492:
20:
168:
566:
657:'s workers' and soldiers' councils can serve as an example of all that were set up in cities across Germany. On the night of 5/6 November, a group of sailors from Kiel reached the port of Hamburg, disarmed the torpedo boats there and won the crews over to their side. They occupied the main train station and union hall without resistance, but soldiers at an infantry barracks fought back and left a number of revolutionaries dead before they surrendered. The sailors established a provisional workers' and soldiers' council under USPD leadership on 6 November. After the council announced that it had political control of Hamburg, there was a mass march to the local military headquarters at
250:
488:(USPD) spoke on behalf of a pure council system, with it to be the basis for the constitution of a socialist republic in which the workers' and soldiers' councils would have the highest law-giving and executive power in the state. Däumig called it the "death sentence of the revolution" when his proposal was voted down 344 to 98. Richard Müller said later: "The Central Congress was Germany's first revolutionary tribunal, but there was no sign of any revolutionary breeze. I didn't set my expectations very high beforehand, but I hadn't believed that the Congress would turn into a political suicide club."
644:
324:, all state parliaments and the existing Reich government; to have the Berlin workers' and soldiers' council take over the government until the establishment of a Reich workers' and soldiers' council; to elect workers' and soldiers' councils throughout Germany that would have full legislative and administrative authority; to have the workers' and soldiers' councils take over all military and civilian authorities and command posts, all weapons and ammunition stocks, as well as all armaments factories; and to control all means of transport.
94:(USPD), but in it and the majority of the other councils, the SPD was able to keep the radical left wing on the sidelines. During the two large gatherings of the workers' and soldiers' councils, on 10 November and at the Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils that began on 16 December, most of the voting went the way the SPD leadership wished. An election for a national assembly that would allow all Germans, not just workers and soldiers, to determine Germany's future form of government was scheduled for 19 January 1919.
382:
328:
416:
power are now workers' and soldiers' councils. Immediate peace is the slogan of the revolution. The rapid and consistent socialisation of the capitalist means of production is feasible without major upheaval, given
Germany's social structure and the degree of maturity of its economic and political organisation. It is necessary in order to build a new economic order out of the blood-soaked ruins, to prevent the economic enslavement of the masses and the destruction of culture."
271:– called a general strike. Workers and soldiers established councils and important buildings such as the police headquarters were occupied. A massive demonstration march through the city drew in a large number of soldiers from their barracks. Many of the demonstrators carried placards calling for an end to the war and the authoritarian monarchical state. The SPD formed its own workers' and soldiers' council consisting of twelve factory representatives and the party leaders
429:
661:. Some shots were fired at them along the route, but when they reached the Altona headquarters, they found it deserted. On 8 November, delegates were elected to choose the 30 members of the permanent workers' and soldiers' council. Eighteen were to represent the factories, with the remainder divided equally between USPD, SPD, the unions and the left-radicals. The leaders of the new Council were the left-radical
543:
with its support of a democracy that included all of German society and not just the workers and soldiers, it delayed the
Congress' reform resolutions in order not to anticipate the national assembly's democratic choices. In doing so, it angered the radical Left and made itself increasingly reliant on the imperial powers that had not been abolished or thoroughly reformed, especially the military.
425:
Decisions on whether the government should be a council system or a parliamentary democracy and whether industries should be nationalised should not be made before the people had voted. The USPD members of the
Council, on the other hand, wanted to wait until the revolution had been consolidated and then, in a manner to be determined later, link the councils to a national assembly.
511:). After the Congress accepted the SPD's definition of parliamentary oversight, the USPD boycotted the election to the Central Council, with the result that it had only SPD members. Its chairperson was Max Cohen. As a result of the establishment of the Central Council, the Executive Council faded in importance, with its influence limited to Berlin, where it played a role in the
444:
advantage. The SPD also held the more important portfolios: Ebert had internal and military affairs, Landsberg finance and
Scheidemann press and intelligence. The Berlin Executive Council issued laws and decrees affecting basic rights such as freedom of opinion and also in the area of social policy. The eight-hour working day, for example, was introduced on 26 November 1918.
529:) in the military. The Congress also voted unanimously for the democratisation of the military as laid out in the Hamburg Points: there were to be no more rank insignia and no carrying of weapons when not in service; soldiers were to elect officers; soldiers' councils were to be responsible for discipline; and the standing army was to be replaced by a people's army (
320:
SPD, which wanted a national assembly to determine the type of government, was: "If this request means the dictatorship of a section of a class that is not backed by the majority of the people, then we must reject the demand because it contradicts our democratic principles." For their part, the
Spartacists wanted to abolish the
336:
the newly elected councils, the SPD relented on its earlier stand and accepted the USPD's conditions for joining the government: the councils were to have political power, and a constitutional convention would be discussed only after the revolution was consolidated. Out of the agreement came the six-member
390:
Council and presented a list of radical leftists drawn up by the
Revolutionary Stewards. Ebert thought the committee unnecessary and said that if it was established, it needed to have equal numbers of SPD and USPD members. When members of the Spartacus League threatened Ebert, he went for safety to the
500:
Max Cohen for the SPD proposed to hold the election to the national assembly on 19 January 1919, almost a month earlier than the
Council of the People's Deputies had agreed on in late November. That the Congress passed the resolution by an eight to one margin was a clear sign that the majority of the
424:
In its commitment to democracy, the SPD thought that the "revolutionary mandate" of the spontaneously elected workers' and soldiers' councils should not be used in advance of a national assembly. In Ebert's words, the
Council of the People's Deputies was simply the "bankruptcy trustee" of the Empire.
335:
On the evening of the ninth, the Berlin workers' and soldiers' council, called together by the
Revolutionary Stewards, decided to elect new councils the next morning and then to have them meet in the afternoon to elect a provisional government. In an attempt to put themselves in a position to control
319:
In an initial written exchange of ideas on 9 and 10 November about the future form of the government, the USPD stated that in order for it to join, political power would have to be in the hands of the workers' and soldiers' councils and an assembly of councils from across
Germany. The response of the
542:
The results of the Congress showed that the councils wanted to democratise the government and the military and did not see themselves as a substitute for a parliament. For its part, the SPD's leadership wanted to integrate itself into a parliamentarised government and co-govern within it. In keeping
522:
Two other votes at the Congress did not go as much to the liking of the SPD leadership. Delegates approved a proposal for the Council of the People's Deputies to move quickly to nationalise all industries that were "ripe" for it, especially mining. With the oversight of the Berlin Executive Council,
504:
The Congress then approved a proposal by the SPD to give the Council of the People's Deputies lawgiving and executive power until the national assembly made a final decision on the form of government. Oversight of the Council was switched from the Berlin Executive Council to a new Central Council of
447:
A network of revolutionary bodies stretching from the Council of the People's Deputies to the governments of the federal states and the local workers' and soldiers' councils, all dominated by the SPD, quickly covered Germany. The soldiers gave it armed power, while its economic and social power came
443:
The Council of the People's Deputies relied on the expertise of the former Empire's state secretaries (equivalent to ministers), most of whom retained their positions. They generally preferred to work with the more moderate SPD on the councils rather than the USPD. This gave the SPD a distinct power
665:
and Wilhelm Heise. The USPD was the strongest group in the Council. It eliminated the Hamburg parliament on the 12th but had to restore it on the 18th because the city had lost its creditworthiness when the parliament was abolished. The Council, however, maintained a veto right over its actions. It
622:
broke out in Berlin in March 1919. It was led by the KPD and attempted to gain recognition and guarantees for the workers' and soldiers' councils, set up a council republic and adopt the Hamburg Points democratising the military. The regular army and Freikorps again suppressed the revolt. The death
232:
There was little to no resistance to the establishment of the councils. With the support of local citizens, they freed political prisoners and occupied city halls, military facilities and train stations. The military authorities surrendered or fled, and civic officials accepted that they were under
415:
The workers' and soldiers' councils saw themselves as a provisional parliament to express the revolutionary will of the people. The goals they set were to be politically implemented by the Council of People's Deputies under the supervision of the Berlin Executive Council: "The bearers of political
224:
on the seventh, and all major cities in the west of Germany by the eighth. Everywhere they went, workers and soldiers joined them and set up councils similar to the one in Kiel. Soldiers by simple acclamation often elected their most respected comrades; workers generally chose members of the local
97:
In the early months of 1919, there were a number of violent revolts by workers who thought that the revolution had been stopped too soon and wanted to carry it forward to establish a council republic. The government in Berlin, until 13 February still the Council of the People's Deputies, called on
389:
About 3,000 workers and soldiers gathered at Berlin's Circus Busch auditorium. A clear majority approved the six-member Council of the People's Deputies named earlier in the day. Emil Barth of the USPD, in a move that caught the SPD by surprise, then called for an action committee to oversee the
370:
In a rapidly executed plan to prepare the SPD for the new council elections, Otto Wels used the existing SPD party apparatus to bring the majority of the soldiers in Berlin over to the side of the SPD. He swore the 148 elected soldiers' representatives to the SPD platform, which called for equal
150:
which allowed workers employed in companies with more than 50 people to create committees to negotiate wages and working conditions. Representatives from these committees as well as representatives from other formal and informal workers' groups joined the USPD-backed workers councils throughout
448:
from the workers' ability to strike and the people's to demonstrate. With this network, its own party and union structures, and cooperation with middle class Catholic and liberal parties at the local level, the SPD was able to keep the left wing radicals for the most part out of the councils.
401:
At the Circus Busch, the Revolutionary Stewards backed down under pressure from both Hugo Haase (USPD) and the soldiers' representatives. The assembly then elected two 14-member action committees, one made up of seven members each from SPD and USPD and the other of soldiers, most of whom were
377:
carried the same message of unity to the workers with the headline "No Civil War!" The SPD's efforts gave them enough support to feel confident that at the afternoon's meeting they would have a majority of the delegates behind them and the Council of the People's Deputies.
546:
The Central Council convened a second congress, the Reich Congress of Workers', Farmers' and Soldiers' Councils, on 8 April 1919. The weeklong Council, the last such at the national level, agreed among other things on new electoral regulations for workers' councils.
233:
the control of the councils rather than the military and carried on with their work. Little changed in the factories except for the removal of the military discipline that had prevailed during the war. Private property was not touched.
501:
attendees were in favour of a parliamentary democracy. Against the radical Left's accusation that the SPD was trying to end the revolution, Cohen warned of possible unforeseen domestic and foreign consequences of a council system.
207:
under their control, representatives of the sailors formed a council and issued a list of demands focussed mostly on loosening military discipline. Revolutionary sailors spread out from Kiel in the following days, reaching
472:
building. Delegates were elected from across Germany, about one for every 200,000 civilians and one for every 100,000 soldiers. Of the 514 delegates, 288 supported the SPD, 88 the USPD and 10 the Spartacus League.
55:. Meeting little to no resistance, they formed quickly, took over city governments and key buildings, caused most of the locally stationed military to flee and brought about the abdications of all of Germany's
1310:
495:
First Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils in the Prussian House of Representatives in Berlin. On the ministerial bench, from right to left, the People's Deputies Barth, Ebert, Landsberg and
146:, which, while not dedicated to revolutionary activity like their Russian counterparts, still promoted strikes and other popular agitation. The German workers' councils had their origins in the 1916
1130:
955:
607:(KPD) on 6 January 1919. With the goal of blocking the elections for a national assembly and setting up a council republic, they declared the Council of the People's Deputies deposed. In the
669:
In preparation for the December meeting in Berlin of the Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils, the Hamburg Council drew up the Hamburg Points that were adopted there.
666:
announced the election of a new parliament, but as was the case at the national level, the SPD wanted the election to take place as soon as possible while the USPD stalled.
623:
toll was about 1,200. Additional worker unrest took place through early May 1919 in Hamburg, Bremen, Munich and the coal-mining regions of western and central Germany.
191:
After it became clear in the fall of 1918 that Germany would lose the war, revolutionary workers' and soldiers' councils formed the core of the early stages of the
362:
for the USPD. Ebert and Haase were the co-chairmen. The Council of the People's Deputies was to derive its sovereignty from the workers' and soldiers' councils.
583:
At the end of December 1918, the three USPD members of the Council of the People's Deputies resigned in protest over the SPD's use of the military against the
1417:
676:(KPD) 7%. On 26 March, the Hamburg Workers' and Soldiers' Council passed its power to the constituent parliament which wrote the city's new constitution.
851:
McElligott, Anthony (25 February 2021). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.).
523:
the People's Deputies were also to exercise military command authority and to see to the ending of militarism and the abolition of blind obedience (
491:
481:, the Spartacus leaders, had not been elected to the Congress, and a proposal to let them sit in as guests in an advisory capacity was turned down.
1451:
711:, newly elected by the National Assembly. The individual workers' and soldiers' councils across Germany lost their remaining legitimacy when the
632:
672:
Hamburg's parliamentary election was held on 16 March 1919. The SPD won the largest share of the votes with 60%. The USPD had a mere 9% and the
139:
91:
484:
The central question that the Congress discussed continued to be whether Germany was to have a council or a parliamentary form of government.
203:
against orders to sail out and attack the British fleet. After sailors, soldiers and workers had brought public and military institutions in
744:
1558:
102:
to suppress the uprisings, and there was considerable loss of life. The central councils in Berlin began turning their powers over to the
19:
1643:
226:
402:
politically independent. The two committees together formed the Executive Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils of Greater Berlin (
638:
1611:
1337:
1653:
825:
296:
981:
1391:
775:
167:
346:) – the name was adopted at the insistence of the USPD – with three representatives from each party: Ebert, Scheidemann and
337:
257:
87:
1251:
1226:
938:
933:. Translated by Forster, Elborg; Jones, Larry Eugene. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. p. 22.
887:
798:
192:
83:
44:
1584:
852:
1050:
469:
288:
767:
Worker Voice: Employee Representation in the Workplace in Australia, Canada, Germany, the UK and the US 1914-1939
234:
56:
599:. The popular discontent over the events of Christmas week led to the formation of a revolutionary committee by
565:
331:
The Council of the People's Deputies. From left to right: Barth, Landsberg, Ebert, Haase, Dittmann, Scheidemann
1364:
156:
147:
409:
724:
685:
515:
of 1919. The remnants of the Council, by that time referred to as the "Red Council", was suppressed by the
707:. The Council of the People's Deputies ceased to exist on 13 February when it passed its authority to the
371:
representation of the SPD and USPD in the new government. In its 10 November edition, the party newspaper
1532:
739:
1648:
673:
604:
110:
was established on 14 August 1919, the last of the local councils disbanded late in the fall of 1919.
321:
734:
704:
172:
103:
535:). The Army Command strongly objected to the Hamburg Points, and no trace of them was left in the
693:
74:, few of the German workers' and soldiers' councils had any interest in establishing a system of
1480:
715:
became effective on 14 August 1919. The last of them dissolved late in the autumn of that year.
729:
689:
264:
249:
928:
765:
643:
611:, an estimated 165 people lost their lives, mostly revolutionaries killed by the regular and
588:
142:(USPD), which opposed the war, more and more appealing. The USPD facilitated the creation of
619:
560:
512:
23:
The Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils meeting in Berlin on 16 December 1918
8:
712:
708:
662:
608:
584:
576:
556:
536:
432:
292:
143:
40:
134:. The increasingly straitened living standards of German workers under the hardships of
300:
263:
The revolution reached Berlin on Saturday 9 November. With the backing of the SPD, the
131:
71:
60:
1506:
1247:
1222:
1046:
934:
883:
771:
647:
391:
268:
79:
75:
688:
on 19 January, the SPD won 38% of the vote and the USPD 8%. The SPD joined with the
697:
395:
355:
307:
of the Spartacus League proclaimed the "Free Socialist Republic of Germany" at the
152:
67:
658:
525:
474:
468:) was called by the Greater Berlin Council and met from 16 to 20 December in the
436:
304:
287:
prematurely announced the abdication of the Emperor and, in formal breach of the
272:
253:
107:
32:
485:
600:
596:
478:
347:
439:
were the strongest voices for the SPD on the Council of the People's Deputies.
82:, and the establishment of a parliamentary republic dominated by the moderate
1637:
308:
284:
196:
48:
1269:
Die Wirkungsgrenzen des Anerkenntnisses im deutschen Reichszivilprozessrecht
381:
327:
984:[9 November 1918: End of the Monarchy – a Republic is Proclaimed].
592:
385:
Emil Barth, a left socialist member of the Council of the People's Deputies
1133:[From Empire to Republic 1918/19: Council system or Parliament?].
1131:"Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik 1918/19: Rätesystem oder Parlamentarismus?"
428:
200:
186:
135:
52:
571:
373:
516:
359:
351:
276:
238:
118:
Workers' and soldiers' councils, for which the term "soviets" (German:
703:
On 4 February 1919, the Central Council transferred its powers to the
982:"9. November 1918: Ende der Monarchie – die Republik wird ausgerufen"
612:
280:
229:(generally referred to simply as the SPD) and the more radical USPD.
99:
451:
857:
1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
958:[From Empire to Republic 1918/19: Revolution from below].
225:
executive committees of Germany's two main socialist parties, the
199:. The first council was formed on 4 November 1918 when sailors in
654:
221:
217:
213:
1039:
Weimar 1918–1933. Die Geschichte der ersten deutschen Demokratie
237:
abdicated in the face of the revolution. All, including Emperor
209:
1273:
The limits of the effect of the confession in German civil law
398:
that the Council of the People's Deputies would be protected.
394:
where he received the assurances of Prussian Minister of War
1483:[The Free Hanse City of Hamburg. Events 1918–1933].
956:"Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik 1918/19: Revolution von unten"
155:, were responsible for calling the huge nationwide anti-war
90:, was initially a coalition of the SPD and the more leftist
1076:
1074:
1043:
Weimar 1918–1933. The History of the First German Democracy
204:
615:
units brought in by the Council of the People's Deputies.
86:(SPD). The interim national revolutionary government, the
1481:"Die Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg. Ereignisse 1918–1933"
1196:
1194:
1166:
1164:
1071:
1018:
291:, handed the chancellorship to Ebert. In the afternoon,
1313:[Second Reich Congress of Councils in Berlin].
1246:. Berlin: Be.bra Wissenschaft Verlag. pp. 41–159.
1244:
Die Zweite Revolution. Rätebewegung in Berlin 1919/1920
1215:
Richard Müller – Der Mann hinter der Novemberrevolution
456:
The Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils (
405:
Vollzugsrat des Arbeiter- und Soldatenrates Grossberlin
1291:
1181:
1179:
1010:
Sturm, Reinhard (November 2011). "Weimarer Republik".
241:, were gone without bloodshed by the end of November.
16:
Soviet-style councils of the 1918/19 German Revolution
1279:
1191:
1161:
1101:
1059:
591:. They were replaced by two new SPD representatives,
314:
177:
in November 1918. The sign reads, "Soldiers' council
1093:
Piper, Ernst (2018). "Deutsche Revolution 1918/19".
908:
896:
709:
government of Minister President Philipp Scheidemann
603:(USPD) and Karl Liebknecht of the newly established
1176:
1149:
29:
German workers' and soldiers' councils of 1918–1919
1509:[Election to the National Assembly 1919].
1045:] (in German). Munich: C.H. Beck. p. 37.
267:and the Spartacus League – groups that favoured a
508:Zentralrat der Deutschen Sozialistischen Republik
452:Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils
1635:
1589:Sächsische Landeszentrale für politische Bildung
256:, the SPD leader who effectively controlled the
78:. Most members wanted an end to the war and to
63:, when they reached Berlin on 9 November 1918.
1275:] (in German). Berlin: Ebering. p. 9.
1221:] (in German). Berlin: Dietz. p. 94.
1219:Richard Müller – the Man Behind the Revolution
459:Reichskongress der Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte
1340:[Council of the People's Deputies].
882:(in German). Munich: Knaur. pp. 65–66.
530:
506:
463:
457:
403:
341:
125:
119:
1614:[Workers' and Soldiers' Councils].
633:Saxony in the German Revolution (1918–1919)
130:) was coined, were first set up during the
1587:[The End of the First World War].
850:
770:. Oxford University Press. p. 75-77.
412:, the head of the Revolutionary Stewards.
1212:
162:
151:Germany. The USPD and its left wing, the
796:
642:
564:
490:
427:
380:
326:
248:
171:The soldiers' council of the battleship
166:
18:
1335:
1297:
1285:
1241:
1200:
1170:
1107:
1080:
1065:
1036:
1024:
926:
914:
902:
877:
763:
365:
1636:
1609:
1389:
1362:
1311:"Zweiter Reichsrätekongress in Berlin"
828:[The Sailors' Uprising 1918].
823:
757:
745:Danish workers' and soldiers' councils
679:
66:In spite of being patterned after the
1475:
1473:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1367:[The January Uprising 1919].
1185:
1155:
1135:Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung
1128:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1095:Informationen zur Politischen Bildung
1092:
1012:Informationen zur Politischen Bildung
1009:
1005:
1003:
960:Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung
953:
930:The Rise and Fall of Weimar Democracy
1266:
1129:Sturm, Reinhard (23 December 2011).
954:Sturm, Reinhard (23 December 2011).
853:"Workers' or Revolutionary Councils"
639:Mainz Workers' and Soldiers' Council
181:. Long live the socialist republic."
1507:"Wahl zur Nationalversammlung 1919"
1390:Scriba, Arnulf (1 September 2014).
1363:Scriba, Arnulf (1 September 2014).
801:[The January Strike 1918].
138:made political parties such as the
13:
1470:
1436:
1394:[The March Battles 1919].
1336:Altmann, Gerhard (11 April 2000).
1113:
1000:
686:election for the national assembly
315:Council vs. parliamentary republic
14:
1665:
1610:Scriba, Arnulf (15 August 2015).
1585:"Das Ende des Ersten Weltkrieges"
1533:"Weimarer Republik (1918 - 1933)"
1449:
1037:Winkler, Heinrich August (1993).
824:Scriba, Arnulf (15 August 2015).
797:Kalmbach, Karena (10 June 2003).
626:
470:Prussian House of Representatives
113:
1452:"Die Revolution 1918 in Hamburg"
550:
419:
338:Council of the People's Deputies
258:Council of the People's Deputies
88:Council of the People's Deputies
1654:Politics of the Weimar Republic
1603:
1577:
1551:
1525:
1499:
1410:
1383:
1356:
1338:"Der Rat der Volksbeauftragten"
1329:
1303:
1260:
1235:
1206:
1086:
1030:
974:
880:Die deutsche Revolution 1918/19
505:the German Socialist Republic (
1644:German Revolution of 1918–1919
1420:[March Battles 1919].
947:
920:
871:
844:
817:
790:
283:. At midday, Reich Chancellor
98:the army and the paramilitary
1:
1616:Deutsches Historisches Museum
1396:Deutsches Historisches Museum
1369:Deutsches Historisches Museum
1342:Deutsches Historisches Museum
830:Deutsches Historisches Museum
803:Deutsches Historisches Museum
750:
269:soviet-style council republic
106:in early February. After the
1612:"Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte"
140:Independent Social Democrats
92:Independent Social Democrats
7:
878:Haffner, Sebastian (1991).
826:"Der Matrosenaufstand 1918"
718:
10:
1670:
859:. Freie Universität Berlin
674:Communist Party of Germany
650:in a 19th century postcard
636:
630:
605:Communist Party of Germany
554:
408:) under the leadership of
303:, while a few hours later
184:
37:Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte
1365:"Der Januaraufstand 1919"
725:People's State of Bavaria
569:Government troops in the
343:Rat der Volksbeauftragten
244:
227:Majority Social Democrats
51:during the final days of
1213:Hoffrogge, Ralf (2008).
740:Würzburg Soviet Republic
705:Weimar National Assembly
104:Weimar National Assembly
799:"Der Januarstreik 1918"
694:German Democratic Party
84:Social Democratic Party
1565:(in German). p. 7
1456:Hamburg Geschichtsbuch
1267:Süss, Theodor (1921).
1242:Weipert, Axel (2015).
927:Mommsen, Hans (1996).
764:Patmore, Greg (2016).
735:Munich Soviet Republic
730:Bremen Soviet Republic
651:
609:violence that followed
585:People's Navy Division
580:
531:
507:
497:
464:
458:
440:
404:
386:
342:
332:
265:Revolutionary Stewards
260:
195:that brought down the
182:
163:Kiel sailors' uprising
157:strike of January 1918
148:Auxiliary Services Act
126:
120:
36:
24:
1559:"Deutsche Revolution"
1392:"Die Märzkämpfe 1919"
1097:(in German) (33): 14.
1014:(in German) (261): 9.
646:
568:
494:
431:
384:
330:
297:proclaimed a republic
289:Imperial Constitution
252:
170:
47:to cities across the
22:
1563:Deutsche Geschichten
575:building during the
561:Berlin March Battles
513:Berlin March Battles
366:Circus Busch meeting
179:Prinzregent Luitpold
174:Prinzregent Luitpold
41:revolutionary bodies
1537:Deutscher Bundestag
713:Weimar Constitution
696:to form the ruling
680:End of the councils
663:Heinrich Laufenberg
577:Spartacist uprising
557:Spartacist uprising
537:Weimar Constitution
433:Philipp Scheidemann
293:Philipp Scheidemann
39:) were short-lived
1450:Ewald, Christina.
986:Deutsche Bundestag
652:
581:
519:in November 1919.
498:
465:Reichsrätekongress
441:
387:
333:
301:Reichstag building
261:
235:Princes and royals
183:
132:Russian Revolution
72:Russian Revolution
61:Emperor Wilhelm II
25:
1649:Council communism
1487:(in German). 1985
1418:"Märzkämpfe 1919"
1027:, pp. 27–29.
988:(in German). 1918
777:978-1-78138-268-4
648:Hamburg City Hall
620:bloodier uprising
392:Reich Chancellery
193:German Revolution
144:workers' councils
80:German militarism
76:council communism
45:German Revolution
1661:
1628:
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1084:
1083:, p. 37–38.
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821:
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794:
788:
787:
785:
784:
761:
698:Weimar Coalition
589:Christmas crisis
534:
510:
467:
461:
407:
396:Heinrich Scheuch
356:Wilhelm Dittmann
350:for the SPD and
345:
153:Spartacus League
129:
123:
43:that spread the
1669:
1668:
1664:
1663:
1662:
1660:
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762:
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721:
682:
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635:
629:
563:
553:
526:Kadavergehorsam
475:Karl Liebknecht
454:
437:Friedrich Ebert
422:
368:
317:
305:Karl Liebknecht
273:Friedrich Ebert
254:Friedrich Ebert
247:
189:
165:
116:
108:Weimar Republic
57:ruling monarchs
17:
12:
11:
5:
1667:
1657:
1656:
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1576:
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1524:
1498:
1469:
1435:
1409:
1382:
1355:
1328:
1302:
1300:, p. 129.
1290:
1278:
1259:
1253:978-3954100620
1252:
1234:
1228:978-3320021481
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999:
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940:978-0807847213
939:
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889:978-3426038130
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681:
678:
628:
627:Local councils
625:
601:Georg Ledebour
597:Rudolf Wissell
552:
549:
479:Rosa Luxemburg
453:
450:
421:
418:
410:Richard Müller
367:
364:
348:Otto Landsberg
316:
313:
246:
243:
216:on the sixth,
185:Main article:
164:
161:
115:
114:First councils
112:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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1288:, p. 52.
1287:
1282:
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1255:
1249:
1245:
1238:
1230:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1209:
1203:, p. 51.
1202:
1197:
1195:
1188:, p. 17.
1187:
1182:
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1173:, p. 50.
1172:
1167:
1165:
1158:, p. 15.
1157:
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1136:
1132:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1110:, p. 30.
1109:
1104:
1096:
1089:
1082:
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1068:, p. 28.
1067:
1062:
1054:
1052:3-406-37646-0
1048:
1044:
1040:
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1021:
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1004:
987:
983:
977:
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957:
950:
942:
936:
932:
931:
923:
917:, p. 68.
916:
911:
905:, p. 66.
904:
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551:1919 violence
548:
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489:
487:
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449:
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434:
430:
426:
420:SPD dominance
417:
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363:
361:
357:
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349:
344:
339:
329:
325:
323:
312:
310:
309:Berlin Palace
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
285:Max von Baden
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
259:
255:
251:
242:
240:
236:
230:
228:
223:
219:
215:
211:
206:
202:
201:Kiel mutinied
198:
197:German Empire
194:
188:
180:
176:
175:
169:
160:
158:
154:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
128:
122:
111:
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105:
101:
95:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
64:
62:
58:
54:
50:
49:German Empire
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
21:
1620:. Retrieved
1615:
1605:
1593:. Retrieved
1588:
1579:
1567:. Retrieved
1562:
1553:
1541:. Retrieved
1536:
1527:
1515:. Retrieved
1511:gonschior.de
1510:
1501:
1489:. Retrieved
1485:gonschior.de
1484:
1460:. Retrieved
1455:
1426:. Retrieved
1422:Bundesarchiv
1421:
1412:
1400:. Retrieved
1395:
1385:
1373:. Retrieved
1368:
1358:
1346:. Retrieved
1341:
1331:
1319:. Retrieved
1315:Bundesarchiv
1314:
1305:
1298:Haffner 1991
1293:
1286:Winkler 1993
1281:
1272:
1268:
1262:
1243:
1237:
1218:
1214:
1208:
1201:Winkler 1993
1171:Winkler 1993
1151:
1139:. Retrieved
1134:
1108:Mommsen 1996
1103:
1094:
1088:
1081:Winkler 1993
1066:Mommsen 1996
1061:
1042:
1038:
1032:
1025:Mommsen 1996
1020:
1011:
990:. Retrieved
985:
976:
964:. Retrieved
959:
949:
929:
922:
915:Haffner 1991
910:
903:Haffner 1991
898:
879:
873:
861:. Retrieved
856:
846:
834:. Retrieved
829:
819:
807:. Retrieved
802:
792:
781:. Retrieved
766:
759:
702:
690:Centre Party
683:
671:
668:
653:
617:
593:Gustav Noske
582:
570:
545:
541:
524:
521:
503:
499:
486:Ernst Däumig
483:
455:
446:
442:
423:
414:
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388:
372:
369:
334:
318:
262:
231:
190:
178:
173:
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96:
65:
59:, including
28:
26:
1622:28 February
1618:(in German)
1595:28 February
1591:(in German)
1569:28 February
1539:(in German)
1513:(in German)
1458:(in German)
1424:(in German)
1398:(in German)
1371:(in German)
1344:(in German)
1321:26 February
1317:(in German)
1141:22 February
1137:(in German)
992:22 February
966:22 February
962:(in German)
863:22 February
836:22 February
832:(in German)
809:29 February
805:(in German)
587:during the
496:Scheidemann
295:of the SPD
187:Kiel mutiny
136:World War I
124:, singular
53:World War I
1638:Categories
1186:Piper 2018
1156:Piper 2018
783:2023-12-28
751:References
637:See also:
631:See also:
555:See also:
517:Reichswehr
360:Emil Barth
352:Hugo Haase
277:Otto Braun
239:Wilhelm II
613:Freikorps
579:in Berlin
532:Volkswehr
435:. He and
322:Reichstag
299:from the
281:Otto Wels
100:Freikorps
1543:10 March
1517:10 March
1428:10 March
1402:10 March
1375:10 March
1348:10 March
719:See also
692:and the
618:An even
572:Vorwärts
374:Vorwärts
1491:2 March
1462:2 March
684:In the
655:Hamburg
222:Cologne
218:Hanover
214:Hamburg
70:of the
68:soviets
1250:
1225:
1049:
937:
886:
774:
659:Altona
245:Berlin
210:Bremen
33:German
1271:[
1217:[
1041:[
1624:2024
1597:2024
1571:2024
1545:2024
1519:2024
1493:2024
1464:2024
1430:2024
1404:2024
1377:2024
1350:2024
1323:2024
1248:ISBN
1223:ISBN
1143:2024
1047:ISBN
994:2024
968:2024
935:ISBN
884:ISBN
865:2024
838:2024
811:2024
772:ISBN
595:and
559:and
477:and
358:and
279:and
220:and
212:and
205:Kiel
121:Räte
27:The
462:or
127:Rat
1640::
1561:.
1535:.
1472:^
1454:.
1438:^
1193:^
1178:^
1163:^
1115:^
1073:^
1002:^
855:.
700:.
539:.
354:,
311:.
275:,
159:.
35::
1626:.
1599:.
1573:.
1547:.
1521:.
1495:.
1466:.
1432:.
1406:.
1379:.
1352:.
1325:.
1256:.
1231:.
1145:.
1055:.
996:.
970:.
943:.
892:.
867:.
840:.
813:.
786:.
340:(
31:(
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