German nuclear program during World War II

1900:

activities. However, the enemy effort was definitely lacking in overall direction, unity of purpose and coordination between participating agencies. Early in the German endeavor the uranium problem had been separately approached by a number of more or less competing groups. There was one group under Army Ordnance, another under the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Physics, and still another under the Postal Department. A certain amount of bickering over the supply of material and a non-cooperative attitude in the exchange of information existed between those groups. The research efforts of the Postal Department amounted to little and did not continue for very long. The first two of the above groups were unified in 1942 under the Reich's Research Council. On the whole, beneficial results, from the German standpoint, were obtained through that unification. But conflicting jurisdiction between the German Government and Service branches still existed. Up until the later stages of the war difficulties were apparent in regard to the deferment of scientific personnel from military service. Many German scientists worked along their own lines and were not required to work at particular projects. Development of atomic weapon was not believed to be possible .

1137:) failed, but Watzlawek continued to explore potential applications of nuclear energy and wrote a detailed textbook on technical nuclear physics. It includes one of the most detailed presentations of contemporary German knowledge about the various processes of isotope separation, and recommends their combined usage to get to sufficient amounts of enriched uranium. Walther Gerlach refused to print this textbook, but it is preserved as a typed manuscript and it appeared after the War in 1948 virtually unchanged (with just a few additions on the US atomic bomb released in 1945). In October 1944, Hugo Watzlawek wrote an article on the potential usage of nuclear energy and its many potential applications. In his view, to follow up this route of research and development was the "new pathway" to becoming the "Master of the World". 1370:, concluded after reading the transcripts that Heisenberg had never done the calculation before. Heisenberg himself, in the transcript, said that, "quite honestly I have never worked it out as I never believed one could get pure 235." A week after the bombing, Heisenberg had given a more formal lecture to his colleagues on the physics of the atomic bomb, which corrected many of his early mistakes and indicated a much smaller critical mass. Historians have cited Heisenberg's error as evidence of the degree to which his role in the project had been confined almost entirely to reactors, as the original equation is much more similar to how a reactor would work than to an atomic bomb. 1554:, near the end of World War II, French armed forces occupied Hechingen. Bopp did not get along with them and described the initial French policy objectives towards the KWIP as exploitation, forced evacuation to France, and seizure of documents and equipment. The French occupation policy was not qualitatively different from that of the American and Soviet occupation forces, it was just carried out on a smaller scale. In order to put pressure on Bopp to evacuate the KWIP to France, the French Naval Commission imprisoned him for five days and threatened him with further imprisonment if he did not cooperate in the evacuation. During his imprisonment, the 38: 5116: 83: 599: 1931: 1359:

Later that evening, the scientists were allowed to listen to a longer BBC announcement, which invited further debate. Throughout all of this, Heisenberg made arguments that it would take very large amounts of enriched uranium ("about a ton") to make such a weapon. In justifying his reasoning, he gave a brief explanation of how one would calculate the critical mass for an atomic bomb which contained serious errors.

1945: 1267: 1878:, which finished the work on this topic at Leipzig. Thereafter, despite increased expenditures, the Berlin groups and their extern branches did not succeed in getting a reactor critical until the end of World War II. However, this was realized by the Fermi group in December 1942, so that the German advantage was definitively lost, even with respect to research on energy production. 1170:

technologies, their personnel, and related materials to rival allies was a driving force of their efforts. This typically meant getting to these resources first, which to some extent put the Soviets at a disadvantage in some geographic locations easily reached by the Western Allies, even if the area was destined to be in the Soviet zone of occupation by the

1129:: the study group under the direction of Prof. Dr. Ing. Herbert Wagner (1900–1982) searched for alternative sources of energy for airplanes and became interested in nuclear energy in 1940. In August 1941, they finished a detailed internal survey of the history and potential of technical nuclear physics and its applications ( 1889:

Compared with the British and American war research efforts united in the Manhattan Project, to this day the prime example of "big science," the Uranverein was only a loosely knit, decentralized network of researchers with quite different research agendas. Rather than teamwork as on the American end,

1414:

What the Farm Hall reports make transparently clear is that, while they knew a few general principles — the use of fast fission from separated U and the possibility of plutonium — they had not seriously investigated any of the details. All of the really hard problems were left untackled and

1358:

had announced the use of the atomic bomb after the attack on Hiroshima. Reactions from the Germans varied; Hahn expressed guilt for his role in the discovery of nuclear fission, while many others, including Heisenberg, expressed incredulity at the report ("I don’t believe a word of the whole thing").

1831:

For the Manhattan Project, the second condition was met on 9 October 1941 or shortly thereafter. Germany for a long time was thought to have fallen short of what was required to make an atomic bomb. Mutual distrust existed between the German government and some scientists. By the end of 1941, it was

1525:

dropped 1,506 tons of high-explosive and 178 tons of incendiary bombs on the plant. Riehl visited the site with the Soviets and said that the facility was mostly destroyed. Riehl also recalled long after the war that the Soviets knew precisely why the Americans had bombed the facility—the attack had

1022:

Speer states that the project to develop the atom bomb was scuttled in the autumn of 1942. Though the scientific solution was there, it would have taken all of Germany's production resources to produce a bomb, and then no sooner than 1947. Development did continue with a "uranium motor" for the navy

1003:

the Minister of Science, Education and National Culture was ineffective and was not achieving its purpose. The hope was that Göring would manage the RFR with the same discipline and efficiency as he had the aviation sector. A meeting was held on 6 July 1942 to discuss the function of the RFR and set

578:

These three efforts, as noted, were independent and lasted until the fall of 1939, when the outbreak of World War II disrupted the work at Göttingen, and also prompted the HWA (Army Ordnance) to take over the work from the Reich Research Council. After the fact, this early work was designated as the

663:

to make all preparations to be able to answer beyond doubt the question of whether generating nuclear energy was feasible. It would certainly be very nice if it were possible to acquire a new source of energy, it would also very probably have military importance; a negative answer would be just as

616:(RFR, Reich Research Council) of the Reich Education Ministry (REM), and ordered the RFR to halt all experiments and work on nuclear energy. Esau protested that the discovery of nuclear fission was too recent to warrant such an action, but was ignored. These actions were initiated by the physicist 250:

The program was split up among nine major institutes where the directors dominated research and set their own objectives. Subsequently, the number of scientists working on applied nuclear fission began to diminish as many researchers applied their talents to more pressing wartime demands. The most

1905:

As a consequence of the foregoing, atomic energy development in Germany did not pass beyond the laboratory stage; utilization for power production rather than for an explosive was the principal consideration; and, though German science was interested in this new field, other scientific objectives

711:

felt it was better that the whole thing should be dropped and the Führer also reacted that way." He said they presented the matter in this way for their personal safety as the probability (of success) was nearly zero, but if many thousands (of) people developed nothing, that could have "extremely

971:

The point in 1942 when the army relinquished control of the project was its zenith in terms of the number of personnel devoted to the effort, and this was no more than about seventy scientists, with about forty devoting more than half their time to nuclear fission research. After this the number

1914:

are stark. The Manhattan Project consumed some US$ 2 billion (1945, ~US$ 27 billion in 2023 dollars) in government funds, and employed at its peak some 120,000 people, mostly in the sectors of construction and operations. In total the Manhattan Project involved the labor of some 500,000 people,

1278:

effort in Germany was the location, capture, and interrogation of German atomic scientists. This involved some significant effort as many of them had become scattered during the chaotic last weeks of the war in Europe. Ultimately, nine of the prominent German scientists who published reports in

1169:

Near the end of World War II, the principal Allied war powers each made plans for exploitation of German science. In light of the implications of nuclear weapons, German nuclear fission and related technologies were singled out for special attention. In addition to exploitation, denial of these

1899:

The general plan of conducting the subject research in some respects followed a pattern employed in the United States. Research assignments were farmed out to many small groups, generally of some university or technical school, or to industrial firms specializing in one or more of the related

339:

chain reaction for a significant amount of time and to achieve the complete separation of at least tiny amounts of the uranium isotopes". The scholarly consensus is that it failed to achieve these goals, and that despite fears at the time, the Germans had never been close to producing nuclear

1389:

both offers up an explanation for their "failure" and also elevates their moral authority above the Allied scientists, despite the fact that they worked for the Nazis. In the postwar, several scientists, notably von Weizsäcker and Heisenberg, gave this version of the story to journalists and

1843:

As to condition four, the high priority allocated to the Manhattan Project allowed for the recruitment and concentration of capable scientists on the project. In Germany, on the other hand, a great many young scientists and technicians who would have been of great use to such a project were

1226:, which eventually became the French occupation zone. This move allowed the Americans to take into custody a large number of German scientists associated with nuclear research. The only section of the institute which remained in Berlin was the low-temperature physics section, headed by 571:, Riehl recognized the possibility of uranium production as a business opportunity for the company, and July 1939 contacted the Army Ordnance Office on the matter. Army Ordnance eventually provided an order for the production of uranium oxide, which took place in the Auer plant in 1894:

The Manhattan Project's Alsos investigation ultimately concluded in a classified report, on the basis of documents and materials confiscated from research sites in Germany, Austria, and France, as well as interrogation of over 40 personnel connected with the program, that:

1851:, a scientific Manhattan Project leader, had a "unique double aptitude for theoretical and experimental work" in the 20th century, the successes at Leipzig until 1942 resulted from the cooperation between the theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg and the experimentalist 1181:, a broad dragnet that encompassed a wide range of advanced fields, including jet and rocket propulsion, nuclear physics, and other developments with military applications such as infrared technology. Operations directed specifically towards German nuclear fission were 1149:

was already under way in Norway when the Germans invaded on 9 April 1940. The Norwegian production facilities for heavy water were quickly secured (though some heavy water had already been removed) and improved by the Germans. The Allies and Norwegians had

1353:

Prior to the announcement of Hiroshima, the German scientists, though worried about the future, expressed confidence in their value to the Allies on the basis of their advanced knowledge of nuclear matters. The British then told the scientists that the

2202:

for the discovery and the radiochemical proof of nuclear fission. Some American historians have documented their view of the history of the discovery of nuclear fission and believe Meitner should have been awarded the Nobel Prize with Hahn. See

1505:, confirmed that the Oranienburg plant was involved in the production of uranium and thorium metals. Since the plant was to be in the future Soviet zone of occupation and the Red Army's troops would get there before the Western Allies, General 1568:, who had a better relationship with the French, persuaded the French to appoint him as Deputy Director of the KWIP. This incident caused tension between the physicists and spectroscopists at the KWIP and within its umbrella organization the 754:(uranium machine, i.e., nuclear reactor). It was in effect broken up between institutes where the different directors dominated the research and set their own research agendas. The dominant personnel, facilities, and areas of research were: 1810:

The United States, British, and Canadian governments worked together to create the Manhattan Project that developed the uranium and plutonium atomic bombs. Its success has been attributed to meeting all four of the following conditions:

1832:

already apparent among German science and military elites that the German nuclear weapon project would not make a decisive contribution to ending the German war effort in the near term, and control of the project was relinquished by the

3552: 1050:. Schumann was one of the most powerful and influential physicists in Germany. He was director of the Physics Department II at the Frederick William University (later, University of Berlin), which was commissioned and funded by the 1855:. Most important was their experimental proof of an effective neutron increase in April 1942. At the end of July of the same year, the group around Fermi also succeeded in the neutron increase within a reactor-like arrangement. 1792:, had Communist contacts. On 27 April 1945, Thiessen arrived at von Ardenne's institute in an armored vehicle with a major of the Soviet Army, who was also a leading Soviet chemist, and they issued Ardenne a protective letter ( 2161:. The paper is dated 16 January 1939. Meitner is identified as being at the Physical Institute, Academy of Sciences, Stockholm. Frisch is identified as being at the Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Copenhagen. 1582:

At the close of World War II, the Soviet Union had special search teams operating in Austria and Germany, especially in Berlin, to identify and obtain equipment, material, intellectual property, and personnel useful to the

1004:

its agenda. The meeting was a turning point in Nazi attitudes towards science, as well as recognition that the policies which drove Jewish scientists out of Germany were a mistake, as the Reich needed their expertise.

2229: 1118:, in 1940. Von Ardenne had also conducted research on isotope separation. Taking Ewald's suggestion he began building a prototype for the RPM. The work was hampered by war shortages and ultimately ended by the war. 1346:. The legal authority for this, the legal status of the prisoners, and the ultimate intentions of the British were unclear to all involved, to the great discomfort of the scientists. The manor house was wired with 334:

Developments took place in several phases, but in the words of historian Mark Walker, it ultimately became "frozen at the laboratory level" with the "modest goal" to "build a nuclear reactor which could sustain a

2396: 727:

When it was apparent that the nuclear weapon project would not make a decisive contribution to ending the war in the near term, control of the KWIP was returned in January 1942 to its umbrella organization, the

1104:. He financed the laboratory with income he received from his inventions and from contracts with other concerns. For example, his research on nuclear physics and high-frequency technology was financed by the 1201:

Berlin had been a location of many German scientific research facilities. To limit casualties and loss of equipment, many of these facilities were dispersed to other locations in the later years of the war.

537:

wrote a letter on 24 April 1939 to Army Ordnance which also mentioned the military application of nuclear chain reactions. Harteck would not receive a reply until August 1939, however, as part of the second

1350:, and conversations between the German scientists were monitored and translated into English. It is unclear whether the scientists were aware, or whether they suspected, that they were being monitored. 703:

Heisenberg said in 1939 that the physicists at the (second) meeting said that "in principle atomic bombs could be made.... it would take years.... not before five." He said, "I didn't report it to the

2444: 1373:

At Farm Hall, the German scientists discussed why Germany did not create an atomic bomb, and the United States and United Kingdom did. The transcripts reveal them developing what has been called the

331:

demands for more manpower (many scientists and technical personnel were conscripted, despite possessing technical and engineering skills), substantially reduced the number of able German physicists.

1335:, the chief scientific advisor to Operation Alsos, thought von Laue might be beneficial to the postwar rebuilding of Germany and would benefit from the high level contacts he would have in England. 1133:, signed by Herbert Wagner and Hugo Watzlawek (1912–1995) in Berlin. Their application to the Aviation Ministry (RLM) to found and fund an Institute for Nuclear Technology and Nuclear Chemistry ( 273:. Schumann was one of the most powerful and influential physicists in Germany. Diebner, throughout the life of the nuclear weapon project, had more control over nuclear-fission research than did 3261: 1415:

unsolved. ... They had decided that making a bomb in wartime Germany was unfeasible on technical and economic grounds. It was simply too big and too costly. Morality had nothing to do with it.

5078: 3752: 1054:(OKH, Army High Command) to conduct physics research projects. He was also head of the research department of the HWA, assistant secretary of the Science Department of the OKW, and 2710: 972:

diminished dramatically, and many of those not working with the main institutes stopped working on nuclear fission and devoted their efforts to more pressing war related work.

1131:Übersicht und Darstellung der historischen Entwicklung der modernen technischen Kernphysik und deren Anwendungsmöglichkeit sowie Zusammenfassung eigener Arbeitsziele und Pläne 1497:

Work of the American Operation Alsos teams, in November 1944, uncovered leads which took them to a company in Paris that handled rare earths and had been taken over by the

612:

In August 1939, just before the German invasion of Poland precipitated the formal start of World War II, the Army Ordnance Office (HWA) moved to take over the work of the

5807: 5633: 395:. Their article was published on 6 January 1939. On 19 December 1938, eighteen days before the publication, Otto Hahn communicated these results and his conclusion of a 3147: 3205: 707:

until two weeks later and very casually because I did not want the Führer to get so interested that he would order great efforts immediately to make the atomic bomb.

1475:. Adding to the capabilities in the final stages of metallic uranium production were the strengths of the Degussa corporation's capabilities in metals production. 5028: 4972: 1189:, the latter being done in collaboration with the British. In lieu of the codename for the Soviet operation, it is referred to by the historian Oleynikov as the 1919:

was budgeted a mere 8 million reichsmarks, equivalent to about US$ 2 million (1945,~US$ 27 million in 2023 dollars) – a thousandth of the American expenditure.

1788:), who all had made a pact that whoever first made contact with the Soviets would speak for the rest. Before the end of World War II, Thiessen, a member of the 1362:

The transcripts were declassified in 1992, and this particular section of discussion was subjected to expert scrutiny. Two scientists on the Manhattan Project,

1240:

American Alsos teams carrying out Operation BIG raced through Baden-Württemberg near the war's end in 1945, uncovering, collecting, and selectively destroying

3774: 5691: 4309:(2001). "The Conceptual Completion and Extensions of Quantum Mechanics 1932–1941. Epilogue: Aspects of the Further Development of Quantum Theory 1942–1999". 2330: 2238:, p. 363-4 and Appendix F; see the entries for Esau, Harteck and Joos. See also the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entry for the HWA in Appendix B. 987:; after late 1943 the Reich Ministry for Armament and War Production), decided on its continuation merely for the aim of energy production. On 9 June 1942, 516:(Nuclear Physics Association). This initial work at Göttingen lasted until the fall of 1939, when Joos and Hanle were drafted into other military research. 1058:(plenipotentiary) for high explosives. Diebner, throughout the life of the nuclear weapon project, had more control over nuclear fission research than did 1558: 5704: 2405:, pp. 363–4 and Appendix F; see the entries for Diebner and Döpel. See also the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entry for the HWA in Appendix B. 1096:

In 1928, von Ardenne had come into his inheritance with full control as to how it could be spent, and he established his private research laboratory the

5404: 2182: 1227: 5765: 5755: 5591: 1248:. These were all shipped to the US for study and utilization in the US atomic program. Although many of these materials remain unaccounted for, the 1655: 5519: 1249: 5535: 1828:

Even with all four of these conditions in place the Manhattan Project succeeded only after the war in Europe had been brought to a conclusion.

327:

heritage who did not leave were quickly purged, further thinning the ranks of researchers. The politicization of the universities, along with

1385:

not to build a bomb for Hitler, either by dragging their feet, being insufficiently enthusiastic, or, in some versions, active sabotage. The

2453:, See the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entries for the HWA and the RFR in Appendix B. Also see p. 372 and footnote 50 on p. 372. 1517:

that the plant be destroyed by aerial bombardment, in order to deny its uranium production equipment to the Soviets. On 15 March 1945, 612

700:, was placed under HWA authority, with Diebner as the administrative director, and the military control of the nuclear research commenced. 1844:

conscripted into the German armed forces, while others had fled the country before the war due to antisemitism and political persecution.

5874: 5660: 5021: 3046: 1723: 233:. Eventually, the German military determined that nuclear fission would not contribute significantly to the war, and in January 1942 the 5571: 3270:, pp. 369 and 373, Appendix F (see the entry for Nikolaus Riehl and Kurt Diebner), and Appendix D (see the entry for Auergesellschaft). 1019:. In the final analysis, placing the RFR under Göring's administrative control had little effect on the German nuclear weapon project. 980: 5737: 5730: 5696: 5056: 4797: 770: 5090: 3073: 2321:

Siegfried Flügge: Exploiting Atomic Energy. From the Laboratory Experiment to the Uranium Machine – Research Results in Dahlem

738:). HWA control of the project was subsequently passed to the RFR in July 1942. The nuclear weapon project thereafter maintained its 5854: 5844: 5790: 5297: 2662: 1728: 1157:

Graphite (carbon) as an alternative was not considered, because the neutron absorption coefficient value for carbon calculated by

5615: 5352: 1958: 4452:"From Exceptional Prominence to Prominent Exception: Lise Meitner at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry (Ergebnisse 24)" 991:

issued a decree for the reorganization of the RFR as a separate legal entity under the RMBM; the decree appointed Reich Marshal

5849: 5397: 5014: 4688:

Volume 54, Issue 4, 14ff (2001), individual letters by Klaus Gottstein, Harry J. Lipkin, Donald C. Sachs, and David C. Cassidy.

792: 2025: 19:

This article is about German nuclear research during World War II. For nuclear power decommissioning in modern Germany, see

5723: 5665: 5083: 4955: 1624: 5550: 5869: 4318: 3675: 2498: 323:

régime of 1933–1945 had driven many physicists, engineers, and mathematicians out of Germany as early as 1933. Those of

215:

began on September 1, 1939, the day of the invasion of Poland. The program eventually expanded into three main efforts:

5061: 4437: 3824: 3650: 3459:

Keinerlei Untergang: German Armaments Engineers during the Second World War and in the Service of the Victorious Powers

2749: 843: 4973:(June 2008) Annotated bibliography on the German atomic bomb project from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues 3699:

Der experimentelle Nachweis der effektiven Neutronenvermehrung in einem Kugel-Schichten-System aus D2O und Uran-Metall

5864: 5670: 5540: 5390: 4711: 4581: 4194: 4125: 3994: 3846: 3727: 2742:

Erinnerungen, fortgeschrieben. Ein Forscherleben im Jahrhudert des Wandels der Wissenschaften und politischen Systeme

2641: 2109:Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle 5566: 5066: 4538: 4519: 4356: 4292: 4200:

Hoffmann, Dieter (2005). "Between Autonomy and Accommodation: The German Physical Society during the Third Reich".

3935: 1963: 1871: 1773: 1034:

Over time, the HWA and then the RFR controlled the German nuclear weapon project. The most influential people were

693: 344:

competed with each other to obtain surviving components of the German nuclear industry (personnel, facilities, and

4944:

Volume 8, Number 2, 116–163 (2006). Mark Walker is Professor of History at Union College in Schenectady, New York.

4399:

The author has been a group leader at the Institute of Technical Physics of the Russian Federal Nuclear Center in

3770: 1785: 1636: 1490:(Army Ordnance Office) in Gottow. The G-1 experiment performed at the HWA testing station, under the direction of 1320: 685: 464:, a physicist at the Reich Research Council of the REM, organized a meeting for what become informally known as a 2681: 2113:

On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons

1619:

had arrived earlier, although Kikoin did not recall a vanguard group. Targets on the top of their list were the

1244:

elements, including capturing a prototype reactor at Haigerloch and records, heavy water, and uranium ingots at

5824: 5586: 5334: 5095: 5037: 2313:

Die Ausnutzung der Atomenergie. Vom Laboratoriumsversuch zur Uranmaschine – Forschungsergebnisse in Dahlem

1890:

on the German side we find cut-throat competition, personal rivalries, and fighting over the limited resources.

1151: 742:(war importance) designation, and funding continued from the military, but it was then split into the areas of 3720:

Reaktorunfälle und die Handlungen der Feuerwehr: Leipzig, Tschernobyl und Fukushima – eine erste Analyse.

2598: 5675: 5610: 4550:"Eine Waffenschmiede? Kernwaffen- und Reaktorforschung am Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik (Ergebnisse 26)" 1628: 5147: 3214:, p. 369 Appendix F (see the entry for Nikolaus Riehl), and Appendix D (see the entry for Auergesellschaft). 2978:

United States Army in World War II: The Technical Services – The Corps of Engineers: The War Against Germany

2501:"Geheimdokumente zu den Forschungszentren": Gottow, Hamburg, Berlin, Leipzig und Wien, Heidelberg, Straßburg 2179: 1756:(Reich Postal Ministry), was also sent to the Soviet Union to work on their atomic bomb project, along with 648: 493: 364: 186: 5802: 5785: 5514: 5422: 5137: 4991: 4240:

Werner Heisenberg and the German Uranium Project / Otto Hahn and the Declarations of Mainau and Göttingen

3608: 3244: 1670: 1338:

The ten scientists were secretly relocated and kept confined and incommunicado with the broader world in

730: 456: 51: 4730:

Document 95. Werner Heisenberg. The Theoretical Basis for the Generation of Energy from Uranium Fission

5760: 5477: 5462: 5457: 1741: 1733: 1707: 1651: 1603:

officer's uniforms, from the bomb project's only laboratory, Laboratory No. 2, in Moscow, and included

1584: 1086: 460:(REM, Reich Ministry of Education), of potential military and economic applications of nuclear energy. 4963: 3702: 916: 505: 432: 5115: 4994: 2199: 1950: 1604: 1546:

in Southern Germany due to air raids on Berlin, and became the Institute's Deputy Director. When the

1015:(plenipotentiary) for nuclear physics research under the RFR; in December 1943, Esau was replaced by 37: 3468: 312:

research in December 1942, and was succeeded by Walther Gerlach after he resigned in December 1943.

5859: 4628: 4106:

Document 115. Werner Heisenberg: Research in Germany on the Technical Application of Atomic Energy

1740:(Department of Experimental Genetics). All four eventually worked for Riehl in the Soviet Union at 1570: 1402:). Most professional historians of science who have worked on this subject do not believe that the 1114:. Von Ardenne attracted top-notch personnel to work in his facility, such as the nuclear physicist 189:

in Berlin in December 1938, but ended only a few months later, shortly ahead of the September 1939

2339:, p. 369, Appendix F, see the entry for Riehl, and Appendix D, see the entry for Auergesellschaft. 5472: 5467: 5164: 4549: 4451: 3956:

Crawford, Elisabeth; Sime, Ruth Lewin; Walker, Mark (1997). "A Nobel Tale of Postwar Injustice".

2555: 2299: 1910:

In terms of financial and human resources, the comparisons between the Manhattan Project and the

1347: 379: 20: 3591: 3334: 2772:; the original typescript is available in the online-Archive of the Deutsches Museum München at 2158: 1494:, had lattices of 6,800 uranium oxide cubes (about 25 tons), in the nuclear moderator paraffin. 5142: 5073: 1161:

was too high, probably due to the boron in the graphite pieces having high neutron absorption.

341: 124: 4104:

Volume 160, Number 4059, 211–15 (16 August 1947). See also the annotated English translation:

3682: 1706:

Zimmer's path to work on the Soviet atomic bomb project was through a prisoner of war camp in

5623: 5485: 5357: 5169: 5105: 5100: 4145:

werden – Zu einem bislang unbekannten Typoskript vom Oktober 1944 (Inneratomic Energy as the

4048: 3718:

This was the first accident that disrupted a nuclear energy assembly; cf. Reinhard Steffler,

3376:

For information on the American and Russian exploitation of Germany after World War II, see:

2796:

werden – Zu einem bislang unbekannten Typoskript vom Oktober 1944 (Inneratomic Energy as the

1781: 1752: 1632: 1106: 1100:, in Berlin-Lichterfelde, to conduct his own research on radio and television technology and 887: 869: 524: 403:, who had fled Germany in July to the Netherlands and then to Sweden. Meitner and her nephew 4892:

second expanded edition, (Barth, 1939) 133–151. See also the annotated English translation:

3705:. Published 1946 in: Heisenberg, W., Collected Works Vol. A II (Eds. W. Blum, H.-P Dürr and 3166: 1563: 5628: 4640: 4596: 4482: 4209: 3965: 3894: 3865: 3008: 2855: 2066: 1863: 1765: 1518: 1125:

and von Ardenne's team in Berlin-Lichterfelde, there was also a small research team in the

956: 854: 563:, on the technical use of nuclear energy from uranium. As Auer had a substantial amount of 4759:

Zwischen Autonomie und Anpassung: Die deutsche physikalische Gesellschaft im dritten Reich

4574:

Die Spezialisten: Deutsche Naturwissenschaftler und Techniker in der Sowjetunion nach 1945

3240: 3091: 1394:, who reprinted and amplified it uncritically in the 1950s. At that time, accuracy of the 664:

important, since we could be sure that the enemy would also not be able to make use of it.

8: 5319: 5276: 2737: 2699: 1973: 1747: 1232: 1178: 1101: 1090: 242: 5796: 4644: 4600: 4486: 4256: 4213: 3969: 3898: 3869: 3012: 2859: 2070: 1287:

were picked up by the Alsos team and incarcerated in England as part of what was called

632: 560: 5812: 5051: 4931:

Historia Scientiarum; International Journal for the History of Science Society of Japan

4498: 4462: 4390: 4247: 4225: 4022: 3034: 2773: 2090: 1596: 1423:

has been perpetuated in many popular accounts of the German atomic program, notably in

1214:(KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics) had mostly been moved in 1943 and 1944 to 1171: 797: 735: 509: 404: 230: 190: 142: 4587:

Bernstein, Jeremy; Cassidy, David (1995). "Bomb Apologetics: Farm Hall, August 1945".

4557:

Research Program "History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society in the National Socialist Era"

4459:

Research Program "History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society in the National Socialist Era"

4275: 3753:"Manhattan District History, Book 1, Volume 14, Foreign Intelligence Supplement No. 1" 2119:

Volume 27, Number 1, 11–15 (1939). The authors were identified as associated with the

1501:. This, combined with information gathered in the same month through an Alsos team in 415:" – a term coined by Frisch. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939. 5324: 5246: 5200: 4707: 4577: 4534: 4515: 4502: 4433: 4394: 4352: 4314: 4306: 4288: 4229: 4190: 4174: 4121: 4067: 3990: 3931: 3842: 3820: 3723: 3706: 3671: 3646: 3038: 3026: 2825: 2745: 2637: 2504: 2094: 2082: 2054: 2021: 1805: 1711: 1660: 1510: 1429: 1312: 1288: 1261: 1186: 1126: 1111: 1089:, which was thought applicable to U production and enrichment. This was picked up by 883: 681: 290: 5190: 4765: 4238: 3358: 1009: 992: 559:(usually known as just "Auer"), a German industrial firm, read a June 1939 paper by 301: 5580: 5363: 5339: 5281: 5158: 4706:. (1967 interviews with Werner Heisenberg and Paul Harteck). Westport CT: Meckler. 4648: 4604: 4490: 4382: 4271: 4217: 4164: 4083: 4014: 3973: 3902: 3873: 3834: 3016: 2863: 2815: 2074: 1993: 1715: 1699: 1522: 1467: 1407: 1115: 1078: 934: 555: 481: 374: 150: 1690: 1462: 5314: 5251: 5152: 5132: 4985: 4696: 4470: 4447: 4425: 4344: 4036:

Science, Technology, and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany

2186: 1882: 1612: 1592: 1547: 1514: 1332: 1316: 1300: 1275: 1182: 1174:. At times, all parties were heavy-handed in their pursuit and denial to others. 1043: 1016: 912: 895: 848: 697: 529: 447: 439: 412: 383:("Natural Sciences") reporting that they had detected and identified the element 336: 309: 305: 296: 266: 222: 146: 5291: 4739:

Heisenberg, Werner, introduction by David Cassidy, translation by William Sweet

2374: 2372: 2319:

No. 387, Supplement (15 August 1939). English translation: Document No. 74

1852: 1666: 677: 473: 5271: 5256: 5205: 4841: 4809: 4340: 4328: 4169: 4136: 2820: 2787: 1936: 1859: 1772:(KWIPC, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry and Electrochemistry, today the 1682: 1616: 1555: 1535: 1458: 1047: 995:

as its president. The reorganization was done under the initiative of Minister

930: 915: – Director of the Second Experimental Physics Institute at the 652: 550: 270: 4494: 4386: 4333:

The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949

4221: 4005:

Gimbel, John (1986). "U.S. Policy and German Scientists: The Early Cold War".

3928:

Scientists Under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich

3694: 2078: 1815:

A strong initial drive, by a small group of scientists, to launch the project.

857:, fission products, isotope separation, and measurement of nuclear constants. 598: 54:) being disassembled by American and British soldiers and others in April 1945 5838: 5329: 5261: 5231: 5226: 5106:

Universität Leipzig, Institute for Physics; Institute for Theoretical Physics

4660:

Cassidy, David C. (1992). "Heisenberg, German Science, and the Third Reich".

4302: 4088: 4071: 4063: 3030: 2369: 2086: 1968: 1588: 1506: 1442: 1424: 1363: 1343: 1190: 1158: 1063: 1059: 1000: 948: 788: 758: 673: 656: 628: 534: 489: 485: 469: 428: 278: 274: 4829:

German Historical Institute Washington, D.C., Occasional Paper No. 14 (1995)

2172:

Physical Evidence for the Division of Heavy Nuclei under Neutron Bombardment

1465:, set up an industrial-scale production of high-purity uranium oxide at the 624:. In September 1939, Diebner organized a meeting in Berlin on 16 September. 5452: 5429: 5370: 5286: 5266: 5241: 5221: 5195: 5185: 4367: 4178: 3236: 2829: 1848: 1757: 1703:

on reactor-grade uranium production and was also sent to the Soviet Union.

1647: 1608: 1542:. In 1944, he went with most of the KWIP staff when they were evacuated to 1491: 1391: 1328: 1308: 1296: 1223: 1067: 1039: 1035: 1005: 996: 988: 976: 886: – Director of the Department of Theoretical Physics at the 865: 812: 717: 708: 644: 617: 520: 504:

was invited, but he did not attend. After this, informal work began at the

461: 400: 286: 262: 258: 154: 138: 88: 43: 4722:

Die theoretischen Grundlagen für die Energiegewinnung aus der Uranspaltung

3643:

Serving the Reich : the struggle for the soul of physics under Hitler

3127: 791: – Director of the Institute for Physical Chemistry at the 3812: 3638: 3252: 1686: 1678: 1472: 1292: 1146: 801: 747: 636: 621: 572: 501: 477: 226: 4728:, Volume 9, 201–212 (1943). See also the annotated English translation: 4151:

Master of the World – On a Hitherto Unknown Typescript from October 1944

2802:

Master of the World – On a Hitherto Unknown Typescript from October 1944

2671:, Appendix F; see the entry for Schumann. Also see footnote 1 on p. 207. 2053:

Grasso, Giacomo; Oppici, Carlo; Rocchi, Federico; Sumini, Marco (2009).

1252:

displayed a cube of uranium attained from this mission from March 2020.

4998: 4832: 4813:

Hitlers Bombe. Die geheime Geschichte der deutschen Kernwaffenversuche.

4026: 3248: 2843: 1789: 1777: 1674: 1551: 1502: 1367: 1324: 1245: 1219: 1028: 868: – Director of the Physical Chemistry Department of the 774: 668:

This group, like the one before it, referred to itself informally as a

497: 451: 349: 47: 4868:

Heisenberg and the Nazi Atomic Bomb Project: A Study in German Culture

4652: 4157:

NTM Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Wissenschaften, Technik und Medizin

3906: 3877: 3021: 2996: 2867: 2808:

NTM Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Wissenschaften, Technik und Medizin

2685: 2296:

Kann der Energieinhalt der Atomkerne technisch nutzbar gemacht werden?

1992:

Due to the surrender of Germany. The program effort ceased due to the

841:(KWIC, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, after World War II the 769:(KWImF, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research, after 1948 the 340:

weapons. With the war in Europe ending in the spring of 1945, various

5545: 5437: 5413: 5236: 4608: 4400: 3977: 3733: 2151:

Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction

1543: 1339: 1304: 1215: 1024: 834: 720:

asked how long America would take and was told 1944 though the group

712:

disagreeable consequences for us." So we turned the slogan around to

640: 370: 328: 282: 210: 196: 119: 4018: 3817:

Serving the Reich: the struggle for the soul of physics under Hitler

3536:

Danger and survival: Choices about the bomb in the first fifty years

1915:

nearly 1% of the entire US civilian labor force. By comparison, the

1478:

The Oranienburg plant provided the uranium sheets and cubes for the

1027:. However, by the summer of 1943, Speer released the remaining 1200 704: 692:(KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, after World War II the 427:

On 22 April 1939, after hearing a colloquium paper by his colleague

4870:(California, 1998). For a critical review of this book, please see 4862: 4512:

German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power 1939–1949

4351:. American Chemical Society and the Chemical Heritage Foundations. 3789: 2558:

account and interpretation of the role of the RFR in Document 111:

2217: 823:, Thuringia; he was also an advisor to the HWA on nuclear physics. 820: 819:(testing station) in Gottow and of the RFR experimental station in 606: 392: 345: 316: 4752:

The Mental Aftermath: The Mentality of German Physicists 1945–1949

4098:

Research in Germany on the Technical Applications of Atomic Energy

3553:"Radioactive find points to 'success' of Nazi atomic bomb program" 2055:"A Neutronics Study of the 1945 Haigerloch B-VIII Nuclear Reactor" 1770:

Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie

844:

Max Planck Institut für Chemie – Otto Hahn Institut

4473:(2006). "The Politics of Memory: Otto Hahn and the Third Reich". 4349:

Stalin's Captive: Nikolaus Riehl and the Soviet Race for the Bomb

1761: 1331:, although he had nothing to do with the nuclear weapon project. 975:

On 4 June 1942, a conference regarding the project, initiated by

743: 583:, with the HWA's reorganized project being designated the second 564: 436: 388: 193:, for which many notable German physicists were drafted into the 185:). The first effort started in April 1939, just months after the 2719:, Appendix F; see entry for Ardenne. Also see the entry for the 1266: 418: 5509: 5006: 4572:

Albrecht, Ulrich, Andreas Heinemann-Grüder, and Arend Wellmann

4118:

Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources

3103: 2735:, pp. 83–84, 170, 183, and Reference n. 85 on p. 247. See also 2384: 1875: 1824:

A concentration of brilliant scientists devoted to the project.

568: 399:

of the uranium nucleus in a letter to his colleague and friend

384: 324: 320: 3856:

Bernstein, Jeremy (2002). "Heisenberg and the critical mass".

3580:. I. Physikalisches Institut, Justus-Liebig-Universität, 1989. 3439: 2521: 2519: 1818:

Unconditional government support from a certain point in time.

1031:

of uranium stock for the production of solid-core ammunition.

4966:

Release of documents relating to 1941 Bohr-Heisenberg meeting

4958:

Release of documents relating to 1941 Bohr-Heisenberg meeting

4763:

Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschafts Geschichte Preprint 192

3480: 1410:

put it in an annotated edition of the Farm Hall transcripts:

5382: 4879:

Heisenberg, Hitler und die Bombe. Gespraeche mit Zeitzeugen.

3946: 3504: 3427: 3217: 3181: 3115: 1599:. These teams were composed of scientific staff members, in 904:, isotope separation, and measurement of nuclear constants. 4285:

Surviving the Swastika: Scientific Research in Nazi Germany

3516: 3403: 3297: 2516: 2347: 2345: 1760:, Nobel laureate and director of Research Laboratory II at 1600: 1398:

was challenged forcefully by von Laue (who coined the term

962:

Transuranic elements and measurement of nuclear constants.

352: 3492: 3273: 3256:

Bericht über einen Würfelversuch mit Uranoxyd und Paraffin

2958: 2278: 2276: 567:

on hand as a waste product from the process of extracting

201:. A second effort under the administrative purview of the 3839:

Hitler's Uranium Club: The Secret Recordings at Farm Hall

3415: 3285: 2946: 2922: 2577:

Record of Conference Regarding the Reich Research Council

1355: 672:. A second meeting was held soon thereafter and included 3391: 3346: 3193: 2874: 2586: 2342: 2052: 1821:

Essentially unlimited manpower and industrial resources.

533:(HWA, Army Ordnance Office), and his teaching assistant 4894:

Document 75. Erich Schumann: Armed Forces and Research

4794:

Peter Debye: "A Typical Scientist in an Untypical Time"

4409:

Heisenberg's War: The Secret History of the German Bomb

2456: 2273: 1538:

was a staff scientist at the KWIP, and worked with the

523:, director of the physical chemistry department at the 239:

turned the program over to the Reich Research Council (

4001:(1967 interviews with Heisenberg, Harteck and others). 3948:

Uncertainty: The Life and Science of Werner Heisenberg

3915:

by Klaus Gottstein and a reply by Jeremy Bernstein in

3329:

Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project

2934: 2636:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 314–20. 2468: 2263: 2261: 2034: 1799: 1780:, director of the Physical Chemistry Institute at the 1237:, who was in charge of the experimental uranium pile. 5101:

Universität Hamburg, Department of Physical Chemistry

4531:

Nazi Science: Myth, Truth, and the German Atomic Bomb

3309: 2650: 1177:

The best known US denial and exploitation effort was

1164: 890:

until summer 1942; thereafter acting director of the

734:(KWG, Kaiser Wilhelm Society, after World War II the 180: 166: 5079:

Institute for Physics Chemistry and Electrochemistry

4772:

The German Physical Society Under National Socialism

3703:

Forschungszentren/Leipzig/Neutronenvermehrung (1942)

2898: 2774:

https://digital.deutsches-museum.de/item/FA-002-752/

2610: 2432: 2420: 2408: 2357: 1926: 512:. Formally the group of physicists was known as the 4264:

Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics

2910: 2607:, Appendix F; see the entries for Esau and Gerlach. 2258: 2015: 1255: 724:thought it would take longer, three or four years. 454:, along with Hanle, notified Wilhelm Dames, at the 4897: 4733: 4559:. Max Planck Institute for the History of Science. 4116:Hentschel, Klaus; Hentschel, Ann M., eds. (1996). 4115: 4109: 3955: 3885:Bernstein, Jeremy (2004). "Heisenberg in Poland". 3795: 3771:"How many people worked on the Manhattan Project?" 3739: 3474: 3340: 3267: 3211: 2886: 2716: 2668: 2604: 2580: 2563: 2542: 2480: 2450: 2402: 2378: 2336: 2324: 2235: 2212: 1858:In June 1942, some six months before the American 767:Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für medizinische Forschung 468:(Uranium Club). The group included the physicists 4072:"1982: Jubiläumsjahr der Kernspaltungs¬forschung" 2539:The Führer's Decree on the Reich Research Council 5836: 4586: 4368:"German Scientists in the Soviet Atomic Project" 3668:The Good Nazi: The Life and Lies of Albert Speer 1627:), the Frederick William University (today, the 1250:National Museum of Nuclear Science & History 750:production, uranium isotope separation, and the 377:sent a manuscript to the German science journal 141:undertook several research programs relating to 4916:Heisenberg, Goudsmit and the German Atomic Bomb 4463:Max Planck Institute for the History of Science 4415: 4301: 4248:Max Planck Institute for the History of Science 4062: 3462: 2525: 2267: 2248: 2246: 2244: 1774:Fritz Haber Institute of the Max-Planck Society 1750:, who had worked on isotope separation for the 1526:been directed at them rather than the Germans. 999:of the RMBM; it was necessary as the RFR under 875:Heavy water production and isotope production. 358: 4120:. Translated by Hentschel, Ann M. Birkhäuser. 3047:"Lost Nuclear Material Resurfaces In Maryland" 2302:Volume 27, Issues 23/24, 402–10 (9 June 1939). 1885:summarizes the organizational differences as: 1135:Reichsinstituts für Kerntechnik und Kernchemie 771:Max-Planck-Institut für medizinische Forschung 5808:German persecution of Soviet prisoners of war 5398: 5022: 4852:Lise Meitner: Ein Leben fuer die Wissenschaft 4726:Zeitschrift für die gesamte Naturwissenschaft 2684:. sachsen.de. 20 January 2006. Archived from 2018:Technology transfer out of Germany after 1945 1154:and destroyed stocks of heavy water by 1943. 985:Reichsministerium für Bewaffnung und Munition 933: – Scientific Director of the 877:5 physical chemists, physicists, and chemists 620:, an advisor to the HWA, in association with 553:, the head of the scientific headquarters at 4979:Lise Meitner and the Dawn of the Nuclear Age 4859:Lise Meitner and the Dawn of the Nuclear Age 4420:(first paperback ed.). Cambridge Press. 4311:The Historical Development of Quantum Theory 3593:Robert Döpel and his Model of Global Warming 2994: 2627: 2625: 2241: 1840:(RFR, Reich Research Council) in July 1942. 1093:, who ran a private research establishment. 659:. Its purpose, as Bagge later recalled, was 294: 252: 240: 234: 216: 208: 202: 194: 172: 158: 4802:Hoffmann, Dieter and Mark Walker (editors) 3768: 3722:Elbe-Dnjepr-Verlag Leipzig-Mockrehna 2011. 3665: 3100:, pp. 268–74 and Reference n. 40 on p. 262. 3074:"Dark Cube: Heisenberg's Race for the Bomb" 2736: 2123:, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 22 December 1938. 1866:for the first time anywhere, Döpel's L-IV " 1724:Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Brain Research 1098:Forschungslaboratorium für Elektronenphysik 894:(Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics), in 5405: 5391: 5029: 5015: 4704:Atomic Bomb Scientists: Memoirs, 1939–1945 4693:Werner Heisenberg: controversial scientist 4418:Science, Technology and National Socialism 4339: 4187:Otto Hahn – Achievement and Responsibility 3987:Atomic Bomb Scientists: Memoirs, 1939–1945 3606: 3600: 3433: 3409: 3303: 3223: 2351: 1482:experiments conducted at the KWIP and the 1152:sabotaged Norwegian heavy water production 981:Reich Ministry for Armament and Ammunition 411:and correctly interpreted the results as " 4804:Physiker zwischen Autonomie und Anpassung 4416:Renneberg, Monika; Walker, Mark (2002) . 4365: 4168: 4134: 4087: 3925: 3884: 3855: 3833: 3522: 3486: 3477:, Appendix F; see the entry for Thiessen. 3445: 3397: 3364: 3279: 3199: 3187: 3133: 3121: 3109: 3020: 2964: 2940: 2928: 2819: 2785: 2765: 2622: 2569: 2390: 1720:Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Hirnforschung 247:) while continuing to fund the activity. 79: 5791:German military brothels in World War II 4938:Otto Hahn: Responsibility and Repression 4871: 4747:Volume 48, Issue 8, Part I, 27–30 (1995) 4741:A Lecture on Bomb Physics: February 1942 4680:Volume 53, Issue 7, 28 (2000). See also 4282: 4254: 4199: 4042: 3819:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 3645:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 3539: 3510: 3498: 2997:"Tracking the journey of a uranium cube" 2995:Koeth, Timothy; Hiebert, Miriam (2019). 2904: 2592: 2252: 2016:Judt, Matthias; Burghard Ciesla (1996). 1587:. The exploitation teams were under the 1433:, which itself was based heavily on the 1406:is true. As the historian and physicist 1265: 1110:(RPM, Reich Postal Ministry), headed by 597: 5353:Germany and weapons of mass destruction 4682:Heisenberg's Message to Bohr: Who Knows 4659: 4327: 3944: 3421: 3377: 3291: 2952: 2916: 1959:Germany and weapons of mass destruction 1196: 1140: 716:not "make use of physics for warfare." 5837: 4674:A Historical Perspective on Copenhagen 4547: 4528: 4509: 4406: 4033: 4004: 3989:. Westport, CT & London: Meckler. 3984: 3589: 3385: 3381: 3352: 3315: 3258:G-125 (dated before 26 November 1942). 3097: 2892: 2880: 2846:(2000). "The German Uranium Project". 2732: 2656: 2616: 2513:, p. 52 and Reference n. 40 on p. 262. 2510: 2474: 2462: 2438: 2426: 2414: 2363: 2282: 2189:. The paper is dated 17 January 1939. 2040: 1874:by a chemical explosion introduced by 964:ca. 6 physicists and physical chemists 942:ca. 3 physicists and physical chemists 906:ca. 7 physicists and physical chemists 815: – Director of the HWA 806:ca. 4 physical chemists and physicists 793:Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich 627:The invitees to this meeting included 5386: 5010: 4933:, Volume 14, Number 3, 164–181 (2005) 4905:National Socialism and German Physics 4626: 4617:What We Know About Nazism and Science 3769:Wellerstein, Alex (1 November 2013). 3343:, Appendix F; see the entry for Bopp. 2842: 2700:"Manfred Baron von Ardenne 1907–1997" 2631: 1729:Max-Planck-Institut für Hirnforschung 1073: 4861:(e-Book, Plunkett Lake Press, 2015) 4827:The Germans and the Nuclear Question 4818:Karlsch, Rainer and Heiko Petermann 4796:Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft 4469: 4446: 4424: 4236: 3811: 3637: 3631: 3235:F. Berkei, W. Borrmann, W. Czulius, 3168:Heisenberg, Bohr and the atomic bomb 3148:"Darum hatte Hitler keine Atombombe" 3145: 2682:"Zur Ehrung von Manfred von Ardenne" 2486: 2223: 2208: 2204: 2140:Volume 58, Number 3, 263–267 (1990). 1906:received greater official attention. 1738:Abteilung für Experimentelle Genetik 1642:German physicists who worked on the 1625:Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics 1448: 1437:-endorsing work of popular history, 1281:Kernphysikalische Forschungsberichte 1008:was appointed on 8 December 1942 as 917:Georg-August University of Göttingen 590: 508:by Joos, Hanle, and their colleague 506:Georg-August University of Göttingen 5148:Ministry for Armament and Munitions 5003:(originally aired 8 November 2005). 4623:Volume 59, Number 3, 615–641 (1992) 3331:(De Capo, 1962) pp. 220–22, 230–31. 2768:Lehrbuch der technischen Kernphysik 2178:, Volume 143, Number 3616, 276–276 2157:, Volume 143, Number 3615, 239–240 1836:(HWA, Army Ordnance Office) to the 1800:Comparison to the Manhattan Project 1377:("version"). The basic version the 1210:Unfortunately for the Soviets, the 348:), as they did with the pioneering 13: 5875:Abandoned projects of Nazi Germany 5114: 4981:(Birkhauser/Springer Verlag, 1999) 4565: 4432:. University of California Press. 4059:(Herder and Herder, New York 1970) 3538:(Random House, 1988), as cited in 3367:, p. 212 and footnote 5 on p. 212. 3164: 2134:Lise Meitner's Escape from Germany 2121:Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie 1621:Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik 1381:argued that the German scientists 1212:Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik 1165:Exploitation and denial strategies 955:(Second Physics Institute) at the 951: – Director of the 892:Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik 839:Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie 837: – Director of the 826:Measurement of nuclear constants. 780:Measurement of nuclear constants. 761: – Director of the 690:Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik 514:Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Kernphysik 14: 5886: 5671:Flag officers of the Kriegsmarine 5661:Foreign volunteers and conscripts 5551:General der Nachrichtenaufklärung 4949: 4792:Hoffmann, Dieter and Mark Walker 4781:Hoffmann, Dieter and Mark Walker 4770:Hoffmann, Dieter and Mark Walker 3777:from the original on 21 July 2019 3758:. 8 November 1948. p. S4.48. 3709:, Berlin etc. (1989), pp. 536–44. 3136:, pp. 129–131, 171, 191–207. 1087:electromagnetic isotope separator 407:confirmed Hahn's conclusion of a 369:In December 1938, German chemist 5036: 4922:Volume 43, Issue 1, 52–60 (1990) 4789:Volume 5, Number 3, 53–58 (2006) 4783:Zwischen Autonomie und Anpassung 4141:: Mit inneratomarer Energie zum 3762: 3745: 3712: 3146:Popp, Manfred (4 January 2017). 2792:: Mit inneratomarer Energie zum 2213:Crawford, Sime & Walker 1997 1964:Japanese nuclear weapons program 1943: 1929: 1710:, as was that of his colleagues 1597:Colonel General A. P. Zavenyagin 1550:Mission evacuated Hechingen and 1256:Operation Epsilon, and Farm Hall 1205: 694:Max Planck Institute for Physics 545:Also independently of the first 81: 36: 5855:World War II weapons of Germany 5845:Nuclear program of Nazi Germany 4909:Journal of Contemporary Physics 4702:Ermenc, Joseph J., ed. (1989). 4430:Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics 3687: 3659: 3583: 3570: 3545: 3528: 3451: 3370: 3321: 3229: 3158: 3139: 3066: 2986: 2970: 2836: 2778: 2758: 2726: 2704:Lemo – Lebendiges Museum Online 2692: 2674: 2548: 2531: 2492: 2305: 2288: 2270:, Volume 6, Part 2, pp. 1010–1. 765:(Institute for Physics) at the 714:make use of warfare for physics 5096:Kirchhoff Institute of Physics 5057:Institute for Medical Research 4956:(February 2002) Aaserud, Finn 4927:German Work on Nuclear Weapons 4898:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 4888:in Richard Donnevert (editor) 4734:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 4257:"Getting even with Heisenberg" 4255:Landsman, Nicolaas P. (2002). 4110:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 3985:Ermenc, Joseph J, ed. (1989). 3796:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 3740:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 3475:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 3341:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 3268:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 3212:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2717:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2669:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2605:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2581:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2564:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2543:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2451:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2403:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2379:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2337:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2325:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2236:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2192: 2164: 2149:Lise Meitner and O. R. Frisch 2143: 2126: 2101: 2046: 2009: 1986: 519:Independently of this effort, 157:. These were variously called 1: 5850:Nuclear technology in Germany 5676:Luftwaffe personnel structure 5412: 4854:(Düsseldorf: Claassen, 1990). 4845:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 4820:Für und wider "Hitlers Bombe" 4276:10.1016/S1355-2198(02)00015-1 3670:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2003: 1786:Technische Universität Berlin 1637:Technische Universität Berlin 1457:(HWA, Army Ordnance Office), 1321:Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker 859:ca. 6 chemists and physicists 686:Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker 4629:"The German Uranium Project" 4627:Bethe, Hans A. (July 2000). 4366:Oleynikov, Pavel V. (2000). 1979: 1693:, while not a member of the 1609:Isaak Konstantinovich Kikoin 1218:and its neighboring town of 1023:and development of a German 423:and other early 1939 efforts 365:Discovery of nuclear fission 359:Discovery of nuclear fission 187:discovery of nuclear fission 16:World War II weapons project 7: 5803:Myth of the clean Wehrmacht 5786:War crimes of the Wehrmacht 5170:Ministry of Postal Services 4992:Public Broadcasting Service 4375:The Nonproliferation Review 4313:. Vol. 6–2. Springer. 4287:. Oxford University Press. 4189:(Springer, New York. 2001) 4007:Political Science Quarterly 3926:Beyerchen, Alan D. (1977). 3607:Mangravite, Andrew (2015). 3463:Renneberg & Walker 2002 2526:Hanle & Rechenberg 1982 2317:Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung 2311:Also see: Siegfried Flügge 2268:Mehra & Rechenberg 2001 2138:American Journal of Physics 1922: 1571:Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft 953:II. Physikalisches Institut 731:Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft 457:Reichserziehungsministerium 225:) development, uranium and 181: 167: 52:Haigerloch research reactor 10: 5891: 5870:Nuclear history of Germany 5666:Bribery of senior officers 5520:Office for General Affairs 4847:(Simon and Schuster, 1986) 4283:Macrakis, Kristie (1993). 4170:10.1007/s00048-020-00241-z 3945:Cassidy, David C. (1992). 3804: 3457:Heinemann-Grüder, Andreas 2821:10.1007/s00048-020-00241-z 2198:In 1944 Hahn received the 2107:O. Hahn and F. Strassmann 1803: 1697:, worked for Riehl at the 1652:Soviet atomic bomb project 1617:Georgij Nikolaevich Flerov 1613:Lev Andreevich Artsimovich 1585:Soviet atomic bomb project 1574:(Kaiser Wilhelm Society). 1441:(1993), by the journalist 1259: 362: 251:influential people in the 18: 5821: 5778: 5756:German military equipment 5748: 5716: 5684: 5656: 5649: 5603: 5559: 5528: 5502: 5495: 5445: 5420: 5348: 5307: 5214: 5178: 5125: 5112: 5074:Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes 5044: 4495:10.1007/s00016-004-0248-5 4387:10.1080/10736700008436807 4222:10.1007/s00016-004-0235-x 4135:Hentschel, Klaus (2020). 4043:Goudsmit, Samuel (1986). 3666:Van der Vat, Dan (1997). 3590:Arnold, Heinrich (2011). 2982:Into the Heart of Germany 2786:Hentschel, Klaus (2020). 2200:Nobel Prize for Chemistry 2079:10.1007/s00016-008-0396-0 2020:. Routledge. p. 55. 1951:Nuclear technology portal 1605:Yulij Borisovich Khariton 1577: 1529: 1513:, recommended to General 1486:(testing station) of the 1453:With the interest of the 688:. Also at this time, the 315:Politicization of German 191:German invasion of Poland 112: 95: 75: 67: 59: 35: 30: 5865:Nuclear weapons programs 5766:German military aircraft 5215:Scientists and Engineers 4089:10.1002/phbl.19820381207 3773:. Restricted Data Blog. 2766:Watzlawek, Hugo (1948). 1734:N. V. Timofeev-Resovskij 1732:), who worked there for 1591:and they were headed by 1348:covert listening devices 1327:. Also incarcerated was 1270:Farm Hall, Godmanchester 1070:, or Werner Heisenberg. 446:(uranium machine, i.e., 293:. Esau was appointed as 229:production, and uranium 42:The German experimental 5153:German Physics Movement 5062:Institute for Chemistry 4911:Volume 24, 63–89 (1989) 4886:Wehrmacht und Forschung 4407:Powers, Thomas (1993). 2976:Beck, Alfred M, et al, 2300:Die Naturwissenschaften 2185:23 January 2009 at the 1784:in Charlottenburg (now 1742:Laboratory B in Sungul' 1635:in Charlottenburg (now 1052:Oberkommando des Heeres 736:Max-Planck Gesellschaft 433:University of Göttingen 21:nuclear power phase-out 5825:Uranverein|Uranprojekt 5143:Reich Research Council 5119: 5000:Hitler's Sunken Secret 4942:Physics in Perspective 4475:Physics in Perspective 4202:Physics in Perspective 3596:. ilmedia. p. 27. 3434:Riehl & Seitz 1996 3410:Riehl & Seitz 1996 3304:Riehl & Seitz 1996 3224:Riehl & Seitz 1996 3112:, pp. 50, 363–65. 2634:Inside the Third Reich 2632:Speer, Albert (1995). 2560:War Physics in Germany 2393:, pp. xxii–xxiii. 2352:Riehl & Seitz 1996 2226:, Reference 8 on p. 3. 2059:Physics in Perspective 1417: 1271: 1127:Henschel Flugzeugwerke 666: 609: 527:and an advisor to the 295: 253: 241: 235: 217: 209: 203: 195: 173: 159: 125:Reich Research Council 31:German nuclear program 5624:Inspector of Fighters 5541:Army Personnel Office 5486:Wehrmachtbefehlshaber 5358:Zippe-type centrifuge 5138:Ministry of Education 5118: 5084:Institute for Physics 5067:Institute for Physics 5052:Max Planck Institutes 4866:Rose, Paul Lawrence, 4548:Walker, Mark (2005). 4529:Walker, Mark (1995). 4510:Walker, Mark (1993). 4076:Physikalische Blätter 4034:Gimbel, John (1990). 3913:Letters to the Editor 3697:, Werner Heisenberg, 3448:, pp. 11, 15–17. 2721:Reichspostministerium 1782:Technische Hochschule 1753:Reichspostministerium 1646:and were sent to the 1633:Technische Hochschule 1412: 1269: 1222:, on the edge of the 1107:Reichspostministerium 888:University of Leipzig 870:University of Hamburg 661: 601: 525:University of Hamburg 435:proposing the use of 5629:Inspector of Bombers 5308:Military engagements 5165:High Command of Army 5133:Army Ordnance Office 4987:Nazis & the Bomb 4890:Wehrmacht und Partei 4576:(Dietz, 1992, 2001) 4237:Kant, Horst (2002). 3922:(9): 1143–45 (2004). 3513:, pp. 303, 319. 3489:, pp. 5, 11–13. 2738:Ardenne von, Manfred 2327:, pp. 197–206. 1766:Peter Adolf Thiessen 1629:University of Berlin 1519:B-17 Flying Fortress 1461:, and his colleague 1390:historians, notably 1274:A major goal of the 1197:American and British 1141:Moderator production 957:University of Vienna 940:Uranium production. 922:Isotope separation. 855:Transuranic elements 153:, before and during 120:Army Ordnance Office 5546:Army Weapons Agency 5320:Operation Paperclip 5277:Manfred von Ardenne 5126:Government Agencies 4964:Niels Bohr Archive 4874:, pp. 297–325. 4778:57(12) 52–58 (2004) 4736:, pp. 294–301. 4720:Heisenberg, Werner 4645:2000PhT....53g..34B 4601:1995PhT....48h..32B 4514:. Cambridge Press. 4487:2006PhP.....8....3S 4214:2005PhP.....7..293H 4096:Heisenberg, Werner 3970:1997PhT....50i..26C 3899:2004AmJPh..72..300B 3870:2002AmJPh..70..911B 3190:, pp. 332–335. 3124:, pp. 115–129. 3013:2019PhT....72e..36K 2980:, 1985 Chapter 24, 2860:2000PhT....53g..34B 2562:, January 1946, in 2117:Naturwissenschaften 2071:2009PhP....11..318G 1974:Operation Paperclip 1838:Reichsforschungsrat 1534:From 1941 to 1947, 1509:, commander of the 1342:, a manor house in 1179:Operation Paperclip 1102:electron microscopy 1091:Manfred von Ardenne 763:Institut für Physik 614:Reichsforschungsrat 575:, north of Berlin. 380:Naturwissenschaften 329:German armed forces 243:Reichsforschungsrat 5813:High Command Trial 5761:Kriegsmarine ships 5120: 5091:Center for Testing 4900:, pp. 207–20. 4881:(GNT-Verlag, 2018) 4825:Krieger, Wolfgang 4672:Cassidy, David C. 4595:(8 Part 1): 32–6. 4329:Naimark, Norman M. 4307:Rechenberg, Helmut 4112:, pp. 361–79. 4068:Rechenberg, Helmut 4047:. Introduction by 3609:"Magical Thinking" 3525:, pp. 122–23. 3501:, pp. 318–19. 3436:, pp. 121–32. 3424:, pp. 203–50. 3388:, pp. 433–51. 3355:, pp. 186–87. 3294:, pp. 205–07. 3226:, pp. 13, 69. 2955:, pp. 208–09. 2883:, pp. 433–51. 2579:, 6 July 1942, in 2566:, pp. 345–52. 2541:, 9 June 1942, in 2381:, p. 365, fn. 18.. 2255:, pp. 164–69. 2180:(18 February 1939) 2159:(11 February 1939) 1862:achieved man-made 1768:, director of the 1736:, director of the 1283:as members of the 1272: 1172:Potsdam Conference 1145:The production of 1085:, had proposed an 1081:, a member of the 1074:Isotope separation 798:Isotope separation 610: 510:Reinhold Mannkopff 484:(probably sent by 405:Otto Robert Frisch 373:and his assistant 231:isotope separation 143:nuclear technology 5832: 5831: 5774: 5773: 5645: 5644: 5515:Propaganda Troops 5380: 5379: 5325:Operation Epsilon 5247:Werner Heisenberg 5201:Wilhelm Ohnesorge 5045:Operational Sites 4969:(6 February 2002) 4836:The Alsos Mission 4806:(Wiley-VCH, 2007) 4757:Hoffmann, Dieter 4750:Hentschel, Klaus 4653:10.1063/1.1292473 4403:(Chelyabinsk-70). 4149:Towards Becoming 4049:Reginald V. Jones 4038:. Stanford Press. 3907:10.1119/1.1630333 3878:10.1119/1.1495409 3835:Bernstein, Jeremy 3742:, p. lxviii. 3412:, pp. 71–83. 3327:Leslie M. Groves 3306:, pp. 77–79. 3282:, pp. 50–51. 3239:, Georg Hartwig, 3022:10.1063/PT.3.4202 2967:, pp. 49–52. 2868:10.1063/1.1292473 2800:Towards Becoming 2688:on 25 March 2008. 2556:Samuel Goudsmit's 2465:, pp. 49–53. 2294:Siegfried Flügge 2285:, pp. 17–18. 2043:, pp. 198–9. 2027:978-3-7186-5822-0 1881:German historian 1806:Manhattan Project 1712:Hans-Joachim Born 1593:Lavrentij Beria's 1511:Manhattan Project 1449:Oranienburg plant 1313:Werner Heisenberg 1289:Operation Epsilon 1262:Operation Epsilon 1187:Operation Epsilon 1112:Wilhelm Ohnesorge 884:Werner Heisenberg 722:between ourselves 682:Werner Heisenberg 387:after bombarding 291:Werner Heisenberg 133: 132: 5882: 5797:Bandenbekämpfung 5654: 5653: 5619:Personnel Office 5581:Seekriegsleitung 5575:Personnel Office 5500: 5499: 5435: 5427: 5407: 5400: 5393: 5384: 5383: 5282:Fritz Houtermans 5159:Auergesellschaft 5031: 5024: 5017: 5008: 5007: 4977:Rife, Patricia, 4884:Schumann, Erich 4877:Schaaf, Michael 4857:Rife, Patricia, 4850:Rife, Patricia, 4717: 4691:Eckert, Michael 4669: 4656: 4615:Beyerchen, Alan 4612: 4609:10.1063/1.881469 4560: 4554: 4544: 4525: 4506: 4471:Sime, Ruth Lewin 4466: 4456: 4448:Sime, Ruth Lewin 4443: 4426:Sime, Ruth Lewin 4421: 4412: 4398: 4372: 4362: 4345:Seitz, Frederick 4336: 4324: 4298: 4279: 4261: 4251: 4246:. Preprint 203. 4245: 4233: 4185:Hoffmann, Klaus 4182: 4172: 4131: 4093: 4091: 4052: 4039: 4030: 4000: 3981: 3978:10.1063/1.881933 3952: 3941: 3910: 3881: 3852: 3830: 3799: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3766: 3760: 3759: 3757: 3749: 3743: 3737: 3731: 3716: 3710: 3691: 3685: 3681: 3663: 3657: 3656: 3635: 3629: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3604: 3598: 3597: 3587: 3581: 3574: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3549: 3543: 3532: 3526: 3520: 3514: 3508: 3502: 3496: 3490: 3484: 3478: 3472: 3466: 3455: 3449: 3443: 3437: 3431: 3425: 3419: 3413: 3407: 3401: 3395: 3389: 3374: 3368: 3362: 3356: 3350: 3344: 3338: 3332: 3325: 3319: 3313: 3307: 3301: 3295: 3289: 3283: 3277: 3271: 3265: 3259: 3233: 3227: 3221: 3215: 3209: 3203: 3197: 3191: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3177: 3175: 3165:Teller, Edward, 3162: 3156: 3155: 3143: 3137: 3131: 3125: 3119: 3113: 3107: 3101: 3095: 3089: 3088: 3086: 3084: 3070: 3064: 3061: 3059: 3057: 3042: 3024: 2990: 2984: 2974: 2968: 2962: 2956: 2950: 2944: 2938: 2932: 2931:, pp. 1–30. 2926: 2920: 2914: 2908: 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Houtermans 1079:Paul Peter Ewald 1056:Bevollmächtigter 1013:Bevollmächtigter 1010:Hermann Göring's 979:as head of the " 935:Auergesellschaft 828:ca. 6 physicists 649:Gerhard Hoffmann 633:Siegfried Flügge 561:Siegfried Flügge 556:Auergesellschaft 494:Gerhard Hoffmann 482:Wolfgang Gentner 375:Fritz Strassmann 300: 256: 246: 238: 220: 214: 206: 200: 184: 178: 170: 164: 151:nuclear reactors 91: 87: 85: 84: 40: 28: 27: 5890: 5889: 5885: 5884: 5883: 5881: 5880: 5879: 5860:Nuclear weapons 5835: 5834: 5833: 5828: 5817: 5770: 5744: 5712: 5680: 5641: 5599: 5587:Fleet commander 5555: 5524: 5491: 5458:Minister of War 5441: 5433: 5425: 5416: 5411: 5381: 5376: 5371:The Virus House 5344: 5335:Vemork sabotage 5315:Operation Alsos 5303: 5252:Hans Kopfermann 5210: 5174: 5121: 5110: 5040: 5035: 4952: 4947: 4842:Rhodes, Richard 4822:(Waxmann, 2007) 4714: 4701: 4695:physicsweb.org 4662:Social Research 4621:Social Research 4568: 4566:Further reading 4563: 4552: 4541: 4522: 4454: 4440: 4370: 4359: 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Copernicus. 3831: 3826:978-0226204574 3825: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3800: 3788: 3761: 3744: 3732: 3711: 3686: 3676: 3658: 3652:978-0226204574 3651: 3630: 3599: 3582: 3569: 3544: 3542:, pp. 318 n83. 3527: 3523:Bernstein 2001 3515: 3503: 3491: 3487:Oleynikov 2000 3479: 3467: 3450: 3446:Oleynikov 2000 3438: 3426: 3414: 3402: 3398:Oleynikov 2000 3390: 3369: 3365:Bernstein 2001 3357: 3345: 3333: 3320: 3318:, p. 156. 3308: 3296: 3284: 3280:Bernstein 2001 3272: 3260: 3228: 3216: 3204: 3200:Bernstein 2001 3192: 3188:Bernstein 2001 3180: 3157: 3138: 3134:Bernstein 2001 3126: 3122:Bernstein 2001 3114: 3110:Bernstein 2001 3102: 3090: 3078:Nuclear Museum 3065: 3063: 3062: 3043: 2985: 2969: 2965:Bernstein 2001 2957: 2945: 2941:Oleynikov 2000 2933: 2929:Oleynikov 2000 2921: 2909: 2897: 2885: 2873: 2844:Bethe, Hans A. 2835: 2814:(2): 121–147. 2794:Herrn der Welt 2777: 2757: 2751:978-3770010882 2750: 2725: 2723:in Appendix C. 2709: 2691: 2673: 2661: 2659:, p. 208. 2649: 2642: 2621: 2609: 2597: 2585: 2568: 2547: 2545:, p. 303. 2530: 2515: 2503: 2491: 2479: 2467: 2455: 2443: 2431: 2419: 2407: 2395: 2391:Bernstein 2001 2383: 2368: 2366:, pp. 18. 2356: 2341: 2329: 2304: 2287: 2272: 2257: 2240: 2228: 2216: 2191: 2163: 2142: 2125: 2100: 2065:(3): 318–335. 2045: 2033: 2026: 2007: 2005: 2002: 1999: 1998: 1994:Fall of Berlin 1984: 1983: 1981: 1978: 1977: 1976: 1971: 1966: 1961: 1955: 1954: 1940: 1937:Germany portal 1924: 1921: 1908: 1907: 1902: 1901: 1892: 1891: 1860:Chicago Pile-1 1826: 1825: 1822: 1819: 1816: 1804:Main article: 1801: 1798: 1683:Nikolaus Riehl 1656:Werner Czulius 1579: 1576: 1556:spectroscopist 1548:American Alsos 1531: 1528: 1484:Versuchsstelle 1459:Nikolaus Riehl 1450: 1447: 1260:Main article: 1257: 1254: 1207: 1204: 1198: 1195: 1166: 1163: 1142: 1139: 1075: 1072: 1048:Erich Schumann 993:Hermann Göring 969: 968: 967: 966: 946: 945: 944: 931:Nikolaus Riehl 928: 927: 926: 910: 909: 908: 881: 880: 879: 863: 862: 861: 832: 831: 830: 817:Versuchsstelle 810: 809: 808: 786: 785: 784: 653:Josef Mattauch 595: 589: 551:Nikolaus Riehl 424: 417: 363:Main article: 360: 357: 302:Hermann Göring 271:Erich Schumann 134: 131: 130: 128: 127: 122: 116: 114: 110: 109: 107: 106: 103: 99: 97: 93: 92: 77: 73: 72: 69: 65: 64: 61: 57: 56: 41: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5887: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5842: 5840: 5827: 5826: 5820: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5798: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5783: 5781: 5777: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5753: 5751: 5747: 5741: 5740: 5736: 5734: 5733: 5729: 5727: 5726: 5722: 5721: 5719: 5715: 5709: 5707: 5703: 5701: 5699: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5683: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5658: 5655: 5652: 5648: 5638: 5636: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5618: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5608: 5606: 5602: 5596: 5594: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5582: 5578: 5576: 5574: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5558: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5527: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5507: 5505: 5501: 5498: 5494: 5488: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5465: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5450: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5439: 5432: 5431: 5424: 5419: 5415: 5408: 5403: 5401: 5396: 5394: 5389: 5388: 5385: 5373: 5372: 5368: 5366: 5365: 5364:Hitler's Bomb 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5350: 5347: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5330:Russian Alsos 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5312: 5310: 5306: 5300: 5299: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5262:Georg Stetter 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5232:Klaus Clusius 5230: 5228: 5227:Walther Bothe 5225: 5223: 5220: 5219: 5217: 5213: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5183: 5181: 5177: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5160: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5130: 5128: 5124: 5117: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 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4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4633:Physics Today 4630: 4625: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4589:Physics Today 4585: 4583: 4582:3-320-01788-8 4579: 4575: 4571: 4570: 4558: 4551: 4546: 4542: 4536: 4532: 4527: 4523: 4517: 4513: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4414: 4410: 4405: 4402: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4369: 4364: 4360: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4290: 4286: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4258: 4253: 4249: 4242: 4241: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4198: 4196: 4195:0-387-95057-5 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4163:(2): 121–47. 4162: 4158: 4154: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4133: 4129: 4127:0-8176-5312-0 4123: 4119: 4114: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4041: 4037: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3996:0-88736-267-2 3992: 3988: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3958:Physics Today 3954: 3950: 3949: 3943: 3939: 3933: 3929: 3924: 3921: 3918: 3914: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3893:(3): 300–04. 3892: 3888: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3864:(9): 911–16. 3863: 3859: 3854: 3850: 3848:0-387-95089-3 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3809: 3797: 3792: 3776: 3772: 3765: 3754: 3748: 3741: 3736: 3729: 3728:3-940541-33-8 3725: 3721: 3715: 3708: 3707:H. Rechenberg 3704: 3701:. Facsimile: 3700: 3696: 3690: 3684: 3679: 3673: 3669: 3662: 3654: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3634: 3618: 3614: 3613:Distillations 3610: 3603: 3595: 3594: 3586: 3579: 3573: 3558: 3554: 3548: 3541: 3540:Landsman 2002 3537: 3531: 3524: 3519: 3512: 3511:Landsman 2002 3507: 3500: 3499:Landsman 2002 3495: 3488: 3483: 3476: 3471: 3465:, p. 44. 3464: 3460: 3454: 3447: 3442: 3435: 3430: 3423: 3418: 3411: 3406: 3399: 3394: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3373: 3366: 3361: 3354: 3349: 3342: 3337: 3330: 3324: 3317: 3312: 3305: 3300: 3293: 3288: 3281: 3276: 3269: 3264: 3257: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3232: 3225: 3220: 3213: 3208: 3201: 3196: 3189: 3184: 3170: 3169: 3161: 3153: 3149: 3142: 3135: 3130: 3123: 3118: 3111: 3106: 3099: 3094: 3079: 3075: 3069: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 3001:Physics Today 2998: 2993: 2992: 2989: 2983: 2979: 2973: 2966: 2961: 2954: 2949: 2942: 2937: 2930: 2925: 2918: 2913: 2906: 2905:Goudsmit 1986 2901: 2894: 2889: 2882: 2877: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2848:Physics Today 2845: 2839: 2831: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2781: 2775: 2769: 2761: 2753: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2734: 2729: 2722: 2718: 2713: 2705: 2701: 2695: 2687: 2683: 2677: 2670: 2665: 2658: 2653: 2645: 2643:9781842127353 2639: 2635: 2628: 2626: 2619:, p. 86. 2618: 2613: 2606: 2601: 2594: 2593:Macrakis 1993 2589: 2582: 2578: 2575:Document 99: 2572: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2551: 2544: 2540: 2537:Document 98: 2534: 2527: 2522: 2520: 2512: 2507: 2500: 2495: 2489:, p. 19. 2488: 2483: 2476: 2471: 2464: 2459: 2452: 2447: 2441:, p. 27. 2440: 2435: 2429:, p. 23. 2428: 2423: 2417:, p. 34. 2416: 2411: 2404: 2399: 2392: 2387: 2380: 2375: 2373: 2365: 2360: 2354:, p. 13. 2353: 2348: 2346: 2338: 2333: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2308: 2301: 2297: 2291: 2284: 2279: 2277: 2269: 2264: 2262: 2254: 2253:Macrakis 1993 2249: 2247: 2245: 2237: 2232: 2225: 2220: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2201: 2195: 2188: 2184: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2170:O. R. Frisch 2167: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2146: 2139: 2135: 2129: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2104: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2049: 2042: 2037: 2029: 2023: 2019: 2012: 2008: 1995: 1989: 1985: 1975: 1972: 1970: 1969:Alsos Mission 1967: 1965: 1962: 1960: 1957: 1956: 1952: 1941: 1938: 1927: 1920: 1918: 1913: 1904: 1903: 1898: 1897: 1896: 1888: 1887: 1886: 1884: 1879: 1877: 1873: 1872:was destroyed 1869: 1868:Uran-Maschine 1865: 1861: 1856: 1854: 1850: 1845: 1841: 1839: 1835: 1829: 1823: 1820: 1817: 1814: 1813: 1812: 1807: 1797: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1754: 1749: 1745: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1730: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1704: 1702: 1701: 1696: 1692: 1691:Günter Wirths 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1662: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1640: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1575: 1573: 1572: 1565: 1560: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1527: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1507:Leslie Groves 1504: 1500: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1476: 1474: 1470: 1469: 1464: 1463:Günter Wirths 1460: 1456: 1446: 1444: 1443:Thomas Powers 1440: 1436: 1432: 1431: 1427:'s 1998 play 1426: 1425:Michael Frayn 1422: 1416: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1371: 1369: 1365: 1364:Edward Teller 1360: 1357: 1351: 1349: 1345: 1344:Godmanchester 1341: 1336: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1277: 1268: 1263: 1253: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1238: 1234: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1206:Operation BIG 1203: 1194: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1175: 1173: 1162: 1160: 1159:Walther Bothe 1155: 1153: 1148: 1138: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1119: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1108: 1103: 1099: 1094: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1071: 1069: 1066:, Otto Hahn, 1065: 1064:Klaus Clusius 1061: 1060:Walther Bothe 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1032: 1030: 1026: 1020: 1018: 1014: 1011: 1007: 1002: 1001:Bernhard Rust 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 973: 965: 961: 960: 958: 954: 950: 949:Georg Stetter 947: 943: 939: 938: 936: 932: 929: 925: 921: 920: 918: 914: 911: 907: 903: 900: 899: 897: 896:Berlin-Dahlem 893: 889: 885: 882: 878: 874: 873: 871: 867: 864: 860: 856: 853: 852: 850: 849:Berlin-Dahlem 846: 845: 840: 836: 833: 829: 825: 824: 822: 818: 814: 811: 807: 803: 799: 796: 795: 794: 790: 789:Klaus Clusius 787: 783: 779: 778: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 759:Walther Bothe 757: 756: 755: 753: 749: 745: 741: 740:kriegswichtig 737: 733: 732: 725: 723: 719: 715: 710: 706: 701: 699: 698:Berlin-Dahlem 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 674:Klaus Clusius 671: 665: 660: 658: 657:Georg Stetter 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 629:Walther Bothe 625: 623: 619: 615: 608: 604: 600: 594: 588: 586: 582: 576: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 557: 552: 548: 543: 541: 536: 535:Wilhelm Groth 532: 531: 526: 522: 517: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 490:Wilhelm Hanle 487: 486:Walther Bothe 483: 479: 475: 471: 470:Walther Bothe 467: 463: 459: 458: 453: 449: 445: 441: 438: 434: 430: 429:Wilhelm Hanle 422: 416: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 381: 376: 372: 366: 356: 354: 351: 347: 343: 342:Allied powers 338: 332: 330: 326: 322: 318: 313: 311: 307: 303: 299: 298: 292: 288: 284: 280: 279:Klaus Clusius 276: 275:Walther Bothe 272: 268: 264: 260: 255: 248: 245: 244: 237: 232: 228: 224: 219: 213: 212: 205: 199: 198: 192: 188: 183: 177: 176: 169: 163: 162: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 135:Military unit 126: 123: 121: 118: 117: 115: 111: 104: 101: 100: 98: 94: 90: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 53: 49: 45: 39: 34: 29: 26: 22: 5823: 5795: 5738: 5732:Kriegsmarine 5731: 5724: 5705: 5698:Kriegsmarine 5697: 5634: 5616: 5611:Organization 5593:Kriegsmarine 5592: 5579: 5573:Kriegsmarine 5572: 5567:Organization 5560:Kriegsmarine 5496:Organization 5484: 5453:Adolf Hitler 5436: 5434: 5430:Kriegsmarine 5428: 5426: 5369: 5362: 5296: 5292:Robert Döpel 5287:Gernot Zippe 5267:Abraham Esau 5242:Paul Harteck 5222:Kurt Diebner 5196:Albert Speer 5186:Adolf Hitler 5157: 5038:Uranium Club 4999: 4986: 4978: 4965: 4957: 4941: 4937: 4936:Mark Walker 4930: 4926: 4919: 4915: 4908: 4904: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4878: 4867: 4858: 4851: 4844: 4835: 4826: 4819: 4812: 4803: 4793: 4786: 4782: 4775: 4771: 4762: 4758: 4751: 4744: 4740: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4703: 4692: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4668:(3): 643–61. 4665: 4661: 4636: 4632: 4620: 4616: 4592: 4588: 4573: 4556: 4540:0-30644941-2 4530: 4521:0-52143804-7 4511: 4478: 4474: 4458: 4429: 4417: 4408: 4378: 4374: 4358:0-84123310-1 4348: 4332: 4310: 4294:0-19507010-0 4284: 4267: 4263: 4239: 4205: 4201: 4186: 4160: 4156: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4139:Der neue Weg 4138: 4117: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4079: 4075: 4056: 4044: 4035: 4010: 4006: 3986: 3964:(9): 26–32. 3961: 3957: 3947: 3937:0-30001830-4 3927: 3919: 3917:Am. J. Phys. 3916: 3912: 3890: 3886: 3861: 3857: 3838: 3816: 3813:Ball, Philip 3791: 3779:. Retrieved 3764: 3747: 3735: 3719: 3714: 3698: 3689: 3667: 3661: 3642: 3639:Ball, Philip 3633: 3621:. Retrieved 3616: 3612: 3602: 3592: 3585: 3577: 3572: 3560:. Retrieved 3556: 3547: 3535: 3530: 3518: 3506: 3494: 3482: 3470: 3458: 3453: 3441: 3429: 3422:Naimark 1995 3417: 3405: 3393: 3378:Naimark 1995 3372: 3360: 3348: 3336: 3328: 3323: 3311: 3299: 3292:Naimark 1995 3287: 3275: 3263: 3255: 3241:K. H. Höcker 3237:Kurt Diebner 3231: 3219: 3207: 3195: 3183: 3172:, retrieved 3167: 3160: 3151: 3141: 3129: 3117: 3105: 3093: 3081:. Retrieved 3077: 3068: 3054:. Retrieved 3050: 3007:(5): 36–43. 3004: 3000: 2988: 2981: 2977: 2972: 2960: 2953:Naimark 1995 2948: 2943:, p. 3. 2936: 2924: 2917:Naimark 1995 2912: 2900: 2888: 2876: 2851: 2847: 2838: 2811: 2807: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2790:Der neue Weg 2789: 2780: 2767: 2760: 2741: 2728: 2720: 2712: 2703: 2694: 2686:the original 2676: 2664: 2652: 2633: 2612: 2600: 2588: 2583:, pp. 304–8. 2576: 2571: 2559: 2550: 2538: 2533: 2506: 2494: 2482: 2470: 2458: 2446: 2434: 2422: 2410: 2398: 2386: 2359: 2332: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2307: 2295: 2290: 2231: 2219: 2194: 2175: 2171: 2166: 2154: 2150: 2145: 2137: 2133: 2128: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2103: 2062: 2058: 2048: 2036: 2017: 2011: 1988: 1916: 1911: 1909: 1893: 1880: 1867: 1857: 1853:Robert Döpel 1849:Enrico Fermi 1846: 1842: 1837: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1809: 1793: 1769: 1758:Gustav Hertz 1751: 1746: 1737: 1727: 1726:, today the 1719: 1705: 1698: 1694: 1667:Robert Döpel 1648:Soviet Union 1643: 1641: 1620: 1589:Soviet Alsos 1581: 1569: 1539: 1533: 1498: 1496: 1492:Kurt Diebner 1487: 1483: 1480:Uranmaschine 1479: 1477: 1466: 1454: 1452: 1438: 1434: 1428: 1420: 1418: 1413: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1392:Robert Jungk 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1372: 1361: 1352: 1337: 1329:Max von Laue 1309:Paul Harteck 1297:Kurt Diebner 1284: 1280: 1273: 1241: 1239: 1224:Black Forest 1211: 1209: 1200: 1176: 1168: 1156: 1144: 1134: 1130: 1122: 1120: 1105: 1097: 1095: 1082: 1077: 1068:Paul Harteck 1055: 1051: 1040:Abraham Esau 1036:Kurt Diebner 1033: 1021: 1012: 1006:Abraham Esau 997:Albert Speer 989:Adolf Hitler 984: 977:Albert Speer 974: 970: 963: 952: 941: 924:2 physicists 923: 905: 902:Uranmaschine 901: 891: 876: 866:Paul Harteck 858: 842: 838: 827: 816: 813:Kurt Diebner 805: 804:production. 782:6 physicists 781: 766: 762: 752:Uranmaschine 751: 739: 729: 726: 721: 718:Erhard Milch 713: 702: 689: 678:Robert Döpel 669: 667: 662: 645:Paul Harteck 626: 618:Kurt Diebner 613: 611: 602: 592: 584: 580: 577: 554: 546: 544: 539: 528: 521:Paul Harteck 518: 513: 474:Robert Döpel 465: 462:Abraham Esau 455: 444:Uranmaschine 443: 426: 420: 408: 401:Lise Meitner 396: 378: 368: 333: 314: 287:Paul Harteck 263:Abraham Esau 259:Kurt Diebner 249: 218:Uranmaschine 174: 168:Uranium Club 160: 155:World War II 145:, including 139:Nazi Germany 137: 44:nuclear pile 25: 4815:(Dva, 2005) 4639:(7): 34–6. 4533:. Perseus. 4481:(1): 3–51. 4381:(2): 1–30. 4055:Hahn, Otto 3887:Am. J. Phys 3858:Am. J. Phys 3781:16 November 3695:Klara Döpel 3693:Robert and 3386:Gimbel 1986 3382:Gimbel 1990 3353:Walker 1993 3316:Walker 1993 3253:Ernst Rexer 3245:W. Herrmann 3098:Walker 1993 2893:Gimbel 1990 2881:Gimbel 1986 2854:(7): 34–6. 2770:. Deuticke. 2733:Walker 1993 2657:Walker 1993 2617:Walker 1993 2511:Walker 1993 2475:Walker 1993 2463:Walker 1993 2439:Ermenc 1989 2427:Ermenc 1989 2415:Ermenc 1989 2364:Walker 1993 2283:Walker 1993 2041:Walker 1995 1864:criticality 1794:Schutzbrief 1748:Von Ardenne 1708:Krasnogorsk 1687:Karl Zimmer 1679:Ernst Rexer 1659: [ 1631:), and the 1562: [ 1473:Oranienburg 1293:Erich Bagge 1231: [ 1147:heavy water 1029:metric tons 802:heavy water 748:heavy water 637:Hans Geiger 622:Erich Bagge 573:Oranienburg 502:Peter Debye 478:Hans Geiger 227:heavy water 175:Uranprojekt 105:Uranprojekt 96:Nickname(s) 5839:Categories 5692:Army ranks 5536:Army units 5446:Leadership 4335:. Belknap. 3951:. Freeman. 3619:(4): 44–45 3562:5 November 2744:. Droste. 2004:References 1917:Uranverein 1912:Uranverein 1790:Nazi Party 1778:Max Volmer 1695:Uranverein 1675:Heinz Pose 1654:included: 1644:Uranverein 1552:Haigerloch 1540:Uranverein 1536:Fritz Bopp 1503:Strasbourg 1430:Copenhagen 1368:Hans Bethe 1325:Karl Wirtz 1285:Uranverein 1246:Tailfingen 1242:Uranverein 1220:Haigerloch 1123:Uranverein 1083:Uranverein 775:Heidelberg 670:Uranverein 603:Atomkeller 593:Uranverein 585:Uranverein 581:Uranverein 547:Uranverein 540:Uranverein 498:Georg Joos 466:Uranverein 452:Georg Joos 421:Uranverein 319:under the 254:Uranverein 161:Uranverein 102:Uranverein 63:April 1939 48:Haigerloch 5749:Equipment 5739:Luftwaffe 5706:Luftwaffe 5650:Personnel 5635:Luftwaffe 5617:Luftwaffe 5604:Luftwaffe 5438:Luftwaffe 5414:Wehrmacht 5237:Otto Hahn 4997:episode, 4503:119479637 4401:Snezhinsk 4395:144392252 4230:122355802 4051:. Toamsh. 3911:See also 3557:NewsComAu 3534:M. 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