fifth Prussian being involved in the mass resettlement across Prussia at the time of his death.
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205:
163:
284:
1277:
1240:
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808:
1512:
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martial interests, due to the strategic proximity of Polish populations to the capital in
8:
1517:
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483:
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446:
408:
333:
312:
279:
193:
124:
291:, the Prussian bureaucracy responded with confiscations of local nobles' property.
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Urban, William L. (1978). "The Wendish princes and the "Drang nach dem Osten"".
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17:
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224:, the eastern portion of Prussia, for his eventual support of Poland in the
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in 1236, the Sword Brothers, who had previously seen success in conquering
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138:
and eventually Estonia (with the help of the Danes), amalgamated with the
1527:
1355:
1151:
856:
350:
51:
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876:
871:
248:
252:
179:
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21:
692:
The other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and liberty, 1569-1772
321:
102:
570:
Morrow, Ian F.D. (1936). "The Prussianisation of the Poles".
357:
was restored to Europe as an independent nation at Germany's
653:
429:
Urban, William L. (1998). "Victims of the Baltic Crusade".
470:
Crusade and conversion on the Baltic frontier, 1150-1500
517:
220:, had been previously granted full sovereignty over
46:peaked as the Prussian state transitioned into the
1545:
243:, backed by Russia and Austria in what was the
180:Formation and reclamation of Teutonic territory
793:
694:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
130:Following their defeat in Lithuania at the
800:
786:
626:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
30:was a historical process that resulted in
807:
298:
183:
101:
61:
522:. Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
1546:
737:
569:
781:
689:
654:Koch, Hannsjoachim Wolfgang. (2014).
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572:The Slavonic and East European Review
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200:Having formally crowned himself King
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263:Under Frederick the Great's father,
218:Frederick William the Great Elector
13:
1599:History of the Lithuanian language
294:
14:
1615:
716:
680:
634:
582:
544:
508:
457:
419:
379:
239:from Poland through a diplomatic
346:Prussian Settlement Commission
265:Frederick William I of Prussia
110:(Ordensstaat) in blue and the
106:Map depicts the extent of the
38:and then much later under the
1:
518:Elsuwege, Peter Van. (2008).
372:
1574:Political history of Germany
1382:Romanisation of the writings
578:: 153–164 – via JSTOR.
7:
1604:Cultural history of Germany
1496:Forced religious conversion
338:Eastern Marches Association
258:
10:
1620:
598:(First ed.). Oxford.
149:
97:
15:
1569:History of Eastern Europe
1468:
1459:Vergangenheitsbewältigung
1401:
1369:
1344:Assimilation by religions
1343:
815:
752:10.1017/S1062798718000194
690:Karin, Friedrich (2000).
443:10.1080/01629779800000071
431:Journal of Baltic Studies
405:10.1080/01629777800000251
393:Journal of Baltic Studies
361:, with the separation of
245:First Partition of Poland
1564:Germany–Poland relations
1370:Assimilation by writings
216:. Frederick I's father,
28:Germanisation of Prussia
188:The possessions of the
171:institutions enduring.
1579:Poland in World War II
1476:Cultural globalisation
594:Frost, Robert (2015).
500:: CS1 maint: others (
365:from the remainder of
317:unification of Germany
308:
197:
115:
67:
1559:Baltic-German history
809:Cultural assimilation
658:. London: Routledge.
302:
187:
121:Brothers of the Sword
105:
65:
1513:Internal colonialism
1481:Cultural imperialism
1162:Northern Afghanistan
656:A history of Prussia
289:partitions of Poland
269:The Prussian Kingdom
210:Duchy of Brandenburg
156:Battle of Tannenberg
140:Knights of the Cross
1518:Jewish assimilation
1491:Forced assimilation
1029:or Castilianisation
359:territorial expense
233:Frederick the Great
226:Second Northern War
214:Brandenburg-Prussia
190:Brandenburg-Prussia
168:Thirteen Years' War
1594:Prussian Partition
1584:German nationalism
1142:Montenegrinisation
309:
198:
175:Kingdom of Prussia
116:
93:The Teutonic Order
68:
58:Native inhabitants
40:Kingdom of Prussia
1541:
1540:
1508:Identity politics
1397:
1396:
1127:Macedonianisation
334:Pan-German League
313:Otto von Bismarck
287:catalysed by the
194:Holy Roman Empire
142:. Thus began the
26:The intermittent
1611:
1486:Dominant culture
1469:Related concepts
1431:De-russification
1419:De-stalinisation
1414:De-communisation
1351:Christianisation
1341:
1340:
1193:or Latinisation
1147:Norwegianisation
1123:or Hungarisation
1097:
938:Colombianisation
840:Native Americans
802:
795:
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772:
771:
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541:
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212:in 1701, ending
112:Hanseatic League
86:Hanseatic League
81:Drang nach Osten
1619:
1618:
1614:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1609:
1608:
1589:German language
1544:
1543:
1542:
1537:
1533:Monoculturalism
1464:
1453:De-sinicisation
1426:De-nazification
1402:Opposite trends
1393:
1365:
1339:
1221:Sanskritisation
1186:Romanianisation
1152:Pakistanisation
1091:
1027:Hispanicisation
1017:Hawaiianisation
973:Europeanisation
968:Estonianisation
923:Canadianisation
830:Americanisation
811:
806:
776:
775:
740:European Review
736:
717:
702:
688:
681:
666:
652:
635:
619:
618:
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568:
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509:
493:
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480:
468:
467:
458:
427:
420:
389:
380:
375:
351:First World War
330:Leo von Caprivi
297:
295:Bismarckian Era
261:
182:
177:
152:
132:Battle of Saule
100:
95:
60:
52:First World War
24:
12:
11:
5:
1617:
1607:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1539:
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1536:
1535:
1530:
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1523:Language shift
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1510:
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1498:
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1466:
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1455:
1450:
1449:
1448:
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1438:
1428:
1423:
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1409:De-arabisation
1405:
1403:
1399:
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1395:
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1371:
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1353:
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1338:
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1335:Zairianisation
1332:
1327:
1325:Westernisation
1322:
1320:Vietnamisation
1317:
1312:
1307:
1305:Turkmenisation
1302:
1301:
1300:
1290:
1285:
1280:
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1273:Talibanisation
1270:
1265:
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1255:
1250:
1245:
1244:
1243:
1233:
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1226:Serbianisation
1223:
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1216:Saffronisation
1213:
1212:
1211:
1201:
1200:
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1188:
1183:
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1177:
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1169:Persianisation
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1164:
1157:Pashtunisation
1154:
1149:
1144:
1139:
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1129:
1124:
1118:
1116:Lithuanisation
1113:
1111:Latvianization
1108:
1103:
1098:
1086:
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1080:
1079:
1077:Japanification
1069:
1067:Italianisation
1064:
1063:
1062:
1052:
1047:
1045:Indigenisation
1042:
1041:
1040:
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1024:
1019:
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1007:Georgification
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987:
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978:Westernisation
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963:Dutchification
960:
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953:Cypriotisation
950:
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940:
935:
930:
925:
920:
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913:Bosniakisation
910:
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908:
898:
897:
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889:Belarusisation
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884:Araucanisation
881:
880:
879:
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869:
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849:
848:
847:
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837:
827:
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820:Africanisation
816:
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790:
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746:(3): 492–502.
715:
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679:
664:
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604:
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507:
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456:
437:(3): 195–212.
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399:(3): 225–244.
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315:following the
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164:Prussian Union
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108:Teutonic Order
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36:Teutonic Order
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1554:Germanization
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1377:Cyrillisation
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1313:
1311:
1310:Ukrainisation
1308:
1306:
1303:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1294:
1293:Turkification
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1278:Taiwanisation
1276:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1268:Swedification
1266:
1264:
1263:Swahilisation
1261:
1259:
1258:Sovietisation
1256:
1254:
1253:Slovakisation
1251:
1249:
1248:Slavicisation
1246:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1231:Sinhalisation
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1210:
1207:
1206:
1205:
1204:Russification
1202:
1198:
1195:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1172:
1171:
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1167:
1163:
1160:
1159:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1137:Mongolisation
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1121:Magyarisation
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1106:Kurdification
1104:
1102:
1101:Koreanisation
1099:
1095:
1090:
1089:Kazakhisation
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1236:Sinicisation
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1181:Polonisation
1132:Malayisation
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285:an uprising
74:, numerous
1548:Categories
1298:placenames
1038:placenames
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835:immigrants
373:References
70:Preceding
32:the region
16:See also:
1174:societies
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336:and the
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1060:names
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764:S2CID
253:Thorn
894:soft
877:Jews
756:ISSN
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