4738:
4612:
and expertise within both the government and private enterprise. Even after 9 November, far from everything had collapsed. The administration continued to function. Civil servants from the imperial era were under the supervision of the councils but kept their positions and continued to do their work in most respects unchanged. The judiciary and education systems had been only minimally affected by the revolution if at all, and after the Ebert–Groener Pact, the
Supreme Army Command became a partner of the Council of the People's Deputies. Generals and other high-ranking officers kept their positions. The Ebert government needed the OHL to manage the monumental problem of demobilisation, but the Council of the People's Deputies did not try to limit its powers to the most essential tasks. No attempt was made to dispossess the
341:
5119:
4363:
4881:
4122:
3484:
4468:, they formed a revolutionary parliament. Most of the participating stewards had been leaders during the strikes earlier in the year. They did not trust the SPD leadership and had planned a coup for 11 November independently of the sailors' revolt, but were unprepared for the revolutionary events since Kiel. In order to take the initiative from Ebert, they decided to announce elections for the following day, a Sunday. Every Berlin factory was to elect workers' councils and every regiment soldiers' councils that were then to elect a revolutionary government from members of the two labour parties (SPD and USPD) in the evening. The government would be empowered to execute the resolutions of the revolutionary parliament, since they intended to replace Ebert's function as chancellor.
5292:
4923:
5618:), whose viewpoint dominated the interpretation of events related to the German revolution after 1945. According to Erdmann, 1918/19 was about the choice between "social revolution in line with forces demanding a proletarian dictatorship and parliamentary republic in line with the conservative elements like the German officer corps". As most Social Democrats were forced to join with the old elites to prevent an imminent council dictatorship, the blame for the failure of the Weimar Republic was to be put on the extreme Left, and the events of 1918/19 were successful defensive actions of democracy against Bolshevism.
4319:
453:
441:
429:
417:
405:
393:
381:
367:
4673:
5436:" was born, according to which the revolutionaries stabbed the army, "undefeated on the field", in the back and only then turned the almost secure victory into a defeat. It was mainly Ludendorff who contributed to the spread of the falsification of history to conceal his own role in the defeat. In nationalist circles, the myth fell on fertile ground. They soon defamed the revolutionaries and even politicians like Ebert, who never wanted the revolution and had done everything to channel and contain it, as "November Criminals". In 1923, Hitler and Ludendorff deliberately chose the symbolic
174:
566:
554:
542:
530:
518:
506:
494:
482:
470:
62:
200:
4639:
The entire SPD leadership mistrusted the councils rather than the old elites in the army and administration. At the same time they considerably overestimated the old elite's loyalty to the new republic. Ebert could no longer act as chancellor in front of the OHL or his middle-class colleagues among the ministers and in the
Reichstag, but only as chairman of a revolutionary government. In spite of having taken the lead of the revolution in order to halt it, conservatives saw him as a traitor.
4287:
any confiscations of property or occupations of factories. The duties of the imperial civilian administration and office holders such as police, municipal administrations and courts were not curtailed or interfered with. In order to create an executive committed to the revolution and to the future of the new government, the councils for the moment left government officials in place and took over only their supervision from the military commands that had been put in place during the war.
3183:, spoke out against the bonds but nevertheless followed party discipline and voted in favour. The support was based primarily on the belief, actively fostered by the government, that Germany was fighting a defensive war. Haase explained the decision that the party had made with the words: "We will not abandon our Fatherland in its hour of danger!" Many SPD members were eager to show their patriotism, in part to free themselves from the charge of being "journeymen without a fatherland".
4584:
4509:
810:
780:
762:
672:
612:
594:
4266:
4969:
4837:: "No enemy overcame you." General Groener had wanted to use the soldiers to disarm the civilians of Berlin and rid it of Spartacists, but the majority of the soldiers wanted only to return home for Christmas with their families and simply dispersed into the city after the parade. Their lack of interest in more fighting put an end to Groener's hope that he could lead the troops to domestic successes that would make the OHL the recognized force in restoring order.
4069:
3018:
4278:
and occupied city halls, military facilities and train stations. The military authorities surrendered or fled, and civic officials accepted that they were under the control of the councils rather than the military and carried on with their work. Little changed in the factories except for the removal of the military discipline that had prevailed during the war. Private property was not touched. The sociologist Max Weber was part of the workers' council of
842:
830:
818:
800:
788:
770:
752:
740:
728:
710:
692:
680:
662:
650:
638:
620:
602:
584:
249:
720:
702:
4774:, it consisted mainly of SPD followers. Not even Karl Liebknecht or Rosa Luxemburg had been chosen to attend, leaving the Spartacus League without influence. On 19 December, the Council voted 344 to 98 against the creation of a council system as the basis for a new constitution. Instead, they supported the government's decision to call for elections as soon as possible for a constituent national assembly to decide on the future state system.
1603:(MSPD), the Council acted as a provisional government that held the powers of the emperor, chancellor and legislature. Most of the old imperial officer corps, administration and judiciary remained in place. The Council needed their expertise to resolve the crises of the moment and thought that handling them was more important than ousting many key government figures to ensure that the new democracy was firmly anchored against its opponents.
5303:
5704:
5002:
4334:
in 1917 as well as the old elites of the German Empire. He wanted to avoid the spectre of radicalisation of the revolution along
Russian lines and was also worried that the precarious food supply situation could break down, leading to the takeover of the administration by inexperienced revolutionaries. He was certain that the SPD would be able to implement its reform plans in the future due to its parliamentary majorities.
3328:
4665:, the chairman of the Socialist Miners' Union Otto Hue and a number of leading economists. The committee was to examine which industries were "fit" for nationalisation and to prepare for the nationalisation of the coal industry. It sat until 7 April 1919 without producing any tangible results. "Self-Administration Bodies" were installed only at coal and potash mines. From those bodies emerged the modern German
5592:. In his view, the political situation at the beginning of the revolution was open: the moderate socialist and democratically oriented workforce had a chance to become the social foundation of the republic and to drive back the conservative forces. It failed because of bad decisions by the SPD leadership and because of the revolutionary tactics employed by the extreme left wing of the workforce.
4635:
imagined had already taken place. Along with the middle-class parties, they pushed for speedy elections to a national assembly that would make the final decision on the form of the new state. The position soon brought the SPD into opposition with many of the revolutionaries. The USPD continued to want to delay elections until after the achievements of the revolution had been consolidated.
4178:
confronted a protest march by the sailors towards the prison in Kiel where the mutineers were being held. The soldiers opened fire and killed at least nine protestors. The following day, workers in Kiel declared a general strike in support of the protest, and sailors from the barracks at Wik, north of Kiel, joined the march, as did many of the soldiers sent to help control the protests.
3429:) became the chancellor's responsibility and thus subject to parliamentary control. As far as the Social Democrats were concerned, the October Constitution met all the party's important constitutional objectives. Ebert regarded the formation of the Baden government as the birthday of German democracy. Since the Emperor had voluntarily ceded power, he considered a revolution unnecessary.
5021:. But the masses were leaderless; the Committee provided no direction and no orders to act. In addition, the protestors lacked support from the military. Even the People's Navy Division was unwilling to support the armed revolt and declared themselves neutral. The other regiments stationed in Berlin mostly remained loyal to the government. As a result, very little happened that day.
5668:
in the loyalty of the old elites and mistrusted the spontaneous mass movements in the first weeks of the revolution. The result was the radicalisation of the council movement. The theories were supported by the publications of the minutes of the
Council of the People's Deputies. Increasingly, the history of the German revolution appeared as the history of its gradual reversal.
4889:
24 December to attack the Palace with troops loyal to the government. The sailors repelled the attack after they were joined by armed workers and the security forces of the Berlin police. The government troops had to withdraw with the loss of 56 soldiers. The People's Navy
Division, which counted just 11 deaths, was allowed to remain intact, and the sailors received their pay.
4555:. In exchange for Groener's assurance of the army's support "for the good of the state", Ebert promised Groener that the military's hierarchies and command structures would not be changed. He thus made no attempt to democratise the authoritarian military. As Groener stated in his memoirs: "The best and strongest element of the old Prussianism was saved for the new Germany."
4684:
4596:
was blocked by internal power struggles. In the eight weeks of the double rule of the
Executive Council and the Ebert-led government, the latter was always dominant. Although Haase was formally co-chairman in the Council of the People's Deputies with equal rights, the higher level administration almost always preferred to work with the more moderate Ebert and the SPD.
4822:
Executive
Council into custody. In an unrelated incident several hours later, members of the Garde-Füsilier-Regiment, which was responsible for security in Berlin's government quarter, fired on an approved Spartacist demonstration, killing 16 and seriously wounding 12. It is not certain who gave the order to fire or who was behind the assumed putsch. The historian
3359:'s demand that the imperial government be democratised. His aim was to protect the reputation of the Imperial Army by placing the responsibility for the capitulation and its consequences at the feet of the democratic parties and the Reichstag. In a veiled reference to the workers who had struck the armaments plants, the Social Democrats who had helped pass the
4877:. Following the coup attempt of 6 December, the sailors deposed their commander because of his alleged involvement in it. The government came to see the division as generally standing with the leftist revolutionaries, and on 23 December, the Council of the People's Deputies ordered it out of Berlin, considerably reduced its size and refused the men their pay.
3423:. The chancellor and his ministers were made dependent on the confidence of the parliamentary majority rather than the emperor, and peace treaties and declarations of war required the Reichstag's approval. Because the chancellor was also responsible for the emperor's acts under the constitution, the emperor's military right of command (
3254:(MSPD), although it was still generally referred to as the SPD. The USPD called for an immediate end to the war and a further democratisation of Germany but did not have a unified agenda for social policies. Both the USPD and the Spartacists continued their anti-war propaganda in factories, especially in armament plants.
5025:
stated that "force can be fought only with force. ... The hour of reckoning approaches!" The USPD and KPD leadership decided to press ahead with the revolutionary overthrow of the Ebert government, but the masses were more interested in the unification of the parties of the Left. Finally, on 11 January,
5680:
did not regard the councils as a homogeneous focused movement for democracy but as a heterogeneous group with a multitude of different motivations and goals. Jesse and Köhler talked about the "construct of a democratic council movement". Certainly, the authors also excluded a relapse to the positions
5654:
During the 1950s, West German historians had focused their research on the final stages of the Weimar
Republic. In the 1960s, they shifted to its revolutionary beginnings, realising that the decisions and developments during the revolution were central to the failure of the first German republic. The
5573:
Certainly a mutiny of sailors started the revolution in 1918 but it was only a start. What made it extraordinary is that a mere sailors' mutiny triggered an earthquake which shook all of
Germany; that the whole home army, the whole urban workforce and in Bavaria a part of the rural population rose up
5485:
Like a sudden storm, the biggest of all revolutions has toppled the imperial regime, including everything that belonged to it. It can be called the greatest of all revolutions because never has a more firmly built (...) fortress been taken in this manner at the first attempt. Only one week ago, there
5428:
After the Reich government and the
Supreme Command refused at an early stage to acknowledge their responsibilities for the war and the defeat, the majority parties of the Reichstag were left to cope with the resulting burdens. In his autobiography, Ludendorff's successor Groener states, "It suited me
4638:
Although Ebert had saved the decisive position of the SPD and prevented a social revolution, he was not happy with the results. He did not regard the council assembly or the Executive Council as helpful, but rather as obstacles impeding a smooth transition from monarchy to a new system of government.
4386:
thrones. Immediately thereafter, following a short meeting of the cabinet, the Prince transferred the chancellorship to Friedrich Ebert, a move that was not allowed under the constitution. Ebert quickly released a statement announcing the formation of a new "people's government" whose immediate tasks
4337:
Ebert did his best to act in agreement with the old powers and intended to save the monarchy. In hopes that the Emperor's departure and the establishment of a regency would save the constitutional monarchy that had been established on 28 October, the SPD called for Wilhelm's abdication on 7 November.
3459:
fed the belief that Germany would get a just peace if it democratised, and so the desire for peace led to demands for democracy. The revolutionary groups that had been weak and disorganized were emboldened, and even the middle class began to fear that the constitutional reforms would not be enough to
3407:
During October, President Wilson responded to the request for a truce with three diplomatic notes. As a precondition for negotiations, he demanded the retreat of Germany from all occupied territories, the cessation of submarine activities and (implicitly) the Emperor's abdication. Following the third
3285:
in power, many in both Russia and Germany expected that soviet Russia would in return help foment a communist revolution in Germany. For Germany's far Left, it provided hope for its own success, and for the moderate socialists, along with the middle and upper classes, it was a source of fear that the
5532:
The possibilities that nevertheless were lying in the streets were betrayed by Ebert and his like. Fritz* Ebert, whom you cannot heighten to a personality by calling him Friedrich, opposed the establishment of a republic only until he found there was a post of chairman to be had; comrade Scheidemann
5521:
remarked that neither Wolff nor Baecker were right. Nevertheless, Tucholsky accused Ebert and Noske of betrayal, not of the monarchy but of the revolution. Although he wanted to regard it as only a coup d'état, he analysed the course of events more clearly than most of his contemporaries. In 1928 he
5466:
On Sunday morning, after a frightful night, the morning newspapers gave a clear picture: the Emperor in Holland, the revolution victorious in most urban centres, the royals in the states abdicating. No man dead for Emperor and Empire! The continuation of duties ensured and no run on the banks! (...)
5424:
Both the radical Right and the radical Left – under different circumstances – nurtured the idea that a communist uprising was aiming to establish a soviet republic following the Russian example. The democratic centre parties, especially the SPD, were also only minimally
5420:
The Revolution of 1918/19 is one of the most important events in the modern history of Germany, yet it is poorly embedded in the historical memory of Germans. The failure of the Weimar Republic that the revolution brought into being and the Nazi era that followed it obstructed the view of the events
4888:
The sailors then occupied the Reich Chancellery, cut the phone lines, put the Council of People's Representatives under house arrest and took Otto Wels hostage and physically abused him. Ebert, who was in touch with the Supreme Command in Kassel via a secret phone line, gave orders on the morning of
4777:
The Congress then approved a proposal by the SPD to give the Council of the People's Deputies lawgiving and executive power until the national assembly made a final decision on the form of government. Oversight of the Council was switched from the Berlin Executive Council to a new Central Council of
4611:
in the East. In order to make sure that the new democracy was firmly anchored, the government would have had to make an almost complete break with the old institutions, but the SPD decided that facing the immediate post-war crises was more important. To do that, it had to rely on existing structures
4277:
There was little to no resistance to the establishment of the councils. Soldiers by simple acclamation often elected their most respected comrades; workers generally chose members of the local executive committees of the SPD or USPD. With the support of local citizens, they freed political prisoners
4173:
and the preparations to sail triggered a mutiny among the sailors involved. They had no intention of risking their lives so close to the end of the war and were convinced that the credibility of the new government, engaged as it was in seeking an armistice with the Entente, would be compromised by a
5671:
This new interpretation of the German revolution gained acceptance in research rather quickly even though older perceptions remained alive. Research concerning the composition of the worker's and soldier's councils, which today can be easily verified by sources, is undisputed to a large extent, but
5667:
As Bolshevism posed no real threat, the scope of action for the Council of the People's Deputies (also supported by the more reform-oriented councils) to democratise the administration, military and society had been relatively large, but the SPD's leadership did not take the step because it trusted
5638:
according to which the German revolution was defined as a "bourgeois-democratic revolution", led in certain aspects by proletarian means and methods. The fact that a revolution by the working class in Germany never happened could be attributed to the "subjective factor", especially the absence of a
4630:
and Reichstag. The Council began working according to rules of procedure on 12 November. The rules prohibited unauthorised intervention in the administration by individual members of the Council. Its instructions to the state secretaries had to be issued collectively and only as guidelines, not for
4434:
Once the monarchy had collapsed under the pressure of the workers' and soldiers' councils, it was up to the leadership of the socialist parties in Berlin to quickly establish the new order and address the many critical problems the defeated nation faced. From the beginning, the moderates of the SPD
4414:
before the mass of demonstrators gathered there. Ebert, who believed that the decision about the future form of the government of Germany belonged to a national assembly of the people's democratically elected representatives, stormed angrily at Scheidemann for his spontaneous decision to announce a
4333:
Friedrich Ebert, the leader of the SPD, agreed with the chancellor, Prince Max of Baden, that a social revolution had to be prevented and order upheld at all costs. In the restructuring of the state, Ebert wanted to win over the middle class parties that had cooperated with the SPD in the Reichstag
4286:
The workers' and soldiers' councils were made up almost entirely of SPD and USPD members. Their program called for an end to the war and to the authoritarian monarchical state. Apart from the dynastic families, they deprived only the military commands of their power and privilege. There were hardly
3403:
were independents, but there were also two members of the SPD. The following day, the new government offered the Allies the truce that Ludendorff had insisted on, and on the fifth the German public was informed of the dismal situation that it faced. Even up to that late point, government propaganda
5177:
According to the predominant opinion of modern historians, the establishment of a Bolshevik-style council government in Germany following the war would have been all but impossible. The Ebert government felt threatened by a coup from the Left and was certainly undermined by the Spartacus movement.
5059:
Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, the ringleaders of the January Revolt, were forced to go into hiding after its failure, but in spite of the urgings of their associates, they refused to leave Berlin. On the evening of 15 January 1919, the two were found by the authorities in an apartment in the
4595:
In theory, the Executive Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils of Greater Berlin was the highest-ranking council of the revolutionary regime and therefore Richard Müller the head of state of the newly declared "Socialist Republic of Germany", but in practice the Executive Council's initiative
4591:
On 12 November, the Council of People's Deputies published its government programme in the proclamation "To the German People". It lifted the state of siege and censorship, granted amnesty to all political prisoners, guaranteed freedom of association, assembly and the press and abolished the rules
4526:
In the assembly of the newly elected councils that convened in the afternoon at the Circus Busch, almost all of the soldiers' councils and a large part of the workers' representatives stood on the side of the SPD. After it ratified the membership of the Council of the People's Deputies, Emil Barth
3449:
during the war. The expansion of black markets also revealed the economic and monetary failures of the Wilhelmine system. Since it was Emperor Wilhelm who embodied the system that had led to the long years of hardship and privation for the people at home and to the impending defeat in the war, the
4938:
Rosa Luxemburg drew up a founding programme and presented it on 31 December 1918. She wrote that the communists could never take power without the clear will of the majority of the people. On 1 January she proposed that the KPD participate in the elections for a national assembly, but a motion to
3454:
saw a vast "paralysis of the will" in the state's power to preserve order and a corresponding desire among the people for a more complete transformation of the political and social order. The German populace was already war weary when the request for a ceasefire came like a thunderbolt. From that
3063:
was adopted; however, the revolution remained in many ways incomplete. A large number of its opponents had been left in positions of power, and it failed to resolve the fracture in the Left between moderate socialists and communists. The Weimar Republic as a result was beset from the beginning by
1606:
The Council of the People's Deputies' immediately removed some of the Empire's harsh restrictions, such as on freedom of expression, and promised an eight-hour workday and elections that would give women the right to vote for the first time. Those on the left wing of the revolution also wanted to
5447:
From its very beginning, the Weimar Republic was afflicted with the stigma of the military defeat. A large part of the bourgeoisie and the old elites from industry, landowners, the military, judiciary and administration never accepted the democratic republic and hoped to replace it at the first
5024:
While more troops were moving into Berlin on Ebert's order, he accepted an offer by the USPD to mediate between the government and the Revolutionary Committee, but the negotiations failed the following day. On 8 January, in an appeal to the people of Berlin, the Council of the People's Deputies
4821:
and asked Friedrich Ebert to accept the office of president with nearly dictatorial powers, an offer that Ebert carefully refused. At around the same time – although some sources say that it involved the same demonstrators who spoke to Ebert – a group of soldiers briefly took the members of the
4177:
The mutiny began on a small number of ships anchored off Wilhelmshaven. Faced with the sailors' disobedience, naval command called off the offensive during the night of 29–30 October, arrested several hundred of the mutineers and had the ships return to port. On 3 November, police and soldiers
3209:
in December 1916. It proposed full mobilisation and deployment of the workforce, including women, and the "militarisation" of labour relations. It met with such strong criticism that the OHL had to agree to participation by trade unions and the Reichstag parties in the act's implementation. It
5691:
With all the differences concerning details, historical researchers agree that in the German revolution, the chances to put the republic on a firm footing were considerably better than the dangers coming from the radical left. Instead, the alliance of the SPD with the old elites constituted a
5633:
While in the postwar years the majority SPD (MSPD) was cleared of its Nazi odium as "November Criminals", GDR historians blamed the SPD for "betrayal of the working class" and the USPD leadership for their incompetence. Their interpretation was mainly based on the 1958 theories of the Central
4785:
With the oversight of the Berlin Executive Council, the People's Deputies were to exercise military command authority and to see to the ending of militarism. The Congress voted unanimously for the democratisation of the military as laid out in the Hamburg Points: there were to be no more rank
4634:
Through the various councils, the socialists were able to establish a firm base at the local level. But while they believed that they were acting in the interest of the new order, the party leaders of the SPD regarded them as elements that threatened the peaceful changeover of power that they
4452:
Ebert wanted to take the sting out of the revolutionary mood and to meet the demands of the 9 November demonstrators for the unity of the labour parties. He offered the USPD equal participation in the government and was ready to accept Karl Liebknecht as a minister. The USPD, at Liebknecht's
4377:
Instead of going to Spa to meet with the Emperor in person, Chancellor von Baden telephoned him on the morning of 9 November and tried to convince him to hand the throne over to a regent who would constitutionally name Ebert chancellor. After his efforts failed, Baden, without authorization,
4341:
Wilhelm II, still at his headquarters in Spa, was considering returning to Germany at the head of the army to quell any unrest in Berlin. Even when General Groener told him that the army no longer supported him, he did not abdicate. The Chancellor planned to travel to Spa to convince Wilhelm
3394:
Although shocked by Ludendorff's report and the news of the certain defeat, the majority parties in the Reichstag, especially the SPD, were willing to take on the responsibility of government. Chancellor Hertling objected to introducing a parliamentary system and resigned. Emperor Wilhelm II
5149:
In Berlin, members of the USPD and KPD called for a general strike that started on 4 March. Its key aims were the socialisation of major industries, democratisation of the military and the safeguarding of the position of the remaining workers' and soldiers' councils. Against the will of the
5536:
The following possibilities were left out: shattering federal states, division of landed property, revolutionary socialization of industry, reform of administrative and judiciary personnel. A republican constitution in which every sentence rescinds the next one, a revolution talking about
4958:
to call for a demonstration the following day. On 5 January, as on 9 November 1918, hundreds of thousands of people poured into the centre of Berlin, many of them armed. In the afternoon, the train stations and the newspaper district with the offices of the middle-class press and the SPD'
5672:
the interpretation of the revolutionary events based on the research has been criticised and partially modified since the end of the 1970s. Criticism was aimed at the partially idealised description of the workers' and soldiers' councils, which especially was the case in the wake of the
4592:
that governed relations between servant and master. It also promised the introduction of direct, equal and universal suffrage for all women and men from the age of 20 years, the eight-hour workday and improvements in benefits for unemployment, social insurance and workers' compensation.
5425:
interested in fairly assessing the events which turned Germany into a republic. At closer look, the events turned out to be a revolution supported by the social democrats and stopped by their party leadership. The processes helped to weaken the Weimar Republic from its very beginning.
5399:
on the workers. Right-wing extremists were opposed to any democratic system, preferring instead an authoritarian state similar to the German Empire. To further undermine the Republic's credibility, far-right extremists (especially certain members of the former officer corps) used the
5549:
was of a similar opinion. He called the revolution a "disappointment", a "present by chance", a "product of desperation", a "revolution by mistake". It did not deserve the name because it did "not abolish the actual mistakes" but "degenerated into a degrading clash of interests".
5109:
in 1962 and in his memoirs, Pabst maintained that he had talked on the phone with Noske in the Chancellery and that Noske and Ebert had approved of his actions. Pabst's statement was never confirmed, especially since neither the Reichstag nor the courts ever examined the case.
5506:
The work fought for by our fathers with their precious blood – dismissed by betrayal in the ranks of our own people! Germany, yesterday still undefeated, left to the mercy of our enemies by men carrying the German name, by felony out of our own ranks broken down in guilt and
5259:
that was responsible for legislation, the budget and control of the executive. The government, headed by the chancellor, was dependent on the confidence of the Reichstag. The president, who was elected by popular vote for seven years, could dissolve the Reichstag and under
1560:. The key factors leading to the revolution were the extreme burdens suffered by the German people during the war, the economic and psychological impacts of the Empire's defeat, and the social tensions between the general populace and the aristocratic and bourgeois elite.
5394:
The Weimar Republic was always under great pressure from both left-wing and right-wing extremists. The radical left-wing accused the ruling Social Democrats of having betrayed the ideals of the workers' movement by preventing a communist revolution and unleashing the
5663:
and Reinhard Rürup argued that in the first weeks of the revolution the social base for a democratic redesign of society was much stronger than previously thought and that the potential of the extreme Left was weaker than the SPD's leadership, for example, assumed.
5568:
It is often said that a true revolution in Germany in 1918 never took place. All that really happened was a breakdown. It was only the temporary weakness of the police and army in the moment of military defeat which let a mutiny of sailors appear as a revolution.
3432:
On 5 November, the Entente Powers agreed to take up negotiations for a truce. After the third note, many soldiers had come to expect the war to end and were anxious to return home. They had little willingness to fight more battles, and desertions were increasing.
5154:
troops. On 9 March, Gustav Noske, to whom executive power had been transferred, gave the order to shoot on sight anyone found carrying a weapon. By the end of the fighting on 16 March, the uprising had been bloodily quashed, with a death toll of at least 1,200.
4619:
The SPD and USPD were under great time pressure to act. When the two parties formed their alliance, it chose to govern outside the imperial constitution. It instructed the Reichstag not to reconvene and decreed that the existing Federal Council of the states
5360:, made up of some 50,000 armed workers, mostly adherents of the KPD and USPD, used the disruption caused by the putsch to take control of the regions' industrial district. After bloody battles in which an estimated 1,000 insurgents and 200 soldiers died,
3229:
Because of the increasing intra-party conflicts centering around the opponents of the war, the leadership of the SPD under Friedrich Ebert expelled them from the party in January 1917. The Spartacists, who had formed the SPD's far left wing, joined with
4718:
and arbitration committees in firms with more than 50 employees and guaranteed that returning soldiers would have a right to their pre-war jobs. Future disputes were to be resolved through a newly created organisation called the "Central Working Group"
5563:
in turn came out against Tucholsky and Rathenau. He lived through the revolution in Berlin as a child and wrote 50 years later in his book about one of the myths related to the events of November 1918 that had taken root especially in the bourgeoisie:
5650:
Consistently, the founding of the KPD (Communist Party of Germany) was declared to be the decisive turning point in German history, but in spite of ideological bias, historical research in the GDR expanded detailed knowledge of the German revolution.
3408:
note of 24 October, which emphasised the danger to international peace inherent in the power of the "King of Prussia" and the "military authorities of the Empire", General Ludendorff resigned and was replaced as First General Quartermaster by General
5130:. The overall cause was continued worker disappointment that the revolution had not achieved the goals they had hoped for in November 1918: nationalisation of key industries, recognition of the workers' and soldiers' councils and establishment of a
5529:
The things taking place were not a revolution. There was no spiritual preparation, no leaders ready in the dark; no revolutionary goals. The mother of this revolution was the soldiers' longing to be home for Christmas. And weariness, disgust and
5035:
building with heavy weaponry. Six parliamentarians who came out to negotiate a surrender were summarily shot. The remaining occupied buildings were taken the same day, and by 12 January the uprising was over. The death toll was estimated at 156.
5486:
was still a military and civil administration so deeply rooted that it seemed to have secured its dominion beyond the change of times. (...) Only yesterday morning, at least in Berlin, all this still existed. Yesterday afternoon it was all gone.
4990:) that failed to make use of its power and was unable to give any clear direction. Liebknecht wanted the government overthrown and agreed with the majority of the Committee that supported an armed struggle. Rosa Luxemburg and other KPD leaders (
4505:). The workers' and soldiers' councils were to be given political power – not full executive, legislative and judicial control – and a national assembly would be discussed only "after a consolidation of the conditions created by the revolution".
5687:
tried to find a compromise, according to which the Social Democrats depended to a limited extent on cooperation with the old elites but went considerably too far: "With more political willpower they could have changed more and preserved less."
5512:
This is a sin that can never be forgiven and never will be forgiven. This is treason not only against the monarchy and the army but also against the German people themselves who will have to bear the consequences in centuries of decline and of
5554:
Not a chain was broken by the swelling of spirit and will, only a lock merely rusted through. The chain fell off and the freed stood amazed, helpless, embarrassed and needed to arm against their will. The ones sensing their advantage were the
4537:) made up of seven SPD members, seven from the USPD and fourteen mostly independent soldiers' representatives. It was to oversee the People's Deputies until the creation of a national assembly and was chaired by Richard Müller of the USPD and
4527:
called for an action committee to oversee it and presented a list of names drawn up by the Revolutionary Stewards. The proposal took the SPD leadership by surprise and started heated debates in the assembly. Ebert was able to push through an "
4282:
and was pleasantly surprised that most members were moderate German liberals. The councils took over the distribution of food, the police force and the accommodation and provisions of the front-line soldiers who were gradually returning home.
4475:
used the party apparatus to influence the voting in the soldiers' councils and won most of them over to the SPD. By morning it was clear that the SPD would have the majority of the delegates on its side at the councils' meeting that evening.
5349:, march to Berlin and seize control of the Reich government. Their attempt, made on 9 November 1923, was stopped in Munich by the local police, Hitler was arrested and sentenced to five years in prison. He was released in less than a year.
5231:
In addition to drawing up and approving a new constitution, the Assembly was responsible for passing urgently needed Reich laws. In May it found itself embroiled in the highly contentious issue of whether or not to accept the terms of the
3307:
of 15 February 1918: "Socialism cannot be erected on bayonets and machine guns. If it is to last, it must be realised with democratic means. ... Therefore we must draw a thick, visible dividing line between ourselves and the Bolsheviks."
3097:. It had international ties to other countries' socialist parties, all of which were ideologically anti-war. Patriotism nevertheless proved the stronger force when the war broke out, and the SPD threw its support behind the Fatherland.
5078:, had them questioned. The same night both prisoners were clubbed with the butt of a rifle and shot in the head. Karl Liebknecht's body, without a name, was delivered to a nearby morgue. Rosa Luxemburg's body was thrown into Berlin's
4435:
held the leading position. They had the broadest support from the working class and the at least grudging backing of the imperial bureaucracy, most of which remained in place. When Ebert showed himself willing to use the military and
5509:
The German socialists knew that peace was at hand anyway and that it was only a matter of holding out against the enemy for a few days or weeks in order to wrest bearable conditions from them. In this situation they raised the white
4930:
After their experiences with the SPD and the USPD, the Spartacists concluded that their goals could be met only by forming a party of their own. They therefore joined with other left-socialist groups from across Germany to found the
5625:
was based on the assumption that the extreme Left was comparably strong and a real threat to the democratic development. On this point, West German researchers ironically found themselves in line with Marxist historiography in the
5448:
opportunity. On the Left, the actions of the SPD leadership during the revolution drove many of its former adherents to the Communists. The incomplete revolution gave birth to what some have called a "democracy without democrats".
4976:
The demonstrators were mainly the same people who had participated in the revolutionary actions in November who were demanding the fulfilment of their wish for a workers' government expressed two months previously. The so-called
3404:
and the press had led the people to believe that the war would still be won. The shock of the impending defeat caused a "paralytic bitterness and deep resignation" which eased the way for those who wanted an immediate ceasefire.
8440:
4896:, which the Spartacists named "Ebert's Bloody Christmas", was that the USPD resigned from the government in protest on 29 December. Its three members were replaced on the Council of the People's Deputies by two from the SPD:
4761:
3221:
erupted in German armament factories in January 1918. 400,000 workers went on strike in Berlin and around a million nationwide. Their primary demand was an end to the war. The SPD took part in the strike in order to keep the
4189:
who had arrived from Berlin. The sailors had a list of fourteen demands, including less harsh military punishment and full freedom of speech and the press in the Empire. One of the representatives from the Reich government,
7238:
Haardt, Oliver F. R.; Clark, Christopher M. (2018). "Die Weimarer Reichsverfassung als Moment in der Geschichte" [The Weimar Constitution a Defining Moment in History]. In Dreier, Horst; Waldhoff, Christian (eds.).
3186:
Since the SPD was the only party whose position was in any real doubt, its unanimous vote for the war bonds was greeted with great enthusiasm as a sign of Germany's national unity. The Emperor welcomed the political truce
5587:
During the Nazi regime, works on the Weimar Republic and the German revolution published abroad and by exiles could not be read in Germany. Around 1935, that affected the first published history of the Weimar Republic by
5150:
leadership, the strikes escalated into street fighting. The Prussian state government, which had declared a state of siege, called on the Reich government for help. It responded with the deployment of both government and
3193:) among the Reichstag's parties in which they agreed not to criticise the government's handling of the war and to keep their disagreements out of public view. He declared: "I no longer know parties, I know only Germans!"
7588:
3371:
I have asked His Majesty to bring into the government those circles to whom we mainly owe it that we have come this far. ... Let them now make the peace that must be made. They should eat the soup they have served up to
8940:
On East German historiography of the German revolution see Mario Keßler: Die Novemberrevolution in der Geschichtswissenschaft der DDR – Die Kontroversen des Jahres 1958 und ihre Folgen im internationalen Kontext, in:
5236:. Under intense pressure from the victorious Allies, it agreed on 16 June 1919 after Scheidemann resigned as minister president with the words, "What hand should not wither that puts itself and us in these fetters?"
4868:
Because the People's Navy Division had been helpful to the government in Kiel and was considered loyal, it was ordered to Berlin in early November to help protect the city's government quarter and stationed in the
1607:
nationalise key industries, democratise the military and set up a council republic, but the MSPD had control of most of the workers' and soldiers' councils and blocked any substantial movement towards their goals.
4728:
With the agreement, the unions had achieved several of their longtime demands, and by their recognition of private enterprise, they made the efforts towards nationalising the means of production more difficult.
5321:) attempted to overthrow the government, but the venture collapsed within a few days under the effects of a general strike and the refusal of government employees to obey Kapp. Members of the ultra-nationalist
4854:"), demanded the peaceful disarmament of returning soldiers by the workers of Berlin. She wanted the soldiers' councils to be subordinated to the revolutionary parliament and the soldiers to be "re-educated".
4786:
insignia and no carrying of weapons when not in service; soldiers were to elect officers; soldiers' councils were to be responsible for discipline; and the standing army was to be replaced by a people's army (
5988:
3350:
that the military situation was hopeless in the face of the enemy's overwhelming advantage in manpower and equipment. General Ludendorff said that a request for an immediate ceasefire should be sent to the
5595:
After 1945, West German historical research on the Weimar Republic concentrated most of all on its decline. In 1951, Theodor Eschenburg mostly ignored the revolutionary beginning of the republic. In 1955,
8294:
Hans Rudolf, Wahl (2018). "Novemberrevolution, Räterepublik und Demokratiegründung in Bremen" [November Revolution, Soviet Republic and Founding of Democracy in Bremen]. In Lehnert, Detlef (ed.).
4558:
In the turmoil of the day, the Ebert government's acceptance of the Entente's harsh terms for a ceasefire after a renewed demand from the Supreme Army Command went almost unnoticed. On 11 November, the
9297:
Die deutsche Revolution von 1918/19. Geschichte der Entstehung und ersten Arbeitsperiode der deutschen Republik. Herausgegeben und eingeleitet von Heinrich August Winkler und annotiert von Teresa Löwe.
5186:
during the various revolts estranged many left democrats from the SPD. They regarded the behaviour of Ebert, Noske and the other SPD leaders during the revolution as a betrayal of their own followers.
1648:. Into the spring, there were additional violently suppressed efforts to push the revolution further in the direction of a council republic, as well as short-lived local soviet republics, notably in
3226:
from having control of the strike's leadership, but its participation soured the SPD's relationship with the other parties in the Reichstag. The strike was put down by the military after a week.
5676:
of the 1960s (1968). Peter von Oertzen went particularly far in this respect, describing a social democracy based on councils as a positive alternative to the bourgeois republic. In comparison,
7134:
4394:
The premature news of the abdication came too late to make any impression on the demonstrators who had filled the streets of Berlin. Nobody heeded the public appeals. While having lunch in the
4833:(OHL) had agreed that troops returning from the front would parade through Berlin on 10 December. Ebert greeted them with a glowing speech that included words that would help give rise to the
4453:
insistence, demanded that elected representatives of the unions and soldiers have full executive, legislative and judicial control. The SPD refused, and negotiations got no further that day.
878:
8296:
4483:
returned from Kiel the morning of 10 November and was able to broker a compromise in the negotiations with the SPD about the new government. The revolutionary government, to be called the
4338:
According to notes taken by Prince Max of Baden, Ebert told him, "If the Emperor does not abdicate, the social revolution is unavoidable. But I do not want it, indeed I hate it like sin."
975:
4943:, the majority still implicitly hoped to gain power through "putschist adventures". After deliberations with the Spartacists, the Revolutionary Stewards decided to remain in the USPD.
1211:
4782:). After the Congress accepted the SPD's definition of parliamentary oversight, the USPD boycotted the election to the Central Council, with the result that it had only SPD members.
8520:
5681:
of the 1950s: "The councils to a large extent were neither communist-oriented, nor can the policies of the majority SPD in every aspect be labelled fortuitous and worth praising."
11339:
4599:
The government saw its immediate tasks as fulfilling the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, demobilisation, providing adequate food and fuel supplies for a nation still under the
3112:– proved irreconcilable. After the fall of the German monarchy, the increasing antagonism between the three socialist parties drove the violence of the revolution's second stage.
11354:
13322:
11538:
3108:
broke off shortly after the end of the war. The SPD and USPD tried to work together during the early days of the revolution, but their differing goals – parliamentary versus
12075:
9748:
3164:
turned down plans by high-ranking military officials to dissolve the SPD at the start of the war and exploited the party's anti-Russian stance to gain its approval for it.
6458:
4981:" that followed originated only partially in the KPD. The Spartacists did not have a leading position in January 1919. KPD members were a minority among the insurgents.
4410:
planned to proclaim a socialist republic. Scheidemann did not want to leave the initiative to the Spartacists and stepped to a window of the Reichstag building where he
5656:
5408:. Both sides were determined to bring down the Weimar Republic. In the end, the right-wing extremists were successful, and the Weimar Republic came to an end with the
5220:. The USPD received only 7.6% of the vote; the KPD did not participate. To remove itself from the post-revolutionary confusion in Berlin, the National Assembly met in
4528:
4199:
1572:
871:
4439:
against opposing members of the socialist Left, it quickly led to fractures between the SPD and USPD and then to street battles with the Spartacists and communists.
11436:
5013:
On the following day, 6 January, the Revolutionary Committee again called for a mass demonstration. Even more people heeded the call and filled the streets from the
5429:
just fine when the army and the Supreme Command remained as guiltless as possible in these wretched truce negotiations, from which nothing good could be expected".
13037:
11073:
10897:
10237:
4998:) thought a revolt at that time to be premature and spoke out against it, although Luxemburg later gave in and followed the will of the majority of the Committee.
4694:
Like the SPD moderates, the unions also feared the councils because their supporters saw them as replacing the unions. To prevent such a development, union leader
4551:
On the evening of the same day, a phone call between Ebert and General Wilhelm Groener, the new First Quartermaster General, resulted in the unofficial and secret
3399:
as the new imperial chancellor on 3 October. The Prince was considered a liberal and at the same time was a representative of the royal family. Most of the men in
1333:
4760:
The Executive Council called for a meeting of the workers' and soldiers' councils from the entire country to be held in Berlin beginning on 16 December. When the
11515:
1261:
968:
12994:
11543:
10050:
4626:) should exercise only its administrative functions, not its legislative powers. The Council in essence took over the former roles of the emperor, chancellor,
3386:), according to which revolutionary socialists and republican politicians had betrayed the undefeated army and turned an almost certain victory into a defeat.
1204:
5578:
As a revolutionary achievement of masses the German November 1918 does not need to take second place to either the French July 1789 or the Russian March 1917.
13174:
11731:
11458:
11150:
10108:
9799:
Interview with one of the leaders of the mutiny in Kiel: Lothar Popp; CV of Lothar Popp; interviews with other contemporary witnesses; evaluations; time-line
4387:
were to end the war as quickly as possible and to ensure a sufficient supply of food for the German people, who were still suffering under the impact of the
4185:, the naval commander in Kiel, released the imprisoned sailors and asked the protestors to send a delegation to meet with him and two representatives of the
864:
6782:
4493:) at the USPD's insistence, gave the USPD much of what it wanted. The Council was to be made up of three representatives of the SPD (Ebert, Scheidemann and
11838:
8268:
5378:(KAPD) and other far-left organisations attempted a communist uprising in the industrial regions of central Germany. It was quashed by government troops.
4826:
attributes it to "high-ranking officers and officials" who planned to have Ebert disband the workers' and soldiers' councils with the military's support.
4706:, which had advantages for both sides. Employers acknowledged trade unions as the official representatives of the workforce and recognised their right to
3201:
As the war dragged on and the death toll rose, more SPD members began to question the party's support for the war. The dissatisfaction increased when the
3064:
opponents from both the Left and – to a greater degree – the Right. The fractures in the German Left that had become permanent during the revolution made
11746:
11501:
4538:
9659:
6240:
11741:
11431:
11382:
11297:
961:
17:
7425:
6133:
5271:
was elected the second and last president of the Republic. His use of Article 48 was instrumental in paving the way for Adolf Hitler's rise to power.
4587:
The Council of the People's Deputies. From left to right: Barth (USPD), Landsberg (SPD), Ebert (SPD), Haase (USPD), Dittmann (USPD), Scheidemann (SPD)
11585:
9323:
5391:), was marked by internal consolidation and rapprochement in foreign affairs along with a growing economy and a consequent decrease in civil unrest.
4471:
On the evening of the ninth, the SPD leadership learned of the plans for the elections and the councils' meeting. Since they could not be prevented,
3483:
1197:
4737:
9775:
7398:
Dowe, Christopher (8 October 2014). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.).
6781:
Bruendel, Steffen (8 October 2014). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.).
6671:
5051:). The 1919 uprising and its brutal end exacerbated the already deep divisions in the workers' movement and fuelled more political radicalisation.
4950:(USPD), for supporting the People's Navy Division during the Christmas crisis. His dismissal led the USPD, Revolutionary Stewards and KPD chairmen
7749:
6160:
4202:, and groups of sailors had gone to nearby cities to spread the uprising. Within days the revolution had encompassed the western part of Germany.
1622:. A few days later, protests resulting from the violence at the end of December led to mass demonstrations in Berlin that quickly turned into the
12242:
12085:
11426:
10784:
6430:
Oppelland, Torsten (2 June 2016). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.).
6048:
Krumeich, Gerd (11 October 2016). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.).
4357:
3277:'s return to Russia from his exile in Switzerland in the hope that he would weaken the tsarist regime and its conduct of the war. After the 1917
3046:
327:
5467:
Trams and subways ran as usual, which is a pledge that basic needs are cared for. On all faces it could be read: Wages will continue to be paid.
13352:
9438:
7660:
4239:
3247:
3101:
267:
10215:
8741:
Barth, Boris (8 October 2014). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.).
7776:
7161:
12447:
10277:
5286:
3416:
985:
53:
8703:
5659:
especially moved into focus, and their previous appearance as a far-left movement had to be revised extensively. Authors like Ulrich Kluge,
5313:
From 1920 to 1923, both nationalist and left-wing forces continued fighting against the Weimar Republic. In March 1920, a coup organized by
13307:
11486:
11416:
11055:
10267:
10178:
4097:
3100:
By 1917, some on the left of the party had become so outspokenly anti-war that they were expelled from the SPD and formed a new party, the
346:
8361:
7944:
6876:
Jones, Mark (19 May 2016). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.).
4653:
At the insistence of the USPD representatives, the Council of People's Deputies appointed a "Nationalisation Committee" that included the
13287:
11510:
10401:
9855:
4326:
4195:
3251:
3128:
aroused the distrust of the parties of the centre and Right, and its members were often disparaged as "journeymen without a fatherland" (
1600:
8414:
3120:
By 1912, the Social Democrats had grown into the largest political party in Germany, with 35% of the national vote and 110 seats in the
13072:
12987:
10078:
288:
7915:
3210:
accepted their demands for arbitration committees, the expansion of trade union powers and a repeal of the act at the end of the war.
3141:
beginning in 1889, where they had agreed to resolutions asking for combined action by socialists in the event of a war. Following the
13159:
10408:
6727:[The course of political events in Germany from November 1918 to the election of Ebert as Reich President in February 1919].
6187:
5267:
In October 1922, the Reichstag lengthened Ebert's term of office until 23 June 1925. He died in office a few months before then, and
5208:
in an election that included women for the first time. The SPD received the highest percentage of votes (38%), and with the Catholic
3805:
3142:
13367:
13357:
13194:
12733:
11973:
10060:
5533:è tutti quanti, all were would-be senior civil servants. (* Fritz is the colloquial term for Friedrich like Willy is for William.)
11736:
9228:
7892:
Oeckel, Heinz (1968). "Volkswehrbewegung und Novemberrevolution" [People's Defence Movement and the November Revolution].
5576:
As in any revolution, the old order was replaced by the beginnings of a new one. It was not just destructive but also creative....
4984:
The initiators of the revolt, who had gathered at the Police Headquarters, elected a 53-member "Interim Revolutionary Committee" (
13052:
12914:
11668:
11506:
11493:
11450:
11359:
11085:
10887:
10794:
10696:
10454:
10101:
6916:
5722:
5490:
The extreme Right had a completely opposite perception. On 10 November, conservative journalist Paul Baecker wrote an article in
4608:
4411:
4351:
2603:
1576:
1363:
1288:
1019:
298:
9734:
9443:
9328:
6725:"Der Ablauf der politischen Ereignisse in Deutschland vom November 1918 bis zur Wahl Eberts als Reichspräsident im Februar 1919"
6431:
3334:
in 1918. His calculated shifting of responsibility for the war's loss from the army to the civilian government gave rise to the
13362:
13169:
11860:
11850:
11718:
6705:] (in German). Vol. V. Weltkrieg, Revolution und Reichserneuerung: 1914–1919 . Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer. p. 590.
5375:
5159:
4807:
On 6 December 1918, in what was likely a putsch attempt, a group of armed students and soldiers, including some members of the
3109:
1747:
1553:
7875:
Wrobel, Kurt (1968). "Heinrich Dorrenbach – Soldat der Revolution" [Heinrich Dorrenbach – Soldier of the Revolution].
5118:
4880:
4362:
3156:"), the majority of SPD newspapers were strongly anti-war, although some supported it by pointing out the danger posed by the
13382:
13214:
12980:
12207:
11632:
11566:
11403:
11282:
10955:
9974:
9830:
9433:
9411:
9218:
9049:
8241:
6839:
6597:
6535:
6254:
5462:, a Protestant theologian and philosopher, rather calmly remarked how the majority of Berlin citizens perceived 10 November:
4291:
4121:
3756:
2754:
2694:
1121:
231:
9061:
Antidemokratisches Denken in der Weimarer Republik. Die politischen Ideen des deutschen Nationalismus zwischen 1918 und 1933
8467:
5608:
gave barely 20 pages to the events. The same can be said for Karl Dietrich Erdmann's contribution to the 8th edition of the
4568:
4242:(USPD) was elected president of the Bavarian Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Council, and on 8 November he proclaimed the
13327:
12514:
11807:
11227:
10012:
6555:. Translated by Forster, Elborg; Jones, Larry Eugene. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 11–12.
4904:(labour and social affairs). In light of the military's failure at the Berlin Palace, Noske ordered a strengthening of the
3996:
2827:
1276:
1009:
2744:
12361:
12344:
12177:
11578:
10902:
10530:
10035:
8623:
5224:
beginning on 6 February. The Assembly elected Friedrich Ebert temporary president on 11 February and Philipp Scheidemann
5134:. In 1919, attaining the goals would have required the overthrow of the Ebert government. General strikes were called in
4600:
4484:
4388:
3315:
with Germany to end Russia's involvement in the war. It arguably contained harsher terms for the Russians than the later
3039:
2897:
2523:
2214:
1588:
11792:
13224:
13042:
12252:
12217:
12162:
11777:
11067:
10469:
10227:
9072:
8968:
8925:
8865:
8145:
7981:
7640:
7511:
7382:
7344:
7252:
7098:
7004:
6375:
6213:
6091:
5774:
5405:
3897:
3082:
2914:
2724:
2184:
1328:
1318:
1014:
888:
259:
238:
31:
6107:
5471:
Lending himself to far too optimistic illusions, which the SPD leadership also might have had, the liberal journalist
13302:
13199:
13179:
12701:
12605:
12442:
11652:
11346:
11162:
10434:
9905:
9706:
9692:
9638:
9621:
9600:
9573:
9556:
9539:
9518:
9504:
9490:
9476:
9373:
9356:
9348:
9304:
9260:
9182:
9148:
9118:
8332:
8188:
8082:
7859:
7464:
6560:
6325:
5571:
At first sight, one can see how wrong and blind it is comparing 1918 with 1945. In 1945 there really was a breakdown.
4771:
3845:
3004:
2469:
2254:
1156:
4254:
he relieved all civil servants and military personnel from their oath of loyalty to him, effectively abdicating the
3289:
The moderate SPD leadership consequently shifted away from the party's official stance as revolutionary socialists.
10832:
9870:
8596:
5635:
5261:
5255:
because of the strength of the presidency) with a comprehensive list of fundamental rights and a popularly elected
5247:
was ratified by the National Assembly on 11 August and became effective three days later. It established a federal
4146:
in late October 1918. While the war-weary troops and general population of Germany awaited the end of the war, the
4090:
2872:
2543:
1610:
The split between the moderate and radical socialists erupted into violence in the last days of 1918, sparked by a
2784:
13347:
12567:
12167:
11903:
11708:
11688:
11475:
11411:
11234:
11103:
10007:
9927:
9865:
5409:
4259:
3364:
1627:
1580:
10568:
9065:
Anti-democratic thinking in the Weimar Republic. The political ideas of German nationalism between 1918 and 1933
4198:(SPD), calmed the immediate situation with a promise of amnesty, but by then Kiel was already in the hands of a
1131:
13377:
13332:
12550:
12366:
12050:
11703:
11698:
11693:
11683:
11377:
10022:
9997:
9895:
9802:
8942:
5264:
had the power to declare a state of emergency and issue emergency decrees when public security was threatened.
4946:
A wave of violence started on 4 January when the Prussian government dismissed the chief of the Berlin police,
4616:
nobility (which had historically provided much of the officer corps) or the bourgeois owners of large estates.
4170:
3815:
3032:
1878:
1266:
1059:
8650:
7803:
7616:
Die Beteiligung der Mitarbeiter am Produktivkapital - Konzeptionelle Entwicklung und praktische Ausgestaltung
4840:
As a result of the events, the potential for violence and the danger of a coup from the Right became visible.
3250:(USPD) under the leadership of Hugo Haase on 6 April 1917. After that point, the SPD was officially named the
2799:
13317:
13312:
12844:
12620:
12482:
12386:
12285:
11678:
11673:
11637:
11571:
11463:
11309:
10892:
10744:
10282:
10210:
10141:
9910:
9880:
9875:
8388:
5456:
Depending on their political standpoint, contemporaries had greatly differing opinions about the revolution.
5048:
3218:
3206:
3161:
2169:
1575:
were in control of government and military institutions across most of the Reich. On 9 November, Germany was
1293:
1039:
1004:
6049:
5126:
In the first months of 1919, there were additional armed revolts in parts of Germany that culminated in the
4461:
4342:
personally of the necessity, but his plans were overtaken by the rapidly deteriorating situation in Berlin.
3145:
in June 1914, the SPD, like other socialist parties in Europe, organised anti-war demonstrations during the
2779:
732:
13372:
13077:
13003:
12864:
12592:
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11966:
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11254:
11194:
11091:
10996:
10759:
10545:
10249:
10088:
9987:
7212:
6271:
5737:
5437:
5225:
5201:
4703:
4648:
4379:
4243:
3969:
3924:
3887:
3875:
3820:
3124:. In spite of its predominance, the party had no role in the imperial government. Its official espousal of
3121:
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2877:
2837:
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1649:
1469:
1221:
1146:
917:
48:
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10287:
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9947:
5256:
4083:
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1420:
1024:
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321:
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12014:
11845:
11802:
11079:
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10593:
10161:
10073:
10030:
9282:
9210:
9163:
8677:
7830:
7399:
6954:
6341:
6136:[Emperor Wilhelm II's Speech from the Throne to the Reichstag Representatives, 4 August 1914].
5644:
5627:
5252:
5044:
4932:
3909:
3904:
3396:
3360:
3105:
2832:
2533:
2204:
1619:
385:
280:
9805:, published 9 May 2008, English version published 4 March 2020 ; in: Historisches Lexikon Bayerns
13204:
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12019:
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9900:
9890:
9823:
9785:
9036:
Hoffrogge, Ralf (2014). "Working-Class Politics in the German Revolution". In Müller, Richard (ed.).
5727:
5298:, assassinated in 1921 by members of the radical Right because he had signed the Treaty of Versailles
4622:
4016:
3810:
3768:
2842:
2809:
2709:
2704:
2374:
1991:
1390:
1348:
1251:
10734:
5950:"The Second International: The Impact of Domestic Factors on International Organization Dysfunction"
13392:
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13292:
13209:
13047:
12811:
12773:
12610:
12381:
11762:
11249:
11239:
11168:
11121:
11109:
11049:
10857:
10852:
10774:
10183:
10156:
9860:
7428:[Council of the People's Deputies, Proclamation "To the German People", 12 November 1918].
5381:
From 1924 to 1929, the Weimar Republic was relatively stable. The period, known in Germany as the "
5205:
5195:
5163:
4922:
4129:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2759:
2334:
1737:
1636:
troops with the loss of 150 to 200 lives. In the aftermath of the uprising, the Spartacist leaders
1479:
1343:
1168:
942:
907:
310:
134:
5604:
shows how little the revolution after 1945 was regarded as part of German history. His two-volume
4790:). The Army Command strongly objected to the Hamburg Points, and no trace of them was left in the
3355:
powers. In hopes of more favourable peace terms, he also recommended accepting American president
2114:
13118:
12947:
12821:
12801:
12778:
12758:
12718:
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12630:
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12467:
12237:
11959:
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11825:
11767:
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11222:
10985:
10812:
10807:
10739:
10598:
10583:
10578:
10558:
10439:
10316:
7495:
6497:
5684:
5673:
5213:
4823:
3959:
3614:
3312:
3125:
2892:
2882:
2847:
2563:
2209:
1800:
1712:
1385:
1380:
10779:
9762:
8443:[Scheidemann: "What hand should not wither that puts itself and us in these fetters?"].
6877:
4741:
Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils. From right to left on the ministerial bench:
13219:
13123:
13113:
12748:
12723:
12686:
12545:
12477:
12306:
12197:
12187:
11600:
11324:
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11115:
10842:
10769:
10719:
10704:
10686:
10659:
10573:
10540:
10205:
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9957:
9850:
5248:
5209:
5167:
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4457:
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2419:
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1830:
1657:
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1338:
1323:
1136:
1074:
932:
315:
293:
7893:
7876:
7849:
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5174:
troops with considerable loss of life: 80 in Bremen (February) and about 600 in Munich (May).
2016:
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12909:
12728:
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10671:
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10133:
10002:
9885:
9366:
Die deutsche Revolution 1918/1919 – wie war es wirklich? Ein Beitrag zur deutschen Geschichte
8174:
7971:
7630:
5630:(GDR), which attributed considerable revolutionary potential most of all to the Spartacists.
5597:
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5433:
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4863:
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4707:
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2583:
2464:
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1966:
1810:
1692:
1611:
1435:
922:
397:
9511:
Die ratlose Rosa. Die KPD-Führung im Berliner Januaraufstand 1919. Legende und Wirklichkeit.
4138:
The German revolution was triggered by a sailors' mutiny centered on the North Sea ports of
953:
12691:
12635:
12519:
12457:
12452:
12422:
12354:
12332:
12280:
12182:
11940:
11855:
10535:
10509:
10459:
9816:
9749:
Labour Movements and Strikes, Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Germany)
8441:"Scheidemann: "Welche Hand müßte nicht verdorren, die sich und uns in diese Fesseln legt?""
8176:
Das rechte Recht. Die deutsche Justiz und ihre Auseinandersetzung mit alten und neuen Nazis
5897:
5834:"Choosing the Lesser Evil: The German Social Democrats and the Fall of the Weimar Republic"
5233:
5127:
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4159:
3949:
3944:
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1976:
1898:
1805:
1772:
1410:
1126:
937:
186:
10484:
9668:
9664:
9426:
Am Anfang war Gewalt. Die deutsche Revolution 1918/19 und der Beginn der Weimarer Republik
6724:
4672:
3068:'s rise to power in 1933 easier than it might have been if the Left had been more united.
8:
13133:
12874:
12768:
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12738:
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1415:
1400:
1044:
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498:
421:
141:
67:
13138:
12232:
11875:
9549:
Die verspielte Freiheit. Der Weg der Republik von Weimar in den Untergang 1918 bis 1933.
7164:[The German Revolution 1918/19 - Political Tensions and Fundamental Decisions].
6645:
4419:, Liebknecht proclaimed a socialist republic, which he reaffirmed from a balcony of the
3741:
3160:, which they saw as the most reactionary and anti-socialist power in Europe. Chancellor
1556:. The defeat of the forces of the far Left cleared the way for the establishment of the
1511:
13128:
13087:
13017:
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5295:
5009:, captured during World War I, in use by German government troops. Berlin, January 1919
4564:
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3286:
kind of bloody civil war that was occurring in Russia could also break out in Germany.
3278:
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2988:
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2794:
2764:
2719:
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2513:
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2229:
2144:
1863:
1496:
1405:
1313:
1241:
1029:
546:
9766:
9752:
9738:
9724:
3152:
In contrast to the widespread enthusiasm for the war among the educated classes (the "
1069:
13027:
13022:
12894:
12869:
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12763:
12577:
12349:
12141:
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9178:
9144:
9114:
9068:
9045:
8964:
8921:
8861:
8328:
8184:
8181:
Right-wing Justice. The German Judiciary and its Confrontation with Old and New Nazis
8141:
7977:
7855:
7636:
7507:
7460:
7378:
7248:
7094:
7000:
6835:
6706:
6593:
6556:
6531:
6371:
6321:
6250:
6087:
6075:
5770:
5767:
Brockhaus Contemporary History from the Eve of the First World War to the Present Day
5717:
5560:
5131:
4818:
4662:
4036:
4006:
3974:
3914:
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1986:
1883:
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9781:
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3609:
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1727:
1271:
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12121:
12090:
12045:
12040:
10973:
10943:
10937:
10847:
10676:
10644:
10634:
10373:
10297:
10292:
10220:
10040:
9940:
9685:
Die nervöse Großmacht. Aufstieg und Untergang des deutschen Kaisserreichs 1871–1918
9626:
9292:
9041:
8320:
6404:
6134:"Thronrede Kaiser Wilhelms II. vor den Abgeordneten des Reichstags, 4. August 1914"
5961:
5845:
5640:
5600:
also dealt with the German revolution from the perspective of the failed republic.
5589:
5546:
5441:
5342:
5330:
5306:
5217:
5162:
were proclaimed in a number of cities and towns into early 1919, but only those in
5089:
later compensated the few who had been put on trial or jailed, and they merged the
4940:
4498:
4407:
4251:
4151:
4147:
4011:
3929:
3827:
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3671:
3446:
3331:
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requested by the imperial government. Fourteen deputies, headed by party co-leader
3167:
After Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August 1914, 96 SPD deputies, among them
2982:
2942:
2659:
2493:
2399:
2299:
2284:
2194:
2124:
2031:
2026:
2001:
1908:
1888:
1873:
1732:
1615:
1506:
1358:
1099:
1094:
912:
804:
445:
409:
275:
5763:
Der Brockhaus Zeitgeschichte vom Vorabend des Ersten Weltkrieges bis zur Gegenwart
5574:
in revolt. This revolt was not just a mutiny anymore, it was a true revolution....
5064:
district of Berlin. They were immediately arrested and handed over to the largest
2314:
2224:
719:
701:
13261:
13245:
12859:
12854:
12849:
12796:
12222:
11782:
11622:
10961:
10514:
10489:
10188:
10096:
9935:
9250:
9235:
9110:
9104:
7162:"Die deutsche Revolution 1918/19 - Politische Spannungen und Grundentscheidungen"
5742:
5459:
5388:
5280:
4951:
4746:
4575:, France, on behalf of the government in Berlin, and World War I came to an end.
4426:
The Emperor had fallen, but the form of the new government was still in dispute.
4403:
4322:
4182:
4155:
4073:
4001:
3954:
3870:
3783:
3456:
3409:
3180:
3168:
3022:
2714:
2699:
2339:
2219:
2179:
2154:
2134:
2081:
2066:
1918:
1913:
1782:
1777:
1767:
1722:
1697:
1641:
1596:
1557:
1533:
1395:
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553:
541:
529:
517:
505:
493:
481:
474:
469:
457:
433:
205:
147:
122:
9790:
9309:
9170:
8680:[Foreign policy – A policy of understanding: Compromise with the West].
8271:[The Essen Socialisation Movement and its End (January/February 1919)].
8183:] (in German). Munich: Penguin Random House Verlagsgruppe GmbH. p. 26.
7618:(PhD thesis) (in German). Universität Fridericiana zu Karlsruhe. pp. 82–83.
6615:"Abandoning Democracy: Woodrow Wilson and Promoting German Democracy, 1918-1919"
5797:] (in German). Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. 2004. p. 7.
4460:
from the larger Berlin factories occupied the Reichstag. Led by their spokesmen
2119:
1946:
774:
714:
13229:
12961:
12839:
12826:
12489:
12247:
11615:
11595:
11266:
10979:
10817:
10608:
10499:
10355:
10259:
10242:
9680:
9609:
9588:
9561:
9469:
Soldatenräte und Revolution. Studien zur Militärpolitik in Deutschland 1918/19.
8545:
5849:
5709:
5518:
5098:
5079:
5075:
5018:
4901:
4870:
4841:
4750:
4711:
4604:
4494:
3698:
3599:
3589:
3425:
3356:
3274:
3157:
3153:
3094:
2952:
2679:
2645:
2444:
2434:
2389:
2349:
2344:
2289:
2279:
2274:
2259:
2189:
2174:
2159:
2149:
2061:
1961:
1951:
1941:
1637:
1501:
1484:
1303:
1151:
1116:
1089:
588:
570:
522:
61:
4210:
By 7 November, the revolution had taken control in all large coastal cities –
2244:
13281:
13062:
13057:
12202:
11726:
11014:
11008:
10444:
10361:
10272:
9644:
8887:
Democracy in Conflict. The Weimar Republic in the Judgement of Contemporaries
7426:"Rat der Volksbeauftragten, Aufruf "An das deutsche Volk", 12. November 1918"
6710:
5660:
5472:
5357:
5353:
5314:
5135:
5040:
4955:
4947:
4926:
The occupation of the Silesian railway station in Berlin by government troops
4874:
4666:
4519:
4420:
4186:
4143:
3693:
3626:
3451:
3400:
3086:
2789:
2623:
2593:
2503:
2409:
2404:
2379:
2359:
2199:
2071:
2046:
2021:
2006:
1996:
1981:
1936:
1702:
1678:
1545:
1447:
1375:
1178:
1054:
846:
809:
779:
761:
684:
671:
654:
611:
593:
452:
440:
428:
416:
404:
392:
380:
366:
179:
130:
9699:"Wer hat uns verraten ..." – Die Sozialdemokratie in der Novemberrevolution.
6783:"Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Germany)"
5965:
5871:
4583:
4303:
3134:) because their class antagonism was seen to transcend national boundaries.
558:
13154:
13082:
13067:
12972:
12587:
12262:
12257:
12227:
12126:
12080:
11176:
10603:
9675:
Demokratie im Widerstreit. Die Weimarer Republik im Urteil der Zeitgenossen
9544:
9266:
9241:
9196:
Germany Tried Democracy: A Political History of the Reich from 1918 to 1933
9132:
9124:
8883:
Demokratie im Widerstreit. Die Weimarer Republik im Urteil der Zeitgenossen
7377:] (in German) (Kindle ed.). Berlin: Fischer E-Books. p. 276.
6834:] (in German) (5th ed.). Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag. p. 6.
5371:
5352:
In the wake of the Kapp Putsch, civil war-like fighting broke out with the
5338:
5237:
5006:
4991:
4897:
4699:
4690:, who represented the unions in creating the agreement that shared his name
4676:
4658:
4603:
and ensuring both internal and foreign security against separatists in the
4508:
4307:
4223:
4191:
3293:
clarified the SPD's position in an article titled "The Bolsheviks and Us" (
3243:
3065:
2459:
2439:
2424:
2384:
2369:
2329:
2264:
2249:
2139:
2041:
1707:
1474:
1452:
1425:
1246:
1141:
1079:
1064:
1034:
834:
696:
666:
642:
628:
534:
486:
6530:] (in German). Vol. 1. Munich: C.H. Beck. pp. 363–364, 366.
5949:
5647:
supported the theory that the German revolution had a Socialist tendency.
4911:
4572:
4294:
to any considerable extent, apart from isolated instances of agitation at
4265:
3445:
attributed the collapse of the Empire to the "hollowing out" of Germany's
3059:
The revolution's end date is generally set at 11 August 1919, the day the
1189:
12597:
12311:
12146:
12095:
11387:
11292:
10990:
10418:
9839:
9616:
2nd edition substantially extended and reworked, Frankfurt am Main 1983,
8204:
5318:
5105:
5061:
5014:
4968:
4939:
boycott the elections passed 62 to 23. In the words of Marxist historian
4695:
4687:
4613:
4255:
4235:
4125:
4116:
4021:
3146:
2937:
2474:
2414:
2364:
2309:
2104:
2036:
1762:
1757:
1591:
was formed by members of Germany's two main socialist parties. Under the
1564:
1541:
1308:
1173:
1049:
902:
624:
8860:] (in German). Vol. 6. Hamburg: Rowohlt Reinbeck. p. 300.
8269:"Die Essener Sozialisierungsbewegung und ihr Ende (Januar/Februar 1919)"
7457:
Greater Berlin Workers' and Soldiers' Councils in the Revolution 1918/19
6767:
6751:
6630:
6614:
6416:
6392:
5517:
In an article on the 10th anniversary of the revolution, the journalist
4068:
3327:
3302:
3017:
1540:), was an uprising started by workers and soldiers in the final days of
12806:
12427:
9038:
The Revolutionary Shop Stewards and the Origins of the Council Movement
7851:
Eduard Bernstein on the German Revolution. Selected Historical Writings
7451:
Engel, Gerhard; Holtz, Bärbel; Huch, Gaby; Materna, Ingo, eds. (1997).
5601:
5362:
5334:
5086:
4995:
4846:
4742:
4502:
4480:
4465:
4429:
4416:
4279:
4163:
4043:
3636:
3475:
3343:
3290:
3282:
3176:
3085:(SPD) was the one socialist political party of any significance in the
2977:
2967:
2429:
2394:
2319:
2304:
2239:
2164:
2109:
2011:
1956:
1835:
1820:
1584:
1430:
822:
792:
744:
372:
222:
9329:
7241:
Das Wagnis der Demokratie. Eine Anatomie der Weimarer Reichsverfassung
6247:
In the Stranglehold of the Political Parties. Part 1: In the Year 2019
5857:
5833:
5404:
to blame an alleged conspiracy of communists, socialists and Jews for
5170:
lasted longer than a few days. They were overthrown by government and
4529:
Executive Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils of Greater Berlin
4447:
4391:. The statement ended with "Leave the streets! Keep order and peace!"
12417:
12065:
11182:
10949:
6408:
6274:[The Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD)].
5143:
4472:
3656:
3594:
3442:
2449:
2129:
1825:
1717:
1632:
510:
213:
9532:
Deutsche Geschichte 1918–1933. Dokumente zur Innen- und Außenpolitik
9341:
Eining gegen Recht und Freiheit – Ein Deutsches Anti-Geschichtsbuch.
8678:"Außenpolitik – Verständigungspolitik: Der Ausgleich mit dem Westen"
7076:] (in German). Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt. p. 599.
5178:
That underlay its cooperation with the Supreme Army Command and the
4732:
4211:
3311:
On 3 March 1918, the newly established Soviet government signed the
11951:
11442:
9444:
8747:
1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
7404:
1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
6882:
1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
6787:
1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
6436:
1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
6054:
1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
5622:
5302:
3688:
3172:
2294:
2051:
1815:
1752:
9419:
Illustrierte Geschichte der deutschen Novemberrevolution 1918/1919
7453:
Groß-Berliner Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte in der Revolution 1918/19
5122:
Dead revolutionaries in Berlin after summary execution, March 1919
27:
Overthrow of the German Empire and creation of the Weimar Republic
12696:
12116:
12060:
11982:
8226:] (in German). Hamburg: Verlag Lutz Schulenburg. p. 394.
5346:
5309:, Germany's Jewish foreign minister, who was assassinated in 1922
5047:(Germany's July 1918 battlefield defeat that led directly to the
5001:
4702:
in Berlin from 9 to 12 November. On 15 November, they signed the
4654:
4295:
4250:
and his family fled Munich for Austria, where in the 12 November
4227:
4219:
3651:
3584:
1111:
7591:[How the First German Socialisation Commission Failed].
6590:
World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection
6314:
Weimar 1918–1933. Die Geschichte der ersten deutschen Demokratie
6272:"Die Unabhängige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (USPD)"
5874:[Elections in Germany Until 1918: Reichstag Elections].
5537:
well-acquired rights of the old regime, can be only laughed at.
4262:
of all the other German states had abdicated without bloodshed.
3342:
On 29 September 1918, the Supreme Army Command informed Emperor
8963:] (in German). Munich / Vienna: Oldenbourg. pp. 154f.
8220:
Der Konterrevolutionär. Waldemar Pabst – eine deutsche Karriere
8105:
7245:
The Venture of Democracy. An Anatomy of the Weimar Constitution
6161:"Gesetz über den vaterländischen Hilfsdienst, 5. Dezember 1916"
5990:
The Spirit of 1914. Militarism,Myth,and Mobilization in Germany
5221:
5189:
5139:
5054:
4884:
Leftist soldiers during Christmas fighting in the Berlin Palace
4231:
4215:
3646:
3089:
and as such played a major role in the revolution. It had been
1971:
9808:
9207:
Founding Weimar. Violence and the German Revolution of 1918–19
6007:
Rathenau, Walter (1967). Pogge von Strandmann, Hartmut (ed.).
4683:
3460:
bring the war to a quick end without the Emperor's abdication.
3436:
12076:
Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples
12055:
11610:
7589:"Wie die erste deutsche Sozialisierungskommission scheiterte"
4345:
1548:, then in its more violent second stage, the supporters of a
983:
8943:
Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung
6242:
Im Würgegriff der politischen Parteien. Teil 1: Im Jahr 2019
4134:. The sign reads in part "Long live the socialist republic."
3450:
conviction spread that he would have to abdicate. Historian
9593:
Die Weimarer Republik. Krisenjahre der klassischen Moderne.
8341:
8154:
8026:
8014:
6318:
Weimar 1918–1933. The History of the FIrst German Democracy
4139:
3683:
1568:
8224:
The Counterrevolutionary. Waldemar Pabst – a German Career
8173:
Daimagüler, Mehmet Gürcan; von Münchhausen, Ernst (2021).
7898:(in German). Berlin: Deutscher Militärverlag. p. 539.
7881:(in German). Berlin: Deutscher Militärverlag. p. 480.
7568:
7459:] (in German). Berlin: Akademie Verlag. pp. VII.
7273:
7090:
The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918
6249:] (in German). Ahrensburg: tredition. pp. ebook.
5769:] (in German). Mannheim: F.A. Brockhaus. p. 237.
4174:
naval attack at such a crucial point in the negotiations.
9417:
Institut für Marxismus-Leninismus beim ZK der SED (Hg.):
9390:
Der Verrat. 1918/1919 – als Deutschland wurde, wie es ist
9067:] (in German). Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag.
8172:
8062:
7806:[November Revolution: Red Cloth for Steinmeier].
6806:
6804:
6030:. Leiden, Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV. p. 426.
5692:
considerable structural problem for the Weimar Republic.
9001:
8893:
8085:[The "Spartacus Uprising". Legends and Reality]
7752:[November 1918: "Potatoes - not a Revolution"].
7730:
7691:
7679:
7520:
7500:
Der lange Weg nach Westen. Deutsche Geschichte 1806–1933
7324:
7300:
7290:
7288:
7037:
5996:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 20.
5085:
The perpetrators for the most part went unpunished. The
4698:(SPD) met with representatives of heavy industry led by
1664:. They too were put down with considerable loss of life.
30:"German Revolution" redirects here. For other uses, see
9566:
Die Verfassung des Deutschen Reichs vom 11. August 1919
9013:
8797:
8785:
8761:
8722:
8706:[What the "Golden Twenties" were really like].
8417:[100 Years Ago: The Weimar National Assembly].
8309:(in German). Berlin: Metropol Verlag. pp. 210–211.
8050:
6477:
5643:
offensive party". Contrary to the official party line,
4912:
Founding of the Communist Party and Spartacist uprising
4534:
Vollzugsrat des Arbeiter- und Soldatenrates Grossberlin
1262:
Conscription disturbance at the Brisbane School of Arts
8833:
8821:
8809:
8773:
8387:
Altmann, Gerhard; Schweinoch, Oliver (2 August 2018).
8117:
8002:
7990:
7532:
7312:
7247:] (in German). Munich: C.H. Beck. pp. 10–11.
6801:
6498:"The Ending of World War One, and the Legacy of Peace"
5813:
Sturm, Reinhard (November 2011). "Weimarer Republik".
3363:
in July 1917 and the radical Spartacists who wanted a
2651:
13323:
Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Europe
13175:
Socialist Soviet Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia
9633:
Frankfurt am Main 1961 (Erstausgabe: Karlsbad 1935),
9404:
1918. Die Deutschen zwischen Weltkrieg und Revolution
8977:
8653:[The March Battles in Central Germany 1921].
8445:
Die Weimarer Republik – Deutschlands erste Demokratie
7718:
7556:
7544:
7450:
7285:
7261:
7192:
7180:
7107:
7049:
7025:
7013:
6972:
6935:
6896:
6729:
Zentrale für Unterrichtsmedien im Internet e.V. (ZUM)
6569:
4181:
Faced with the rapidly escalating situation, Admiral
1552:
were victorious over those who wanted a Soviet-style
1544:. It quickly and almost bloodlessly brought down the
9095:
Boak, Helen L. "Women in the German Revolution." in
8989:
8038:
7710:
Piper, Ernst (2018). "Deutsche Revolution 1918/19".
7632:
German Communism, Workers' Protest, and Labor Unions
7480:
Piper, Ernst (2018). "Deutsche Revolution 1918/19".
6301:. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. pp. 109–110.
6086:] (in German). Berlin: Verlag 1900. p. 12.
5699:
5526:
The German Revolution of 1918 took place in a hall.
5138:
in January, in the Ruhr district in February and in
4642:
4430:
Revolution, second stage: defeat of the radical Left
4290:
Notably, revolutionary sentiment did not affect the
8470:[The Constitution of the Weimar Republic].
8083:"Der "Spartakusaufstand". Legende und Wirklichkeit"
7976:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 37.
7506:] (in German). Munich: C.H. Beck. p. 375.
7504:
The Long Road to the West. German History 1806–1933
6999:] (in German). Munich: Knauer. pp. 85–86.
6163:[Auxiliary Services Act, 5 December 1916].
6015:] (in German). Düsseldorf: Droste. p. 162.
5795:
From Politics and Contemporary History Issues 28-53
5370:units suppressed the revolt in early April. In the
4448:
Establishment, pact with the military and armistice
3262:
1614:that left 67 dead. On 1 January 1919, the far Left
1587:, had been forced to abdicate. On 10 November, the
9136:
8364:[The Elections to the National Assembly].
7368:
6754:[The Genesis of the Weimar Constitution].
6320:] (in German). Munich: C.H. Beck. p. 21.
5872:"Wahlen in Deutschland bis 1918: Reichstagswahlen"
5496:which already contained essential elements of the
4378:proclaimed to the public that the Emperor and the
886:
9769:International Encyclopedia of the First World War
9755:International Encyclopedia of the First World War
9741:International Encyclopedia of the First World War
9727:International Encyclopedia of the First World War
9701:New edition: Ahriman-Verlag, Freiburg i.Br 2001,
8920:] (in German). Berlin: Suhrkamp. p. 15.
8386:
6848:
6028:Henryk Grossman Works Volume 2 Political Writings
4780:Zentralrat der Deutschen Sozialistischen Republik
4762:Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils
4733:Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils
3273:In April 1917, the German government facilitated
3093:and in 1914 continued to adhere to the tenets of
1563:The revolution began in late October 1918 with a
13279:
9778:by Gerhard Rempel of Western New England College
9099:(Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019) pp. 25–44.
8889:] (in German). Stuttgart: Klett. p. 13.
7970:Ziemann, Benjamin; Rossol, Nadine, eds. (2022).
7947:[German Revolution: Christmas Battles].
7750:"November 1918: "Kartoffeln - keine Revolution""
6644:Görlitz, Walter Otto Julius (16 December 2023).
6432:"Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Germany)"
5415:
140:Suppression of leftist uprisings, including the
10785:Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers
9655:] (in German). Berlin: Severin und Siedler.
9530:Wolfgang Michalka u. Gottfried Niedhart (Hg.):
7854:. Berlin: Springer International. p. 138.
7804:"Novemberrevolution: Rotes Tuch für Steinmeier"
7635:. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p. 39.
6390:
5615:Gebhardtsches Handbuch zur Deutschen Geschichte
9378:Die verratene Revolution – Deutschland 1918/19
9088:
8415:"Vor 100 Jahren: Weimarer Nationalversammlung"
8140:(in German). Düsseldorf: Droste. p. 308.
6752:"Die Entstehung der Weimarer Reichsverfassung"
4158:planned without authorization to dispatch the
3248:Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany
12988:
11967:
9824:
9782:Library of materials on the German Revolution
9614:Die deutsche Revolution 1918–1919. Dokumente.
9320:Hrsg.: Der Funke e.V., Eigenverlag, Wien 2005
9275:
7969:
5902:German History in Documents and Images (GHDI)
5541:The German Revolution is still to take place.
4767:Reichskongress der Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte
4091:
3367:, he said to his staff officers on 1 October:
3040:
1205:
969:
872:
13002:
9525:Die Regierung der Volksbeauftragten 1918/19.
9160:Failure of a Revolution Germany in 1918–1919
8704:"So waren die "Goldenen Zwanziger" wirklich"
7613:
7369:Hirschfeld, Gerhard; Krumeich, Gerd (2013).
5613:
5491:
5382:
5190:National Assembly and new Reich constitution
5096:
5090:
5069:
5055:Murder of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg
5030:
4985:
4960:
4812:
4802:
4765:
4720:
4532:
4488:
3381:
3300:
3294:
3129:
229:
220:
211:
12086:Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)
11275:
9735:The Military Collapse of the Central Powers
8293:
7237:
7137:[From Empire to Republic 1918/19].
6674:[From Empire to Republic 1918/19].
6461:[From Empire to Republic 1918/19].
6370:(in German). Berlin: Siedler. p. 158.
5791:Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte Issues 28-53
4415:republic. A few hours later, in the Berlin
4205:
3437:Revolution, first stage: fall of the Empire
3252:Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany
3137:The SPD had attended the congresses of the
3076:
1219:
13073:Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee
12995:
12981:
11974:
11960:
9831:
9817:
9225:The German Revolution and Political Theory
9097:The German Revolution and Political Theory
9058:
8803:
8651:"Die Märzkämpfe in Mitteldeutschland 1921"
7973:The Oxford Handbook of the Weimar Republic
7895:Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte Volume 7
7878:Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte Volume 7
5947:
5832:Winkler, Heinrich August (May–June 1990).
5451:
5043:calls the January Revolt the revolution's
4346:Abdication and proclamations of a republic
4128:: the soldiers' council of the battleship
4098:
4084:
3047:
3033:
1212:
1198:
976:
962:
879:
865:
9791:Archive of texts on the German Revolution
9527:2 Bände, Düsseldorf 1969 (Quellenedition)
9035:
8851:
8603:. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
8493:Albrecht, Kai-Britt (14 September 2014).
8217:
7847:
7779:[The German Revolution 1918/19].
7279:
7067:
6592:. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 2069.
6429:
6391:Wheeler-Bennett, John W. (January 1940).
5948:Cinar, Meral Ugur; Cinar, Kursat (2014).
5621:This interpretation at the height of the
5345:, planned to take over the government of
5287:Political violence in Germany (1918–1933)
4679:, one of Germany's leading industrialists
4273:outside the city hall on 15 November 1918
3143:assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
987:Political violence in Germany (1918–1933)
54:Political violence in Germany (1918–1933)
13195:Commune of the Working People of Estonia
13038:Revolutions and interventions in Hungary
11074:Revolutions and interventions in Hungary
8880:
8492:
8319:
8138:Gustav Noske. Eine politische Biographie
7663:[The Stinnes-Legien Agreement].
7628:
7093:. London: Bloomsbury. pp. 429–430.
6780:
6703:German Constitutional History since 1789
6699:Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789
6403:(2). Council on Foreign Relations: 199.
6269:
6211:
6047:
6025:
6006:
5325:assassinated former minister of finance
5301:
5290:
5117:
5000:
4967:
4921:
4879:
4736:
4682:
4671:
4582:
4507:
4361:
4317:
4264:
4120:
3455:point, they wanted only peace. Wilson's
3326:
3115:
1334:Revolutions and interventions in Hungary
11451:Occupied Enemy Territory Administration
9643:
9109:. Translated by Archer, John. Chicago:
8899:
8839:
8827:
8815:
8791:
8779:
8767:
8728:
8621:
8359:
8347:
8327:. New York: Hill and Wang. p. 40.
8160:
8123:
8068:
8056:
8044:
8032:
8020:
8008:
7996:
7945:"Deutsche Revolution: Weihnachtskämpfe"
7775:Gallus, Alexander (13 September 2018).
7736:
7724:
7697:
7685:
7574:
7562:
7550:
7494:
7330:
7306:
7294:
7267:
7198:
7186:
7160:Gallus, Alexander (13 September 2018).
7113:
7055:
7043:
7031:
7019:
6990:
6978:
6941:
6902:
6810:
6643:
6575:
6550:
6521:
6495:
6483:
6365:
6311:
6296:
6074:
5986:
5831:
4423:to an assembled crowd at around 4 pm.
4352:Proclamation of the republic in Germany
3376:His statement marked the birth of the "
2604:Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch
14:
13280:
13160:Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets
9139:The Lost Revolution: Germany 1918–1923
9131:
8675:
8649:Leicht, Johannes (14 September 2014).
8648:
8468:"Die Verfassung der Weimarer Republik"
8465:
8239:
8235:
8233:
7918:[The Christmas Battles 1918].
7913:
7891:
7874:
7801:
7774:
7658:
7342:
7210:
7159:
7135:"Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik 1918/19"
7086:
6919:[The 1918 Sailors' Uprising].
6914:
6672:"Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik 1918/19"
6612:
6587:
6459:"Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik 1918/19"
6238:
6185:
5760:
5582:
5475:wrote on 10 November in the newspaper
4369:at a window (marked with an X) of the
4162:for a last battle against the British
1579:. By the end of the month, all of the
13353:Military operations involving Germany
13215:Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic
12976:
11955:
11404:Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia
10740:Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele)
9812:
9191:(Oxford University Press, USA, 2020).
9157:
9102:
9019:
8911:
8740:
8419:Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung
8135:
8111:
8080:
7949:Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung
7939:
7937:
7909:
7907:
7905:
7828:
7781:Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung
7712:Informationen zur Politischen Bildung
7709:
7654:
7652:
7586:
7538:
7526:
7482:Informationen zur Politischen Bildung
7479:
7318:
7217:Deutsches Historisches Museum, Berlin
7139:Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung
7132:
7128:
7126:
7124:
7122:
6875:
6871:
6869:
6867:
6865:
6863:
6821:
6819:
6696:
6676:Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung
6669:
6553:The Rise and Fall of Weimar Democracy
6463:Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung
6456:
6393:"From Brest-Litovsk to Brest-Litovsk"
6270:Kalmbach, Karena (6 September 2014).
6158:
6043:
6041:
6039:
6037:
5815:Informationen zur Politischen Bildung
5812:
5808:
5806:
5804:
5082:, where it was found only on 1 July.
4578:
4313:
4258:throne. By the end of the month, the
3389:
2755:1946 Italian institutional referendum
2695:Spanish American wars of independence
1644:were murdered extrajudicially by the
1193:
1122:Murder of Paul Anlauf and Franz Lenck
957:
860:
11981:
11808:Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne
9803:Bernhard Grau, Revolution, 1918/1919
9776:An overview of the German Revolution
9382:1918/1919 – eine deutsche Revolution
9248:
9233:
9223:Kets, Gaard and James Muldoon, eds.
9189:November 1918: The German Revolution
9007:
8995:
8983:
8954:
8486:
8362:"Die Wahlen zur Nationalversammlung"
7397:
7343:Scriba, Arnulf (14 September 2014).
7166:Bundeszentrale für politishe Bildung
7133:Sturm, Reinhard (23 December 2011).
6854:
6825:
6749:
6670:Sturm, Reinhard (23 December 2011).
6496:Kitchen, Martin (17 February 2011).
6457:Sturm, Reinhard (23 December 2011).
6110:[Men Without a Fatherland].
5925:[Men Without a Fatherland].
5610:Gebhardt Handbook for German History
4710:. The agreement also introduced the
3415:On 28 October, the Reichstag passed
3322:
1010:Collapse of the Imperial German Army
13308:Aftermath of World War I in Germany
11737:Ottomans against the Triple Entente
10531:Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes
9376:); also published under the titles
8676:Scriba, Arnulf (2 September 2014).
8626:[The March Uprising 1920].
8466:Scriba, Arnulf (1 September 2014).
8266:
8240:Scriba, Arnulf (1 September 2014).
8230:
7914:Scriba, Arnulf (1 September 2014).
7587:Lange, Dietmar (14 February 2022).
6450:
6216:[The January Strike 1918].
6009:Walther Rathenau Tagebuch 1907–1922
5723:Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)
5376:Communist Workers' Party of Germany
4987:Provisorischer Revolutionsausschuss
4900:(responsible for the military) and
4857:
4797:
4512:"Berlin seized by revolutionists":
3149:that led up to the war's outbreak.
2524:The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates
1630:. It was quashed by government and
1020:Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)
24:
13225:Galician Soviet Socialist Republic
13170:Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic
10470:First Battle of the Masurian Lakes
9483:Die deutsche Revolution 1918/1919.
9452:Erlebnisse eines Sozialdemokraten.
9406:. Chr. Links Verlag, Berlin 2018,
9175:Rosa Luxemburg – Her Life and Work
9083:
8597:"Beer Hall Putsch (Munich Putsch)"
8360:Altmann, Gerhard (11 April 2000).
8244:[The March Battles 1919].
7934:
7902:
7802:Kröger, Martin (6 November 2008).
7742:
7649:
7119:
6860:
6816:
6750:Gusy, Christoph (19 August 1994).
6034:
5801:
5412:and the National Socialist Party.
5071:Garde-Kavallerie-Schützen-Division
4908:for use against internal enemies.
4497:) and three from the USPD (Haase,
4110:
3213:After the outbreak of the Russian
3083:Social Democratic Party of Germany
32:German revolution (disambiguation)
25:
13404:
13200:Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic
13180:Taurida Soviet Socialist Republic
9713:
9631:Geschichte der Weimarer Republik.
9394:Die deutsche Revolution – 1918/19
9314:Die Deutsche Revolution 1918–1923
8914:Die deutsche Revolution 1918–1919
8622:Wulfert, Anja (22 January 2002).
8391:[The National Assembly].
7777:"Die deutsche Revolution 1918/19"
7211:Scriba, Arnulf (15 August 2015).
6993:Die deutsche Revolution 1918/1919
6915:Scriba, Arnulf (15 August 2015).
6522:Winkler, Heinrich August (2000).
6312:Winkler, Heinrich August (1993).
6212:Kalmbach, Karena (10 June 2003).
6080:Der Verrat: Deutschland 1918/1919
5864:
4772:Prussian House of Representatives
4643:Nationalisation and labour unions
3257:
1157:Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses
98:10 November 1918 – 11 August 1919
10833:Second Battle of the Piave River
10455:Russian invasion of East Prussia
9585:Aufbau-Verlag Berlin-Weimar 1989
9402:, Gerd Krumeich and Irina Renz,
9237:The German Revolution, 1918-1919
8948:
8934:
8905:
8874:
8845:
8734:
8696:
8669:
8642:
8615:
8589:
8564:
8538:
8513:
8459:
8433:
8407:
8380:
8353:
8313:
8287:
8260:
8211:
8197:
8166:
8129:
8074:
7963:
6186:Asmuss, Burkhard (8 June 2011).
6013:Walther Rathenau Diary 1907–1922
5702:
5636:Socialist Unity Party of Germany
5440:as the date of their attempted "
5113:
4485:Council of the People's Deputies
4067:
3482:
3263:Impact of the Russian Revolution
3016:
2544:Discourses Concerning Government
1601:Majority Social Democratic Party
1589:Council of the People's Deputies
840:
828:
816:
808:
798:
786:
778:
768:
760:
750:
738:
726:
718:
708:
700:
690:
678:
670:
660:
648:
636:
618:
610:
600:
592:
582:
564:
552:
540:
528:
516:
504:
492:
480:
468:
451:
439:
427:
415:
403:
391:
379:
365:
339:
247:
198:
172:
60:
13368:Politics of the Weimar Republic
13358:Government of the German Empire
12178:German revolutions of 1848–1849
12147:Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation)
11904:Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo
11104:Lithuanian Wars of Independence
9838:
9386:Der Verrat. Deutschland 1918/19
9106:The German Revolution 1917–1923
8918:The German Revolution 1918–1919
7885:
7868:
7841:
7822:
7795:
7768:
7703:
7622:
7607:
7580:
7488:
7473:
7444:
7418:
7391:
7371:Deutschland im Ersten Weltkrieg
7362:
7336:
7231:
7204:
7153:
7080:
7061:
6997:The German Revolution 1918/1919
6984:
6947:
6908:
6774:
6743:
6717:
6690:
6663:
6637:
6606:
6581:
6544:
6515:
6489:
6423:
6384:
6359:
6334:
6305:
6290:
6263:
6232:
6205:
6179:
6152:
6126:
6100:
6084:The Betrayal: Germany 1918/1919
6068:
6019:
6000:
5838:Journal of Contemporary History
5657:workers' and soldiers' councils
5406:Germany's defeat in World War I
4778:the German Socialist Republic (
4442:
4358:November Revolution abdications
3365:dictatorship of the proletariat
3126:Marxist revolutionary socialism
2810:Barbadian Republic Proclamation
1628:dictatorship of the proletariat
1573:workers' and soldiers' councils
328:Alsace–Lorraine Soviet Republic
100:(9 months and 1 week)
13288:German Revolution of 1918–1919
13043:German Revolution of 1918–1919
12163:Early modern period, 1500–1800
12051:List of early Germanic peoples
11727:Austria-Hungary against Serbia
11586:Deportations from East Prussia
11383:1915 typhus epidemic in Serbia
8710:(in German). 29 September 2023
8325:The Third Reich: A New History
7659:Scriba, Arnulf (10 May 2011).
7614:Brenk-Keller, Sibylle (1997).
7375:Germany in the First World War
5980:
5941:
5915:
5890:
5825:
5783:
5754:
5606:History of the Weimar Republic
5341:, in what is now known as the
4844:, in the Spartacist newspaper
4714:, allowed for the creation of
4200:workers' and soldiers' council
4171:naval order of 24 October 1918
3196:
3081:When World War I started, the
2745:1935 Greek coup d'état attempt
2725:German Revolution of 1918–1919
1526:German revolution of 1918–1919
1060:French occupation of Frankfurt
1015:German Revolution of 1918–1919
890:German Revolution of 1918–1919
18:German Revolution of 1918–1919
13:
1:
13363:Politics of the German Empire
12286:History of Germany since 1990
11638:Ukrainian Canadian internment
9649:Weimar: Deutschland 1917–1933
9583:Ein Lesebuch für unsere Zeit.
9421:. Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1978.
8682:Deutsches Historisches Museum
8655:Deutsches Historisches Museum
8628:Deutsches Historisches Museum
8499:Deutsches Historisches Museum
8472:Deutsches Historisches Museum
8393:Deutsches Historisches Museum
8366:Deutsches Historisches Museum
8298:Revolution in Norddeutschland
8246:Deutsches Historisches Museum
7920:Deutsches Historisches Museum
7848:Ostrowski, Marius S. (2019).
7829:Piper, Ernst (23 July 2018).
7756:(in German). 24 November 1968
7665:Deutsches Historisches Museum
7661:"Das Stinnes-Legien-Abkommen"
7349:Deutsches Historisches Museum
6921:Deutsches Historisches Museum
6368:Weimar. Deutschland 1917–1933
6276:Deutsches Historisches Museum
6218:Deutsches Historisches Museum
6192:Deutsches Historisches Museum
5748:
5416:Impact on the Weimar Republic
5333:in 1922. The recently formed
5329:in 1921 and Foreign Minister
5206:constituent national assembly
5029:forces attacked and took the
4382:had renounced the German and
3319:would demand of the Germans.
3162:Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg
3071:
1040:1920 East Prussian plebiscite
1005:German strike of January 1918
91:(1 week and 4 days)
13078:Mongolian Revolution of 1921
11793:Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement
11092:Estonian War of Independence
10760:Southern Palestine offensive
9454:Zweiter Band, Stuttgart 1948
9318:Aufstand der Vernunft Nr. 3.
9234:Lutz, Ralph Haswell (1922).
8421:(in German). 31 January 2019
7213:"Die Revolution von 1918/19"
6697:Huber, Ernst Rudolf (1978).
6613:Larsen, Daniel (June 2013).
5434:Myth of the Stab in the Back
5274:
5200:On 19 January 1919, Germans
5182:. The brutal actions of the
5103:). In an interview given to
4972:Spartacist militia in Berlin
4456:Around 8 pm, a group of 100
4240:Independent Social Democrats
3419:that changed Germany into a
3102:Independent Social Democrats
2995:Republic without republicans
2740:11 September 1922 Revolution
2735:Mongolian Revolution of 1921
1147:1932 Berlin transport strike
89:29 October – 9 November 1918
7:
13328:Revolution-based civil wars
13155:Soviet Republic of Naissaar
11747:USA against Austria-Hungary
11146:Turkish War of Independence
11098:Latvian War of Independence
10823:Treaty of Bucharest of 1918
10414:Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo
9089:English language literature
8303:Revolution in North Germany
8091:Bernhard Sauer – Historiker
7916:"Die Weihnachtskämpfe 1918"
6991:Haffner, Sebastian (1991).
6917:"Der Matrosenaufstand 1918"
5898:"The Erfurt Program (1891)"
5695:
5240:of the SPD took his place.
4548:representing the soldiers.
4166:in the southern North Sea.
2730:Turkish War of Independence
2652:
1421:Turkish War of Independence
1025:Occupation of the Rhineland
10:
13409:
12193:North German Confederation
12173:Confederation of the Rhine
11830:Treaties of Brest-Litovsk
11378:1899–1923 cholera pandemic
10838:Second Battle of the Marne
10725:Second battle of the Aisne
10594:Second Battle of Champagne
10435:German invasion of Belgium
9428:, Propyläen, Berlin 2017,
9287:Erinnerungen und Dokumente
9276:German language literature
9211:Cambridge University Press
9164:Cambridge University Press
9028:
8749:. Freie Universität Berlin
8273:Herne von damals bis heute
8267:Kozicki, Norbert Kozicki.
7406:. Freie Universität Berlin
7087:Herwig, Holger H. (2014).
7070:Erinnerungen und Dokumente
6884:. Freie Universität Berlin
6789:. Freie Universität Berlin
6438:. Freie Universität Berlin
6342:"Vorwärts 15 Februar 1918"
6056:. Freie Universität Berlin
6050:"Burgfrieden/Union sacrée"
5976:– via Sage Journals.
5850:10.1177/002200949002500203
5628:German Democratic Republic
5522:wrote in "November Coup":
5337:, under the leadership of
5284:
5278:
5253:semi-presidential republic
5193:
4933:Communist Party of Germany
4915:
4861:
4722:Zentralarbeitsgemeinschaft
4646:
4398:, the SPD deputy chairman
4355:
4349:
4114:
3361:Reichstag Peace Resolution
3266:
3106:Communist Party of Germany
2785:1970 Cambodian coup d'état
2534:The Commonwealth of Oceana
1620:Communist Party of Germany
29:
13254:
13238:
13205:Hungarian Soviet Republic
13190:Soviet Republic of Saxony
13185:Ukrainian Soviet Republic
13147:
13101:
13010:
12927:
12787:
12667:
12658:
12541:
12532:
12413:
12404:
12340:
12331:
12294:
12273:
12155:
12109:
12033:
12002:
11993:
11936:
11895:
11816:
11755:
11717:
11661:
11650:
11611:Assyrian genocide (Sayfo)
11554:
11526:
11474:
11396:
11370:
11322:
11215:
11208:
11140:Irish War of Independence
11036:
10918:
10883:Armistice of Villa Giusti
10868:Battle of Vittorio Veneto
10793:
10695:
10622:
10523:
10480:First Battle of the Marne
10427:
10389:
10324:
10315:
10258:
10132:
10121:
10087:
10059:
10021:
9973:
9926:
9919:
9846:
9687:, Frankfurt am Main 1997
9653:Weimar: Germany 1917–1933
9534:, Frankfurt am Main 1992
9462:Tagebücher 1918 bis 1937.
9343:Frankfurt 1982 und 1981,
9249:Watt, Richard M. (1968).
9059:Sontheimer, Kurt (1962).
8389:"Die Nationalversammlung"
8218:Gietinger, Klaus (2008).
8114:, pp. 114, 116, 124.
7430:100(0) Schlüsseldokumente
6528:The Long Road to the West
6524:Der Lange Weg nach Westen
6188:"Das Hindenburg-Programm"
6165:100(0) Schlüsseldokumente
6138:100(0) Schlüsseldokumente
6108:"Vaterlandslose Gesellen"
6026:Grossman, Henryk (2021).
5728:Hungarian Soviet Republic
5202:voted for representatives
5074:. Its commander, Captain
4803:Opposition from the Right
4770:) met in the hall of the
4490:Rat der Volksbeauftragten
4327:Majority Social Democrats
4244:People's State of Bavaria
4196:Majority Social Democrats
3299:) in the party newspaper
2958:The Emperor's New Clothes
2710:5 October 1910 revolution
2705:French Revolution of 1848
1728:Liberty as non-domination
1626:, an attempt to create a
1612:dispute over sailors' pay
1391:Irish War of Independence
1267:Australian general strike
1231:
1132:1932 Prussian coup d'état
995:
918:People's State of Bavaria
898:
355:
159:
74:
59:
46:
41:
13383:Revolutions of 1917–1923
13303:20th-century revolutions
13210:Bavarian Soviet Republic
13048:1919 Egyptian revolution
13004:Revolutions of 1917–1923
12345:Administrative divisions
11763:Constantinople Agreement
11056:Armenian–Azerbaijani War
10919:Co-belligerent conflicts
10888:Second Romanian campaign
10858:Third Transjordan attack
10569:Gorlice–Tarnów offensive
10475:Battle of Grand Couronné
9595:Frankfurt am Main 1987,
9523:Erich Matthias (Hrsg.):
9485:Frankfurt am Main 1985,
9289:, Berlin u. Leipzig 1927
8881:Sösemann, Bernd (1993).
8852:Tucholsky, Kurt (1928).
8708:Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk
8093:(in German). p. 112
8081:Sauer, Bernhard (2018).
7629:Peterson, Larry (2013).
7496:Winkler, Heinrich August
6588:Tucker, Spencer (2014).
6239:Ghanem, Michael (2019).
6114:(in German). 21 May 2008
5987:Jeffrey, Verhey (2003).
5929:(in German). 18 May 2012
5927:Friedrich Ebert Stiftung
5923:"Vaterlandlose Gesellen"
5761:Schaaf, Michael (2003).
5738:Revolutions of 1917–1923
5196:Weimar National Assembly
5068:unit, the heavily armed
4704:Stinnes–Legien Agreement
4669:, or Factory Committees.
4649:Stinnes–Legien Agreement
4292:eastern parts of Germany
4206:Spread of the revolution
3171:, agreed to approve the
3104:(USPD) – from which the
3077:German socialist parties
2800:1987 Fijian coups d'état
2760:1952 Egyptian revolution
1738:Political representation
1480:Uprising in West Hungary
1294:German strike of January
943:Bavarian Soviet Republic
908:Abdication of Wilhelm II
322:Würzburg Soviet Republic
311:Bavarian Soviet Republic
135:abdication of Wilhelm II
49:Revolutions of 1917–1923
13119:1919 Southampton mutiny
13053:Greater Poland Uprising
11826:Modus vivendi of Acroma
11778:Bulgaria–Germany treaty
11086:Greater Poland Uprising
10986:National Protection War
10863:Meuse–Argonne offensive
10813:German spring offensive
10808:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
10584:Siege of Novogeorgievsk
10559:Second Battle of Artois
10440:Battle of the Frontiers
8955:Kolb, Eberhard (1984).
8743:"Stab-in-the-back Myth"
8624:"Der Märzaufstand 1920"
8576:Encyclopedia Britannica
8550:Encyclopedia Britannica
8136:Wette, Wolfram (1987).
7833:[German Coup].
7068:von Baden, Max (1927).
6826:Kolb, Eberhard (2000).
6650:Encyclopedia Britannica
6366:Schulze, Hagen (1994).
6297:Fischer, Louis (1964).
6214:"Der Januarstreik 1918"
5966:10.1111/1467-9248.12062
5685:Heinrich August Winkler
5674:German Student Movement
5452:Contemporary statements
5214:German Democratic Party
5146:in February and March.
4892:The main result of the
4824:Heinrich August Winkler
4569:the armistice agreement
3531:By other characteristic
3313:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
3296:Die Bolschewiki und Wir
3281:that put Lenin and the
3219:first organised strikes
3217:in 1917, the wartime's
3131:Vaterlandslose Gesellen
3122:last imperial Reichstag
2780:1969 Libyan coup d'état
2564:Discourse on Inequality
1713:Consent of the governed
1364:Greater Poland uprising
1289:Austro-Hungarian strike
13348:Wars involving Germany
13220:Slovak Soviet Republic
13124:Seattle General Strike
12606:Science and technology
12307:History of Brandenburg
12198:Unification of Germany
12188:Frankfurt Constitution
11851:Paris Peace Conference
11839:Ukraine–Central Powers
11633:Massacres of Albanians
11601:Late Ottoman genocides
11408:Bulgarian occupations
11116:Third Anglo-Afghan War
11080:Hungarian–Romanian War
10898:Naval Victory Bulletin
10893:Armistice with Germany
10843:Hundred Days Offensive
10770:Battle of La Malmaison
10720:Second battle of Arras
10687:Battle of Transylvania
10541:Second Battle of Ypres
10409:Sarajevo assassination
10298:South African Republic
9733:Tunstall, Graydon A.:
9497:Die Weimarer Republik.
9464:Frankfurt am Main 1982
9255:. Verlag rosa Winkel.
9194:Halperin, S. William.
9158:Coper, Rudolf (1955).
9103:Broue, Pierre (2006).
8912:Kluge, Ulrich (1985).
8601:Holocaust Encyclopedia
8525:Holocaust Encyclopedia
7074:Memories and Documents
6551:Mommsen, Hans (1996).
6346:FES Historische Presse
5614:
5580:
5557:
5544:
5515:
5492:
5488:
5469:
5383:
5374:of 1921, the KPD, the
5310:
5299:
5249:parliamentary republic
5123:
5097:
5091:
5070:
5031:
5010:
4986:
4973:
4961:
4927:
4885:
4813:
4809:People's Navy Division
4766:
4757:
4721:
4691:
4680:
4588:
4533:
4523:
4489:
4458:Revolutionary Stewards
4374:
4373:proclaiming a republic
4330:
4329:through the revolution
4274:
4271:Bremen Soviet Republic
4150:in Kiel under Admiral
4148:Imperial Naval Command
4135:
3421:parliamentary monarchy
3417:constitutional reforms
3382:
3374:
3339:
3301:
3295:
3246:to found the anti-war
3207:Auxiliary Services Act
3130:
1550:parliamentary republic
1537:
1354:1918 protest in Zagreb
1324:Canadian Labour Revolt
1319:British police strikes
1277:Brazil strike movement
1137:Potempa murder of 1932
1075:Occupation of the Ruhr
933:Bremen Soviet Republic
356:Commanders and leaders
316:Bremen Soviet Republic
294:Revolutionary Stewards
230:
221:
212:
13378:Rebellions in Germany
13333:Communist revolutions
13165:Odesa Soviet Republic
12243:Flight and expulsions
11861:Treaty of St. Germain
11834:Russia–Central Powers
11788:Sykes–Picot Agreement
11616:Pontic Greek genocide
11591:Destruction of Kalisz
11567:Eastern Mediterranean
11128:Polish–Lithuanian War
10910:Armistice of Belgrade
10873:Armistice of Salonica
10803:Operation Faustschlag
10750:Third Battle of Oituz
10672:Baranovichi offensive
10640:Lake Naroch offensive
10614:Battle of Robat Karim
10589:Vistula–Bug offensive
10564:Battles of the Isonzo
10495:First Battle of Ypres
9721:Revolutions (Germany)
9612:(editors/compilers):
8957:Die Weimarer Republik
8572:"Organisation Konsul"
8242:"Die Märzkämpfe 1919"
7714:(in German) (33): 14.
7484:(in German) (33): 15.
7400:"Erzberger, Matthias"
6955:"The End of Monarchy"
6828:Die Weimarer Republik
5876:Wahlen in Deutschland
5598:Karl Dietrich Bracher
5566:
5552:
5524:
5504:
5499:stab-in-the-back myth
5493:Deutsche Tageszeitung
5483:
5464:
5402:stab-in-the-back myth
5305:
5294:
5121:
5004:
4971:
4925:
4883:
4864:1918 Christmas crisis
4835:stab-in-the-back myth
4740:
4708:collective bargaining
4686:
4675:
4586:
4511:
4412:proclaimed a republic
4365:
4321:
4268:
4124:
3833:Bulgarian unification
3509:Counter-revolutionary
3447:traditional standards
3378:stab-in-the-back myth
3369:
3336:stab-in-the-back myth
3330:
3267:Further information:
3205:(OHL) introduced the
3116:SPD and the World War
3091:banned from 1878–1890
2948:Criticism of monarchy
2770:North Yemen civil war
2584:The Federalist Papers
1879:Federal parliamentary
1436:Luton Peace Day Riots
923:1918 Christmas crisis
398:Ludwig III of Bavaria
146:Establishment of the
66:Barricade during the
13318:Communism in Germany
13313:Anarchism in Germany
13109:French Army Mutinies
12915:World Heritage Sites
12593:German states by GDP
12183:German Confederation
11856:Treaty of Versailles
11572:Mount Lebanon famine
11487:in the United States
11455:Russian occupations
11169:Turkish–Armenian War
11110:Polish–Ukrainian War
11050:Ukrainian–Soviet War
10997:Central Asian Revolt
10780:Armistice of Focșani
10510:Battle of Sarikamish
10460:Battle of Tannenberg
9856:Military engagements
9384:(1981, 1986, 1988),
9177:, Hesperides Press,
5251:(sometimes called a
5234:Treaty of Versailles
5128:Berlin March Battles
4269:Proclamation of the
4230:and as far south as
4131:Prinzregent Luitpold
3605:Contentious politics
3476:Political revolution
3317:Treaty of Versailles
3203:Supreme Army Command
3139:Second International
2933:Classical radicalism
2675:Republic of Florence
2614:Democracy in America
1773:Separation of powers
1748:Public participation
1583:, including Emperor
1528:, also known as the
1470:Mongolian Revolution
1411:March First Movement
1349:Swiss general strike
1252:French Army mutinies
1127:Altona Bloody Sunday
938:Berlin March Battles
13373:Protests in Germany
13134:May Fourth Movement
12551:Automobile industry
12137:Carolingian dynasty
12071:History of the Huns
11923:They shall not pass
11846:Treaty of Bucharest
11803:Treaty of Bucharest
11742:USA against Germany
11719:Declarations of war
11423:German occupations
11336:British casualties
11195:Soviet–Georgian War
11122:Egyptian Revolution
11062:Armeno-Georgian War
10926:Somaliland campaign
10878:Armistice of Mudros
10755:Battle of Caporetto
10745:Battle of Mărășești
10715:Zimmermann telegram
10710:February Revolution
10655:Battle of the Somme
10579:Bug-Narew Offensive
10554:Battle of Gallipoli
10546:Sinking of the RMS
10338:Scramble for Africa
10332:Franco-Prussian War
9988:Sinai and Palestine
9719:Gallus, Alexander:
9589:Detlev J.K. Peukert
9010:, pp. 143–162.
8961:The Weimar Republic
8163:, pp. 155–156.
8035:, pp. 136–137.
8023:, pp. 144–145.
7831:"Deutscher Umsturz"
7577:, pp. 102–111.
7529:, pp. 728–730.
6832:The Weimar Republic
6159:Nagornaja, Oksana.
5678:Wolfgang J. Mommsen
5583:Historical research
5323:Organisation Consul
5269:Paul von Hindenburg
5245:Weimar Constitution
5045:Battle of the Marne
4979:Spartacist uprising
4918:Spartacist uprising
4814:Volksmarinedivision
4792:Weimar Constitution
4755:Philipp Scheidemann
4400:Philipp Scheidemann
4367:Philipp Scheidemann
4074:Politics portal
3397:Prince Max of Baden
3215:February Revolution
3190:Burgfriedenspolitik
3061:Weimar Constitution
3023:Politics portal
2828:Antigua and Barbuda
2775:Zanzibar Revolution
2685:American Revolution
2574:The Social Contract
1743:Popular sovereignty
1624:Spartacist uprising
1577:declared a republic
1530:November Revolution
1416:May Fourth Movement
1401:La Canadenca strike
1344:Egyptian Revolution
1045:Reichstag Bloodbath
928:Spartacist uprising
499:Philipp Scheidemann
422:Paul von Hindenburg
284:(from 30 Dec. 1918)
263:(until 9 Nov. 1918)
142:Spartacist uprising
68:Spartacist uprising
13129:March 1st Movement
13088:September Uprising
13018:Russian Revolution
12621:Telecommunications
12302:History of Prussia
12218:Revolution of 1918
12213:War guilt question
12132:Carolingian Empire
12101:Sack of Rome (410)
12010:History of Germany
11883:Treaty of Lausanne
11798:Paris Economy Pact
11732:UK against Germany
11662:Entry into the war
11628:Urkun (Kyrgyzstan)
11347:Ottoman casualties
11157:Franco-Turkish War
11037:Post-War conflicts
11021:Russian Revolution
11003:Invasion of Darfur
10968:Kelantan rebellion
10956:Kurdish rebellions
10932:Mexican Revolution
10765:October Revolution
10730:Kerensky offensive
10705:Capture of Baghdad
10682:Monastir offensive
10667:Brusilov offensive
10505:Battle of Kolubara
10344:Russo-Japanese War
9797:Homepage from Kiel
9767:1914–1918-online.
9753:1914–1918-online.
9747:Weinhauer, Klaus:
9739:1914–1918-online.
9725:1914–1918-online.
9579:Carl von Ossietzky
9458:Harry Graf Kessler
9400:Gerhard Hirschfeld
9396:(2002, 2004, 2008)
9213:, Cambridge 2016,
9187:Gerwarth, Robert.
8350:, p. 169–170.
6770:– via JSTOR.
6646:"Erich Ludendorff"
6633:– via JSTOR.
6619:Diplomatic History
6419:– via JSTOR.
6076:Haffner, Sebastian
5860:– via JSTOR.
5733:Silesian Uprisings
5478:Berliner Tageblatt
5327:Matthias Erzberger
5311:
5300:
5296:Matthias Erzberger
5226:minister president
5124:
5011:
4974:
4928:
4886:
4758:
4692:
4681:
4631:individual cases.
4589:
4579:Interim government
4565:Matthias Erzberger
4553:Ebert–Groener pact
4524:
4522:, 11 November 1918
4515:The New York Times
4396:Reichstag building
4375:
4371:Reichstag building
4331:
4314:Reaction in Berlin
4275:
4136:
4049:Second Arab Spring
3390:Political response
3348:Georg von Hertling
3340:
3279:October Revolution
3269:Russian Revolution
2989:Primus inter pares
2805:Nepalese Civil War
2795:Iranian Revolution
2765:14 July Revolution
2720:Russian Revolution
2715:Chinese Revolution
2665:Republic of Venice
2514:Discourses on Livy
1538:Novemberrevolution
1497:September Uprising
1406:Kinmel Park mutiny
1386:Southampton mutiny
1242:Russian Revolution
1030:Silesian Uprisings
547:Matthias Erzberger
271:(from 9 Nov. 1918)
13343:Conflicts in 1919
13338:Conflicts in 1918
13275:
13274:
13028:Finnish Civil War
13023:Russian Civil War
12970:
12969:
12923:
12922:
12654:
12653:
12568:Chemical Triangle
12528:
12527:
12515:Political parties
12463:Foreign relations
12400:
12399:
12327:
12326:
12238:Allied occupation
12142:Holy Roman Empire
11949:
11948:
11932:
11931:
11916:The Golden Virgin
11910:Mutilated victory
11891:
11890:
11871:Treaty of Trianon
11866:Treaty of Neuilly
11773:Damascus Protocol
11646:
11645:
11606:Armenian genocide
11563:Allied blockades
11535:Belgian refugees
11318:
11317:
11228:Strategic bombing
11204:
11203:
11189:Franco-Syrian War
11163:Greco-Turkish War
11151:Anglo-Turkish War
11134:Polish–Soviet War
11068:German Revolution
11044:Russian Civil War
11027:Finnish Civil War
10853:Battle of Megiddo
10828:Battle of Goychay
10775:Battle of Cambrai
10735:Battle of Mărăști
10650:Battle of Jutland
10630:Erzurum offensive
10485:Siege of Przemyśl
10465:Siege of Tsingtao
10450:Battle of Galicia
10380:Second Balkan War
10368:Italo-Turkish War
10325:Pre-War conflicts
10311:
10310:
10201:Portuguese Empire
10117:
10116:
10079:German New Guinea
10061:Asian and Pacific
9697:Richard Wiegand:
9606:Gerhard A. Ritter
9568:, Stuttgart 1988
9434:9-783-549-07487-9
9412:978-3-86153-990-2
9362:Sebastian Haffner
9252:The King's Depart
9219:9-781-107-11512-5
9051:978-90-04-21921-2
9022:, pp. 10–38.
8495:"Friedrich Ebert"
8321:Burleigh, Michael
8071:, pp. 58–59.
7739:, pp. 49–50.
7700:, pp. 50–51.
7688:, pp. 45–46.
7541:, pp. 731 f.
7333:, pp. 37–38.
7309:, pp. 35–36.
7282:, pp. 61–79.
7046:, pp. 66–68.
6841:978-3-486-49795-3
6599:978-1-85109-964-1
6537:978-3-406-66049-8
6299:The Life of Lenin
6256:978-3-7482-7933-4
5954:Political Studies
5718:Finnish Civil War
5634:Committee of the
5561:Sebastian Haffner
5421:for a long time.
5384:Goldene Zwanziger
4831:Army High Command
4819:Reich Chancellery
4716:workers' councils
4663:Rudolf Hilferding
4609:Polish insurgents
4539:Brutus Molkenbuhr
4108:
4107:
3642:Mass mobilization
3632:Guerrilla warfare
3323:Military collapse
3240:centrist Marxists
3110:council republics
3057:
3056:
3000:Republican empire
2973:List of republics
2822:National variants
2750:Spanish Civil War
2690:French Revolution
2670:Republic of Genoa
2554:The Spirit of Law
2487:Theoretical works
1831:Neo-republicanism
1571:. Within a week,
1521:
1520:
1458:Patagonia Rebelde
1329:German Revolution
1299:Finnish Civil War
1187:
1186:
951:
950:
855:
854:
305:Soviet Republics:
155:
154:
42:German revolution
16:(Redirected from
13400:
13267:World revolution
13139:1923 Kraków riot
13093:Hamburg Uprising
13033:Aster Revolution
12997:
12990:
12983:
12974:
12973:
12950:
12943:
12936:
12900:Prussian virtues
12665:
12664:
12573:Economic history
12539:
12538:
12433:
12411:
12410:
12362:Cities and towns
12338:
12337:
12318:Baden Revolution
12122:Treaty of Verdun
12091:Marcomannic Wars
12046:Migration Period
12041:Germanic peoples
12025:Military history
12000:
11999:
11976:
11969:
11962:
11953:
11952:
11876:Treaty of Sèvres
11768:Treaty of London
11659:
11658:
11437:Northeast France
11368:
11367:
11340:Parliamentarians
11273:
11272:
11235:Chemical weapons
11213:
11212:
10974:Senussi campaign
10944:Muscat rebellion
10938:Maritz rebellion
10906:
10848:Vardar offensive
10677:Battle of Romani
10645:Battle of Asiago
10635:Battle of Verdun
10599:Kosovo offensive
10374:First Balkan War
10322:
10321:
10221:Russian Republic
10130:
10129:
9924:
9923:
9866:Economic history
9833:
9826:
9819:
9810:
9809:
9677:. Stuttgart 1993
9672:
9656:
9627:Arthur Rosenberg
9471:Göttingen 1975,
9449:
9446:
9334:
9331:
9293:Eduard Bernstein
9270:
9245:
9167:
9154:
9142:
9128:
9078:
9055:
9042:Brill Publishers
9023:
9017:
9011:
9005:
8999:
8993:
8987:
8986:, pp. 160f.
8981:
8975:
8974:
8952:
8946:
8938:
8932:
8931:
8909:
8903:
8897:
8891:
8890:
8878:
8872:
8871:
8854:Gesammelte Werke
8849:
8843:
8837:
8831:
8825:
8819:
8813:
8807:
8801:
8795:
8789:
8783:
8777:
8771:
8765:
8759:
8758:
8756:
8754:
8738:
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8715:
8700:
8694:
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8667:
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8437:
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8428:
8426:
8411:
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7799:
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7695:
7689:
7683:
7677:
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7672:
7656:
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7611:
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7554:
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7471:
7470:
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7441:
7439:
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7395:
7389:
7388:
7366:
7360:
7359:
7357:
7355:
7340:
7334:
7328:
7322:
7321:, p. 711 f.
7316:
7310:
7304:
7298:
7292:
7283:
7277:
7271:
7265:
7259:
7258:
7235:
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7017:
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6988:
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6778:
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6694:
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6687:
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6683:
6667:
6661:
6660:
6658:
6656:
6641:
6635:
6634:
6610:
6604:
6603:
6585:
6579:
6573:
6567:
6566:
6548:
6542:
6541:
6519:
6513:
6512:
6510:
6508:
6493:
6487:
6481:
6475:
6474:
6472:
6470:
6454:
6448:
6447:
6445:
6443:
6427:
6421:
6420:
6409:10.2307/20028991
6388:
6382:
6381:
6363:
6357:
6356:
6354:
6352:
6338:
6332:
6331:
6309:
6303:
6302:
6294:
6288:
6287:
6285:
6283:
6267:
6261:
6260:
6236:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6225:
6209:
6203:
6202:
6200:
6198:
6183:
6177:
6176:
6174:
6172:
6156:
6150:
6149:
6147:
6145:
6130:
6124:
6123:
6121:
6119:
6112:Preussen Chronik
6104:
6098:
6097:
6072:
6066:
6065:
6063:
6061:
6045:
6032:
6031:
6023:
6017:
6016:
6004:
5998:
5997:
5995:
5984:
5978:
5977:
5945:
5939:
5938:
5936:
5934:
5919:
5913:
5912:
5910:
5908:
5894:
5888:
5887:
5885:
5883:
5868:
5862:
5861:
5829:
5823:
5822:
5810:
5799:
5798:
5787:
5781:
5780:
5758:
5712:
5707:
5706:
5705:
5641:Marxist-Leninist
5617:
5590:Arthur Rosenberg
5547:Walther Rathenau
5495:
5442:Beer Hall Putsch
5410:ascent of Hitler
5386:
5343:Beer Hall Putsch
5331:Walther Rathenau
5307:Walther Rathenau
5228:on 13 February.
5218:Weimar Coalition
5216:, it formed the
5212:and the liberal
5160:soviet republics
5132:council republic
5102:
5094:
5092:Garde-Kavallerie
5073:
5034:
4989:
4964:
4941:Arthur Rosenberg
4894:Christmas crisis
4873:across from the
4858:Christmas crisis
4816:
4798:Turn to violence
4769:
4724:
4547:
4536:
4499:Wilhelm Dittmann
4492:
4408:Spartacus League
4252:Anif declaration
4222:– and spread to
4187:Baden government
4152:Franz von Hipper
4100:
4093:
4086:
4072:
4071:
3925:Hungarian (1956)
3757:Spanish American
3486:
3463:
3462:
3441:The sociologist
3385:
3383:Dolchstoßlegende
3332:Erich Ludendorff
3306:
3298:
3236:Eduard Bernstein
3179:, and including
3133:
3049:
3042:
3035:
3021:
3020:
3005:Republican Party
2983:Peasant republic
2943:Communitarianism
2660:Classical Athens
2655:
2629:
2619:
2609:
2599:
2589:
2579:
2569:
2559:
2549:
2539:
2529:
2519:
2509:
2499:
1733:Mixed government
1667:
1666:
1599:of the moderate
1554:council republic
1507:Hamburg Uprising
1359:Darwin rebellion
1226:
1214:
1207:
1200:
1191:
1190:
1100:Beer Hall Putsch
1095:Hamburg Uprising
990:
988:
978:
971:
964:
955:
954:
913:Anif declaration
893:
891:
881:
874:
867:
858:
857:
845:
844:
843:
833:
832:
831:
821:
820:
819:
812:
805:Rudolf Egelhofer
803:
802:
801:
791:
790:
789:
782:
773:
772:
771:
764:
755:
754:
753:
743:
742:
741:
731:
730:
729:
722:
713:
712:
711:
704:
695:
694:
693:
683:
682:
681:
674:
665:
664:
663:
653:
652:
651:
641:
640:
639:
623:
622:
621:
614:
605:
604:
603:
596:
587:
586:
585:
569:
568:
557:
556:
545:
544:
533:
532:
521:
520:
509:
508:
497:
496:
485:
484:
473:
472:
456:
455:
446:Franz von Hipper
444:
443:
432:
431:
420:
419:
410:Erich Ludendorff
408:
407:
396:
395:
384:
383:
370:
369:
345:
343:
342:
324:
285:
276:Spartacus League
272:
264:
254:Revolutionaries:
252:
251:
250:
235:
226:
217:
204:
202:
201:
178:
176:
175:
76:
75:
64:
39:
38:
21:
13408:
13407:
13403:
13402:
13401:
13399:
13398:
13397:
13393:Democratization
13298:1919 in Germany
13293:1918 in Germany
13278:
13277:
13276:
13271:
13262:World communism
13250:
13246:First Red Scare
13234:
13143:
13097:
13006:
13001:
12971:
12966:
12953:
12946:
12939:
12932:
12919:
12783:
12734:Life expectancy
12650:
12524:
12495:Law enforcement
12431:
12396:
12323:
12290:
12269:
12253:Divided Germany
12223:Weimar Republic
12151:
12117:Frankish Empire
12105:
12029:
11995:
11989:
11980:
11950:
11945:
11928:
11887:
11819:
11812:
11783:Treaty of Darin
11751:
11713:
11669:Austria-Hungary
11655:
11642:
11623:Rape of Belgium
11550:
11522:
11470:
11464:Western Armenia
11459:Eastern Galicia
11392:
11366:
11330:
11329:Civilian impact
11328:
11314:
11271:
11200:
11032:
10962:Ovambo Uprising
10914:
10900:
10789:
10691:
10618:
10536:Battle of Łomża
10519:
10515:Christmas truce
10490:Race to the Sea
10423:
10385:
10307:
10278:Austria-Hungary
10254:
10189:Empire of Japan
10126:
10124:
10113:
10097:U-boat campaign
10083:
10055:
10017:
9969:
9915:
9896:Popular culture
9842:
9837:
9716:
9711:
9662:
9509:Ottokar Luban:
9495:Eberhard Kolb:
9441:
9326:
9324:Bernt Engelmann
9278:
9273:
9263:
9151:
9121:
9111:Haymarket Books
9091:
9086:
9084:Further reading
9081:
9075:
9052:
9031:
9026:
9018:
9014:
9006:
9002:
8994:
8990:
8982:
8978:
8971:
8953:
8949:
8945:, No. III/2008.
8939:
8935:
8928:
8910:
8906:
8902:, p. 193f.
8898:
8894:
8879:
8875:
8868:
8858:Collected Works
8850:
8846:
8838:
8834:
8826:
8822:
8814:
8810:
8804:Sontheimer 1962
8802:
8798:
8790:
8786:
8778:
8774:
8766:
8762:
8752:
8750:
8739:
8735:
8727:
8723:
8713:
8711:
8702:
8701:
8697:
8687:
8685:
8674:
8670:
8660:
8658:
8647:
8643:
8633:
8631:
8620:
8616:
8606:
8604:
8595:
8594:
8590:
8580:
8578:
8570:
8569:
8565:
8555:
8553:
8544:
8543:
8539:
8529:
8527:
8519:
8518:
8514:
8504:
8502:
8491:
8487:
8477:
8475:
8464:
8460:
8450:
8448:
8439:
8438:
8434:
8424:
8422:
8413:
8412:
8408:
8398:
8396:
8385:
8381:
8371:
8369:
8358:
8354:
8346:
8342:
8335:
8318:
8314:
8306:
8292:
8288:
8278:
8276:
8265:
8261:
8251:
8249:
8238:
8231:
8216:
8212:
8202:
8198:
8191:
8171:
8167:
8159:
8155:
8148:
8134:
8130:
8122:
8118:
8110:
8106:
8096:
8094:
8086:
8079:
8075:
8067:
8063:
8055:
8051:
8043:
8039:
8031:
8027:
8019:
8015:
8007:
8003:
7995:
7991:
7984:
7968:
7964:
7954:
7952:
7943:
7942:
7935:
7925:
7923:
7912:
7903:
7890:
7886:
7873:
7869:
7862:
7846:
7842:
7827:
7823:
7813:
7811:
7800:
7796:
7786:
7784:
7773:
7769:
7759:
7757:
7748:
7747:
7743:
7735:
7731:
7723:
7719:
7708:
7704:
7696:
7692:
7684:
7680:
7670:
7668:
7657:
7650:
7643:
7627:
7623:
7612:
7608:
7598:
7596:
7585:
7581:
7573:
7569:
7561:
7557:
7549:
7545:
7537:
7533:
7525:
7521:
7514:
7493:
7489:
7478:
7474:
7467:
7449:
7445:
7435:
7433:
7424:
7423:
7419:
7409:
7407:
7396:
7392:
7385:
7367:
7363:
7353:
7351:
7341:
7337:
7329:
7325:
7317:
7313:
7305:
7301:
7293:
7286:
7278:
7274:
7266:
7262:
7255:
7236:
7232:
7222:
7220:
7209:
7205:
7197:
7193:
7185:
7181:
7171:
7169:
7158:
7154:
7144:
7142:
7131:
7120:
7112:
7108:
7101:
7085:
7081:
7066:
7062:
7054:
7050:
7042:
7038:
7030:
7026:
7018:
7014:
7007:
6989:
6985:
6977:
6973:
6963:
6961:
6953:
6952:
6948:
6940:
6936:
6926:
6924:
6913:
6909:
6901:
6897:
6887:
6885:
6874:
6861:
6853:
6849:
6842:
6824:
6817:
6809:
6802:
6792:
6790:
6779:
6775:
6756:JuristenZeitung
6748:
6744:
6734:
6732:
6723:
6722:
6718:
6695:
6691:
6681:
6679:
6668:
6664:
6654:
6652:
6642:
6638:
6611:
6607:
6600:
6586:
6582:
6574:
6570:
6563:
6549:
6545:
6538:
6520:
6516:
6506:
6504:
6494:
6490:
6486:, p. 32 f.
6482:
6478:
6468:
6466:
6455:
6451:
6441:
6439:
6428:
6424:
6397:Foreign Affairs
6389:
6385:
6378:
6364:
6360:
6350:
6348:
6340:
6339:
6335:
6328:
6310:
6306:
6295:
6291:
6281:
6279:
6268:
6264:
6257:
6237:
6233:
6223:
6221:
6210:
6206:
6196:
6194:
6184:
6180:
6170:
6168:
6157:
6153:
6143:
6141:
6132:
6131:
6127:
6117:
6115:
6106:
6105:
6101:
6094:
6073:
6069:
6059:
6057:
6046:
6035:
6024:
6020:
6005:
6001:
5993:
5985:
5981:
5946:
5942:
5932:
5930:
5921:
5920:
5916:
5906:
5904:
5896:
5895:
5891:
5881:
5879:
5870:
5869:
5865:
5830:
5826:
5811:
5802:
5789:
5788:
5784:
5777:
5759:
5755:
5751:
5743:First Red Scare
5708:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5585:
5577:
5575:
5572:
5570:
5531:
5511:
5508:
5460:Ernst Troeltsch
5454:
5418:
5389:Golden Twenties
5289:
5283:
5281:Weimar Republic
5277:
5198:
5192:
5116:
5057:
4965:were occupied.
4952:Karl Liebknecht
4920:
4914:
4866:
4860:
4817:), went to the
4805:
4800:
4747:Friedrich Ebert
4735:
4651:
4645:
4601:Allied blockade
4581:
4541:
4450:
4445:
4432:
4404:Karl Liebknecht
4389:Allied blockade
4360:
4354:
4348:
4323:Friedrich Ebert
4316:
4260:dynastic rulers
4238:of the radical
4208:
4183:Wilhelm Souchon
4156:Reinhard Scheer
4119:
4113:
4111:Sailors' revolt
4104:
4066:
4061:
4060:
3717:
3709:
3708:
3580:
3572:
3571:
3532:
3524:
3523:
3494:
3457:Fourteen Points
3439:
3410:Wilhelm Groener
3392:
3346:and Chancellor
3325:
3271:
3265:
3260:
3199:
3181:Karl Liebknecht
3169:Friedrich Ebert
3118:
3079:
3074:
3053:
3015:
3010:
3009:
2928:
2920:
2919:
2823:
2815:
2814:
2700:Trienio Liberal
2641:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2617:
2607:
2597:
2587:
2577:
2567:
2557:
2547:
2537:
2527:
2517:
2507:
2497:
2488:
2480:
2479:
2215:Flynn (Stephen)
2100:
2092:
2091:
1932:
1924:
1923:
1849:
1841:
1840:
1796:
1788:
1787:
1783:Social equality
1778:Social contract
1768:Self-governance
1723:Democratization
1698:Anti-corruption
1693:Anti-monarchism
1688:
1672:Politics series
1642:Karl Liebknecht
1597:Friedrich Ebert
1581:ruling monarchs
1565:sailors' mutiny
1558:Weimar Republic
1522:
1517:
1516:
1396:First Red Scare
1227:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1188:
1183:
1070:Klaipėda Revolt
991:
986:
984:
982:
952:
947:
894:
889:
887:
885:
851:
841:
839:
829:
827:
817:
815:
799:
797:
787:
785:
769:
767:
757:Gustav Landauer
751:
749:
739:
737:
727:
725:
709:
707:
691:
689:
679:
677:
661:
659:
649:
647:
637:
635:
619:
617:
607:Karl Liebknecht
601:
599:
583:
581:
575:
563:
551:
539:
527:
515:
503:
491:
479:
475:Friedrich Ebert
467:
463:
462:
458:Reinhard Scheer
450:
438:
434:Wilhelm Groener
426:
414:
402:
390:
378:
364:
351:
340:
338:
320:
283:
270:
262:
248:
246:
206:German Republic
199:
197:
195:
191:
173:
171:
169:
148:Weimar Republic
123:Weimar Republic
113:
103:
99:
97:
90:
88:
65:
52:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
13406:
13396:
13395:
13390:
13385:
13380:
13375:
13370:
13365:
13360:
13355:
13350:
13345:
13340:
13335:
13330:
13325:
13320:
13315:
13310:
13305:
13300:
13295:
13290:
13273:
13272:
13270:
13269:
13264:
13258:
13256:
13252:
13251:
13249:
13248:
13242:
13240:
13236:
13235:
13233:
13232:
13230:Labin Republic
13227:
13222:
13217:
13212:
13207:
13202:
13197:
13192:
13187:
13182:
13177:
13172:
13167:
13162:
13157:
13151:
13149:
13145:
13144:
13142:
13141:
13136:
13131:
13126:
13121:
13116:
13111:
13105:
13103:
13099:
13098:
13096:
13095:
13090:
13085:
13080:
13075:
13070:
13065:
13060:
13055:
13050:
13045:
13040:
13035:
13030:
13025:
13020:
13014:
13012:
13008:
13007:
13000:
12999:
12992:
12985:
12977:
12968:
12967:
12965:
12964:
12959:
12952:
12951:
12944:
12937:
12929:
12928:
12925:
12924:
12921:
12920:
12918:
12917:
12912:
12907:
12902:
12897:
12892:
12887:
12882:
12877:
12872:
12867:
12862:
12857:
12852:
12847:
12842:
12837:
12832:
12831:Cultural icons
12829:
12824:
12819:
12814:
12809:
12804:
12799:
12793:
12791:
12785:
12784:
12782:
12781:
12776:
12771:
12766:
12761:
12756:
12751:
12746:
12741:
12736:
12731:
12726:
12721:
12716:
12711:
12710:
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12704:
12694:
12689:
12684:
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12674:
12668:
12662:
12656:
12655:
12652:
12651:
12649:
12648:
12643:
12638:
12633:
12628:
12623:
12618:
12613:
12611:Stock exchange
12608:
12603:
12595:
12590:
12585:
12580:
12575:
12570:
12565:
12564:
12563:
12553:
12548:
12542:
12536:
12530:
12529:
12526:
12525:
12523:
12522:
12517:
12512:
12507:
12502:
12497:
12492:
12487:
12486:
12485:
12480:
12475:
12465:
12460:
12455:
12450:
12445:
12440:
12435:
12425:
12420:
12414:
12408:
12402:
12401:
12398:
12397:
12395:
12394:
12389:
12384:
12379:
12374:
12369:
12364:
12359:
12358:
12357:
12352:
12341:
12335:
12329:
12328:
12325:
12324:
12322:
12321:
12315:
12309:
12304:
12298:
12296:
12292:
12291:
12289:
12288:
12283:
12277:
12275:
12271:
12270:
12268:
12267:
12266:
12265:
12260:
12250:
12248:Denazification
12245:
12240:
12235:
12230:
12225:
12220:
12215:
12210:
12205:
12200:
12195:
12190:
12185:
12180:
12175:
12170:
12165:
12159:
12157:
12153:
12152:
12150:
12149:
12144:
12139:
12134:
12129:
12124:
12119:
12113:
12111:
12107:
12106:
12104:
12103:
12098:
12093:
12088:
12083:
12078:
12073:
12068:
12063:
12058:
12053:
12048:
12043:
12037:
12035:
12031:
12030:
12028:
12027:
12022:
12020:Historiography
12017:
12012:
12006:
12004:
11997:
11991:
11990:
11979:
11978:
11971:
11964:
11956:
11947:
11946:
11944:
11943:
11937:
11934:
11933:
11930:
11929:
11927:
11926:
11919:
11912:
11907:
11899:
11897:
11893:
11892:
11889:
11888:
11886:
11885:
11880:
11879:
11878:
11873:
11868:
11863:
11858:
11848:
11843:
11842:
11841:
11836:
11828:
11822:
11820:
11818:Peace treaties
11817:
11814:
11813:
11811:
11810:
11805:
11800:
11795:
11790:
11785:
11780:
11775:
11770:
11765:
11759:
11757:
11753:
11752:
11750:
11749:
11744:
11739:
11734:
11729:
11723:
11721:
11715:
11714:
11712:
11711:
11706:
11704:United Kingdom
11701:
11696:
11694:Ottoman Empire
11691:
11686:
11681:
11676:
11671:
11665:
11663:
11656:
11651:
11648:
11647:
11644:
11643:
11641:
11640:
11635:
11630:
11625:
11620:
11619:
11618:
11613:
11608:
11598:
11596:Sack of Dinant
11593:
11588:
11583:
11582:
11581:
11576:
11575:
11574:
11560:
11558:
11552:
11551:
11549:
11548:
11547:
11546:
11544:United Kingdom
11541:
11532:
11530:
11524:
11523:
11521:
11520:
11519:
11518:
11513:
11504:
11498:POW locations
11496:
11491:
11490:
11489:
11480:
11478:
11472:
11471:
11469:
11468:
11467:
11466:
11461:
11453:
11448:
11447:
11446:
11439:
11434:
11429:
11421:
11420:
11419:
11414:
11406:
11400:
11398:
11394:
11393:
11391:
11390:
11385:
11380:
11374:
11372:
11365:
11364:
11363:
11362:
11357:
11349:
11344:
11343:
11342:
11333:
11331:
11323:
11320:
11319:
11316:
11315:
11313:
11312:
11307:
11306:
11305:
11298:United Kingdom
11295:
11293:Ottoman Empire
11290:
11285:
11279:
11277:
11270:
11269:
11267:Trench warfare
11264:
11263:
11262:
11252:
11247:
11242:
11237:
11232:
11231:
11230:
11219:
11217:
11210:
11206:
11205:
11202:
11201:
11199:
11198:
11192:
11186:
11180:
11174:
11173:
11172:
11166:
11160:
11154:
11143:
11137:
11131:
11125:
11119:
11113:
11107:
11101:
11095:
11089:
11083:
11077:
11071:
11065:
11059:
11053:
11047:
11040:
11038:
11034:
11033:
11031:
11030:
11024:
11018:
11012:
11006:
11000:
10994:
10988:
10983:
10980:Volta-Bani War
10977:
10971:
10965:
10959:
10953:
10947:
10941:
10935:
10929:
10922:
10920:
10916:
10915:
10913:
10912:
10907:
10895:
10890:
10885:
10880:
10875:
10870:
10865:
10860:
10855:
10850:
10845:
10840:
10835:
10830:
10825:
10820:
10818:Zeebrugge Raid
10815:
10810:
10805:
10799:
10797:
10791:
10790:
10788:
10787:
10782:
10777:
10772:
10767:
10762:
10757:
10752:
10747:
10742:
10737:
10732:
10727:
10722:
10717:
10712:
10707:
10701:
10699:
10693:
10692:
10690:
10689:
10684:
10679:
10674:
10669:
10664:
10663:
10662:
10652:
10647:
10642:
10637:
10632:
10626:
10624:
10620:
10619:
10617:
10616:
10611:
10609:Battle of Loos
10606:
10601:
10596:
10591:
10586:
10581:
10576:
10571:
10566:
10561:
10556:
10551:
10543:
10538:
10533:
10527:
10525:
10521:
10520:
10518:
10517:
10512:
10507:
10502:
10500:Black Sea raid
10497:
10492:
10487:
10482:
10477:
10472:
10467:
10462:
10457:
10452:
10447:
10442:
10437:
10431:
10429:
10425:
10424:
10422:
10421:
10416:
10411:
10406:
10405:
10404:
10402:Historiography
10393:
10391:
10387:
10386:
10384:
10383:
10377:
10371:
10365:
10359:
10356:Bosnian Crisis
10353:
10350:Tangier Crisis
10347:
10341:
10335:
10328:
10326:
10319:
10313:
10312:
10309:
10308:
10306:
10305:
10300:
10295:
10290:
10285:
10283:Ottoman Empire
10280:
10275:
10270:
10264:
10262:
10260:Central Powers
10256:
10255:
10253:
10252:
10247:
10246:
10245:
10243:British Empire
10238:United Kingdom
10235:
10230:
10225:
10224:
10223:
10218:
10216:Russian Empire
10208:
10203:
10198:
10193:
10192:
10191:
10181:
10176:
10171:
10170:
10169:
10159:
10154:
10149:
10144:
10138:
10136:
10134:Entente Powers
10127:
10122:
10119:
10118:
10115:
10114:
10112:
10111:
10106:
10105:
10104:
10102:North Atlantic
10093:
10091:
10085:
10084:
10082:
10081:
10076:
10071:
10065:
10063:
10057:
10056:
10054:
10053:
10048:
10043:
10038:
10033:
10027:
10025:
10019:
10018:
10016:
10015:
10013:Central Arabia
10010:
10005:
10000:
9995:
9990:
9985:
9979:
9977:
9975:Middle Eastern
9971:
9970:
9968:
9967:
9962:
9961:
9960:
9950:
9945:
9944:
9943:
9932:
9930:
9921:
9917:
9916:
9914:
9913:
9908:
9903:
9898:
9893:
9888:
9883:
9878:
9876:Historiography
9873:
9868:
9863:
9858:
9853:
9847:
9844:
9843:
9836:
9835:
9828:
9821:
9813:
9807:
9806:
9800:
9794:
9788:
9779:
9773:
9759:
9745:
9731:
9715:
9714:External links
9712:
9710:
9709:
9695:
9681:Volker Ullrich
9678:
9660:Bernd Sösemann
9657:
9645:Schulze, Hagen
9641:
9624:
9610:Susanne Miller
9603:
9586:
9576:
9562:Hermann Mosler
9559:
9542:
9528:
9521:
9513:Hamburg 2001,
9507:
9499:München 2002,
9493:
9481:Ulrich Kluge:
9479:
9467:Ulrich Kluge:
9465:
9455:
9436:
9422:
9415:
9397:
9392:(1994, 1995),
9388:(1993, 2002),
9368:München 1979 (
9359:
9337:Wir Untertanen
9321:
9307:
9290:
9279:
9277:
9274:
9272:
9271:
9261:
9246:
9231:
9221:
9203:
9192:
9185:
9168:
9155:
9149:
9129:
9119:
9100:
9092:
9090:
9087:
9085:
9082:
9080:
9079:
9074:978-3423043120
9073:
9056:
9050:
9032:
9030:
9027:
9025:
9024:
9012:
9000:
8998:, p. 161.
8988:
8976:
8970:978-3486489118
8969:
8947:
8933:
8927:978-3518112625
8926:
8904:
8892:
8873:
8867:978-3499290060
8866:
8844:
8832:
8820:
8808:
8796:
8794:, p. 149.
8784:
8772:
8770:, p. 159.
8760:
8733:
8731:, p. 209.
8721:
8695:
8668:
8641:
8614:
8588:
8563:
8537:
8512:
8485:
8458:
8432:
8406:
8379:
8352:
8340:
8333:
8312:
8286:
8259:
8229:
8210:
8196:
8189:
8165:
8153:
8147:978-3770007288
8146:
8128:
8116:
8104:
8073:
8061:
8059:, p. 137.
8049:
8037:
8025:
8013:
8001:
7989:
7983:978-0198845775
7982:
7962:
7933:
7901:
7884:
7867:
7860:
7840:
7821:
7794:
7767:
7741:
7729:
7717:
7702:
7690:
7678:
7648:
7642:978-9401116442
7641:
7621:
7606:
7579:
7567:
7555:
7543:
7531:
7519:
7513:978-3893314638
7512:
7487:
7472:
7465:
7443:
7417:
7390:
7384:978-3104024899
7383:
7361:
7335:
7323:
7311:
7299:
7284:
7280:Hoffrogge 2014
7272:
7260:
7254:978-3406726774
7253:
7230:
7203:
7191:
7179:
7152:
7118:
7106:
7100:978-1472510815
7099:
7079:
7060:
7048:
7036:
7024:
7012:
7006:978-3426038130
7005:
6983:
6971:
6946:
6934:
6907:
6895:
6859:
6847:
6840:
6815:
6813:, p. 376.
6800:
6773:
6762:(15/16): 757.
6742:
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5960:(3): 669–685.
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5559:The historian
5519:Kurt Tucholsky
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5279:Main article:
5276:
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5194:Main article:
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5099:Sturmabteilung
5080:Landwehr Canal
5076:Waldemar Pabst
5056:
5053:
5039:The historian
5019:Alexanderplatz
4916:Main article:
4913:
4910:
4902:Rudolf Wissell
4862:Main article:
4859:
4856:
4842:Rosa Luxemburg
4829:Ebert and the
4804:
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4751:Otto Landsberg
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4712:eight-hour day
4667:Works Councils
4657:theoreticians
4647:Main article:
4644:
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4605:Rhine Province
4580:
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4495:Otto Landsberg
4479:USPD chairman
4462:Richard Müller
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4325:, who led the
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3154:Spirit of 1914
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589:Rosa Luxemburg
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12774:Social issues
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12281:Reunification
12279:
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12203:German Empire
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11709:United States
11707:
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11695:
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11401:
11399:
11395:
11389:
11386:
11384:
11381:
11379:
11376:
11375:
11373:
11369:
11361:
11358:
11356:
11353:
11352:
11350:
11348:
11345:
11341:
11338:
11337:
11335:
11334:
11332:
11326:
11321:
11311:
11310:United States
11308:
11304:
11301:
11300:
11299:
11296:
11294:
11291:
11289:
11286:
11284:
11281:
11280:
11278:
11274:
11268:
11265:
11261:
11260:Convoy system
11258:
11257:
11256:
11255:Naval warfare
11253:
11251:
11248:
11246:
11243:
11241:
11238:
11236:
11233:
11229:
11226:
11225:
11224:
11221:
11220:
11218:
11214:
11211:
11207:
11196:
11193:
11190:
11187:
11184:
11181:
11178:
11175:
11170:
11167:
11164:
11161:
11158:
11155:
11152:
11149:
11148:
11147:
11144:
11141:
11138:
11135:
11132:
11129:
11126:
11123:
11120:
11117:
11114:
11111:
11108:
11105:
11102:
11099:
11096:
11093:
11090:
11087:
11084:
11081:
11078:
11075:
11072:
11069:
11066:
11063:
11060:
11057:
11054:
11051:
11048:
11045:
11042:
11041:
11039:
11035:
11028:
11025:
11022:
11019:
11016:
11015:Kaocen revolt
11013:
11010:
11009:Easter Rising
11007:
11004:
11001:
10998:
10995:
10992:
10989:
10987:
10984:
10981:
10978:
10975:
10972:
10969:
10966:
10963:
10960:
10957:
10954:
10951:
10948:
10945:
10942:
10939:
10936:
10933:
10930:
10927:
10924:
10923:
10921:
10917:
10911:
10908:
10904:
10899:
10896:
10894:
10891:
10889:
10886:
10884:
10881:
10879:
10876:
10874:
10871:
10869:
10866:
10864:
10861:
10859:
10856:
10854:
10851:
10849:
10846:
10844:
10841:
10839:
10836:
10834:
10831:
10829:
10826:
10824:
10821:
10819:
10816:
10814:
10811:
10809:
10806:
10804:
10801:
10800:
10798:
10796:
10792:
10786:
10783:
10781:
10778:
10776:
10773:
10771:
10768:
10766:
10763:
10761:
10758:
10756:
10753:
10751:
10748:
10746:
10743:
10741:
10738:
10736:
10733:
10731:
10728:
10726:
10723:
10721:
10718:
10716:
10713:
10711:
10708:
10706:
10703:
10702:
10700:
10698:
10694:
10688:
10685:
10683:
10680:
10678:
10675:
10673:
10670:
10668:
10665:
10661:
10658:
10657:
10656:
10653:
10651:
10648:
10646:
10643:
10641:
10638:
10636:
10633:
10631:
10628:
10627:
10625:
10621:
10615:
10612:
10610:
10607:
10605:
10602:
10600:
10597:
10595:
10592:
10590:
10587:
10585:
10582:
10580:
10577:
10575:
10574:Great Retreat
10572:
10570:
10567:
10565:
10562:
10560:
10557:
10555:
10552:
10550:
10549:
10544:
10542:
10539:
10537:
10534:
10532:
10529:
10528:
10526:
10522:
10516:
10513:
10511:
10508:
10506:
10503:
10501:
10498:
10496:
10493:
10491:
10488:
10486:
10483:
10481:
10478:
10476:
10473:
10471:
10468:
10466:
10463:
10461:
10458:
10456:
10453:
10451:
10448:
10446:
10445:Battle of Cer
10443:
10441:
10438:
10436:
10433:
10432:
10430:
10426:
10420:
10417:
10415:
10412:
10410:
10407:
10403:
10400:
10399:
10398:
10395:
10394:
10392:
10388:
10381:
10378:
10375:
10372:
10369:
10366:
10363:
10362:Agadir Crisis
10360:
10357:
10354:
10351:
10348:
10345:
10342:
10339:
10336:
10333:
10330:
10329:
10327:
10323:
10320:
10318:
10314:
10304:
10301:
10299:
10296:
10294:
10291:
10289:
10286:
10284:
10281:
10279:
10276:
10274:
10271:
10269:
10266:
10265:
10263:
10261:
10257:
10251:
10250:United States
10248:
10244:
10241:
10240:
10239:
10236:
10234:
10231:
10229:
10226:
10222:
10219:
10217:
10214:
10213:
10212:
10209:
10207:
10204:
10202:
10199:
10197:
10194:
10190:
10187:
10186:
10185:
10182:
10180:
10177:
10175:
10172:
10168:
10167:French Empire
10165:
10164:
10163:
10160:
10158:
10155:
10153:
10150:
10148:
10145:
10143:
10140:
10139:
10137:
10135:
10131:
10128:
10120:
10110:
10109:Mediterranean
10107:
10103:
10100:
10099:
10098:
10095:
10094:
10092:
10090:
10089:Naval warfare
10086:
10080:
10077:
10075:
10072:
10070:
10067:
10066:
10064:
10062:
10058:
10052:
10049:
10047:
10044:
10042:
10039:
10037:
10034:
10032:
10029:
10028:
10026:
10024:
10020:
10014:
10011:
10009:
10006:
10004:
10001:
9999:
9996:
9994:
9991:
9989:
9986:
9984:
9981:
9980:
9978:
9976:
9972:
9966:
9965:Italian Front
9963:
9959:
9956:
9955:
9954:
9953:Eastern Front
9951:
9949:
9948:Western Front
9946:
9942:
9939:
9938:
9937:
9934:
9933:
9931:
9929:
9925:
9922:
9918:
9912:
9909:
9907:
9906:Puppet states
9904:
9902:
9899:
9897:
9894:
9892:
9889:
9887:
9884:
9882:
9879:
9877:
9874:
9872:
9869:
9867:
9864:
9862:
9859:
9857:
9854:
9852:
9849:
9848:
9845:
9841:
9834:
9829:
9827:
9822:
9820:
9815:
9814:
9811:
9804:
9801:
9798:
9795:
9793:at libcom.org
9792:
9789:
9787:
9783:
9780:
9777:
9774:
9771:
9770:
9764:
9761:Jones, Mark:
9760:
9757:
9756:
9750:
9746:
9743:
9742:
9736:
9732:
9729:
9728:
9722:
9718:
9717:
9708:
9707:3-89484-812-X
9704:
9700:
9696:
9694:
9693:3-10-086001-2
9690:
9686:
9682:
9679:
9676:
9670:
9666:
9661:
9658:
9654:
9650:
9646:
9642:
9640:
9639:3-434-00003-8
9636:
9632:
9628:
9625:
9623:
9622:3-596-24300-9
9619:
9615:
9611:
9607:
9604:
9602:
9601:3-518-11282-1
9598:
9594:
9590:
9587:
9584:
9580:
9577:
9575:
9574:3-15-006051-6
9571:
9567:
9563:
9560:
9558:
9557:3-548-33141-6
9554:
9551:Berlin 1989,
9550:
9546:
9543:
9541:
9540:3-596-11250-8
9537:
9533:
9529:
9526:
9522:
9520:
9519:3-87975-960-X
9516:
9512:
9508:
9506:
9505:3-486-49796-0
9502:
9498:
9494:
9492:
9491:3-518-11262-7
9488:
9484:
9480:
9478:
9477:3-525-35965-9
9474:
9470:
9466:
9463:
9459:
9456:
9453:
9447:
9440:
9437:
9435:
9431:
9427:
9424:Mark Jones:
9423:
9420:
9416:
9413:
9409:
9405:
9401:
9398:
9395:
9391:
9387:
9383:
9379:
9375:
9374:3-499-61622-X
9371:
9367:
9363:
9360:
9358:
9357:3-596-21838-1
9354:
9350:
9349:3-596-21680-X
9346:
9342:
9338:
9332:
9325:
9322:
9319:
9315:
9311:
9308:
9306:
9305:3-8012-0272-0
9302:
9298:
9294:
9291:
9288:
9284:
9283:Max von Baden
9281:
9280:
9268:
9264:
9262:1-84212-658-X
9258:
9254:
9253:
9247:
9243:
9239:
9238:
9232:
9230:
9226:
9222:
9220:
9216:
9212:
9208:
9205:Jones, Mark:
9204:
9201:
9197:
9193:
9190:
9186:
9184:
9183:1-4067-9808-8
9180:
9176:
9172:
9169:
9165:
9161:
9156:
9152:
9150:0-906224-08-X
9146:
9143:. Bookmarks.
9141:
9140:
9134:
9133:Herman, Chris
9130:
9126:
9122:
9120:1-931859-32-9
9116:
9112:
9108:
9107:
9101:
9098:
9094:
9093:
9076:
9070:
9066:
9062:
9057:
9053:
9047:
9043:
9039:
9034:
9033:
9021:
9016:
9009:
9004:
8997:
8992:
8985:
8980:
8972:
8966:
8962:
8958:
8951:
8944:
8937:
8929:
8923:
8919:
8915:
8908:
8901:
8896:
8888:
8884:
8877:
8869:
8863:
8859:
8855:
8848:
8842:, p. 96.
8841:
8836:
8830:, p. 95.
8829:
8824:
8818:, p. 85.
8817:
8812:
8805:
8800:
8793:
8788:
8782:, p. 15.
8781:
8776:
8769:
8764:
8748:
8744:
8737:
8730:
8725:
8709:
8705:
8699:
8683:
8679:
8672:
8656:
8652:
8645:
8629:
8625:
8618:
8602:
8598:
8592:
8577:
8573:
8567:
8552:. 16 May 2013
8551:
8547:
8546:"Kapp Putsch"
8541:
8526:
8522:
8516:
8500:
8496:
8489:
8473:
8469:
8462:
8446:
8442:
8436:
8420:
8416:
8410:
8394:
8390:
8383:
8367:
8363:
8356:
8349:
8344:
8336:
8334:9780809093250
8330:
8326:
8322:
8316:
8304:
8300:
8299:
8290:
8274:
8270:
8263:
8247:
8243:
8236:
8234:
8225:
8221:
8214:
8208:of 18.04.1962
8207:
8206:
8200:
8192:
8190:9783641259259
8186:
8182:
8178:
8177:
8169:
8162:
8157:
8149:
8143:
8139:
8132:
8126:, p. 59.
8125:
8120:
8113:
8108:
8092:
8084:
8077:
8070:
8065:
8058:
8053:
8046:
8041:
8034:
8029:
8022:
8017:
8011:, p. 56.
8010:
8005:
7999:, p. 55.
7998:
7993:
7985:
7979:
7975:
7974:
7966:
7950:
7946:
7940:
7938:
7921:
7917:
7910:
7908:
7906:
7897:
7896:
7888:
7880:
7879:
7871:
7863:
7861:9783030277192
7857:
7853:
7852:
7844:
7836:
7835:Das Parlament
7832:
7825:
7809:
7805:
7798:
7782:
7778:
7771:
7755:
7751:
7745:
7738:
7733:
7727:, p. 52.
7726:
7721:
7713:
7706:
7699:
7694:
7687:
7682:
7666:
7662:
7655:
7653:
7644:
7638:
7634:
7633:
7625:
7617:
7610:
7594:
7590:
7583:
7576:
7571:
7565:, p. 29.
7564:
7559:
7553:, p. 27.
7552:
7547:
7540:
7535:
7528:
7523:
7515:
7509:
7505:
7501:
7497:
7491:
7483:
7476:
7468:
7466:3-05-003061-5
7462:
7458:
7454:
7447:
7431:
7427:
7421:
7405:
7401:
7394:
7386:
7380:
7376:
7372:
7365:
7350:
7346:
7345:"Vollzugsrat"
7339:
7332:
7327:
7320:
7315:
7308:
7303:
7297:, p. 28.
7296:
7291:
7289:
7281:
7276:
7270:, p. 35.
7269:
7264:
7256:
7250:
7246:
7242:
7234:
7218:
7214:
7207:
7201:, p. 87.
7200:
7195:
7189:, p. 90.
7188:
7183:
7167:
7163:
7156:
7140:
7136:
7129:
7127:
7125:
7123:
7116:, p. 76.
7115:
7110:
7102:
7096:
7092:
7091:
7083:
7075:
7071:
7064:
7058:, p. 20.
7057:
7052:
7045:
7040:
7034:, p. 68.
7033:
7028:
7022:, p. 66.
7021:
7016:
7008:
7002:
6998:
6994:
6987:
6981:, p. 22.
6980:
6975:
6960:
6956:
6950:
6944:, p. 28.
6943:
6938:
6922:
6918:
6911:
6905:, p. 27.
6904:
6899:
6883:
6879:
6878:"Kiel Mutiny"
6872:
6870:
6868:
6866:
6864:
6856:
6851:
6843:
6837:
6833:
6829:
6822:
6820:
6812:
6807:
6805:
6788:
6784:
6777:
6769:
6765:
6761:
6758:(in German).
6757:
6753:
6746:
6730:
6726:
6720:
6712:
6708:
6704:
6700:
6693:
6677:
6673:
6666:
6651:
6647:
6640:
6632:
6628:
6624:
6620:
6616:
6609:
6601:
6595:
6591:
6584:
6578:, p. 12.
6577:
6572:
6564:
6562:0-8078-4721-6
6558:
6554:
6547:
6539:
6533:
6529:
6525:
6518:
6503:
6499:
6492:
6485:
6480:
6464:
6460:
6453:
6437:
6433:
6426:
6418:
6414:
6410:
6406:
6402:
6398:
6394:
6387:
6379:
6373:
6369:
6362:
6347:
6343:
6337:
6329:
6327:3-406-37646-0
6323:
6319:
6315:
6308:
6300:
6293:
6277:
6273:
6266:
6258:
6252:
6248:
6244:
6243:
6235:
6219:
6215:
6208:
6193:
6189:
6182:
6166:
6162:
6155:
6139:
6135:
6129:
6113:
6109:
6103:
6095:
6089:
6085:
6081:
6077:
6071:
6055:
6051:
6044:
6042:
6040:
6038:
6029:
6022:
6014:
6010:
6003:
5992:
5991:
5983:
5975:
5971:
5967:
5963:
5959:
5955:
5951:
5944:
5928:
5924:
5918:
5903:
5899:
5893:
5877:
5873:
5867:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5828:
5820:
5817:(in German).
5816:
5809:
5807:
5805:
5796:
5792:
5786:
5778:
5772:
5768:
5764:
5757:
5753:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5715:
5711:
5700:
5693:
5689:
5686:
5682:
5679:
5675:
5669:
5665:
5662:
5661:Eberhard Kolb
5658:
5652:
5648:
5646:
5645:Rudolf Lindau
5642:
5637:
5631:
5629:
5624:
5619:
5616:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5593:
5591:
5579:
5565:
5562:
5556:
5551:
5548:
5543:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5527:
5523:
5520:
5514:
5503:
5501:
5500:
5494:
5487:
5482:
5480:
5479:
5474:
5473:Theodor Wolff
5468:
5463:
5461:
5457:
5449:
5445:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5413:
5411:
5407:
5403:
5398:
5392:
5390:
5385:
5379:
5377:
5373:
5369:
5365:
5364:
5359:
5358:Ruhr Red Army
5355:
5354:Ruhr uprising
5350:
5348:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5332:
5328:
5324:
5320:
5316:
5315:Wolfgang Kapp
5308:
5304:
5297:
5293:
5288:
5282:
5272:
5270:
5265:
5263:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5241:
5239:
5235:
5229:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5207:
5203:
5197:
5187:
5185:
5181:
5175:
5173:
5169:
5166:(Munich) and
5165:
5161:
5156:
5153:
5147:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5136:Upper Silesia
5133:
5129:
5120:
5114:Final revolts
5111:
5108:
5107:
5101:
5100:
5095:into the SA (
5093:
5088:
5083:
5081:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5063:
5052:
5050:
5046:
5042:
5041:Eberhard Kolb
5037:
5033:
5028:
5022:
5020:
5016:
5008:
5003:
4999:
4997:
4993:
4988:
4982:
4980:
4970:
4966:
4963:
4957:
4956:Wilhelm Pieck
4953:
4949:
4948:Emil Eichhorn
4944:
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4934:
4924:
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4909:
4907:
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4878:
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3694:Strike action
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3452:Eberhard Kolb
3448:
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3092:
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3087:German Empire
3084:
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2790:Metapolitefsi
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2594:Rights of Man
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2504:De re publica
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2310:Jones (Lynne)
2308:
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2148:
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2133:
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2128:
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2123:
2121:
2118:
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2111:
2108:
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2105:Adams (Gerry)
2103:
2102:
2096:
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2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
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1955:
1953:
1950:
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1940:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1928:
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1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1904:Revolutionary
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1894:Parliamentary
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
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1865:
1862:
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1704:
1703:Civil society
1701:
1699:
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1679:Republicanism
1677:
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1586:
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1578:
1574:
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1566:
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1555:
1551:
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1546:German Empire
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
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1473:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1463:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1448:Ruhr uprising
1446:
1445:
1441:
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1437:
1434:
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1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
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1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1376:Biennio Rosso
1374:
1373:
1369:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
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1340:
1337:
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1327:
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1307:
1305:
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1300:
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1281:
1278:
1275:
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1270:
1268:
1265:
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1255:
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1234:
1230:
1225:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1203:
1201:
1196:
1195:
1192:
1180:
1179:Kristallnacht
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1148:
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1140:
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1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
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1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1109:
1105:
1104:
1101:
1098:
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1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1055:Ruhr uprising
1053:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1002:
998:
997:
994:
989:
979:
974:
972:
967:
965:
960:
959:
956:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
900:
897:
892:
882:
877:
875:
870:
868:
863:
862:
859:
848:
847:Emil Eichhorn
838:
836:
826:
824:
814:
811:
806:
796:
794:
784:
781:
776:
766:
763:
758:
748:
746:
736:
734:
724:
721:
716:
706:
703:
698:
688:
686:
685:Wilhelm Pieck
676:
673:
668:
658:
656:
655:Franz Mehring
646:
644:
634:
632:
631:
626:
616:
613:
608:
598:
595:
590:
580:
579:
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572:
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560:
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543:
538:
536:
531:
526:
524:
519:
514:
512:
507:
502:
500:
495:
490:
488:
483:
478:
476:
471:
466:
465:
459:
454:
449:
447:
442:
437:
435:
430:
425:
423:
418:
413:
411:
406:
401:
399:
394:
389:
387:
382:
377:
375:
374:
368:
363:
362:
360:
359:
354:
348:
337:
336:
334:
333:Supported by:
329:
326:
323:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
308:
307:
306:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
282:
279:
277:
274:
269:
266:
261:
258:
257:
256:
255:
244:
240:
237:
234:
233:
232:Der Stahlhelm
228:
225:
224:
219:
216:
215:
210:
209:
208:
207:
194:
188:
187:Imperial Army
185:
184:
183:
182:
181:
180:German Empire
168:
164:
163:
158:
149:
145:
143:
139:
136:
132:
131:German Empire
128:
127:
126:
124:
120:
117:
116:
110:
107:
106:
96:
95:Second stage:
93:
87:
84:
83:
81:
78:
77:
73:
69:
63:
58:
55:
50:
45:
40:
37:
33:
19:
13388:White Terror
13083:March Action
13068:Iraqi Revolt
12948:Bibliography
12822:Coat of arms
12802:Architecture
12779:Trade unions
12759:Prostitution
12719:Homelessness
12682:Demographics
12631:Trade unions
12598:
12588:German model
12561:Central bank
12505:Conservatism
12468:Human rights
12453:Court system
12448:Constitution
12428:
12274:Contemporary
12263:West Germany
12258:East Germany
12233:World War II
12228:Nazi Germany
12168:18th-century
12127:East Francia
12081:Cimbrian War
11921:
11914:
11902:
11509: /
11441:
11276:Conscription
11240:Cryptography
11177:Iraqi Revolt
10604:Siege of Kut
10547:
10125:participants
10074:German Samoa
10008:South Arabia
9786:marxists.org
9768:
9754:
9740:
9726:
9698:
9684:
9674:
9652:
9648:
9630:
9613:
9592:
9582:
9565:
9548:
9545:Hans Mommsen
9531:
9524:
9510:
9496:
9482:
9468:
9461:
9451:
9439:Wilhelm Keil
9425:
9418:
9403:
9393:
9389:
9385:
9381:
9377:
9365:
9340:
9336:
9317:
9313:
9310:Pierre Broué
9296:
9286:
9267:Google Books
9265:– via
9251:
9242:Google Books
9240:– via
9236:
9224:
9206:
9195:
9188:
9174:
9171:Paul Frölich
9159:
9138:
9125:Google Books
9123:– via
9105:
9096:
9064:
9060:
9037:
9015:
9003:
8991:
8979:
8960:
8956:
8950:
8936:
8917:
8913:
8907:
8900:Haffner 2002
8895:
8886:
8882:
8876:
8857:
8853:
8847:
8840:Haffner 2002
8835:
8828:Haffner 2002
8823:
8816:Haffner 2002
8811:
8799:
8792:Schulze 1994
8787:
8780:Mommsen 1996
8775:
8768:Haffner 1991
8763:
8751:. Retrieved
8746:
8736:
8729:Haffner 1991
8724:
8712:. Retrieved
8707:
8698:
8686:. Retrieved
8681:
8671:
8659:. Retrieved
8654:
8644:
8632:. Retrieved
8627:
8617:
8605:. Retrieved
8600:
8591:
8579:. Retrieved
8575:
8566:
8554:. Retrieved
8549:
8540:
8528:. Retrieved
8524:
8521:"Article 48"
8515:
8503:. Retrieved
8498:
8488:
8476:. Retrieved
8471:
8461:
8449:. Retrieved
8444:
8435:
8423:. Retrieved
8418:
8409:
8397:. Retrieved
8392:
8382:
8370:. Retrieved
8365:
8355:
8348:Schulze 1994
8343:
8324:
8315:
8302:
8297:
8289:
8277:. Retrieved
8272:
8262:
8250:. Retrieved
8245:
8223:
8219:
8213:
8203:
8199:
8180:
8175:
8168:
8161:Haffner 1991
8156:
8137:
8131:
8124:Winkler 1993
8119:
8107:
8095:. Retrieved
8090:
8076:
8069:Winkler 1993
8064:
8057:Haffner 1991
8052:
8045:Winkler 1993
8040:
8033:Haffner 1991
8028:
8021:Haffner 1991
8016:
8009:Winkler 1993
8004:
7997:Winkler 1993
7992:
7972:
7965:
7953:. Retrieved
7948:
7924:. Retrieved
7919:
7894:
7887:
7877:
7870:
7850:
7843:
7837:(in German).
7834:
7824:
7812:. Retrieved
7807:
7797:
7785:. Retrieved
7780:
7770:
7758:. Retrieved
7753:
7744:
7737:Winkler 1993
7732:
7725:Winkler 1993
7720:
7711:
7705:
7698:Winkler 1993
7693:
7686:Winkler 1993
7681:
7669:. Retrieved
7664:
7631:
7624:
7615:
7609:
7597:. Retrieved
7592:
7582:
7575:Haffner 1991
7570:
7563:Mommsen 1996
7558:
7551:Mommsen 1996
7546:
7534:
7522:
7503:
7499:
7490:
7481:
7475:
7456:
7452:
7446:
7434:. Retrieved
7429:
7420:
7408:. Retrieved
7403:
7393:
7374:
7370:
7364:
7352:. Retrieved
7348:
7338:
7331:Winkler 1993
7326:
7314:
7307:Winkler 1993
7302:
7295:Mommsen 1996
7275:
7268:Winkler 1993
7263:
7244:
7240:
7233:
7221:. Retrieved
7216:
7206:
7199:Haffner 1991
7194:
7187:Haffner 1991
7182:
7170:. Retrieved
7165:
7155:
7143:. Retrieved
7138:
7114:Haffner 1991
7109:
7089:
7082:
7073:
7069:
7063:
7056:Mommsen 1996
7051:
7044:Haffner 1991
7039:
7032:Haffner 1991
7027:
7020:Haffner 1991
7015:
6996:
6992:
6986:
6979:Mommsen 1996
6974:
6962:. Retrieved
6958:
6949:
6942:Winkler 1993
6937:
6925:. Retrieved
6920:
6910:
6903:Winkler 1993
6898:
6886:. Retrieved
6881:
6857:, p. 6.
6850:
6831:
6827:
6811:Winkler 2000
6791:. Retrieved
6786:
6776:
6759:
6755:
6745:
6733:. Retrieved
6728:
6719:
6702:
6698:
6692:
6680:. Retrieved
6675:
6665:
6653:. Retrieved
6649:
6639:
6622:
6618:
6608:
6589:
6583:
6576:Mommsen 1996
6571:
6552:
6546:
6527:
6523:
6517:
6505:. Retrieved
6501:
6491:
6484:Haffner 2002
6479:
6467:. Retrieved
6462:
6452:
6440:. Retrieved
6435:
6425:
6400:
6396:
6386:
6367:
6361:
6349:. Retrieved
6345:
6336:
6317:
6313:
6307:
6298:
6292:
6280:. Retrieved
6275:
6265:
6246:
6241:
6234:
6222:. Retrieved
6217:
6207:
6195:. Retrieved
6191:
6181:
6169:. Retrieved
6164:
6154:
6142:. Retrieved
6137:
6128:
6116:. Retrieved
6111:
6102:
6083:
6079:
6070:
6058:. Retrieved
6053:
6027:
6021:
6012:
6008:
6002:
5989:
5982:
5957:
5953:
5943:
5931:. Retrieved
5926:
5917:
5905:. Retrieved
5901:
5892:
5880:. Retrieved
5875:
5866:
5844:(2/3): 219.
5841:
5837:
5827:
5818:
5814:
5794:
5790:
5785:
5766:
5762:
5756:
5690:
5683:
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5609:
5605:
5594:
5586:
5567:
5558:
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5540:
5539:
5535:
5528:
5525:
5516:
5505:
5497:
5489:
5484:
5476:
5470:
5465:
5458:
5455:
5446:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5419:
5396:
5393:
5380:
5372:March Action
5367:
5361:
5351:
5339:Adolf Hitler
5312:
5266:
5242:
5238:Gustav Bauer
5230:
5210:Centre Party
5199:
5183:
5179:
5176:
5171:
5158:Short-lived
5157:
5151:
5148:
5125:
5104:
5084:
5065:
5058:
5038:
5026:
5023:
5012:
5007:Mark IV tank
4992:Leo Jogiches
4983:
4975:
4945:
4937:
4929:
4905:
4898:Gustav Noske
4891:
4887:
4867:
4851:
4845:
4839:
4828:
4806:
4787:
4784:
4779:
4776:
4759:
4727:
4700:Hugo Stinnes
4693:
4677:Hugo Stinnes
4659:Karl Kautsky
4652:
4637:
4633:
4627:
4621:
4618:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4561:Centre Party
4557:
4550:
4525:
4513:
4478:
4470:
4455:
4451:
4443:The councils
4436:
4433:
4425:
4393:
4380:Crown Prince
4376:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4308:East Prussia
4289:
4285:
4276:
4224:Braunschweig
4209:
4192:Gustav Noske
4180:
4176:
4168:
4154:and Admiral
4137:
4130:
3960:People Power
3677:Disobedience
3440:
3431:
3424:
3414:
3406:
3393:
3375:
3370:
3341:
3310:
3288:
3272:
3244:Karl Kautsky
3232:revisionists
3228:
3212:
3200:
3188:
3185:
3166:
3151:
3136:
3119:
3099:
3080:
3066:Adolf Hitler
3058:
2987:
2622:
2612:
2602:
2592:
2582:
2572:
2562:
2552:
2542:
2532:
2522:
2512:
2502:
2492:
2305:Jones (Elin)
2210:Flynn (Paul)
2170:Clarke (Tom)
2165:Clark (Katy)
2110:Adams (John)
1931:Philosophers
1708:Civic virtue
1670:Part of the
1645:
1631:
1618:founded the
1609:
1605:
1592:
1562:
1529:
1525:
1523:
1475:March Action
1453:Iraqi Revolt
1426:Sette Giugno
1257:Potato riots
1247:Pistolerismo
1142:Kwami Affair
1080:Cuno strikes
1065:March Action
1035:Feme murders
835:Johann Knief
775:Eugen Leviné
715:Erich Mühsam
697:Ernst Toller
667:Leo Jogiches
643:Clara Zetkin
629:
535:Franz Seldte
487:Gustav Noske
386:Max of Baden
371:
347:Russian SFSR
332:
304:
303:
253:
245:
196:
192:
170:
166:
165:
160:Belligerents
129:Fall of the
121:
94:
86:First stage:
85:
47:Part of the
36:
13148:Territories
12749:Pornography
12724:Immigration
12687:Drug policy
12599:Mittelstand
12546:Agriculture
12510:Nationalism
12483:Transgender
12367:Earthquakes
12314:, 1583-1588
12312:Cologne War
12208:World War I
12110:Middle Ages
12096:Gothic Wars
11539:Netherlands
11516:Switzerland
11397:Occupations
11388:Spanish flu
11165:(1919–1922)
11159:(1918–1921)
11153:(1918–1923)
11142:(1919–1921)
11136:(1919–1921)
11130:(1919–1920)
11106:(1918–1920)
11100:(1918–1920)
11094:(1918–1920)
11076:(1918–1920)
11058:(1918–1920)
11052:(1917–1921)
11046:(1917–1921)
10993:(1916-1918)
10991:Arab Revolt
10982:(1915–1917)
10976:(1915–1917)
10964:(1914-1917)
10958:(1914–1917)
10952:(1914–1921)
10946:(1913–1920)
10934:(1910–1920)
10928:(1900–1920)
10901: [
10419:July Crisis
10340:(1880–1914)
10003:Mesopotamia
9881:Home fronts
9840:World War I
9763:Kiel Mutiny
9663: [
9442: [
9327: [
9299:Bonn 1998,
8684:(in German)
8657:(in German)
8630:(in German)
8501:(in German)
8474:(in German)
8447:(in German)
8395:(in German)
8368:(in German)
8275:(in German)
8248:(in German)
8205:Der Spiegel
7951:(in German)
7922:(in German)
7810:(in German)
7808:Der Spiegel
7783:(in German)
7754:Der Spiegel
7667:(in German)
7595:(in German)
7432:(in German)
7410:23 February
7354:20 February
7223:18 February
7219:(in German)
7172:22 February
7168:(in German)
7145:22 February
7141:(in German)
6964:10 February
6923:(in German)
6731:(in German)
6678:(in German)
6465:(in German)
6282:30 December
6278:(in German)
6220:(in German)
6167:(in German)
6140:(in German)
5878:(in German)
5432:Thus, the "
5319:Kapp Putsch
5106:Der Spiegel
5062:Wilmersdorf
5015:Siegesallee
4725:, or ZAG).
4696:Carl Legien
4688:Carl Legien
4614:East Elbian
4542: [
4256:Wittlesbach
4236:Kurt Eisner
4126:Kiel mutiny
4117:Kiel mutiny
4022:Arab Spring
3620:Human chain
3610:Coup d'état
3519:Proletarian
3401:his cabinet
3224:Spartacists
3197:SPD's split
3147:July Crisis
2938:Common good
2878:New Zealand
2873:Netherlands
2618:(1835–1840)
2588:(1787–1788)
2498:(c. 375 BC)
2420:Robespierre
2195:Etherington
2130:Benn (Tony)
2099:Politicians
2077:Tocqueville
2037:Montesquieu
2017:Machiavelli
1763:Rule of law
1758:Res publica
1616:Spartacists
1542:World War I
1512:Kraków riot
1381:Tragic Week
1309:Arab Revolt
1174:July Putsch
1050:Kapp Putsch
903:Kiel mutiny
625:Kurt Eisner
13282:Categories
12910:Television
12895:Philosophy
12870:Literature
12729:Irreligion
12714:Healthcare
12677:Corruption
12443:Chancellor
12432:(military)
12429:Bundeswehr
11756:Agreements
11556:War crimes
11432:Luxembourg
11325:Casualties
10196:Montenegro
10031:South West
9911:Technology
9901:Propaganda
9891:Opposition
9040:. Leiden:
9020:Kluge 1985
8112:Sauer 2018
7539:Huber 1978
7527:Huber 1978
7319:Huber 1978
6927:8 February
6888:7 February
6735:27 January
6682:25 January
6655:27 January
6625:(3): 487.
6507:23 January
6469:23 January
6442:23 January
6351:28 January
6197:10 January
6171:10 January
5749:References
5602:Erich Eyck
5530:weariness.
5438:9 November
5363:Reichswehr
5335:Nazi Party
5285:See also:
5262:Article 48
5087:Nazi Party
5005:A British
4996:Karl Radek
4847:Rote Fahne
4743:Emil Barth
4503:Emil Barth
4481:Hugo Haase
4466:Emil Barth
4417:Lustgarten
4356:See also:
4304:Königsberg
4280:Heidelberg
4248:Ludwig III
4164:Royal Navy
4044:Euromaidan
3992:Bolivarian
3940:Nicaraguan
3920:Guatemalan
3858:Young Turk
3838:Philippine
3667:Nonviolent
3662:Resistance
3637:Insurgency
3547:Nonviolent
3542:From above
3514:Democratic
3395:appointed
3344:Wilhelm II
3291:Otto Braun
3283:Bolsheviks
3177:Hugo Haase
3072:Background
2978:Monarchism
2968:Liberalism
2963:Jacobinism
2653:Gaṇasaṅgha
2508:(54–51 BC)
1992:Harrington
1869:Democratic
1859:Capitalist
1854:Autonomous
1836:Venizelism
1821:Khomeinism
1585:Wilhelm II
1431:Epsom riot
1314:Rice riots
1169:Röhm purge
823:Karl Radek
793:Max Levien
745:Emil Barth
559:Hugo Preuß
373:Wilhelm II
223:Reichswehr
193:1918–1919:
13239:Reactions
12865:Libraries
12845:Festivals
12692:Education
12636:Transport
12601:companies
12520:President
12458:Elections
12423:Bundesrat
12418:Bundestag
12387:Mountains
12355:Districts
12333:Geography
12066:Visigoths
12003:Overviews
11653:Diplomacy
11360:Olympians
11283:Australia
11250:Logistics
11183:Vlora War
11112:(1918–19)
11088:(1918–19)
11082:(1918–19)
11070:(1918–19)
11017:(1916–17)
10999:(1916–17)
10950:Zaian War
10940:(1914–15)
10660:first day
10548:Lusitania
10376:(1912–13)
10370:(1911–12)
10358:(1908–09)
10352:(1905–06)
10334:(1870–71)
10123:Principal
9983:Gallipoli
9886:Memorials
9871:Geography
9861:Aftermath
9008:Kolb 1984
8996:Kolb 1984
8984:Kolb 1984
8505:7 January
7814:3 January
7787:3 January
7760:3 January
6959:Bavarikon
6855:Kolb 2000
6711:0066-6505
6144:8 January
5882:7 January
5555:quickest.
5397:Freikorps
5368:Freikorps
5356:when the
5275:Aftermath
5257:Reichstag
5184:Freikorps
5180:Freikorps
5172:Freikorps
5152:Freikorps
5144:Thuringia
5066:Freikorps
5049:Armistice
5027:Freikorps
4906:Freikorps
4788:Volkswehr
4628:Bundesrat
4623:Bundesrat
4573:Compiègne
4473:Otto Wels
4437:Freikorps
4234:. There,
3997:Bulldozer
3950:Carnation
3945:Argentine
3888:1917–1923
3876:Communist
3821:Hungarian
3657:Rebellion
3595:Civil war
3557:Permanent
3504:Communist
3499:Bourgeois
3443:Max Weber
3173:war bonds
2833:Australia
2465:Venizelos
2455:Spadolini
2445:Slaughter
2390:McDonnell
2355:Mackenzie
2300:Jefferson
2255:Griffiths
2235:de Gaulle
2230:Garibaldi
2190:Drakeford
2082:Warburton
2002:Jefferson
1997:Honderich
1977:Condorcet
1864:Christian
1826:Nasserism
1801:Classical
1718:Democracy
1646:Freikorps
1633:Freikorps
1224:1917–1923
1106:1929-1933
999:1918-1923
511:Otto Wels
214:Freikorps
13114:Red Week
13102:Protests
12957:Category
12875:Internet
12860:Language
12850:Folklore
12769:Religion
12744:Pensions
12739:Naturism
12616:Taxation
12500:Lobbying
12473:Intersex
12406:Politics
12015:Timeline
11994:General
11987:articles
11941:Category
11528:Refugees
11494:Italians
11483:Germans
11443:Ober Ost
11223:Aviation
10317:Timeline
10288:Bulgaria
10069:Tsingtao
10046:Togoland
9993:Caucasus
9928:European
9920:Theatres
9647:(1982).
9445:Wikidata
9380:(1969),
9330:Wikidata
9135:(1982).
8714:31 March
8688:31 March
8661:30 March
8634:30 March
8607:30 March
8581:30 March
8556:30 March
8530:24 March
8478:24 March
8451:24 March
8425:24 March
8399:24 March
8372:24 March
8323:(2000).
8279:22 March
8252:22 March
8097:20 March
7498:(2002).
6793:19 April
6768:20822634
6631:44254305
6417:20028991
6224:18 April
6118:17 April
6078:(2002).
6060:16 April
5974:54019053
5933:17 April
5907:16 April
5696:See also
5623:Cold War
5032:Vorwärts
4962:Vorwärts
4852:Red Flag
4384:Prussian
4054:Sudanese
4032:Egyptian
4027:Tunisian
3980:Romanian
3881:Cultural
3867:Chinese
3842:Iranian
3811:February
3732:American
3727:Atlantic
3716:Examples
3689:Samizdat
3493:By class
3468:a series
3466:Part of
3303:Vorwärts
3242:such as
3234:such as
2903:Scotland
2843:Barbados
2494:Republic
2410:Prescott
2380:Naysmith
2370:McKechin
2330:La Malfa
2325:Khomeini
2285:Iorwerth
2250:Griffith
2225:Gambetta
2220:Galloway
2205:Ferguson
2185:Davidson
2180:Cromwell
2175:Connolly
2155:Campbell
2072:Sunstein
2057:Rousseau
2052:Polybius
1987:Franklin
1967:Chappell
1962:Cattaneo
1899:People's
1884:Imperial
1816:Kemalism
1753:Republic
1687:Concepts
1662:Würzburg
1593:de facto
1339:Red Week
125:victory
108:Location
13255:Related
13011:Revolts
12934:Outline
12840:Fashion
12827:Cuisine
12789:Culture
12754:Poverty
12697:Germans
12660:Society
12641:Welfare
12626:Tourism
12583:Exports
12556:Banking
12534:Economy
12438:Cabinet
12377:Islands
12372:Geology
12295:Regions
12061:Teutons
12034:Ancient
11996:History
11983:Germany
11679:Germany
11579:Germany
11507:Germany
11427:Belgium
11412:Albania
11371:Disease
11351:Sports
11303:Ireland
11216:Warfare
11209:Aspects
10397:Origins
10390:Prelude
10293:Senussi
10273:Germany
10268:Leaders
10206:Romania
10147:Belgium
10142:Leaders
10041:Kamerun
10023:African
9958:Romania
9936:Balkans
9851:Outline
9229:excerpt
9227:(2019)
9198:(1946)
9029:Sources
8753:2 April
7955:4 March
7926:4 March
7671:1 March
7599:2 March
7593:Jacobin
7436:1 March
5821:: 9–12.
5513:misery.
5347:Bavaria
5164:Bavaria
5017:to the
4935:(KPD).
4655:Marxist
4567:signed
4563:deputy
4406:of the
4300:Silesia
4296:Breslau
4246:. King
4228:Cologne
4220:Hamburg
4194:of the
3985:Singing
3935:Rwandan
3910:Spanish
3905:Siamese
3893:Russian
3863:Mexican
3789:Belgian
3764:Serbian
3752:Haitian
3737:Brabant
3722:English
3652:Protest
3585:Boycott
3579:Methods
3552:Passive
3353:Entente
2868:Morocco
2858:Jamaica
2853:Ireland
2838:Bahamas
2640:History
2460:Taverne
2435:Skinner
2415:Ritchie
2360:Madison
2340:Lincoln
2290:Jackson
2280:Huppert
2275:Hopkins
2200:Fabiani
2160:Chapman
2145:Bolívar
2135:Bennett
2125:Bartley
2115:Atatürk
2027:Mazzini
2022:Madison
1952:Bentham
1942:Baggini
1909:Secular
1889:Islamic
1874:Federal
1811:Federal
1795:Schools
1650:Bavaria
1163:Related
1112:Blutmai
112:Germany
70:of 1919
12962:Portal
12817:Cinema
12797:Anthem
12764:Racism
12578:Energy
12392:Rivers
12350:States
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10382:(1913)
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10346:(1905)
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