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large scale nuclear energy production facilities or it is repurposed/recycled for other energy uses. Proponents of nuclear energy also bring to attention the opportunity cost of utilizing other forms of electricity. For example, the
Environmental Protection Agency estimates that coal kills 30,000 people a year, as a result of its environmental impact, while 60 people died in the Chernobyl disaster. A real world example of impact provided by proponents of nuclear energy is the 650,000 ton increase in carbon emissions in the two months following the closure of the Vermont Yankee nuclear plant.
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time, for new concerns. The treatment of solid food by ionizing radiation can provide an effect similar to heat pasteurization of liquids, such as milk. However, the use of the term, cold pasteurization, to describe irradiated foods is controversial, because pasteurization and irradiation are fundamentally different processes, although the intended end results can in some cases be similar.
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Nuclear power is a type of nuclear technology involving the controlled use of nuclear fission to release energy for work including propulsion, heat, and the generation of electricity. Nuclear energy is produced by a controlled nuclear chain reaction which creates heat—and which is used to boil water,
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Food irradiation is essentially a non-nuclear technology; it relies on the use of ionizing radiation which may be generated by accelerators for electrons and conversion into bremsstrahlung, but which may use also gamma-rays from nuclear decay. There is a worldwide industry for processing by ionizing
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The specialty of processing food by ionizing radiation is the fact, that the energy density per atomic transition is very high, it can cleave molecules and induce ionization (hence the name) which cannot be achieved by mere heating. This is the reason for new beneficial effects, however at the same
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that gives rise to a small constant current. One is closed and serves for comparison, the other is open to ambient air; it has a gridded electrode. When smoke enters the open chamber, the current is disrupted as the smoke particles attach to the charged ions and restore them to a neutral electrical
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In natural nuclear radiation, the byproducts are very small compared to the nuclei from which they originate. Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a nucleus into roughly equal parts, and releasing energy and neutrons in the process. If these neutrons are captured by another unstable nucleus,
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is more complicated than it might seem. Such a weapon must hold one or more subcritical fissile masses stable for deployment, then induce criticality (create a critical mass) for detonation. It also is quite difficult to ensure that such a chain reaction consumes a significant fraction of the fuel
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for life. Microorganisms can no longer proliferate and continue their malignant or pathogenic activities. Spoilage causing micro-organisms cannot continue their activities. Insects do not survive or become incapable of procreation. Plants cannot continue the natural ripening or aging process. All
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is a type of nuclear weapon designed to distribute hazardous nuclear material in enemy areas. Such a weapon would not have the explosive capability of a fission or fusion bomb, but would kill many people and contaminate a large area. A radiological weapon has never been deployed. While considered
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Proponents of nuclear energy note that annually, nuclear-generated electricity reduces 470 million metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions that would otherwise come from fossil fuels. Additionally, the amount of comparatively low waste that nuclear energy does create is safely disposed of by the
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is a more general term of deliberate exposure of materials to radiation to achieve a technical goal (in this context 'ionizing radiation' is implied). As such it is also used on non-food items, such as medical hardware, plastics, tubes for gas-pipelines, hoses for floor-heating, shrink-foils for
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entitled "Irradiated Foods" states: "The types of radiation sources approved for the treatment of foods have specific energy levels well below that which would cause any element in food to become radioactive. Food undergoing irradiation does not become any more radioactive than luggage passing
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Level indicators: Source and detector are placed at opposite sides of a container, indicating the presence or absence of material in the horizontal radiation path. Beta or gamma sources are used, depending on the thickness and the density of the material to be measured. The method is used for
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larger than 1 mean that the fission reaction is releasing more neutrons than it absorbs, and therefore is referred to as a self-sustaining chain reaction. A mass of fissile material large enough (and in a suitable configuration) to induce a self-sustaining chain reaction is called a
885:. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, while China continued up until 1980. The last underground test by the United States was in 1992, the Soviet Union in 1990, the United Kingdom in 1991, and both France and China continued testing until 1996. After signing the
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that might be present in the food. The radiation sources used include radioisotope gamma ray sources, X-ray generators and electron accelerators. Further applications include sprout inhibition, delay of ripening, increase of juice yield, and improvement of re-hydration.
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is used to help predict the commercial viability of new or existing wells. The technology involves the use of a neutron or gamma-ray source and a radiation detector which are lowered into boreholes to determine the properties of the surrounding rock such as porosity and
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The amount of energy imparted for effective food irradiation is low compared to cooking the same; even at a typical dose of 10 kGy most food, which is (with regard to warming) physically equivalent to water, would warm by only about 2.5 °C (4.5 °F).
739:, namely uranium-235, is naturally occurring and sufficiently unstable, but it is always found mixed with the more stable isotope uranium-238. The latter accounts for more than 99% of the weight of natural uranium. Therefore, some method of
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When a neutron is captured by a suitable nucleus, fission may occur immediately, or the nucleus may persist in an unstable state for a short time. If there are enough immediate decays to carry on the chain reaction, the mass is said to be
1353:. The earthquake and tsunami on March 11, 2011 caused serious damage to three nuclear reactors and a spent fuel storage pond at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in Japan. Military reactors that experienced similar accidents were
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are used, sometimes attached to organic molecules, to act as radioactive tracers or contrast agents in the human body. Positron emitting nucleotides are used for high resolution, short time span imaging in applications known as
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radiation, the majority by number and by processing power using accelerators. Food irradiation is only a niche application compared to medical supplies, plastic materials, raw materials, gemstones, cables and wires, etc.
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to make images of the inside of the human body using x-rays. This is the largest artificial source of radiation exposure for humans. Medical and dental x-ray imagers use of cobalt-60 or other x-ray sources. A number of
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and inspection. The piece to be radiographed is placed between the source and a photographic film in a cassette. After a certain exposure time, the film is developed and it shows any internal defects of the material.
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In 1951, the first nuclear fission power plant was the first to produce electricity at the
Experimental Breeder Reactor No. 1 (EBR-1), in Arco, Idaho, ushering in the "Atomic Age" of more intensive human energy use.
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Thickness gauges: if the material is of constant density, the signal measured by the radiation detector depends on the thickness of the material. This is useful for continuous production, like of paper, rubber,
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possesses an isotope that is sufficiently unstable for this process to be usable. Terrestrial plutonium does not currently occur naturally in sufficient quantities for such use, so it must be manufactured in a
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in Japan. In the 1950s through 1970s, several nuclear bombs were lost from submarines and aircraft, some of which have never been recovered. The last twenty years have seen a marked decline in such accidents.
1234:, automobile parts, wires and cables (isolation), tires, and even gemstones. Compared to the amount of food irradiated, the volume of those every-day applications is huge but not noticed by the consumer.
712:. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. Even small nuclear devices can devastate a city by blast, fire and radiation. Nuclear weapons are considered
908:, the opposing powers had huge nuclear arsenals, sufficient to kill hundreds of millions of people. Generations of people grew up under the shadow of nuclear devastation, portrayed in films such as
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Of course, these natural processes of astrophysics are not examples of nuclear "technology". Because of the very strong repulsion of nuclei, fusion is difficult to achieve in a controlled fashion.
330:, which is highly radioactive. They discovered that radioactive materials produce intense, penetrating rays of three distinct sorts, which they labeled alpha, beta, and gamma after the first three
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670:) investigated it as a method to build a bomb. The project abandoned fusion after concluding that it would require a fission reaction to detonate. It took until 1952 for the first full
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Bennett, James E.; Tamura-Wicks, Helen; Parks, Robbie M.; Burnett, Richard T.; Pope, C. Arden; Bechle, Matthew J.; Marshall, Julian D.; Danaei, Goodarz; Ezzati, Majid (July 23, 2019).
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as a result of their exposure. Radioactive patent medicines mostly disappeared, but other applications of radioactive materials persisted, such as the use of radium salts to produce
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Food irradiation is currently permitted by over 40 countries and volumes are estimated to exceed 500,000 metric tons (490,000 long tons; 550,000 short tons) annually worldwide.
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test in 1954 produced a larger yield than expected, which contaminated nearby islands, a
Japanese fishing boat (with one fatality), and raised concerns about contaminated
1315:. Unlike conventional weapons, the intense light, heat, and explosive force is not the only deadly component to a nuclear weapon. Approximately half of the deaths from
334:. Some of these kinds of radiation could pass through ordinary matter, and all of them could be harmful in large amounts. All of the early researchers received various
663:. Technical and theoretical difficulties have hindered the development of working civilian fusion technology, though research continues to this day around the world.
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299:, and not nuclear reactions. This is because atomic nuclei are generally kept apart because they contain positive electrical charges and therefore repel each other.
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in rifle sights to increase nighttime firing accuracy. Some runway markers and building exit signs use the same technology, to remain illuminated during blackouts.
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is also more difficult than it might seem, since sufficiently unstable substances for this process do not currently occur naturally on Earth in suitable amounts.
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However, if the mass is critical only when the delayed neutrons are included, then the reaction can be controlled, for example by the introduction or removal of
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1047:- To avoid the build-up of static electricity in production of paper, plastics, synthetic textiles, etc., a ribbon-shaped source of the alpha emitter
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to be built. Fast neutrons are not easily captured by nuclei; they must be slowed (slow neutrons), generally by collision with the nuclei of a
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Adding a tracer to the surface of the component of a motor makes it possible to measure wear by measuring the activity of the lubricating oil.
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can be placed close to the material at the end of the production line. The source ionizes the air to remove electric charges on the material.
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refers to the more serious hazard of releasing nuclear material into the surrounding environment. The most significant meltdowns occurred at
592:, energy is normally released; when the nucleus is heavier than that of iron, energy is generally absorbed. This process of fusion occurs in
1090:- Nuclear moisture/density gauges are used to determine the density of soils, asphalt, and concrete. Typically a cesium-137 source is used.
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in 1996 (which had as of 2011 not entered into force), all of these states have pledged to discontinue all nuclear testing. Non-signatories
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Since some ionizing radiation can penetrate matter, they are used for a variety of measuring methods. X-rays and gamma rays are used in
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Nuclear accidents, because of the powerful forces involved, are often very dangerous. Historically, the first incidents involved fatal
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Nuclear fusion was initially pursued only in theoretical stages during World War II, when scientists on the
Manhattan Project (led by
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As the atom came to be better understood, the nature of radioactivity became clearer. Some larger atomic nuclei are unstable, and so
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However, the tremendous energy release in the detonation of a nuclear weapon also suggested the possibility of a new energy source.
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state. This reduces the current in the open chamber. When the current drops below a certain threshold, the alarm is triggered.
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accidents primarily involve nuclear power plants. Most common are nuclear leaks that expose workers to hazardous material. A
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obtain their enormous destructive power from fusion, but their energy cannot be controlled. Controlled fusion is achieved in
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It has also become clear that the ultimate source of most terrestrial energy is nuclear, either through radiation from the
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of tools and equipment. An advantage is that the object may be sealed in plastic before sterilization. An emerging use in
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1794:; tutorial presented to the International Meeting on Radiation Processing. Kuala Lumpur. 2006. last visited 2007-11-16.
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1723:"IRRADIATED FOODS Fifth Edition Revised and updated by Paisan Loaharanu May 2003 AMERICAN COUNCIL ON SCIENCE AND HEALTH"
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1841:"Particulate matter air pollution and national and county life expectancy loss in the USA: A spatiotemporal analysis"
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produce steam, and drive a steam turbine. The turbine is used to generate electricity and/or to do mechanical work.
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Currently nuclear power provides approximately 15.7% of the world's electricity (in 2004) and is used to propel
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481:. The average number of neutrons released per nucleus that go on to fission another nucleus is referred to as
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were developed as well, though they were primarily for weapons manufacture and did not generate electricity.
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Curtin
University of Technology. Archived from the original on 18 December 2007. Retrieved 15 January 2008.
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manufactured nuclear weapons based on each of these elements. They detonated the first nuclear weapon in a
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anon., Food
Irradiation - A technique for preserving and improving the safety of food, WHO, Geneva, 1991
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which resulted from her high levels of exposure. Two scientists, an
American and Canadian respectively,
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Adding a gamma tracer to a gas or liquid in a closed system makes it possible to find a hole in a tube.
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The medical applications of nuclear technology are divided into diagnostics and radiation treatment.
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and nuclear technology – production, research, development, distribution, and information
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use fission. No man-made fusion reaction has resulted in a viable source of electricity.
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than fission reactions, but starting the fusion chain reaction is much more difficult.
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The genuine effect of processing food by ionizing radiation relates to damages to the
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conducted since 1945. In 1963, all nuclear and many non-nuclear states signed the
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The development of food irradiation in the Asia
Pacific, the Americas and Europe
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from
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Proceedings of the
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Gradually it was realized that the radiation produced by radioactive decay was
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these effects are beneficial to the consumer and the food industry, likewise.
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began investigating the phenomenon. In the process, they isolated the element
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or by radioactive decay of uranium within the Earth, the principal source of
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The new phenomenon of radioactivity was seized upon by the manufacturers of
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usually involve the loss or unexpected detonation of nuclear weapons. The
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Detractors of food irradiation have concerns about the health hazards of
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that
Becquerel and the Curies discovered are also more fully understood.
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1651:"Nuclear-Powered Ships - Nuclear Submarines - World Nuclear Association"
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logo, used to show that a food has been treated with ionizing radiation.
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Nuclear weapons are the most destructive weapons known - the archetypal
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useless by a conventional military, such a weapon raises concerns over
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387:(release matter or energy) after a random interval. The three forms of
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component to a nuclear weapon. Approximately half of the deaths from
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The vast majority of common, natural phenomena on Earth only involve
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on August 6, 1945, followed three days later by the plutonium-based
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through an airport X-ray scanner or teeth that have been X-rayed."
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bomb to be detonated, so-called because it used reactions between
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salts when he discovered a new phenomenon which came to be called
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is the most familiar piece of nuclear technology for some people.
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to make images of the inside of solid products, as a means of
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died two to five years afterward from radiation exposure. A
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1940:– U.S. Government source of isotopes for basic and applied
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In industrial and food applications, radiation is used for
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431:, which unlike alpha and beta radiation are not matter but
1781:. J Am Diet Assoc. 2000;100:246-253. retrieved 2007-11-15.
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died two to five years afterward from radiation exposure.
1031:- Gauges use the exponential absorption law of gamma rays
372:. Many of the scientists working on radioactivity died of
368:, and that even quantities too small to burn could pose a
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and treatments involving radioactivity were put forward.
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of detonation would work, which it did. A uranium bomb,
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Nuclear Energy Institute – Beneficial Uses of Radiation
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to develop increasingly destructive bombs to provide a
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Technology that involves the reactions of atomic nuclei
829:. Just over four years later, on August 29, 1949, the
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Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
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Food irradiation is the process of exposing food to
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before the device flies apart. The procurement of a
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983:Imaging - The largest use of ionizing radiation in
651:can also produce controlled fusion and is a useful
2710:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
1790:C.M. Deeley, M. Gao, R. Hunter, D.A.E. Ehlermann.
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584:If nuclei are forced to collide, they can undergo
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1162:to produce new or improved species, such as in
3413:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
1963:
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1036:containers of liquids or of grainy substances
252:. Among the notable nuclear technologies are
1004:Radiation is also used to treat diseases in
1261:. A report for the industry advocacy group
659:has proven elusive, despite the occasional
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1970:
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264:. It is also used, among other things, in
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215:Learn how and when to remove this message
150:Learn how and when to remove this message
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192:of all important aspects of the article.
1891:"Nuclear Power and Energy Independence"
1691:from the original on September 21, 2017
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477:they can fission as well, leading to a
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3340:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
1977:
1661:from the original on February 14, 2013
1590:
1478:from the original on September 4, 2017
1263:American Council on Science and Health
188:Please consider expanding the lead to
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3345:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
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1951:
1754:NUCLEUS - Food Irradiation Clearances
1563:Radiation Effects Research Foundation
897:last tested nuclear weapons in 1998.
877:in the atmosphere, underwater, or in
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1128:includes a tiny mass of radioactive
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88:adding citations to reliable sources
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3350:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
1938:National Isotope Development Center
1591:Schull, William J. (May 12, 1998).
1508:from the original on April 23, 2018
1185:is the sterilization of food using
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2310:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
1384:Examples of environmental benefits
689:
465:
14:
3808:
2333:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
2232:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
1921:
1772:Food irradiation, Position of ADA
1703:
596:, which derive their energy from
567:
276:History and scientific background
34:This article has multiple issues.
3768:
3757:
3756:
3744:
3433:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
1468:"Henri Becquerel - Biographical"
1413:
1399:
931:
926:
708:or a combination of fission and
541:. During the project, the first
244:is technology that involves the
166:
64:
23:
2522:Historical stockpiles and tests
1897:
1883:
1832:
1818:
1797:
1765:
1747:
1559:"Frequently Asked Questions #1"
1498:"A Brief History of Technology"
1283:Nuclear and radiation accidents
1146:Food processing and agriculture
456:stellar thermonuclear reactions
180:may be too short to adequately
75:needs additional citations for
42:or discuss these issues on the
3423:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
2305:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
1826:"Radioactive Waste Management"
1715:
1673:
1643:
1520:
1490:
1460:
1158:, radiation is used to induce
1124:Smoke detector: An ionization
505:When discovered on the eve of
395:is when a nucleus releases an
190:provide an accessible overview
1:
3751:Nuclear technology portal
1454:
1444:Outline of nuclear technology
1311:, died after mishandling the
1063:the radioactivity. Examples:
887:Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
841:followed on October 2, 1952;
743:based on the weight of three
3613:Field-reversed configuration
3223:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
1858:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002856
1276:
999:Positron emission tomography
845:, on February 13, 1960; and
357:, earlier), and a number of
342:, and thought little of it.
280:
7:
3570:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
2755:
2517:States with nuclear weapons
1681:"ISU Health Physics Radinf"
1392:
1132:-241, which is a source of
902:weapons of mass destruction
883:underground nuclear testing
873:, pledging to refrain from
754:Alternatively, the element
714:weapons of mass destruction
349:(as had the discoveries of
10:
3813:
3583:
3408:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
2532:Tests in the United States
1280:
973:
942:Nuclear reactor technology
935:
721:design of a nuclear weapon
693:
580:Timeline of nuclear fusion
577:
571:
469:
284:
3738:
3694:
3646:
3603:
3593:
3545:
3533:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
3446:
3428:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
3393:
3376:
3316:
3243:
3235:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
3209:
3200:
3152:
3132:
3085:
3067:
3023:
2928:
2910:
2778:
2765:
2750:
2737:
2692:
2625:
2570:
2561:
2509:
2417:
2408:
2375:
2318:
2280:
2271:
2192:
2124:
2047:
1989:
1985:
1407:Nuclear technology portal
626:supernova nucleosynthesis
433:electromagnetic radiation
3438:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
3054:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
2390:Electron-beam processing
1526:"Oklo Fossil Reactors".
1172:sterile insect technique
867:over 2,000 nuclear tests
3553:Organic nuclear reactor
2725:Nuclear power phase-out
2648:Nuclear decommissioning
2588:Reactor-grade plutonium
2338:Targeted alpha-particle
2217:Accidents and incidents
1618:10.1073/pnas.95.10.5437
1094:Commercial applications
1075:Oil and Gas Exploration
1012:Industrial applications
881:. The treaty permitted
875:testing nuclear weapons
871:Limited Test Ban Treaty
751:(isolate) uranium-235.
606:stellar nucleosynthesis
378:glowing dials on meters
370:severe long-term hazard
1529:"Oklo Fossil Reactors"
1365:in the United States.
1317:Hiroshima and Nagasaki
1201:
1022:nondestructive testing
1018:industrial radiography
851:Hiroshima and Nagasaki
608:, the light elements (
556:. This is what allows
238:
2715:Anti-nuclear movement
1735:on September 26, 2011
1569:on September 19, 2007
1259:induced radioactivity
1195:
1045:Electrostatic control
974:Further information:
936:Further information:
794:, was dropped on the
747:must be performed to
641:particle accelerators
604:. They form, through
521:with the help of the
232:
3623:Reversed field pinch
3418:Traveling-wave (TWR)
2902:Supercritical (SCWR)
2400:Gemstone irradiation
1535:on December 18, 2007
1439:Nuclear power debate
1208:in order to destroy
1105:tritium illumination
994:radiopharmaceuticals
970:Medical applications
964:nuclear power plants
835:first fission weapon
415:is the release of a
99:"Nuclear technology"
84:improve this article
2788:Aqueous homogeneous
2583:Reprocessed uranium
2256:Safety and security
1893:. October 22, 2008.
1685:www.physics.isu.edu
1609:1998PNAS...95.5437S
1313:same plutonium mass
1243:genetic information
1056:Radioactive tracers
989:medical radiography
855:radiological weapon
643:; this is how many
3797:Nuclear technology
3702:Dense plasma focus
2617:Actinide chemistry
2082:Isotope separation
1979:Nuclear technology
1933:Nuclear Technology
1777:2016-02-16 at the
1759:2008-05-26 at the
1369:Military accidents
1293:radiation exposure
1206:ionizing radiation
1202:
741:isotope separation
645:synthetic elements
407:, equivalent to a
366:ionizing radiation
306:was investigating
242:Nuclear technology
239:
3784:
3783:
3734:
3733:
3730:
3729:
3681:Magnetized-target
3578:
3577:
3541:
3540:
3372:
3371:
3368:
3367:
3312:
3311:
3196:
3195:
3128:
3127:
2733:
2732:
2688:
2687:
2557:
2556:
2544:Weapon-free zones
2371:
2370:
2363:Radiopharmacology
1655:world-nuclear.org
1603:(10): 5437–5441.
1336:Three Mile Island
1166:. Another use in
1100:radioluminescence
1088:Road Construction
1006:radiation therapy
952:aircraft carriers
904:. Throughout the
860:nuclear terrorism
827:nuclear deterrent
768:Manhattan Project
702:nuclear reactions
562:neutron moderator
554:neutron absorbers
515:Manhattan Project
460:geothermal energy
246:nuclear reactions
225:
224:
217:
207:
206:
160:
159:
152:
134:
57:
3804:
3772:
3771:
3760:
3759:
3749:
3748:
3747:
3659:
3618:Levitated dipole
3588:
3580:
3579:
3528:Helium gas (GFR)
3391:
3390:
3386:
3323:
3322:
3207:
3206:
3157:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3145:
3144:
2926:
2925:
2922:
2921:
2760:
2752:
2751:
2744:Nuclear reactors
2739:
2738:
2638:High-level (HLW)
2568:
2567:
2415:
2414:
2395:Food irradiation
2385:Atomic gardening
2278:
2277:
2261:Nuclear meltdown
2087:Nuclear material
2077:Fissile material
2072:Fertile material
1987:
1986:
1972:
1965:
1958:
1949:
1948:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1870:
1860:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1828:. February 2022.
1822:
1816:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1801:
1795:
1788:
1782:
1769:
1763:
1751:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1734:
1728:. Archived from
1727:
1719:
1713:
1710:
1701:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1630:
1620:
1588:
1579:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1565:. Archived from
1555:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1531:. Archived from
1524:
1518:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1464:
1423:
1418:
1417:
1409:
1404:
1403:
1402:
1332:nuclear meltdown
1187:food irradiation
1164:atomic gardening
976:Nuclear medicine
865:There have been
788:implosion method
766:Ultimately, the
647:are produced. A
558:nuclear reactors
543:fission reactors
445:certain elements
439:, and therefore
419:, a high-energy
359:patent medicines
297:electromagnetism
258:nuclear medicine
254:nuclear reactors
220:
213:
202:
199:
193:
170:
162:
155:
148:
144:
141:
135:
133:
92:
68:
60:
49:
27:
26:
19:
3812:
3811:
3807:
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3803:
3802:
3801:
3787:
3786:
3785:
3780:
3745:
3743:
3726:
3690:
3657:
3642:
3599:
3589:
3584:
3574:
3537:
3442:
3387:
3380:
3379:
3364:
3308:
3239:
3214:
3192:
3164:
3146:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3124:
3090:
3081:
3063:
3028:
3019:
2933:
2916:
2915:
2914:
2906:
2820:Natural fission
2774:
2773:
2761:
2756:
2746:
2729:
2705:Nuclear weapons
2684:
2643:Low-level (LLW)
2621:
2553:
2505:
2404:
2367:
2314:
2267:
2188:
2120:
2043:
1981:
1976:
1942:nuclear science
1924:
1919:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1902:
1898:
1889:
1888:
1884:
1851:(7): e1002856.
1837:
1833:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1809:
1807:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1789:
1785:
1779:Wayback Machine
1770:
1766:
1761:Wayback Machine
1752:
1748:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1725:
1721:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1704:
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1589:
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1572:
1570:
1557:
1556:
1549:
1538:
1536:
1527:
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1521:
1511:
1509:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1481:
1479:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1419:
1412:
1405:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1386:
1301:aplastic anemia
1289:
1281:Main articles:
1279:
1183:food production
1148:
1134:alpha radiation
1096:
1014:
978:
972:
944:
934:
929:
917:The Atomic Cafe
911:Dr. Strangelove
761:nuclear reactor
698:
692:
690:Nuclear weapons
582:
576:
570:
500:prompt critical
474:
472:Nuclear fission
468:
466:Nuclear fission
399:, which is two
336:radiation burns
308:phosphorescence
304:Henri Becquerel
289:
287:Nuclear physics
283:
278:
266:smoke detectors
262:nuclear weapons
221:
210:
209:
208:
203:
197:
194:
187:
175:This article's
171:
156:
145:
139:
136:
93:
91:
81:
69:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3810:
3800:
3799:
3782:
3781:
3779:
3778:
3766:
3754:
3739:
3736:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3728:
3727:
3725:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3712:Muon-catalyzed
3709:
3704:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3691:
3689:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3672:
3671:
3661:
3652:
3650:
3644:
3643:
3641:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3609:
3607:
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3600:
3594:
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3575:
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3566:
3565:
3560:
3549:
3547:
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3542:
3539:
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3536:
3535:
3530:
3525:
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3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3452:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3441:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3403:Integral (IFR)
3400:
3394:
3388:
3377:
3374:
3373:
3370:
3369:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3331:
3329:
3320:
3314:
3313:
3310:
3309:
3307:
3306:
3305:
3304:
3299:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3267:
3262:
3261:
3260:
3249:
3247:
3241:
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3237:
3232:
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3216:
3212:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3194:
3193:
3191:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3169:
3167:
3162:
3154:
3147:
3133:
3130:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3094:
3092:
3088:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3079:
3073:
3071:
3065:
3064:
3062:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3033:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3020:
3018:
3017:
3016:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2973:
2968:
2967:
2966:
2961:
2958:
2955:
2952:
2938:
2936:
2931:
2923:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2899:
2898:
2897:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2877:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2822:
2817:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2790:
2784:
2782:
2776:
2775:
2767:
2766:
2763:
2762:
2748:
2747:
2735:
2734:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2727:
2722:
2720:Uranium mining
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2696:
2694:
2690:
2689:
2686:
2685:
2683:
2682:
2677:
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2670:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2629:
2627:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2619:
2614:
2613:
2612:
2602:
2597:
2596:
2595:
2593:Minor actinide
2590:
2585:
2574:
2572:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2535:
2534:
2529:
2519:
2513:
2511:
2507:
2506:
2504:
2503:
2502:
2501:
2491:
2486:
2485:
2484:
2479:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2421:
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2406:
2405:
2403:
2402:
2397:
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2322:
2316:
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2307:
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2297:
2292:
2290:Autoradiograph
2286:
2284:
2275:
2269:
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2266:
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2253:
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2251:
2241:
2240:
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2187:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
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2146:
2141:
2136:
2130:
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2119:
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2104:
2099:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
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2059:
2053:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2034:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2012:Atomic nucleus
2009:
2004:
1999:
1993:
1991:
1983:
1982:
1975:
1974:
1967:
1960:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1935:
1930:
1923:
1922:External links
1920:
1918:
1917:
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1472:nobelprize.org
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1394:
1391:
1385:
1382:
1359:United Kingdom
1305:Harry Daghlian
1287:Nuclear safety
1278:
1275:
1232:food packaging
1210:microorganisms
1168:insect control
1147:
1144:
1143:
1142:
1126:smoke detector
1122:
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1102:
1095:
1092:
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1037:
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1010:
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930:
928:
925:
839:United Kingdom
833:detonated its
819:these bombings
696:Nuclear weapon
694:Main article:
691:
688:
653:neutron source
637:Hydrogen bombs
586:nuclear fusion
574:Nuclear fusion
572:Main article:
569:
568:Nuclear fusion
566:
523:United Kingdom
479:chain reaction
470:Main article:
467:
464:
397:alpha particle
347:quack medicine
285:Main article:
282:
279:
277:
274:
235:smoke detector
233:A residential
223:
222:
205:
204:
184:the key points
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3669:electrostatic
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3448:Generation IV
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3398:Breeder (FBR)
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3276:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3254:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3246:
3242:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3224:
3220:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3199:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3170:
3168:
3166:
3158:
3155:
3151:
3148:
3143:
3136:
3131:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3100:
3099:
3096:
3095:
3093:
3091:
3084:
3078:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3030:
3022:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2965:
2962:
2959:
2956:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2948:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2927:
2924:
2920:
2913:
2909:
2903:
2900:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2872:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2795:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2781:
2777:
2772:
2771:
2764:
2759:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2740:
2736:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2700:Nuclear power
2698:
2697:
2695:
2691:
2681:
2680:Transmutation
2678:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2665:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2607:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2579:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2477:high-altitude
2475:
2474:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2467:Proliferation
2465:
2463:
2460:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2407:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2382:
2380:
2378:
2374:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2353:Brachytherapy
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2321:
2317:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2270:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2257:
2254:
2250:
2247:
2246:
2245:
2242:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2149:Cross section
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2123:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1968:
1966:
1961:
1959:
1954:
1953:
1950:
1943:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1906:
1900:
1892:
1886:
1878:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1845:PLOS Medicine
1842:
1835:
1827:
1821:
1806:
1800:
1793:
1787:
1780:
1776:
1773:
1768:
1762:
1758:
1755:
1750:
1731:
1724:
1718:
1709:
1707:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1676:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1646:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1587:
1585:
1573:September 18,
1568:
1564:
1560:
1554:
1552:
1534:
1530:
1523:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1493:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1463:
1459:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1421:Energy portal
1416:
1411:
1408:
1397:
1390:
1381:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1288:
1284:
1274:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1260:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1235:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1199:
1194:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1179:sterilization
1175:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1111:is used with
1110:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1091:
1089:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1038:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1009:
1007:
1002:
1000:
995:
990:
986:
981:
977:
967:
965:
961:
957:
953:
948:
943:
939:
938:Nuclear power
932:Nuclear power
927:Civilian uses
924:
921:
919:
918:
913:
912:
907:
903:
898:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
863:
861:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
815:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
764:
762:
757:
752:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
729:
727:
722:
717:
715:
711:
707:
703:
697:
687:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
668:Edward Teller
664:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
633:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
581:
575:
565:
563:
559:
555:
550:
546:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
519:United States
517:, run by the
516:
512:
508:
503:
501:
495:
493:
492:critical mass
488:
484:
480:
473:
463:
461:
457:
453:
448:
446:
442:
438:
435:of very high
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
417:beta particle
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
381:
379:
375:
371:
367:
362:
360:
356:
352:
348:
343:
341:
337:
333:
332:Greek letters
329:
325:
321:
317:
316:radioactivity
313:
309:
305:
300:
298:
294:
288:
273:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
250:atomic nuclei
247:
243:
236:
231:
227:
219:
216:
201:
191:
185:
183:
178:
173:
169:
164:
163:
154:
151:
143:
140:November 2006
132:
129:
125:
122:
118:
115:
111:
108:
104:
101: –
100:
96:
95:Find sources:
89:
85:
79:
78:
73:This article
71:
67:
62:
61:
56:
54:
47:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
21:
20:
3773:
3761:
3742:
3722:Pyroelectric
3676:Laser-driven
3456:Sodium (SFR)
3383:fast-neutron
3222:
2768:
2658:Reprocessing
2539:WMD treaties
2358:Radiosurgery
2328:Fast-neutron
2300:Scintigraphy
1978:
1910:February 18,
1908:. Retrieved
1899:
1885:
1848:
1844:
1834:
1820:
1810:February 18,
1808:. Retrieved
1799:
1786:
1767:
1749:
1737:. Retrieved
1730:the original
1717:
1693:. Retrieved
1684:
1675:
1663:. Retrieved
1654:
1645:
1600:
1596:
1571:. Retrieved
1567:the original
1537:. Retrieved
1533:the original
1522:
1510:. Retrieved
1502:futurism.com
1501:
1492:
1480:. Retrieved
1471:
1462:
1387:
1373:Castle Bravo
1367:
1340:Pennsylvania
1328:radiological
1321:
1309:Louis Slotin
1290:
1271:
1268:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1241:, the basic
1236:
1203:
1176:
1149:
1119:Betavoltaics
1087:
1086:
1082:lithography.
1079:well logging
1074:
1073:
1060:
1054:
1053:
1044:
1043:
1028:
1027:
1015:
1003:
982:
979:
949:
945:
922:
915:
909:
899:
864:
831:Soviet Union
816:
812:World War II
774:code-named "
765:
753:
730:
726:nuclear fuel
718:
699:
665:
657:fusion power
634:
583:
551:
547:
507:World War II
504:
496:
486:
485:. Values of
482:
475:
449:
382:
363:
344:
338:, much like
320:Pierre Curie
301:
290:
241:
240:
226:
211:
195:
179:
177:lead section
146:
137:
127:
120:
113:
106:
94:
82:Please help
77:verification
74:
50:
43:
37:
36:Please help
33:
3633:Stellarator
3597:confinement
3491:Superphénix
3318:Molten-salt
3270:VHTR (HTGR)
3047:HW BLWR 250
3013:R4 Marviken
2942:Pressurized
2912:Heavy water
2896:many others
2825:Pressurized
2780:Light water
2482:underground
2440:Disarmament
2348:Tomotherapy
2343:Proton-beam
2207:Power plant
2169:Temperature
2002:Engineering
1539:January 15,
1297:Marie Curie
1227:Irradiation
1156:agriculture
956:icebreakers
879:outer space
533:in 1945 at
511:atomic bomb
425:Gamma decay
393:Alpha decay
351:electricity
324:Marie Curie
3658:(acoustic)
3275:PBR (PBMR)
2663:Spent fuel
2653:Repository
2633:Fuel cycle
2600:Activation
2377:Processing
2244:Propulsion
2202:by country
2134:Activation
1455:References
1429:Atomic age
1299:died from
1077:- Nuclear
960:submarines
792:Little Boy
784:New Mexico
780:Alamogordo
620:, via the
578:See also:
454:caused by
429:gamma rays
413:Beta decay
270:gun sights
198:March 2011
110:newspapers
39:improve it
3628:Spheromak
3327:Fluorides
2991:IPHWR-700
2986:IPHWR-540
2981:IPHWR-220
2770:Moderator
2450:Explosion
2425:Arms race
2212:Economics
2164:Reflector
2159:Radiation
2154:Generator
2109:Plutonium
2062:Deuterium
2027:Radiation
1997:Chemistry
1905:"Climate"
1805:"Climate"
1449:Radiology
1355:Windscale
1344:Chernobyl
1322:Civilian
1277:Accidents
1160:mutations
1130:americium
823:arms race
800:Hiroshima
756:plutonium
704:, either
676:deuterium
630:R-process
622:S-process
535:Hiroshima
437:frequency
427:releases
411:nucleus.
389:radiation
355:magnetism
302:In 1896,
281:Discovery
182:summarize
45:talk page
3791:Category
3763:Category
3717:Polywell
3648:Inertial
3605:Magnetic
3360:TMSR-LF1
3355:TMSR-500
3335:Fuji MSR
3295:THTR-300
3135:Graphite
2998:PHWR KWU
2964:ACR-1000
2892:IPWR-900
2875:ACPR1000
2870:HPR-1000
2860:CPR-1000
2835:APR-1400
2626:Disposal
2578:Actinide
2571:Products
2430:Delivery
2273:Medicine
2102:depleted
2097:enriched
2067:Helium-3
2032:ionizing
1877:31335874
1775:Archived
1757:Archived
1739:March 5,
1689:Archived
1659:Archived
1506:Archived
1476:Archived
1393:See also
1214:bacteria
1113:phosphor
985:medicine
906:Cold War
895:Pakistan
808:Nagasaki
796:Japanese
778:", near
745:neutrons
672:hydrogen
598:hydrogen
539:Nagasaki
421:electron
405:neutrons
403:and two
3775:Commons
3686:Z-pinch
3656:Bubble
3638:Tokamak
3501:FBR-600
3481:CFR-600
3476:BN-1200
3142:coolant
3069:Organic
2954:CANDU 9
2951:CANDU 6
2919:coolant
2880:ACP1000
2855:CAP1400
2793:Boiling
2758:Fission
2605:Fission
2549:Weapons
2489:Warfare
2472:Testing
2462:History
2455:effects
2410:Weapons
2320:Therapy
2295:RadBall
2282:Imaging
2174:Thermal
2139:Capture
2126:Neutron
2114:Thorium
2092:Uranium
2057:Tritium
2037:braking
2017:Fission
2007:Physics
1990:Science
1868:6650052
1637:9576900
1605:Bibcode
1357:in the
1351:Ukraine
1346:in the
1324:nuclear
1222:insects
1218:viruses
1170:is the
1152:biology
1109:Tritium
1061:tracing
804:Fat Man
776:Trinity
737:uranium
733:isotope
706:fission
680:tritium
614:calcium
610:lithium
401:protons
340:sunburn
312:uranium
293:gravity
124:scholar
3586:Fusion
3546:Others
3486:Phénix
3471:BN-800
3466:BN-600
3461:BN-350
3290:HTR-PM
3285:HTR-10
3265:UHTREX
3230:Magnox
3225:(UNGG)
3118:Lucens
3113:KS 150
2850:ATMEA1
2830:AP1000
2813:Kerena
2693:Debate
2445:Ethics
2435:Design
2418:Topics
2249:rocket
2227:Fusion
2222:Policy
2184:Fusion
2144:Poison
2022:Fusion
1875:
1865:
1695:May 9,
1665:May 9,
1635:
1625:
1512:May 9,
1482:May 9,
1348:Soviet
1198:Radura
1029:Gauges
987:is in
843:France
837:. The
817:Since
749:enrich
710:fusion
628:, the
618:nickel
602:helium
527:Canada
441:energy
409:helium
374:cancer
328:radium
318:. He,
126:
119:
112:
105:
97:
3707:Migma
3695:Other
3664:Fusor
3563:Piqua
3558:Arbus
3516:PRISM
3258:MHR-T
3253:GTMHR
3183:EGP-6
3178:AMB-X
3153:Water
3098:HWGCR
3037:HWLWR
2976:IPHWR
2947:CANDU
2808:ESBWR
2563:Waste
2527:Tests
2510:Lists
2494:Yield
2237:MMRTG
2194:Power
1733:(PDF)
1726:(PDF)
1628:33859
1220:, or
891:India
847:China
798:city
649:fusor
594:stars
531:Japan
385:decay
131:JSTOR
117:books
3523:Lead
3506:CEFR
3496:PFBR
3378:None
3188:RBMK
3173:AM-1
3103:EL-4
3077:WR-1
3059:AHWR
3003:MZFR
2971:CVTR
2960:AFCR
2887:VVER
2845:APWR
2840:APR+
2803:ABWR
2673:cask
2668:pool
2610:LLFP
2499:TNTe
2179:Fast
2049:Fuel
1912:2022
1873:PMID
1812:2022
1741:2012
1697:2018
1667:2018
1633:PMID
1575:2007
1541:2008
1514:2018
1484:2018
1377:fish
1363:SL-1
1361:and
1342:and
1326:and
1307:and
1285:and
1196:The
1154:and
1040:etc.
958:and
940:and
914:and
893:and
772:test
731:One
719:The
684:fuel
678:and
661:hoax
600:and
590:iron
537:and
525:and
353:and
322:and
295:and
268:and
260:and
103:news
3595:by
3511:PFR
3302:PMR
3280:AVR
3202:Gas
3140:by
3108:KKN
3042:ATR
2957:EC6
2917:by
2865:EPR
2798:BWR
1863:PMC
1853:doi
1623:PMC
1613:doi
1338:in
1239:DNA
1150:In
806:on
735:of
612:to
452:Sun
310:in
272:.
248:of
86:by
3793::
3245:He
3211:CO
3087:CO
3008:R3
1871:.
1861:.
1849:16
1847:.
1843:.
1705:^
1687:.
1683:.
1657:.
1653:.
1631:.
1621:.
1611:.
1601:95
1599:.
1595:.
1583:^
1561:.
1550:^
1504:.
1500:.
1474:.
1470:.
1295:.
1216:,
1212:,
1189:.
1138:Am
1107::
1049:Am
1008:.
1001:.
954:,
920:.
862:.
814:.
782:,
763:.
632:.
494:.
462:.
447:.
423:.
380:.
256:,
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