Nuclear reactor - Knowledge

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fuel. In practice it is economics that determines the lifetime of nuclear fuel in a reactor. Long before all possible fission has taken place, the reactor is unable to maintain 100%, full output power, and therefore, income for the utility lowers as plant output power lowers. Most nuclear plants operate at a very low profit margin due to operating overhead, mainly regulatory costs, so operating below 100% power is not economically viable for very long. The fraction of the reactor's fuel core replaced during refueling is typically one-third, but depends on how long the plant operates between refueling. Plants typically operate on 18 month refueling cycles, or 24 month refueling cycles. This means that one refueling, replacing only one-third of the fuel, can keep a nuclear reactor at full power for nearly two years.

751:, which in turn decays (with a half-life of 6.57 hours) to new xenon-135. When the reactor is shut down, iodine-135 continues to decay to xenon-135, making restarting the reactor more difficult for a day or two, as the xenon-135 decays into cesium-135, which is not nearly as poisonous as xenon-135, with a half-life of 9.2 hours. This temporary state is the "iodine pit." If the reactor has sufficient extra reactivity capacity, it can be restarted. As the extra xenon-135 is transmuted to xenon-136, which is much less a neutron poison, within a few hours the reactor experiences a "xenon burnoff (power) transient". Control rods must be further inserted to replace the neutron absorption of the lost xenon-135. Failure to properly follow such a procedure was a key step in the 3218:. The spent fuel pool is a large pool of water that provides cooling and shielding of the spent nuclear fuel as well as limit radiation exposure to on-site personnel. Once the energy has decayed somewhat (approximately five years), the fuel can be transferred from the fuel pool to dry shielded casks, that can be safely stored for thousands of years. After loading into dry shielded casks, the casks are stored on-site in a specially guarded facility in impervious concrete bunkers. On-site fuel storage facilities are designed to withstand the impact of commercial airliners, with little to no damage to the spent fuel. An average on-site fuel storage facility can hold 30 years of spent fuel in a space smaller than a football field. 1634: 1268: 3145:

opportunity to fission U-235 when it is moving at this same vibrational speed. On the other hand, U-238 is more likely to capture a neutron when the neutron is moving very fast. This U-239 atom will soon decay into plutonium-239, which is another fuel. Pu-239 is a viable fuel and must be accounted for even when a highly enriched uranium fuel is used. Plutonium fissions will dominate the U-235 fissions in some reactors, especially after the initial loading of U-235 is spent. Plutonium is fissionable with both fast and thermal neutrons, which make it ideal for either nuclear reactors or nuclear bombs.

81: 1671:. Most commercial PWRs and naval reactors use pressurizers. During normal operation, a pressurizer is partially filled with water, and a steam bubble is maintained above it by heating the water with submerged heaters. During normal operation, the pressurizer is connected to the primary reactor pressure vessel (RPV) and the pressurizer "bubble" provides an expansion space for changes in water volume in the reactor. This arrangement also provides a means of pressure control for the reactor by increasing or decreasing the steam pressure in the pressurizer using the pressurizer heaters. 2434: 1196: 70: 2208: 1153: 3310: 770:. For this reason many designs use highly enriched uranium but incorporate burnable neutron poison in the fuel rods. This allows the reactor to be constructed with an excess of fissionable material, which is nevertheless made relatively safe early in the reactor's fuel burn cycle by the presence of the neutron-absorbing material which is later replaced by normally produced long-lived neutron poisons (far longer-lived than xenon-135) which gradually accumulate over the fuel load's operating life. 865: 1649: 1198: 2484: 61: 8095: 7582: 2374: 1264: 1192: 850: 2876:

considered second- or third-generation systems, with the first-generation systems having been retired some time ago. Research into these reactor types was officially started by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) based on eight technology goals. The primary goals being to improve nuclear safety, improve proliferation resistance, minimize waste and natural resource utilization, and to decrease the cost to build and run such plants.

8131: 2147: 404: 962:(written by Szilárd) suggesting that the discovery of uranium's fission could lead to the development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type", giving impetus to the study of reactors and fission. Szilárd and Einstein knew each other well and had worked together years previously, but Einstein had never thought about this possibility for nuclear energy until Szilard reported it to him, at the beginning of his quest to produce the 2512: 2295: 880: 2132:: Typically reactors used for research and training, materials testing, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry. These are much smaller than power reactors or those propelling ships, and many are on university campuses. There are about 280 such reactors operating, in 56 countries. Some operate with high-enriched uranium fuel, and international efforts are underway to substitute low-enriched fuel. 8119: 8085: 7570: 7594: 2419: 1329: 2408:. Their main attraction is their use of light water and unenriched uranium. As of 2022, 8 remain open, mostly due to safety improvements and help from international safety agencies such as the DOE. Despite these safety improvements, RBMK reactors are still considered one of the most dangerous reactor designs in use. RBMK reactors were deployed only in the former 1270: 811:. The costs for replacements or improvements required for continued safe operation may be so high that they are not cost-effective. Or they may be shut down due to technical failure. Other ones have been shut down because the area was contaminated, like Fukushima, Three Mile Island, Sellafield, Chernobyl. The British branch of the French concern 2754:

contaminants that can become radioactive. Typical designs have more layers (up to 7) of passive containment than light water reactors (usually 3). A unique feature that may aid safety is that the fuel balls actually form the core's mechanism, and are replaced one by one as they age. The design of the fuel makes fuel reprocessing expensive.

3152:, some other kind of coolant is used which will not moderate or slow the neutrons down much. This enables fast neutrons to dominate, which can effectively be used to constantly replenish the fuel supply. By merely placing cheap unenriched uranium into such a core, the non-fissionable U-238 will be turned into Pu-239, "breeding" fuel. 799:

as 80 years or longer with proper maintenance and management. While most components of a nuclear power plant, such as steam generators, are replaced when they reach the end of their useful lifetime, the overall lifetime of the power plant is limited by the life of components that cannot be replaced when aged by wear and

4456: 2738:(IFR) was built, tested and evaluated during the 1980s and then retired under the Clinton administration in the 1990s due to nuclear non-proliferation policies of the administration. Recycling spent fuel is the core of its design and it therefore produces only a fraction of the waste of current reactors. 3499:

estimates that a person drinking water for one year out of a well contaminated by what they would consider to be a significant tritiated water spill would receive a radiation dose of 0.3 millirem. For comparison, this is an order of magnitude less than the 4 millirem a person receives on a round trip

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The natural nuclear reactors formed when a uranium-rich mineral deposit became inundated with groundwater that acted as a neutron moderator, and a strong chain reaction took place. The water moderator would boil away as the reaction increased, slowing it back down again and preventing a meltdown. The

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is frequently expressed in terms of "full-power days," which is the number of 24-hour periods (days) a reactor is scheduled for operation at full power output for the generation of heat energy. The number of full-power days in a reactor's operating cycle (between refueling outage times) is related to

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are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs. These are generally not expected to be available for commercial use before 2040–2050, although the World Nuclear Association suggested that some might enter commercial operation before 2030. Current reactors in operation around the world are generally

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to regulate the number of neutrons that continue the reaction, ensuring the reactor operates safely. The efficiency of energy conversion in nuclear reactors is significantly higher compared to conventional fossil fuel plants; a kilo of uranium-235 can release millions of times more energy than a kilo

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Such reactors can no longer form on Earth in its present geologic period. Radioactive decay of formerly more abundant uranium-235 over the time span of hundreds of millions of years has reduced the proportion of this naturally occurring fissile isotope to below the amount required to sustain a chain

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The rate of fission reactions within a reactor core can be adjusted by controlling the quantity of neutrons that are able to induce further fission events. Nuclear reactors typically employ several methods of neutron control to adjust the reactor's power output. Some of these methods arise naturally

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The disposition and storage of this spent fuel is one of the most challenging aspects of the operation of a commercial nuclear power plant. This nuclear waste is highly radioactive and its toxicity presents a danger for thousands of years. After being discharged from the reactor, spent nuclear fuel

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in the United States were reactors of this type. The sodium is relatively easy to obtain and work with, and it also manages to actually prevent corrosion on the various reactor parts immersed in it. However, sodium explodes violently when exposed to water, so care must be taken, but such explosions

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Modern nuclear power plants are typically designed for a lifetime of 60 years, while older reactors were built with a planned typical lifetime of 30-40 years, though many of those have received renovations and life extensions of 15-20 years. Some believe nuclear power plants can operate for as long

578:– is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates. The heat is carried away from the reactor and is then used to generate steam. Most reactor systems employ a cooling system that is physically separated from the water that will be boiled to produce pressurized steam for the 3277:

or to limit their consequences. The nuclear power industry has improved the safety and performance of reactors, and has proposed new, safer (but generally untested) reactor designs but there is no guarantee that the reactors will be designed, built and operated correctly. Mistakes do occur and the

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At the end of the operating cycle, the fuel in some of the assemblies is "spent", having spent four to six years in the reactor producing power. This spent fuel is discharged and replaced with new (fresh) fuel assemblies. Though considered "spent," these fuel assemblies contain a large quantity of

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of the fuel's neutron cross-section. It uses ceramic fuels so its safe operating temperatures exceed the power-reduction temperature range. Most designs are cooled by inert helium. Helium is not subject to steam explosions, resists neutron absorption leading to radioactivity, and does not dissolve

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Using lead as the liquid metal provides excellent radiation shielding, and allows for operation at very high temperatures. Also, lead is (mostly) transparent to neutrons, so fewer neutrons are lost in the coolant, and the coolant does not become radioactive. Unlike sodium, lead is mostly inert, so

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These reactors use a pressure vessel to contain the nuclear fuel, control rods, moderator, and coolant. The hot radioactive water that leaves the pressure vessel is looped through a steam generator, which in turn heats a secondary (nonradioactive) loop of water to steam that can run turbines. They

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BWRs are characterized by boiling water around the fuel rods in the lower portion of a primary reactor pressure vessel. A boiling water reactor uses U, enriched as uranium dioxide, as its fuel. The fuel is assembled into rods housed in a steel vessel that is submerged in water. The nuclear fission

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warned that the lifetime extension of ageing nuclear power plants amounts to entering a new era of risk. It estimated the current European nuclear liability coverage in average to be too low by a factor of between 100 and 1,000 to cover the likely costs, while at the same time, the likelihood of a

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and therefore absorb neutrons. When a control rod is inserted deeper into the reactor, it absorbs more neutrons than the material it displaces – often the moderator. This action results in fewer neutrons available to cause fission and reduces the reactor's power output. Conversely, extracting the

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released from nuclear power plants under normal operations is so low as to be undetectable above natural background radiation. Detectable strontium-90 in ground water and the general environment can be traced to weapons testing that occurred during the mid-20th century (accounting for 99% of the

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in the world fueled by highly enriched (weapons-grade/90% enrichment) uranium. Theft risk of this fuel (potentially used in the production of a nuclear weapon) has led to campaigns advocating conversion of this type of reactor to low-enrichment uranium (which poses less threat of proliferation).

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Thorium-based reactors — It is possible to convert Thorium-232 into U-233 in reactors specially designed for the purpose. In this way, thorium, which is four times more abundant than uranium, can be used to breed U-233 nuclear fuel. U-233 is also believed to have favourable nuclear properties as

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in Europe. The U.S. was not yet officially at war, but in October, when the Einstein-Szilárd letter was delivered to him, Roosevelt commented that the purpose of doing the research was to make sure "the Nazis don't blow us up." The U.S. nuclear project followed, although with some delay as there

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causes the water to boil, generating steam. This steam flows through pipes into turbines. The turbines are driven by the steam, and this process generates electricity. During normal operation, pressure is controlled by the amount of steam flowing from the reactor pressure vessel to the turbine.

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are fissionable with fast neutrons, but they are more difficult to build and more expensive to operate. Overall, fast reactors are less common than thermal reactors in most applications. Some early power stations were fast reactors, as are some Russian naval propulsion units. Construction of

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U-238 are both used in the fission process. U-235 is fissionable by thermal (i.e. slow-moving) neutrons. A thermal neutron is one which is moving about the same speed as the atoms around it. Since all atoms vibrate proportionally to their absolute temperature, a thermal neutron has the best

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Generation V reactors are designs which are theoretically possible, but which are not being actively considered or researched at present. Though some generation V reactors could potentially be built with current or near term technology, they trigger little interest for reasons of economics,

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salts, or use such salts for coolant. MSRs potentially have many safety features, including the absence of high pressures or highly flammable components in the core. They were initially designed for aircraft propulsion due to their high efficiency and high power density. One prototype, the

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Reactor safety is maintained through various systems that control the rate of fission. The insertion of control rods, which absorb neutrons, can rapidly decrease the reactor's output, while other systems automatically shut down the reactor in the event of unsafe conditions. The buildup of

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residue, which they reasoned was created by the fissioning of the uranium nuclei. In their second publication on nuclear fission in February 1939, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process, opening up the possibility of a

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produced in the fission process acts as a neutron poison that absorbs neutrons and therefore tends to shut the reactor down. Xenon-135 accumulation can be controlled by keeping power levels high enough to destroy it by neutron absorption as fast as it is produced. Fission also produces

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In other reactors, the coolant acts as a poison by absorbing neutrons in the same way that the control rods do. In these reactors, power output can be increased by heating the coolant, which makes it a less dense poison. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to

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disposal. They offer a case study of how radioactive isotopes migrate through the Earth's crust. This is a significant area of controversy as opponents of geologic waste disposal fear that isotopes from stored waste could end up in water supplies or be carried into the environment.

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to occur with circumstances that are similar to the conditions in a constructed nuclear reactor. Fifteen fossil natural fission reactors have so far been found in three separate ore deposits at the Oklo uranium mine in Gabon. First discovered in 1972 by French physicist

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in London. However, Szilárd's idea did not incorporate the idea of nuclear fission as a neutron source, since that process was not yet discovered. Szilárd's ideas for nuclear reactors using neutron-mediated nuclear chain reactions in light elements proved unworkable.

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in Japan did not anticipate that a tsunami generated by an earthquake would disable the backup systems that were supposed to stabilize the reactor after the earthquake, despite multiple warnings by the NRG and the Japanese nuclear safety administration. According to

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are cooled by a circulating gas. In commercial nuclear power plants carbon dioxide has usually been used, for example in current British AGR nuclear power plants and formerly in a number of first generation British, French, Italian, & Japanese plants.

951:. Subsequent studies in early 1939 (one of them by Szilárd and Fermi) revealed that several neutrons were indeed released during the fissioning, making available the opportunity for the nuclear chain reaction that Szilárd had envisioned six years previously. 3423:

reactions took place in these reactors approximately 1.5 billion years ago, and ran for a few hundred thousand years, averaging 100 kW of power output during that time. The concept of a natural nuclear reactor was theorized as early as 1956 by

2935:, where the fissile material is gaseous uranium hexafluoride contained in a fused silica vessel. A working gas (such as hydrogen) would flow around this vessel and absorb the UV light produced by the reaction. This reactor design could also function 2399:

A Soviet design, RBMKs are in some respects similar to CANDU in that they are refuelable during power operation and employ a pressure tube design instead of a PWR-style pressure vessel. However, unlike CANDU they are very unstable and large, making

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to cause fission. If the coolant is a moderator, then temperature changes can affect the density of the coolant/moderator and therefore change power output. A higher temperature coolant would be less dense, and therefore a less effective moderator.

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stations) are either shut down or will be in the near future. However, the AGRs have an anticipated life of a further 10 to 20 years. This is a thermal-neutron reactor design. Decommissioning costs can be high due to large volume of reactor

4891:, Vol. 44, No. 39; p. 7, 25 September 2003 Quote: "Etienne Pochon, CEA director of nuclear industry support, outlined EPR's improved performance and enhanced safety features compared to the advanced Generation II designs on which it was based." 1556:(LWRs). Light-water reactors (the most common type of thermal reactor) use ordinary water to moderate and cool the reactors. Because the light hydrogen isotope is a slight neutron poison these reactors need artificially enriched fuels. When at 2460:

These designs have a high thermal efficiency compared with PWRs due to higher operating temperatures. There are a number of operating reactors of this design, mostly in the United Kingdom, where the concept was developed. Older designs (i.e.

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reactors allow fuel to be shifted through the reactor while it is running. In a CANDU reactor, this also allows individual fuel elements to be situated within the reactor core that are best suited to the amount of U-235 in the fuel element.

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stabilizes the reaction rate. Graphite and heavy-water reactors tend to be more thoroughly thermalized than light water reactors. Due to the extra thermalization, and the absence of the light hydrogen poisoning effects these types can use

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A BWR is like a PWR without the steam generator. The lower pressure of its cooling water allows it to boil inside the pressure vessel, producing the steam that runs the turbines. Unlike a PWR, there is no primary and secondary loop. The

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are able to change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fission. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if monitoring or instrumentation detects unsafe conditions.

2501:. These reactors can function much like a PWR in terms of efficiency, and do not require much high-pressure containment, as the liquid metal does not need to be kept at high pressure, even at very high temperatures. These reactors are 803:, such as the reactor pressure vessel. At the end of their planned life span, plants may get an extension of the operating license for some 20 years and in the US even a "subsequent license renewal" (SLR) for an additional 20 years. 4661:

Golubev, V. I.; Dolgov, V. V.; Dulin, V. A.; Zvonarev, A. V.; Smetanin, É. Y.; Kochetkov, L. A.; Korobeinikov, V. V.; Liforov, V. G.; Manturov, G. N.; Matveenko, I. P.; Tsibulya, A. M. (1993). "Fast-reactor actinoid transmutation".

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Even when a license is extended, it does not guarantee the reactor will continue to operate, particularly in the face of safety concerns or incident. Many reactors are closed long before their license or design life expired and are

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as a result of an exponential power surge from the normal nuclear chain reaction, would be too short to allow for intervention. This last stage, where delayed neutrons are no longer required to maintain criticality, is known as the

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as a working fuel directly (rather than as a stage to one, as is done now) would mean lower processing costs, and very small reactors. In practice, running a reactor at such high power densities would probably produce unmanageable

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Water cooled reactor. These constitute the great majority of operational nuclear reactors: as of 2014, 93% of the world's nuclear reactors are water cooled, providing about 95% of the world's total nuclear generation capacity.

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An example of an induced nuclear fission event. A neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom, which in turn splits into fast-moving lighter elements (fission products) and free neutrons. Though both reactors and

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and helium have also been used, helium being considered particularly suitable for high temperature designs. Utilization of the heat varies, depending on the reactor. Commercial nuclear power plants run the gas through a

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on 2 December 1942 at 3:25 PM. The reactor support structure was made of wood, which supported a pile (hence the name) of graphite blocks, embedded in which was natural uranium oxide 'pseudospheres' or 'briquettes'.

3206:(U-235) contained in the fuel assemblies at the beginning of the cycle. A higher percentage of U-235 in the core at the beginning of a cycle will permit the reactor to be run for a greater number of full-power days. 2761:(SSTAR) is being primarily researched and developed in the US, intended as a fast breeder reactor that is passively safe and could be remotely shut down in case the suspicion arises that it is being tampered with. 4368: 2538:

mixture. In this case, the bismuth would present some minor radiation problems, as it is not quite as transparent to neutrons, and can be transmuted to a radioactive isotope more readily than lead. The Russian

2992:. A fission fragment reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates electricity by decelerating an ion beam of fission byproducts instead of using nuclear reactions to generate heat. By doing so, it bypasses the 2607:

These use fuel molded into ceramic balls, and then circulate gas through the balls. The result is an efficient, low-maintenance, very safe reactor with inexpensive, standardized fuel. The prototypes were the

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into electricity, by passing the high energy photons through an array of conducting foils to transfer some of their energy to electrons, the energy of the photon is captured electrostatically, similar to a

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concept where the reactor is operated at supercritical pressures and water is heated to a supercritical fluid, which never undergoes a transition to steam yet behaves like saturated steam, to power a

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are also an area of current development. These reactors play a crucial role in generating large amounts of electricity with low carbon emissions, contributing significantly to the global energy mix.

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Most reactor designs in existence are thermal reactors and typically use water as a neutron moderator (moderator means that it slows down the neutron to a thermal speed) and as a coolant. But in a

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After World War II, the U.S. military sought other uses for nuclear reactor technology. Research by the Army led to the power stations for Camp Century, Greenland and McMurdo Station, Antarctica

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have cast doubt on whether even an advanced economy like Japan can master nuclear safety. Catastrophic scenarios involving terrorist attacks are also conceivable. An interdisciplinary team from

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from the physics of radioactive decay and are simply accounted for during the reactor's operation, while others are mechanisms engineered into the reactor design for a distinct purpose.

3253:, which is expressed in terms of the heat energy produced per initial unit of fuel weight. Burnup is commonly expressed as megawatt days thermal per metric ton of initial heavy metal. 2534:

there is less risk of explosion or accident, but such large quantities of lead may be problematic from toxicology and disposal points of view. Often a reactor of this type would use a

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to yield up to 25% more nuclear fuel, and is practiced in Europe, Russia and Japan. Due to initial concerns of proliferation risks, the United States has no reprocessing capability.

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remained skepticism (some of it from Fermi) and also little action from the small number of officials in the government who were initially charged with moving the project forward.

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This totally unmoderated reactor design produces more fuel than it consumes. They are said to "breed" fuel, because they produce fissionable fuel during operation because of

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and can achieve efficiencies of up to 90% instead of 40–45% attainable by efficient turbine-driven thermal reactors. The fission fragment ion beam would be passed through a

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emission by a number of neutron-rich fission isotopes. These delayed neutrons account for about 0.65% of the total neutrons produced in fission, with the remainder (termed "

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in Germany, which produced up to 308MW of electricity between 1985 and 1989 until it was shut down after experiencing a series of incidents and technical difficulties. The

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of these reactors can be higher, and they can be simpler, and even potentially more stable and safe. This is a thermal-neutron reactor design, the newest of which are the

7625: 4363: 5364: 4176: 4197: 2363:. India also operates a number of PHWRs, often termed 'CANDU derivatives', built after the Government of Canada halted nuclear dealings with India following the 1974 7125: 3057:, but significant scientific and technical obstacles remain. Despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. The 1652:

In thermal nuclear reactors (LWRs in specific), the coolant acts as a moderator that must slow down the neutrons before they can be efficiently absorbed by the fuel.

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for nuclear weapons. Fermi and Szilard applied for a patent on reactors on 19 December 1944. Its issuance was delayed for 10 years because of wartime secrecy.

481:. A portion of these neutrons may be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons, and so on. This is known as a 4990: 2787: 547:(U-235) converted via nuclear processes releases approximately three million times more energy than a kilogram of coal burned conventionally (7.2 × 10 7618: 5673: 5298:

Quimby, D.C., High Thermal Efficiency X-ray energy conversion scheme for advanced fusion reactors, ASTM Special technical Publication, v.2, 1977, pp. 1161–1165

5343:"Providing all Global Energy with Wind, Water, and Solar Power, Part I: Technologies, Energy Resources, Quantities and Areas of Infrastructure, and Materials" 4867: 189:

absorbs a neutron, it splits into lighter nuclei, releasing energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons, which can induce further fission in a self-sustaining

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has estimated that given the expected growth of nuclear power from 2005 to 2055, at least four serious nuclear accidents would be expected in that period.

2335:. Instead of using a single large pressure vessel as in a PWR, the fuel is contained in hundreds of pressure tubes. These reactors are fueled with natural 1560:, if the temperature of the water increases, its density drops, and fewer neutrons passing through it are slowed enough to trigger further reactions. That 5085: 1490:

material (about 20% or more) due to the relatively lower probability of fission versus capture by U-238. Fast reactors have the potential to produce less

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Nuclear reactors have been launched into Earth orbit at least 34 times. A number of incidents connected with the unmanned nuclear-reactor-powered Soviet

2925:, where the fissile material is molten uranium or uranium solution cooled by a working gas pumped in through holes in the base of the containment vessel. 707:. A moderator increases the power of the reactor by causing the fast neutrons that are released from fission to lose energy and become thermal neutrons. 676:

state allows mechanical devices or human operators to control a chain reaction in "real time"; otherwise the time between achievement of criticality and

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for them expensive. A series of critical safety flaws have also been identified with the RBMK design, though some of these were corrected following the

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India is also planning to build fast breeder reactors using the thorium – Uranium-233 fuel cycle. The FBTR (Fast Breeder Test Reactor) in operation at

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produced 0.8 kW in a test on 20 December 1951 and 100 kW (electrical) the following day, having a design output of 200 kW (electrical).

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radar satellite which resulted in nuclear fuel reentering the Earth's atmosphere from orbit and being dispersed in northern Canada (January 1978).

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and as a result most reactor designs require enriched fuel. Enrichment involves increasing the percentage of U-235 and is usually done by means of

2818:(AHWR) — A proposed heavy water moderated nuclear power reactor that will be the next generation design of the PHWR type. Under development in the 2758: 2343:) which makes them very efficient in their use of uranium (it allows for precise flux control in the core). CANDU PHWRs have been built in Canada, 1819:. In a typical MSR, the coolant is also used as a matrix in which the fissile material is dissolved. Other eutectic salt combinations used include 2984:. Since X-rays can go through far greater material thickness than electrons, many hundreds or thousands of layers are needed to absorb the X-rays. 7381: 5749: 2765: 778:

The energy released in the fission process generates heat, some of which can be converted into usable energy. A common method of harnessing this

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that range from milliseconds to as long as several minutes, and so considerable time is required to determine exactly when a reactor reaches the

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currently in development. Reactors can also be grouped by the choices of coolant and moderator. Almost 90% of global nuclear energy comes from

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is also possible. Fission reactors can be divided roughly into two classes, depending on the energy of the neutrons that sustain the fission

1002: 7748: 7738: 7718: 6362: 5793: 5463: 4709: 3862: 5529: 5144: 4326: 7810: 7755: 5316: 5268:"International Scientific Journal for Alternative Energy and Ecology, DIRECT CONVERSION OF NUCLEAR ENERGY TO ELECTRICITY, Mark A. Prelas" 3279: 1527:. While an ongoing rich research topic since at least the 1940s, no self-sustaining fusion reactor for any purpose has ever been built. 4512: 8098: 7772: 6128: 5417: 4290: 3813: 1894:

Generation V reactor (designs which are theoretically possible, but which are not being actively considered or researched at present).

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which use more highly enriched fuel with the fuel elements set closer together to allow a faster neutron spectrum sometimes called an

857:, the first artificial nuclear reactor, built in secrecy at the University of Chicago in 1942 during World War II as part of the US's 7978: 7955: 7875: 6631: 4472: 4347: 2719: 2285: 1899: 7887: 6870: 4602: 3971: 1086:

Besides the military uses of nuclear reactors, there were political reasons to pursue civilian use of atomic energy. U.S. President

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Freeview Video 'Nuclear Power Plants — What's the Problem' A Royal Institution Lecture by John Collier by the Vega Science Trust.

5028: 4820:"Emergency and Back-Up Cooling of Nuclear Fuel and Reactors and Fire-Extinguishing, Explosion Prevention Using Liquid Nitrogen". 2570: 1882: 7001: 4213: 7713: 7703: 6826: 5267: 4901: 1028:, in late 1942. By this time, the program had been pressured for a year by U.S. entry into the war. The Chicago Pile achieved 7610: 6055: 5640: 4768: 4431: 4171: 4131: 4016: 3856: 3562: 3527: 2812:

compared to traditionally used U-235, including better neutron economy and lower production of long lived transuranic waste.

1580:(MSRs) are moderated by light elements such as lithium or beryllium, which are constituents of the coolant/fuel matrix salts 820: 5372: 3398:

Almost two billion years ago a series of self-sustaining nuclear fission "reactors" self-assembled in the area now known as

819:

with only between 3 and 10 years. All seven AGR plants are expected to be shut down in 2022 and in decommissioning by 2028.

8183: 8010: 7805: 6877: 4192: 3593: 3532: 3487:

and so is both colorless and odorless, however the additional neutrons in the hydrogen nuclei cause the tritium to undergo

3110:

powder, which is pressed and fired into pellet form. These pellets are stacked into tubes which are then sealed and called

1809:

to make steam for a steam turbine. Some experimental designs run hot enough that the gas can directly power a gas turbine.

5237: 5050: 4076: 3949: 7598: 6794: 6340: 6305: 4964: 4567: 2804:

are designed to be safer and more stable, but pose a number of engineering and economic difficulties. One example is the

2746: 38: 4927: 256: 8178: 7988: 7983: 7838: 7743: 7678: 7492: 7076: 5728: 5309:"Improving Security at World's Nuclear Research Reactors: Technical and Other Issues Focus of June Symposium in Norway" 4391: 3660: 3354: 3122: 2239: 1917: 1885:(evolutionary development of Gen III reactors, offering improvements in safety over Gen III reactor designs, 2017–2021) 824: 342: 334: 4998: 3117:

Most BWR and PWR commercial reactors use uranium enriched to about 4% U-235, and some commercial reactors with a high

2683:) dissolved in water and mixed with the coolant and the moderator. As of April 2006, only five AHRs were in operation. 1677:

are a subset of pressurized water reactors, sharing the use of a pressurized, isolated heat transport loop, but using

1098:

on 8 December 1953. This diplomacy led to the dissemination of reactor technology to U.S. institutions and worldwide.

8163: 8004: 7973: 7833: 7762: 6156: 6035: 4748: 4551: 2194: 1910: 1860: 1135: 562:, so the energy released by 1 kg of uranium-235 corresponds to that released by burning 2.7 million kg of coal. 319: 222: 118: 5665: 3495:

of 12.3 years. Despite being measurable, the tritium released by nuclear power plants is minimal. The United States

2176: 1765:. Since water is a moderator, it cannot be used as a coolant in a fast reactor. Liquid metal coolants have included 7865: 7386: 7251: 5786: 3500:

flight from Washington, D.C. to Los Angeles, a consequence of less atmospheric protection against highly energetic

2772: 2168: 1717: 2579: 1633: 465:

absorbs a neutron, it may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei, (the

7767: 7329: 7163: 6765: 6643: 6300: 6161: 3916: 3633: 3416: 3407: 3393: 2708: 2655: 2309: 1674: 1332: 1161: 5443: 5342: 3783: 3623:

discovered the nuclear chain reaction and patented a design in 1934, preceding the discovery of nuclear fission.

3440:

fission reaction was sustained for hundreds of thousands of years, cycling on the order of hours to a few days.

2699:

More than a dozen advanced reactor designs are in various stages of development. Some are evolutionary from the

2476: 8065: 7319: 7168: 6626: 5081: 2791: 2776: 2712: 2651: 2574:

would not be more violent than (for example) a leak of superheated fluid from a pressurized-water reactor. The

2281: 2172: 1121: 7903: 7698: 7093: 6926: 6350: 6278: 3572: 3496: 3314: 3288: 3268: 2997: 2905: 2829: 2819: 2438: 1080: 982: 5207: 3884: 830:

An increasing number of reactors is reaching or crossing their design lifetimes of 30 or 40 years. In 2014,

685:

point. There is a scale for describing criticality in numerical form, in which bare criticality is known as

7859: 7673: 7436: 7173: 6882: 6636: 6133: 5479: 3557: 2922: 2815: 2768:(CAESAR) is a nuclear reactor concept that uses steam as a moderator – this design is still in development. 2378: 2251: 1504: 17: 3677:

Davis, E. D.; Gould, C. R.; Sharapov, E. I. (2014). "Oklo reactors and implications for nuclear science".

2058:

U-238 to Pu-239, or Th-232 to U-233). Thus, a uranium breeder reactor, once running, can be refueled with

8158: 7793: 7586: 7499: 7471: 7428: 7393: 7231: 7058: 6996: 6821: 6725: 6611: 6079: 5779: 5757: 5608: 4794: 3582: 3238: 2900: 2665: 2450: 2302: 2255: 2119: 1935: 1762: 1698: 1605: 1102: 1072: 938:

in 1938 that bombardment of uranium with neutrons (provided by an alpha-on-beryllium fusion reaction, a "

816: 632:

The fastest method for adjusting levels of fission-inducing neutrons in a reactor is via movement of the

5108: 4629: 4105: 3121:

do not require the fuel to be enriched at all (that is, they can use natural uranium). According to the

1815:(MSRs) are cooled by circulating a molten salt, typically a eutectic mixture of fluoride salts, such as 8153: 8109: 7871: 7799: 7420: 7279: 6958: 6476: 6433: 6285: 5701: 4004: 3412: 3346: 2895: 2727: 2548: 1784: 1539: 1412:

approaches the average kinetic energy of the surrounding particles. Thermal neutrons have a far higher

1117: 732:) into the reactor to shut the fission reaction down if unsafe conditions are detected or anticipated. 354: 327: 298:

of ships and submarines is largely restricted to naval use. Reactors have also been tested for nuclear

963: 918:, in 1933. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple reactor the following year while working at the 8173: 8168: 8123: 8089: 8025: 7934: 7668: 7574: 7256: 6865: 6648: 5545: 5241: 5054: 3460:

as part of normal operations, which is eventually released into the environment in trace quantities.

3358: 2700: 2575: 2219: 2211: 2005: 1661: 1482:, and use less-moderating coolants. Maintaining a chain reaction requires the fuel to be more highly 1172: 759: 583: 295: 178: 5500: 2624:

is being developed. The HTR-PM is expected to be the first generation IV reactor to enter operation.

1664:(PWR) Pressurized water reactors constitute the large majority of all Western nuclear power plants. 644:

The physics of radioactive decay also affects neutron populations in a reactor. One such process is

8188: 7504: 7346: 7246: 7158: 6367: 6253: 6213: 6025: 5603: 4236: 4147: 3547: 3522: 2989: 2885: 2528: 2157: 1789: 1709: 1037: 299: 1396:

to keep up the fission of their fuel. Almost all current reactors are of this type. These contain

412:

rely on nuclear chain reactions, the rate of reactions in a reactor is much slower than in a bomb.

8050: 8040: 7376: 7351: 6965: 6742: 6548: 6471: 6428: 6411: 6372: 6295: 3750: 3542: 2936: 2928: 2880: 2161: 1947: 1846: 1820: 1613: 1157: 1145:

The first portable nuclear reactor "Alco PM-2A" was used to generate electrical power (2 MW) for

808: 665: 603: 571: 466: 398: 214: 7334: 5525: 4701: 4543: 4008: 3998: 8045: 7846: 7241: 6528: 6072: 5152: 4321: 3587: 3552: 3512:

Strontium-90 in the environment) and the Chernobyl accident (accounting for the remaining 1%).

3429: 3370: 2123: 1876: 1752: 1125: 948: 652:") released immediately upon fission. The fission products which produce delayed neutrons have 641:

control rod will result in an increase in the rate of fission events and an increase in power.

607: 482: 358: 303: 280: 268: 174: 166: 7640: 5308: 4376: 4272: 1113:

which was the first reactor to go critical in Europe, and was also built by the Soviet Union.

7535: 7271: 7226: 6688: 6616: 6543: 6538: 6503: 6290: 6258: 6045: 5972: 4504: 4388: 3657: 3577: 3366: 3362: 3023: 3003: 2872: 2735: 2704: 2554: 2535: 2488: 2265: 2041: 1992: 1888: 1866: 1774: 1705: 1686: 1557: 1440:(U-238) compared to the faster neutrons that originally result from fission, allowing use of 1413: 1110: 1017: 959: 835:

serious accident happening in Europe continues to increase as the reactor fleet grows older.

800: 735:

Most types of reactors are sensitive to a process variously known as xenon poisoning, or the

591: 417: 386: 350: 346: 318:, which can complicate reactor restarts. There have been two reactor accidents classed as an 272: 147: 5410: 4424:"Chicago Pile reactors create enduring research legacy – Argonne's Historical News Releases" 4285: 8035: 7897: 7446: 7221: 7206: 6523: 6481: 6317: 6223: 6151: 3805: 3696: 3599: 3149: 3084: 2972: 2540: 2401: 1608:, such as those whose coolant is a mixture of lead and bismuth, may use BeO as a moderator. 1471: 1465: 1441: 724:

the reactor in an emergency shut down. These systems insert large amounts of poison (often

370: 314:

can influence reactor behavior, requiring careful management to prevent issues such as the

284: 244: 210: 80: 5737: 4836:"Russia completes world's first Gen III+ reactor; China to start up five reactors in 2017" 4479: 4342: 2433: 8: 8020: 7545: 7356: 7141: 6735: 6603: 6406: 6263: 6030: 5992: 5825: 4598: 3975: 3230: 2890: 2801: 2631: 2029: 1988: 1940: 1870: 1812: 1577: 1553: 1547: 1461: 1401: 1095: 844: 688: 362: 170: 140: 7822: 3700: 2327:. While heavy water is significantly more expensive than ordinary water, it has greater 7928: 7891: 7828: 7525: 7261: 7098: 7025: 6836: 6486: 6456: 6440: 6423: 6067: 5957: 5905: 5855: 5802: 5576: 5528:– at Google Video; a natural nuclear reactor is mentioned at 42:40 mins into the video 5109:"High Efficiency Nuclear Power Plants Using Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor Technology" 4679: 4536: 4260: 3720: 3686: 3567: 3350: 3222: 3156: 3088: 3070: 3027: 2780: 2779:

ABWR) that is presently in use, it is not a complete fast reactor instead using mostly

2750: 2742: 2715:(ABWR), two of which are now operating with others under construction, and the planned 2597: 2586:, the first reactor to have a core meltdown, in 1955, was also a sodium-cooled reactor. 2446: 2405: 2332: 2331:(creates a higher number of thermal neutrons), allowing the reactor to operate without 2277: 2115: 2000: 1836: 1796: 1721: 1596: 1585: 1483: 1378: 1049: 752: 586:. However, in some reactors the water for the steam turbines is boiled directly by the 539:. This decay heat source will remain for some time even after the reactor is shut down. 536: 497: 366: 323: 291: 151: 5020: 4039: 668:

point. Keeping the reactor in the zone of chain reactivity where delayed neutrons are

574:– usually water but sometimes a gas or a liquid metal (like liquid sodium or lead) or 8030: 7993: 6593: 6386: 6273: 6248: 6186: 6143: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5820: 4744: 4547: 4127: 4012: 3852: 3724: 3712: 3537: 3444: 3099: 2976: 2932: 2658:, a thermal spectrum reactor which would breed fissile uranium-233 fuel from thorium. 2339:

and are thermal-neutron reactor designs. PHWRs can be refueled while at full power, (

2107: 2011: 1778: 1728: 1561: 1479: 1397: 1087: 1041: 1006: 919: 858: 767: 763: 704: 657: 532: 338: 206: 198: 5274: 4905: 4683: 3443:

These natural reactors are extensively studied by scientists interested in geologic

2207: 993:

was far lower than had previously been thought. The memorandum was a product of the

551:

per kilogram of uranium-235 versus 2.4 × 10 joules per kilogram of coal).

7916: 7441: 6496: 6461: 6218: 6208: 6096: 6084: 5925: 5920: 5910: 5900: 5895: 5750:

Annotated bibliography of nuclear reactor technology from the Alsos Digital Library

4736: 4671: 3844: 3740:

The First Reactor, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Technical Information

3704: 3322: 3183: 3141: 3126: 3076: 3011: 2805: 2340: 2129: 2063: 2055: 2051: 2033: 1832: 1592: 1581: 1336: 939: 935: 915: 907: 892: 677: 661: 378: 264: 248: 5633: 4772: 4423: 3083:). The process by which uranium ore is mined, processed, enriched, used, possibly 2088:, and cobalt-60, molybdenum-99 and others, used for imaging and medical treatment. 1909:

The first mention of "Gen III" was in 2000, in conjunction with the launch of the

1152: 1059:"World's first nuclear power plant" is the claim made by signs at the site of the 7339: 7299: 6753: 6491: 6466: 6312: 6105: 6007: 5997: 5962: 5840: 5830: 5764: 5744: 5732: 5705: 5552: 5533: 5486: 4876: 4460: 4395: 4372: 4351: 4330: 4294: 4222: 4201: 4180: 3836: 3664: 3472: 3420: 3318: 3215: 3118: 3107: 3079:. Some nuclear reactors can operate with a mixture of plutonium and uranium (see 3007: 2795: 2680: 2676: 2498: 2473: 2328: 2231: 2059: 2047: 1828: 1732: 1668: 1566: 1445: 1433: 1393: 1389: 1362: 1091: 955: 740: 708: 682: 645: 611: 441: 429: 409: 229: 69: 30:

This article is about nuclear fission reactors. For nuclear fusion reactors, see

6831: 5634:

Backgrounder: Tritium, Radiation Protection Limits, and Drinking Water Standards

4398:

British patent number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934; published: 30 March 1936).

3848: 3667:

British patent number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934; published: 30 March 1936).

1067:. Originally called "Chicago Pile-4", it was carried out under the direction of 782:

is to use it to boil water to produce pressurized steam which will then drive a

8055: 7922: 7881: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7034: 6941: 6910: 6892: 6416: 6322: 6268: 6233: 6166: 6113: 5967: 5860: 5845: 5835: 5179: 4068: 3941: 3338: 3309: 3262: 3103: 3046: 2971:

directly to electricity. This approach is similar to the experimentally proved

2716: 2364: 2092: 2085: 1849:

use organic fluids such as biphenyl and terphenyl as coolant rather than water.

1806: 1516: 1457: 1409: 1382: 1142:, England was opened in 1956 with an initial capacity of 50 MW (later 200 MW). 1044:

starting in 1943. The primary purpose for the largest reactors (located at the

1013: 994: 990: 926:

Inspiration for a new type of reactor using uranium came from the discovery by

903: 884: 854: 779: 649: 637: 518: 514: 493: 470: 450: 421: 345:

classes reactors into generations, with the majority of the global fleet being

190: 134: 112: 7314: 4968: 4473:"Fifty years ago in December: Atomic reactor EBR-I produced first electricity" 4409: 4365:

Lifetime extension of ageing nuclear power plants: Entering a new era of risk.

3708: 2566: 2516: 432:

into thermal energy for further conversion to mechanical or electrical forms.

8147: 8135: 7479: 6770: 6176: 6017: 5501:"Deadliest radiation accidents and other events causing radiation casualties" 4934: 3716: 2847: 2111: 2096: 1602:" and other light element containing salts can all cause a moderating effect. 1550:(Used in Canada, India, Argentina, China, Pakistan, Romania and South Korea). 1453: 1429: 1425: 1029: 864: 783: 673: 462: 233: 186: 5725: 5107:

Juhasz, Albert J.; Rarick, Richard A.; Rangarajan, Rajmohan (October 2009).

4740: 7998: 7944: 7939: 7045: 6181: 6123: 6050: 6002: 5872: 5245: 5058: 4215:

What's the Lifespan for a Nuclear Reactor? Much Longer Than You Might Think

3508: 3195: 3171: 3111: 3050: 3040: 2993: 2964: 2949: 2502: 2409: 2021: 1512: 1500: 1475: 1374: 1146: 1106: 1045: 1025: 974: 970: 931: 888: 868: 712: 587: 559: 425: 374: 252: 218: 194: 31: 7642:

Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites

5145:"The Venezuela-China relationship, explained: Belt and Road | Part 2 of 4" 1648: 8070: 7456: 7103: 6693: 6200: 6171: 3620: 3425: 3326: 3203: 3179: 3175: 3159: 3137: 3015: 2851: 2828:– A unique reactor using Uranium-233 isotope for fuel. Built in India by 2609: 2360: 2324: 2247: 1739: 1678: 1491: 1437: 1421: 1169: 1165: 1068: 1064: 998: 633: 575: 555: 544: 489: 458: 454: 209:. The world's first artificial nuclear reactor, Chicago Pile-1, achieved 182: 4389:"Improvements in or relating to the transmutation of chemical elements," 3658:"Improvements in or relating to the transmutation of chemical elements," 3094:

Under 1% of the uranium found in nature is the easily fissionable U-235

2711:

designs above, some are more radical departures. The former include the

2483: 221:, later incorporating grid electricity production in addition. In 1957, 8060: 6809: 4675: 3501: 3488: 3381: 3167: 2426: 2373: 1749:

reactors (later ones use heavy water moderator but light water coolant)

1139: 831: 812: 787: 748: 736: 729: 623: 615: 525: 474: 315: 60: 5721:

Union of Concerned Scientists, Concerns re: US nuclear reactor program

5639:(Report). United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission. February 2016. 4478:. American Nuclear Society Nuclear news. November 2001. Archived from 849: 7852: 7451: 6814: 6804: 5932: 5885: 5850: 5771: 5408: 4309:

Cleanup of Large Areas Contaminated as a Result of a Nuclear Accident

4099:"Chernobyl: what happened and why? by CM Meyer, technical journalist" 3492: 3054: 2981: 2840: 2344: 2235: 2099: 2081: 2074: 1891:(technologies still under development; unknown start date, see below) 1681:

as coolant and moderator for the greater neutron economies it offers.

1621: 1520: 1495: 1370: 1053: 927: 872: 823:

was extended from 40 to 46 years, and closed. The same happened with

743: 653: 311: 7309: 2146: 1109:. It produced around 5 MW (electrical). It was built after the 1101:

The first nuclear power plant built for civil purposes was the AM-1

7723: 7540: 7183: 7178: 7118: 6787: 6715: 6698: 6683: 6658: 6401: 5890: 3468: 2968: 2646: 2642: 2613: 2511: 2352: 2294: 2230:

represent the majority (around 80%) of current reactors. This is a

2054:

than they consume during the fission chain reaction (by converting

1801: 1642: 1617: 1524: 1344: 1021: 579: 260: 5738:

Nuclear Energy Institute — How it Works: Electric Power Generation

5388:"Fukushima Crisis Worse for Atomic Power Than Chernobyl, UBS Says" 5340: 4538:

Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century

4124:

Nuclear Energy Encyclopedia: Science, Technology, and Applications

3843:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 66–91, 3691: 3221:

Not all reactors need to be shut down for refueling; for example,

2388:

Reaktor Bolshoy Moschnosti Kanalniy (High Power Channel Reactor) (

879: 403: 8130: 7509: 7461: 7324: 7304: 6703: 6678: 6118: 5949: 5937: 5915: 5880: 3464: 3457: 3200: 3163: 3133: 3095: 3061:

project is currently leading the effort to harness fusion power.

3019: 2861: 2749:(HTGCR), is designed so high temperatures reduce power output by 2356: 2336: 2077: 2067: 1667:

A primary characteristic of PWRs is a pressurizer, a specialized

1487: 1449: 1417: 1366: 986: 911: 899: 700: 478: 447: 361:, which use it as a coolant and moderator. Other designs include 276: 240: 5598: 4965:"World Nuclear Association Information Brief -Research Reactors" 2860:

Rolls-Royce aims to sell nuclear reactors for the production of

2843:(India) uses Plutonium as a fuel and liquid sodium as a coolant. 2543:

uses a lead-bismuth-cooled fast reactor as its main power plant.

2505:, not thermal neutron designs. These reactors come in two types: 2392:) (also known as a Light-Water Graphite-moderated Reactor—LWGR) 275:

risk as they can be configured to produce plutonium, as well as

7113: 7108: 7088: 7068: 7053: 6936: 6673: 6653: 6621: 4928:"A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems" 3910:"DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory" 3406:, West Africa. The conditions at that place and time allowed a 3377: 3250: 3249:

The amount of energy extracted from nuclear fuel is called its

3234: 2825: 2723: 2621: 2617: 2562: 2558: 2462: 2423: 2243: 1766: 943: 910:

mediated by neutrons was first realized shortly thereafter, by

548: 382: 205:

Nuclear reactors have their origins in the World War II Allied

128: 124: 3775: 535:

of fission products and materials that have been activated by

337:

reported there are 422 nuclear power reactors and 223 nuclear

7530: 7487: 7150: 7006: 6799: 6663: 5175:"Rolls-Royce Touts Nuclear Reactors as Key to Clean Jet Fuel" 4323:

Extending the operating lives of Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors

3480: 3403: 3242: 3053:

plants to produce power without the complexities of handling

2957: 2953: 2939:, as featured in Harry Harrison's 1976 science-fiction novel 2833: 2583: 2418: 2348: 2320: 2299: 1863:, research reactors, non-commercial power producing reactors) 1816: 1746: 1076: 1060: 725: 721: 619: 428:, nuclear reactors convert the energy released by controlled 5698: 4795:"Pool Reactors 1: An Introduction -- ANS / Nuclear Newswire" 4122:

Tsetkov, Pavel; Usman, Shoaib (2011). Krivit, Steven (ed.).

4069:"Reactor Protection & Engineered Safety Feature Systems" 3942:"Reactor Protection & Engineered Safety Feature Systems" 3114:. Many of these fuel rods are used in each nuclear reactor. 2070:; however, an initial stock of fissile material is required. 997:, which was working on the UK atomic bomb project, known as 528:

produced during fission and converts their energy into heat.

213:

on 2 December 1942. Early reactor designs sought to produce

7909: 7011: 6900: 6710: 6668: 5628: 5626: 3399: 3342: 3226: 3058: 2389: 1638: 1328: 906:. The concept of a nuclear chain reaction brought about by 37:"Nuclear pile" redirects here. For nuclear stockpiles, see 5716:

A Debate: Is Nuclear Power The Solution to Global Warming?

4660: 4152:

IAEA Power Reactor Information System – operational by age

2963:

Gas core EM reactor. As in the gas core reactor, but with

2675:

These reactors use as fuel soluble nuclear salts (usually

1879:(evolutionary improvements of existing designs, 1996–2016) 1727:

Pool-type reactor can refer to unpressurized water cooled

6984: 6848: 5503:. Database of Radiological Incidents and Related Events. 4237:"Swedish nuclear reactors shut down over safety concerns" 3321:

and led to the hydrogen explosions. This along with fuel

3292: 3284: 3080: 2578:

in Japan suffered a sodium leak in 1995 and could not be

1770: 696:, and other points in the process interpolated in cents. 5623: 5082:"Nuclear Reaction: Why Do Americans Fear Nuclear Power?" 3006:. Would use the neutrons emitted by fusion to fission a 4165: 2788:

hydrogen-moderated self-regulating nuclear power module

2783:, which are between thermal and fast neutrons in speed. 1120:. The Air Force Nuclear Bomber project resulted in the 5106: 4624: 4622: 4620: 1460:, instrumentation to monitor and control the reactor, 8107: 4234: 3166:

in either a fast or thermal reactor. The thorium-233

2689: 2066:, and a thorium breeder reactor can be refueled with 981:

The following year, the U.S. Government received the

509:

The reactor core generates heat in a number of ways:

5711:

Uranium Conference adds discussion of Japan accident

4630:"Nuclear Power Reactors in the World – 2015 Edition" 4542:. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 3837:"Electricity and Heat from Thermal Nuclear Reactors" 3305:

Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents

3030:/nuclear waste into relatively more benign isotopes. 2234:

reactor design, the newest of which are the Russian

1742:

which also served as a moderator. Examples include:

1452:, usually water under high pressure to increase the 1168:(blue), and pumps (green) in the three coolant loop 225:

became the first reactor dedicated to peaceful use.

4617: 4148:"PRIS - Miscellaneous reports - Operational by Age" 3471:, tritium (T) frequently binds to oxygen and forms 3273:Nuclear safety covers the actions taken to prevent 2958:

International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility

1478:to cause fission in their fuel. They do not have a 815:, for example, extended the operating lives of its 165:is a device used to initiate and control a fission 6534:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 5444:"Report Finds Japan Underestimated Tsunami Danger" 5341:Jacobson, Mark Z. & Delucchi, Mark A. (2010). 4863: 4861: 4535: 4194:Status of Subsequent License Renewal Applications. 3676: 1902:(CEA) was the first to refer to "Gen II" types in 1012:Eventually, the first artificial nuclear reactor, 127:, a prototype to the first Generation IV reactor, 4762: 4760: 3996: 3075:Thermal reactors generally depend on refined and 8145: 5498: 2759:small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor 1339:with 4% enriched, pin-type fuel consisting of UO 1124:. The U.S. Navy succeeded when they steamed the 5573:Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management 5441: 5362: 4858: 4695: 4693: 4357: 3436:reaction with only plain water as a moderator. 2766:Clean and Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor 1859:Generation I reactor (early prototypes such as 1266: 1194: 1040:developed a number of nuclear reactors for the 373:, variously optimizing efficiency, safety, and 137:, the first aircraft to test an onboard reactor 7888:Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll 5409:Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2003). 4757: 3189: 2832:and Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research ( 2654:, was built to confirm the feasibility of the 1356: 773: 7689:Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll 7684:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents 7626: 7237:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 5787: 5699:The Database on Nuclear Power Reactors – IAEA 5546:"The Workings of an Ancient Nuclear Reactor." 5480:Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources 4635:. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). 4297:. Seacoast Anti-Pollution League (SAPL), 2017 4183:Paul Voosen, Scientific American, 20 Nov 2009 3670: 3275:nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents 3178:, which in turn is used as fuel. Hence, like 3106:. The enriched result is then converted into 2975:that would convert the X-rays generated from 2790:(HPM) is a reactor design emanating from the 985:from the UK, which stated that the amount of 5492: 5385: 4879:. World Nuclear Association, update Dec 2020 4690: 4315: 4121: 4063: 4061: 2850:deposit, has a reactor and hopes to replace 1335:'s PULSTAR Reactor is a 1 MW pool-type 1134:The first commercial nuclear power station, 1131:(SSN-571) on nuclear power 17 January 1955. 902:was discovered in 1932 by British physicist 521:when these nuclei collide with nearby atoms. 193:. The process is carefully controlled using 143:, the first nuclear-powered circumnavigation 7811:1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident 7694:Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country 5459: 5457: 4824:. Document number 20180144836. 24 May 2018. 3883:Region, CountryBy TypeBy (29 August 2024). 3479:. This molecule is chemically identical to 3387: 2175:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1361:All commercial power reactors are based on 1323:Net power capacity (GWe) by type (end 2014) 239:(water or gas), which in turn runs through 7633: 7619: 5794: 5780: 4287:The True Lifespan of a Nuclear Power Plant 4032: 2519:, closed in 1998, was one of the few FBRs. 488:To control such a nuclear chain reaction, 7979:Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack 7956:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 7876:Three Mile Island accident health effects 5336: 5334: 5205: 5079: 4279: 4058: 3915:. US Department of Energy. Archived from 3690: 3679:International Journal of Modern Physics E 3317:overheated, causing the coolant water to 3194:The amount of energy in the reservoir of 2911: 2867: 2720:Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor 2286:Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor 2195:Learn how and when to remove this message 1400:materials that slow neutrons until their 349:constructed from the 1960s to 1990s, and 243:. In commercial reactors, turbines drive 7974:International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) 7817:Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident 7149: 5454: 4771:. University of Michigan. Archived from 4560: 4453:Experimental Breeder Reactor 1 factsheet 3902: 3885:"In Operation & Suspended Operation" 3308: 2510: 2482: 2432: 2417: 2372: 2293: 2206: 2026:Heat for domestic and industrial heating 1647: 1632: 1530: 1432:, and a relatively lower probability of 1327: 1151: 878: 863: 848: 402: 310:neutron-absorbing fission products like 251:, and industrial applications including 8016:International Day against Nuclear Tests 7664:Crimes involving radioactive substances 5199: 4983: 4766: 4375:Greenpeace, March, 2014 (2.6 MB). 4235:Wikinews contributors (5 August 2006). 4225:. Office of Nuclear Energy, 16 Apr 2020 4126:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. pp. 48, 85. 3834: 2136: 1954: 1920:(DOE), for developing new plant types. 420:generate electricity by harnessing the 27:Device for controlled nuclear reactions 14: 8146: 7806:Instituto Oncológico Nacional#Accident 7164:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 5801: 5499:Johnston, Robert (23 September 2007). 5331: 4954:; see "Fuel Cycles and Sustainability" 4413:"Neutronic Reactor" issued 17 May 1955 4000:Nuclear Weapons: What You Need to Know 3882: 3816:from the original on 18 September 2010 3636:was discovered in 1972 in Oklo, Gabon. 1448:fuel. The moderator is often also the 341:in operation around the world. The US 247:shafts. The heat can also be used for 150:, built to contain the effects of the 7614: 7406: 7169:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 6578: 6565: 5775: 5561: 5084:. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). 4730: 4642:from the original on 16 November 2020 4596: 4533: 4527: 4515:from the original on 3 September 2017 4042:. HowStuffWorks.com. 9 October 2000. 3786:from the original on 11 February 2012 3563:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator 3528:List of small modular reactor designs 3415:, they are collectively known as the 3064: 1251:Number of reactors by type (end 2014) 597: 8011:History of the anti-nuclear movement 7593: 7409: 6566: 5591: 5507:from the original on 23 October 2007 5230: 5206:De Clercq, Geert (13 October 2014). 5100: 4920: 4801:from the original on 6 November 2021 4712:from the original on 3 December 2017 4578:from the original on 27 October 2019 4173:How Long Can a Nuclear Reactor Last? 4046:from the original on 22 October 2019 3974:. Bioenergy.ornl.gov. Archived from 3876: 3736: 3734: 3594:World Nuclear Industry Status Report 3533:List of United States Naval reactors 3298: 2694: 2173:adding citations to reliable sources 2140: 1637:Treatment of the interior part of a 517:of fission products is converted to 259:. Some reactors are used to produce 7669:Criticality accidents and incidents 7174:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 5676:from the original on 2 October 2017 5646:from the original on 18 August 2017 5473: 5319:from the original on 14 August 2007 5137: 5073: 5043: 4846:from the original on 13 August 2020 4605:from the original on 29 August 2010 4079:from the original on 22 August 2018 3952:from the original on 22 August 2018 3743: 2921:Liquid-core reactor. A closed loop 2747:high-temperature gas-cooled reactor 1923: 1916:"Gen IV" was named in 2000, by the 322:Level 7 "major accident": the 1986 39:List of states with nuclear weapons 24: 7773:Nuclear power accidents by country 6983: 6134:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 5611:from the original on 30 March 2021 5423:from the original on 12 April 2019 5125:from the original on 28 April 2021 5088:from the original on 17 April 2018 3355:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster 3123:International Atomic Energy Agency 3034: 2690:Future and developing technologies 2553:Most LMFBRs are of this type. The 2323:), very similar to PWRs but using 2240:Advanced Pressurized Water Reactor 1918:United States Department of Energy 1738:Some reactors have been cooled by 1574:Light-element-moderated reactors. 1351: 1262: 1190: 1105:, launched on 27 June 1954 in the 504: 335:International Atomic Energy Agency 25: 8200: 8005:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 6157:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 6056:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 5692: 5599:"Oklo's Natural Fission Reactors" 5369:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 5363:Gusterson, Hugh (16 March 2011). 5218:from the original on 29 July 2021 5151:. 14 January 2019. Archived from 5051:"Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors" 4995:Nuclear Engineering International 4991:"HTR-PM: Making dreams come true" 4904:. Euronuclear.org. Archived from 4505:"The Nuclear Option — NOVA | PBS" 4434:from the original on 13 June 2022 3751:"Spent Fuel Reprocessing Options" 3731: 3369:reactor accident (1968), and the 3337:have occurred. These include the 3256: 2620:is operating in China, where the 1911:Generation IV International Forum 1900:Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique 1861:Shippingport Atomic Power Station 1036:Soon after the Chicago Pile, the 973:invaded Poland in 1939, starting 838: 692:and the prompt critical point is 320:International Nuclear Event Scale 223:Shippingport Atomic Power Station 119:Shippingport Atomic Power Station 8129: 8117: 8094: 8093: 8083: 7866:Kramatorsk radiological accident 7592: 7581: 7580: 7568: 7257:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 5569:"Oklo: Natural Nuclear Reactors" 5544:Meshik, Alex P. (November 2005) 5238:"Generation IV Nuclear Reactors" 5208:"Can Sodium Save Nuclear Power?" 5031:from the original on 12 May 2019 4699: 4306: 4247:from the original on 16 May 2023 3865:from the original on 5 June 2018 3626: 3613: 3087:and disposed of is known as the 2846:China, which has control of the 2773:reduced moderation water reactor 2145: 1853: 1718:Reduced moderation water reactor 1675:Pressurized heavy water reactors 1416:(probability) of fissioning the 1179: 524:The reactor absorbs some of the 99: 88: 79: 68: 59: 48: 7768:List of orphan source incidents 6346:Historical stockpiles and tests 5658: 5538: 5519: 5442:Fackler, Martin (1 June 2011). 5435: 5402: 5379: 5356: 5301: 5292: 5260: 5167: 5013: 4957: 4894: 4882: 4828: 4813: 4787: 4731:Joyce, Malcolm (2018). "10.6". 4724: 4654: 4590: 4497: 4465: 4446: 4416: 4407:Enrico, Fermi and Leo, Szilard 4401: 4381: 4336: 4300: 4228: 4207: 4186: 4140: 4115: 4091: 3990: 3964: 3934: 3634:natural nuclear fission reactor 3394:Natural nuclear fission reactor 3335:nuclear and radiation accidents 2931:. A closed loop version of the 2656:Liquid fluoride thorium reactor 2310:Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor 1156:Primary coolant system showing 554:The fission of one kilogram of 236: 169:. Nuclear reactors are used at 7247:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 6129:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 5666:"Radionuclides in Groundwater" 4869:Generation IV Nuclear Reactors 4702:"Light Water Nuclear Reactors" 4568:"On This Day: 17 October" 3972:"Bioenergy Conversion Factors" 3828: 3798: 3768: 3650: 3214:is transferred to the on-site 3049:could in principle be used in 2792:Los Alamos National Laboratory 2777:Advanced boiling water reactor 2713:advanced boiling water reactor 2652:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment 2282:Advanced Boiling Water Reactor 2050:are capable of producing more 1731:, but not to be confused with 1614:Organically moderated reactors 1554:Light-water-moderated reactors 1499:prototypes is continuing (see 1122:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment 1052:), was the mass production of 966:to alert the U.S. government. 845:Nuclear fission § History 181:. When a fissile nucleus like 13: 1: 8090:Nuclear technology portal 7575:Nuclear technology portal 5411:"The Future of Nuclear Power" 5386:Paton, James (4 April 2011). 3643: 3573:Sayonara Nuclear Power Plants 3365:reactor accident (1961), the 3289:Fukushima I nuclear accidents 3269:Nuclear reactor safety system 2998:magnetohydrodynamic generator 2906:Very-high-temperature reactor 2820:Bhabha Atomic Research Centre 2439:Torness nuclear power station 2110:(for example with the pulsed 1628: 1081:U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 1063:, which is now a museum near 958:signed a letter to President 793: 121:, the first peacetime reactor 7860:Andreev Bay nuclear accident 7847:Chazhma Bay nuclear accident 7437:Field-reversed configuration 7047:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 6581: 4769:"Nuclear Energy and Society" 4708:. Georgia State University. 4455:, Idaho National Laboratory 3588:Traveling-wave reactor (TWR) 3558:One Less Nuclear Power Plant 3451: 2816:Advanced heavy-water reactor 2641:These dissolve the fuels in 2379:Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant 2319:A Canadian design (known as 2256:United States Naval reactors 2252:European Pressurized Reactor 2091:Production of materials for 1606:Liquid metal cooled reactors 1456:. These are surrounded by a 817:Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors 392: 283:. Reactor spent fuel can be 7: 8184:Nuclear power reactor types 7794:Nyonoksa radiation accident 7394:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 6579: 6341:States with nuclear weapons 5464:The Worst Nuclear Disasters 4601:. Camp Century, Greenland. 3849:10.1007/978-3-642-68444-9_5 3583:Thorium-based nuclear power 3515: 3190:Fueling of nuclear reactors 2923:liquid-core nuclear reactor 2901:Supercritical water reactor 2666:Aqueous homogeneous reactor 2451:advanced gas-cooled reactor 2381:– a RBMK type (closed 2009) 2303:Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant 2248:Hualong Pressurized Reactor 2120:neutron activation analysis 1936:Aqueous homogeneous reactor 1763:Liquid metal cooled reactor 1699:Supercritical water reactor 1540:Graphite-moderated reactors 1357:By type of nuclear reaction 1103:Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant 1073:Argonne National Laboratory 790:and generates electricity. 774:Electrical power generation 636:. Control rods are made of 115:, the first nuclear reactor 10: 8205: 8066:Russell–Einstein Manifesto 7989:Films about nuclear issues 7984:Books about nuclear issues 7872:Three Mile Island accident 7800:Fukushima nuclear accident 7679:Military nuclear accidents 7674:Nuclear meltdown accidents 7407: 7232:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 6356:Tests in the United States 5365:"The lessons of Fukushima" 4767:Lipper, Ilan; Stone, Jon. 4005:Cambridge University Press 3997:Bernstein, Jeremy (2008). 3391: 3347:Three Mile Island accident 3325:released large amounts of 3302: 3266: 3260: 3136:U-235 and non-fissile but 3068: 3038: 2896:Sodium-cooled fast reactor 2728:Nuclear Power 2010 Program 2333:fuel enrichment facilities 2220:Pressurized water reactors 2010:Various proposed forms of 1785:Sodium-cooled fast reactor 1535:Used by thermal reactors: 1118:Army Nuclear Power Program 842: 601: 565: 558:releases about 19 billion 439: 435: 396: 355:pressurized water reactors 290:Reactors are also used in 36: 29: 8179:Nuclear research reactors 8079: 8026:Nuclear-Free Future Award 7964: 7935:Totskoye nuclear exercise 7781: 7763:Sunken nuclear submarines 7648: 7562: 7518: 7470: 7427: 7417: 7369: 7357:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 7270: 7252:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 7217: 7200: 7140: 7067: 7059:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 7033: 7024: 6976: 6956: 6909: 6891: 6847: 6752: 6734: 6602: 6589: 6574: 6561: 6516: 6449: 6394: 6385: 6333: 6241: 6232: 6199: 6142: 6104: 6095: 6016: 5948: 5871: 5813: 5809: 5758:ソヴィエト連邦における宇宙用原子炉の開発とその実用 5242:World Nuclear Association 5055:World Nuclear Association 4822:USPTO Patent Applications 4354:. EDF (accessed Feb 2023) 4040:"How nuclear power works" 3709:10.1142/S0218301314300070 3456:Nuclear reactors produce 3373:reactor accident (1985). 3359:Nuclear-powered submarine 3313:Three of the reactors at 3278:designers of reactors at 2917:practicality, or safety. 2006:Nuclear marine propulsion 1979: 1777:, and in early reactors, 1662:Pressurized water reactor 1624:as moderator and coolant. 1544:Water moderated reactors 1173:pressurized water reactor 1016:, was constructed at the 983:Frisch–Peierls memorandum 760:nuclear marine propulsion 584:pressurized water reactor 296:Nuclear marine propulsion 179:nuclear marine propulsion 8164:Power station technology 7262:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 6878:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 6214:Electron-beam processing 5604:American Nuclear Society 5526:Video of physics lecture 4350:19 February 2023 at the 4329:19 February 2023 at the 4293:19 February 2023 at the 3606: 3548:Nuclear power by country 3523:List of nuclear reactors 3388:Natural nuclear reactors 2990:Fission fragment reactor 2933:nuclear lightbulb rocket 2886:Lead-cooled fast reactor 2040:Production reactors for 1847:Organic nuclear reactors 1790:Lead-cooled fast reactor 1519:of elements such as the 1390:Thermal-neutron reactors 1038:Metallurgical Laboratory 531:Heat is produced by the 109:From top, left to right 8041:Nuclear power phase-out 7377:Organic nuclear reactor 6549:Nuclear power phase-out 6472:Nuclear decommissioning 6412:Reactor-grade plutonium 6162:Targeted alpha-particle 6041:Accidents and incidents 5743:30 January 2010 at the 5731:3 November 2011 at the 5485:11 January 2015 at the 4741:10.1016/c2015-0-05557-5 4599:"Science Leads the Way" 4459:29 October 2008 at the 4344:Nuclear decommissioning 4200:21 January 2018 at the 4179:2 February 2017 at the 3543:Nuclear decommissioning 3408:natural nuclear fission 3125:there are at least 100 3000:to produce electricity. 2881:Gas-cooled fast reactor 1883:Generation III+ reactor 1755:class research reactors 1735:which are sodium cooled 1408:, that is, until their 1158:reactor pressure vessel 964:Einstein-Szilárd letter 827:, also after 46 years. 604:Nuclear reactor physics 572:nuclear reactor coolant 399:Nuclear reactor physics 281:boosted fission weapons 215:weapons-grade plutonium 8046:Nuclear weapons debate 5392:Bloomberg Businessweek 4840:Nuclear Energy Insider 3553:Nuclear power in space 3430:University of Arkansas 3353:(April 1986), and the 3333:Serious, though rare, 3330: 3329:material into the air. 2967:arrays converting the 2912:Generation V+ reactors 2873:Generation IV reactors 2868:Generation IV reactors 2520: 2491: 2442: 2430: 2382: 2305: 2266:Boiling water reactors 2250:and the Franco-German 2215: 2124:potassium-argon dating 2106:Providing a source of 1993:small modular reactors 1877:Generation III reactor 1653: 1645: 1505:generation IV reactors 1348: 1275: 1203: 1176: 949:nuclear chain reaction 895: 876: 861: 699:In some reactors, the 608:Passive nuclear safety 483:nuclear chain reaction 424:released from burning 418:thermal power stations 413: 387:Small modular reactors 359:boiling water reactors 351:Generation IV reactors 347:Generation II reactors 175:electricity generation 167:nuclear chain reaction 7904:K-19 nuclear accident 7699:Nuclear weapons tests 6539:Anti-nuclear movement 5551:15 March 2015 at the 5532:4 August 2006 at the 4875:30 March 2023 at the 4534:Kragh, Helge (1999). 4410:U.S. patent 2,708,656 4371:15 March 2023 at the 3578:Small modular reactor 3345:accident (1961), the 3312: 3004:Hybrid nuclear fusion 2943:. In theory, using UF 2736:integral fast reactor 2536:lead-bismuth eutectic 2514: 2489:TOPAZ nuclear reactor 2487:Scaled-down model of 2486: 2436: 2429:nuclear power station 2421: 2402:containment buildings 2376: 2297: 2210: 1889:Generation IV reactor 1867:Generation II reactor 1775:lead-bismuth eutectic 1706:Generation IV reactor 1687:Boiling water reactor 1651: 1636: 1558:operating temperature 1531:By moderator material 1515:could be produced by 1472:Fast-neutron reactors 1365:. They generally use 1331: 1274: 1202: 1155: 1111:F-1 (nuclear reactor) 1018:University of Chicago 960:Franklin D. Roosevelt 882: 867: 852: 801:neutron embrittlement 711:are more likely than 592:boiling water reactor 416:Just as conventional 406: 371:fast breeder reactors 304:spacecraft propulsion 273:nuclear proliferation 271:use. Reactors pose a 148:Chernobyl sarcophagus 8036:Nuclear power debate 7898:Cuban Missile Crisis 7749:in the United States 7447:Reversed field pinch 7242:Traveling-wave (TWR) 6726:Supercritical (SCWR) 6224:Gemstone irradiation 5556:Scientific American. 4597:Leskovitz, Frank J. 4394:21 June 2008 at the 4111:on 11 December 2013. 3978:on 27 September 2011 3835:Oldekop, W. (1982), 3663:21 June 2008 at the 3619:Hungarian physicist 3600:Nuclear microreactor 3417:Oklo Fossil Reactors 3361:mishaps include the 3341:(October 1957), the 3231:molten-salt reactors 3150:fast breeder reactor 2973:photoelectric effect 2854:with nuclear energy. 2802:Subcritical reactors 2632:Molten-salt reactors 2582:until May 2010. The 2541:Alfa class submarine 2477:fast-breeder reactor 2367:nuclear weapon test. 2169:improve this section 2137:Current technologies 1989:Nuclear power plants 1955:By shape of the core 1898:In 2003, the French 1871:nuclear power plants 1813:Molten-salt reactors 1578:Molten-salt reactors 1548:Heavy-water reactors 1466:containment building 1442:low-enriched uranium 1075:. This experimental 363:heavy water reactors 343:Department of Energy 245:electrical generator 171:nuclear power plants 8021:Nuclear close calls 6612:Aqueous homogeneous 6407:Reprocessed uranium 6080:Safety and security 5763:3 June 2019 at the 5704:2 June 2013 at the 5212:Scientific American 5187:on 19 December 2019 4971:on 31 December 2006 4842:. 8 February 2017. 4733:Nuclear Engineering 4574:. 17 October 1956. 4511:. 11 January 2017. 4221:9 June 2020 at the 4073:The Nuclear Tourist 3946:The Nuclear Tourist 3701:2014IJMPE..2330007D 3504:at high altitudes. 3223:pebble bed reactors 3182:, thorium-232 is a 2891:Molten-salt reactor 2781:epithermal neutrons 2598:Pebble-bed reactors 2030:Hydrogen production 2018:Other uses of heat 1941:Molten-salt reactor 1797:Gas cooled reactors 1462:radiation shielding 1402:neutron temperature 1149:from 1960 to 1963. 1096:UN General Assembly 1020:, by a team led by 875:in their laboratory 367:gas-cooled reactors 300:aircraft propulsion 257:hydrogen production 141:Operation Sea Orbit 8159:Nuclear technology 8124:Nuclear technology 7929:Operation Plumbbob 7892:Operation Fishbowl 7829:Chernobyl disaster 7526:Dense plasma focus 6441:Actinide chemistry 5906:Isotope separation 5803:Nuclear technology 5448:The New York Times 5248:on 23 January 2010 5061:on 6 February 2010 4676:10.1007/BF00750983 4271:has generic name ( 3685:(4): 1430007–236. 3568:Safety engineering 3419:. Self-sustaining 3351:Chernobyl disaster 3331: 3157:thorium fuel cycle 3089:nuclear fuel cycle 3071:Nuclear fuel cycle 3065:Nuclear fuel cycle 3028:spent nuclear fuel 2937:as a rocket engine 2751:Doppler broadening 2743:pebble-bed reactor 2521: 2492: 2447:Gas-cooled reactor 2443: 2431: 2406:Chernobyl disaster 2383: 2306: 2278:thermal efficiency 2216: 2116:positron radiation 2001:nuclear propulsion 1729:open pool reactors 1722:Epithermal neutron 1654: 1646: 1494:waste because all 1379:thorium fuel cycle 1349: 1285:PWR: 257.2 (68.3%) 1276: 1204: 1177: 954:On 2 August 1939, 896: 877: 862: 764:nuclear submarines 753:Chernobyl disaster 598:Reactivity control 590:; for example the 537:neutron absorption 498:neutron moderators 414: 328:Fukushima disaster 324:Chernobyl disaster 292:nuclear propulsion 199:neutron moderators 8154:Energy conversion 8105: 8104: 8031:Nuclear-free zone 7994:Anti-war movement 7950:Rocky Flats Plant 7608: 7607: 7558: 7557: 7554: 7553: 7505:Magnetized-target 7402: 7401: 7365: 7364: 7196: 7195: 7192: 7191: 7136: 7135: 7020: 7019: 6952: 6951: 6557: 6556: 6512: 6511: 6381: 6380: 6368:Weapon-free zones 6195: 6194: 6187:Radiopharmacology 4940:on 5 October 2006 4133:978-0-470-89439-2 4018:978-0-521-88408-2 3858:978-3-540-11307-2 3538:Neutron transport 3445:radioactive waste 3299:Nuclear accidents 3174:-233 and then to 3127:research reactors 3100:gaseous diffusion 2977:aneutronic fusion 2954:reactor materials 2952:, weakening most 2695:Advanced reactors 2258:are of this type. 2205: 2204: 2197: 2108:neutron radiation 2073:Creating various 2012:rocket propulsion 1641:reactor frame at 1569:/unenriched fuel. 1562:negative feedback 1480:neutron moderator 1398:neutron moderator 1309:LWGR: 10.2 (2.7%) 1303:PHWR: 24.6 (6.5%) 1291:BWR: 75.5 (20.1%) 1088:Dwight Eisenhower 1042:Manhattan Project 1007:Manhattan Project 908:nuclear reactions 885:Chicago Pile Team 859:Manhattan project 758:Reactors used in 705:neutron moderator 533:radioactive decay 339:research reactors 207:Manhattan Project 16:(Redirected from 8196: 8174:Pressure vessels 8169:Nuclear reactors 8134: 8133: 8122: 8121: 8120: 8113: 8097: 8096: 8088: 8087: 8086: 7917:Kyshtym disaster 7912:nuclear meltdown 7839:Related articles 7823:Goiânia accident 7635: 7628: 7621: 7612: 7611: 7596: 7595: 7584: 7583: 7573: 7572: 7571: 7483: 7442:Levitated dipole 7412: 7404: 7403: 7352:Helium gas (GFR) 7215: 7214: 7210: 7147: 7146: 7031: 7030: 6981: 6980: 6974: 6973: 6969: 6968: 6750: 6749: 6746: 6745: 6584: 6576: 6575: 6568:Nuclear reactors 6563: 6562: 6462:High-level (HLW) 6392: 6391: 6239: 6238: 6219:Food irradiation 6209:Atomic gardening 6102: 6101: 6085:Nuclear meltdown 5911:Nuclear material 5901:Fissile material 5896:Fertile material 5811: 5810: 5796: 5789: 5782: 5773: 5772: 5756: 5686: 5685: 5683: 5681: 5662: 5656: 5655: 5653: 5651: 5645: 5638: 5630: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5616: 5595: 5589: 5588: 5586: 5584: 5579:on 16 March 2006 5575:. 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Archived from 4932: 4924: 4918: 4917: 4915: 4913: 4908:on 17 March 2011 4898: 4892: 4886: 4880: 4865: 4856: 4855: 4853: 4851: 4832: 4826: 4825: 4817: 4811: 4810: 4808: 4806: 4791: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4764: 4755: 4754: 4728: 4722: 4721: 4719: 4717: 4697: 4688: 4687: 4658: 4652: 4651: 4649: 4647: 4641: 4634: 4626: 4615: 4614: 4612: 4610: 4594: 4588: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4564: 4558: 4557: 4541: 4531: 4525: 4524: 4522: 4520: 4501: 4495: 4494: 4492: 4490: 4484: 4477: 4469: 4463: 4450: 4444: 4443: 4441: 4439: 4420: 4414: 4412: 4405: 4399: 4385: 4379: 4361: 4355: 4340: 4334: 4319: 4313: 4312: 4304: 4298: 4283: 4277: 4276: 4270: 4266: 4264: 4256: 4254: 4252: 4232: 4226: 4211: 4205: 4204:NRC, 24 Feb 2022 4190: 4184: 4169: 4163: 4162: 4160: 4158: 4144: 4138: 4137: 4119: 4113: 4112: 4110: 4104:. Archived from 4103: 4095: 4089: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4065: 4056: 4055: 4053: 4051: 4036: 4030: 4029: 4027: 4025: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3968: 3962: 3961: 3959: 3957: 3938: 3932: 3931: 3929: 3927: 3922:on 23 April 2008 3921: 3914: 3906: 3900: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3880: 3874: 3873: 3872: 3870: 3832: 3826: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3810:nucleus.iaea.org 3802: 3796: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3755: 3747: 3741: 3738: 3729: 3728: 3694: 3674: 3668: 3654: 3637: 3630: 3624: 3617: 3184:fertile material 3077:enriched uranium 3026:other reactor's 3012:fertile material 2929:Gas-core reactor 2806:energy amplifier 2775:builds upon the 2341:online refueling 2200: 2193: 2189: 2186: 2180: 2149: 2141: 2130:Research reactor 2064:depleted uranium 2052:fissile material 2048:Breeder reactors 2034:hydrogen economy 1999:Propulsion, see 1924:By phase of fuel 1733:pool type LMFBRs 1394:thermal neutrons 1369:and its product 1337:research reactor 1314: 1308: 1302: 1296: 1290: 1284: 1265: 1242: 1236: 1231:PHWR: 49 (11.2%) 1230: 1224: 1218: 1213:PWR: 277 (63.2%) 1212: 1193: 1162:steam generators 1090:made his famous 1079:operated by the 940:neutron howitzer 936:Fritz Strassmann 709:Thermal neutrons 678:nuclear meltdown 662:neutron emission 467:fission products 333:As of 2022, the 249:district heating 103: 92: 83: 72: 63: 52: 21: 8204: 8203: 8199: 8198: 8197: 8195: 8194: 8193: 8189:Neutron sources 8144: 8143: 8140: 8128: 8118: 8116: 8108: 8106: 8101: 8084: 8082: 8075: 8051:Peace activists 7966: 7960: 7785: 7783: 7777: 7655: 7653: 7651: 7644: 7639: 7609: 7604: 7569: 7567: 7550: 7514: 7481: 7466: 7423: 7413: 7408: 7398: 7361: 7266: 7211: 7204: 7203: 7188: 7132: 7063: 7038: 7016: 6988: 6970: 6963: 6962: 6961: 6948: 6914: 6905: 6887: 6852: 6843: 6757: 6740: 6739: 6738: 6730: 6644:Natural fission 6598: 6597: 6585: 6580: 6570: 6553: 6529:Nuclear weapons 6508: 6467:Low-level (LLW) 6445: 6377: 6329: 6228: 6191: 6138: 6091: 6012: 5944: 5867: 5805: 5800: 5765:Wayback Machine 5754: 5745:Wayback Machine 5733:Wayback Machine 5706:Wayback Machine 5695: 5690: 5689: 5679: 5677: 5664: 5663: 5659: 5649: 5647: 5643: 5636: 5632: 5631: 5624: 5614: 5612: 5597: 5596: 5592: 5582: 5580: 5567: 5566: 5562: 5553:Wayback Machine 5543: 5539: 5534:Wayback Machine 5524: 5520: 5510: 5508: 5497: 5493: 5487:Wayback Machine 5478: 5474: 5462: 5455: 5440: 5436: 5426: 5424: 5420: 5413: 5407: 5403: 5398:on 15 May 2011. 5384: 5380: 5375:on 6 June 2013. 5361: 5357: 5345: 5339: 5332: 5322: 5320: 5315:. 7 June 2006. 5307: 5306: 5302: 5297: 5293: 5283: 5281: 5280:on 4 March 2016 5277: 5270: 5266: 5265: 5261: 5251: 5249: 5236: 5235: 5231: 5221: 5219: 5204: 5200: 5190: 5188: 5173: 5172: 5168: 5158: 5156: 5155:on 24 June 2019 5143: 5142: 5138: 5128: 5126: 5122: 5111: 5105: 5101: 5091: 5089: 5080:Till, Charles. 5078: 5074: 5064: 5062: 5049: 5048: 5044: 5034: 5032: 5019: 5018: 5014: 5004: 5002: 4989: 4988: 4984: 4974: 4972: 4963: 4962: 4958: 4951: 4943: 4941: 4937: 4930: 4926: 4925: 4921: 4911: 4909: 4902:"Generation IV" 4900: 4899: 4895: 4889:Nucleonics Week 4887: 4883: 4877:Wayback Machine 4866: 4859: 4849: 4847: 4834: 4833: 4829: 4819: 4818: 4814: 4804: 4802: 4793: 4792: 4788: 4778: 4776: 4775:on 1 April 2009 4765: 4758: 4751: 4729: 4725: 4715: 4713: 4698: 4691: 4659: 4655: 4645: 4643: 4639: 4632: 4628: 4627: 4618: 4608: 4606: 4595: 4591: 4581: 4579: 4566: 4565: 4561: 4554: 4532: 4528: 4518: 4516: 4503: 4502: 4498: 4488: 4486: 4485:on 25 June 2008 4482: 4475: 4471: 4470: 4466: 4461:Wayback Machine 4451: 4447: 4437: 4435: 4422: 4421: 4417: 4408: 4406: 4402: 4396:Wayback Machine 4386: 4382: 4373:Wayback Machine 4362: 4358: 4352:Wayback Machine 4341: 4337: 4331:Wayback Machine 4320: 4316: 4305: 4301: 4295:Wayback Machine 4284: 4280: 4268: 4267: 4258: 4257: 4250: 4248: 4233: 4229: 4223:Wayback Machine 4212: 4208: 4202:Wayback Machine 4191: 4187: 4181:Wayback Machine 4170: 4166: 4156: 4154: 4146: 4145: 4141: 4134: 4120: 4116: 4108: 4101: 4097: 4096: 4092: 4082: 4080: 4067: 4066: 4059: 4049: 4047: 4038: 4037: 4033: 4023: 4021: 4019: 3995: 3991: 3981: 3979: 3970: 3969: 3965: 3955: 3953: 3940: 3939: 3935: 3925: 3923: 3919: 3912: 3908: 3907: 3903: 3893: 3891: 3881: 3877: 3868: 3866: 3859: 3833: 3829: 3819: 3817: 3804: 3803: 3799: 3789: 3787: 3774: 3773: 3769: 3759: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3748: 3744: 3739: 3732: 3675: 3671: 3665:Wayback Machine 3655: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3640: 3631: 3627: 3618: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3518: 3507:The amounts of 3484: 3476: 3454: 3421:nuclear fission 3396: 3390: 3307: 3301: 3271: 3265: 3259: 3216:spent fuel pool 3192: 3119:neutron economy 3108:uranium dioxide 3073: 3067: 3043: 3037: 3035:Fusion reactors 2946: 2914: 2870: 2796:uranium hydride 2697: 2692: 2681:uranium nitrate 2677:uranium sulfate 2569:in France; and 2499:neutron capture 2329:neutron economy 2232:thermal neutron 2201: 2190: 2184: 2181: 2166: 2150: 2139: 2093:nuclear weapons 2086:smoke detectors 1982: 1957: 1926: 1904:Nucleonics Week 1856: 1840: 1824: 1710:steam generator 1669:pressure vessel 1631: 1600: 1589: 1567:natural uranium 1533: 1446:natural uranium 1434:neutron capture 1363:nuclear fission 1359: 1354: 1352:Classifications 1342: 1326: 1325: 1324: 1321: 1320: 1319: 1318: 1315:FBR: 0.6 (0.2%) 1312: 1306: 1300: 1297:GCR: 8.2 (2.2%) 1294: 1288: 1282: 1278: 1277: 1273: 1263: 1254: 1253: 1252: 1249: 1248: 1247: 1246: 1240: 1237:LWGR: 15 (3.4%) 1234: 1228: 1222: 1219:BWR: 80 (18.3%) 1216: 1210: 1206: 1205: 1201: 1191: 1182: 1092:Atoms for Peace 969:Shortly after, 956:Albert Einstein 847: 841: 821:Hinkley Point B 796: 776: 741:fission product 728:in the form of 703:also acts as a 683:prompt critical 650:prompt neutrons 646:delayed neutron 638:neutron poisons 626: 612:Delayed neutron 602:Main articles: 600: 568: 507: 505:Heat generation 494:neutron poisons 475:gamma radiation 444: 442:Nuclear fission 438: 430:nuclear fission 410:nuclear weapons 401: 395: 232:is passed to a 230:nuclear fission 163:nuclear reactor 159: 158: 157: 156: 106: 105: 104: 95: 94: 93: 85: 84: 75: 74: 73: 65: 64: 55: 54: 53: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8202: 8192: 8191: 8186: 8181: 8176: 8171: 8166: 8161: 8156: 8139: 8138: 8126: 8103: 8102: 8080: 8077: 8076: 8074: 8073: 8068: 8063: 8058: 8056:Peace movement 8053: 8048: 8043: 8038: 8033: 8028: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8008: 8001: 7996: 7991: 7986: 7981: 7976: 7970: 7968: 7962: 7961: 7959: 7958: 7952: 7947: 7942: 7937: 7931: 7925: 7923:Windscale fire 7919: 7913: 7906: 7900: 7894: 7884: 7882:Lucens reactor 7878: 7868: 7862: 7856: 7849: 7843: 7842: 7841: 7836: 7825: 7819: 7813: 7808: 7802: 7796: 7789: 7787: 7779: 7778: 7776: 7775: 7770: 7765: 7760: 7759: 7758: 7753: 7752: 7751: 7746: 7739:United Kingdom 7736: 7731: 7726: 7721: 7716: 7711: 7706: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7671: 7666: 7660: 7658: 7646: 7645: 7638: 7637: 7630: 7623: 7615: 7606: 7605: 7603: 7602: 7590: 7578: 7563: 7560: 7559: 7556: 7555: 7552: 7551: 7549: 7548: 7543: 7538: 7536:Muon-catalyzed 7533: 7528: 7522: 7520: 7516: 7515: 7513: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7496: 7495: 7485: 7476: 7474: 7468: 7467: 7465: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7433: 7431: 7425: 7424: 7418: 7415: 7414: 7400: 7399: 7397: 7396: 7391: 7390: 7389: 7384: 7373: 7371: 7367: 7366: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7343: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7276: 7274: 7268: 7267: 7265: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7227:Integral (IFR) 7224: 7218: 7212: 7201: 7198: 7197: 7194: 7193: 7190: 7189: 7187: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7155: 7153: 7144: 7138: 7137: 7134: 7133: 7131: 7130: 7129: 7128: 7123: 7122: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7106: 7091: 7086: 7085: 7084: 7073: 7071: 7065: 7064: 7062: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7042: 7040: 7036: 7028: 7022: 7021: 7018: 7017: 7015: 7014: 7009: 7004: 6999: 6993: 6991: 6986: 6978: 6971: 6957: 6954: 6953: 6950: 6949: 6947: 6946: 6945: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6918: 6916: 6912: 6907: 6906: 6904: 6903: 6897: 6895: 6889: 6888: 6886: 6885: 6880: 6875: 6874: 6873: 6868: 6857: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6844: 6842: 6841: 6840: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6818: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6797: 6792: 6791: 6790: 6785: 6782: 6779: 6776: 6762: 6760: 6755: 6747: 6732: 6731: 6729: 6728: 6723: 6722: 6721: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6707: 6706: 6701: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6646: 6641: 6640: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6614: 6608: 6606: 6600: 6599: 6591: 6590: 6587: 6586: 6572: 6571: 6559: 6558: 6555: 6554: 6552: 6551: 6546: 6544:Uranium mining 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6520: 6518: 6514: 6513: 6510: 6509: 6507: 6506: 6501: 6500: 6499: 6494: 6484: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6453: 6451: 6447: 6446: 6444: 6443: 6438: 6437: 6436: 6426: 6421: 6420: 6419: 6417:Minor actinide 6414: 6409: 6398: 6396: 6389: 6383: 6382: 6379: 6378: 6376: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6359: 6358: 6353: 6343: 6337: 6335: 6331: 6330: 6328: 6327: 6326: 6325: 6315: 6310: 6309: 6308: 6303: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6282: 6281: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6245: 6243: 6236: 6230: 6229: 6227: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6205: 6203: 6197: 6196: 6193: 6192: 6190: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6148: 6146: 6140: 6139: 6137: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6114:Autoradiograph 6110: 6108: 6099: 6093: 6092: 6090: 6089: 6088: 6087: 6077: 6076: 6075: 6065: 6064: 6063: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6022: 6020: 6014: 6013: 6011: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5954: 5952: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5942: 5941: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5929: 5928: 5923: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5877: 5875: 5869: 5868: 5866: 5865: 5864: 5863: 5858: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5836:Atomic nucleus 5833: 5828: 5823: 5817: 5815: 5807: 5806: 5799: 5798: 5791: 5784: 5776: 5770: 5769: 5768: 5767: 5747: 5735: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5694: 5693:External links 5691: 5688: 5687: 5657: 5622: 5590: 5560: 5537: 5518: 5491: 5472: 5453: 5434: 5416:. p. 48. 5401: 5378: 5355: 5330: 5300: 5291: 5259: 5229: 5198: 5180:Bloomberg News 5166: 5136: 5099: 5072: 5042: 5012: 4982: 4956: 4952:(4.33 MB) 4919: 4893: 4881: 4857: 4827: 4812: 4786: 4756: 4749: 4723: 4689: 4653: 4616: 4589: 4559: 4552: 4526: 4496: 4464: 4445: 4415: 4400: 4380: 4356: 4335: 4314: 4299: 4278: 4227: 4206: 4185: 4164: 4139: 4132: 4114: 4090: 4057: 4031: 4017: 3989: 3963: 3933: 3901: 3875: 3857: 3841:Primary Energy 3827: 3797: 3767: 3742: 3730: 3669: 3648: 3647: 3645: 3642: 3639: 3638: 3625: 3611: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3603: 3602: 3597: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3525: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3482: 3474: 3453: 3450: 3413:Francis Perrin 3392:Main article: 3389: 3386: 3357:(March 2011). 3339:Windscale fire 3300: 3297: 3263:Nuclear safety 3261:Main article: 3258: 3257:Nuclear safety 3255: 3199:the amount of 3191: 3188: 3104:gas centrifuge 3069:Main article: 3066: 3063: 3047:nuclear fusion 3039:Main article: 3036: 3033: 3032: 3031: 3001: 2987: 2986: 2985: 2944: 2926: 2913: 2910: 2909: 2908: 2903: 2898: 2893: 2888: 2883: 2869: 2866: 2864:for aircraft. 2858: 2857: 2856: 2855: 2844: 2837: 2823: 2822:(BARC), India. 2809: 2799: 2784: 2769: 2762: 2755: 2739: 2717:passively safe 2696: 2693: 2691: 2688: 2687: 2686: 2685: 2684: 2670: 2669: 2662: 2661: 2660: 2659: 2636: 2635: 2628: 2627: 2626: 2625: 2602: 2601: 2594: 2593: 2592: 2591: 2590: 2589: 2588: 2587: 2546: 2545: 2544: 2509: 2508: 2507: 2506: 2481: 2480: 2470: 2469: 2468: 2467: 2455: 2454: 2416: 2415: 2414: 2413: 2394: 2393: 2385: 2384: 2370: 2369: 2368: 2365:Smiling Buddha 2314: 2313: 2292: 2291: 2290: 2289: 2270: 2269: 2262: 2261: 2260: 2259: 2224: 2223: 2203: 2202: 2153: 2151: 2144: 2138: 2135: 2134: 2133: 2127: 2104: 2103: 2102: 2089: 2071: 2038: 2037: 2036: 2027: 2024: 2016: 2015: 2014: 2008: 1997: 1996: 1995: 1981: 1978: 1977: 1976: 1973: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1956: 1953: 1952: 1951: 1945: 1944: 1943: 1938: 1930: 1925: 1922: 1896: 1895: 1892: 1886: 1880: 1874: 1869:(most current 1864: 1855: 1852: 1851: 1850: 1844: 1838: 1822: 1810: 1807:heat exchanger 1794: 1793: 1792: 1787: 1760: 1759: 1758: 1757: 1756: 1750: 1736: 1725: 1715: 1714: 1713: 1696: 1695: 1694: 1684: 1683: 1682: 1672: 1630: 1627: 1626: 1625: 1611: 1610: 1609: 1603: 1598: 1587: 1572: 1571: 1570: 1551: 1542: 1532: 1529: 1517:nuclear fusion 1511:In principle, 1509: 1508: 1469: 1458:reactor vessel 1410:kinetic energy 1392:use slowed or 1383:chain reaction 1358: 1355: 1353: 1350: 1340: 1322: 1317: 1316: 1310: 1304: 1298: 1292: 1286: 1279: 1261: 1260: 1259: 1258: 1257: 1256: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1244: 1238: 1232: 1226: 1225:GCR: 15 (3.4%) 1220: 1214: 1207: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1186: 1185: 1184: 1183: 1181: 1178: 1094:speech to the 1014:Chicago Pile-1 1003:to be subsumed 995:MAUD Committee 991:chain reaction 942:") produced a 904:James Chadwick 840: 839:Early reactors 837: 809:decommissioned 795: 792: 786:that turns an 780:thermal energy 775: 772: 599: 596: 567: 564: 543:A kilogram of 541: 540: 529: 522: 519:thermal energy 515:kinetic energy 506: 503: 471:kinetic energy 451:atomic nucleus 440:Main article: 437: 434: 422:thermal energy 397:Main article: 394: 391: 191:chain reaction 155: 154: 144: 138: 135:Convair NB-36H 131: 122: 116: 113:Chicago Pile-1 108: 107: 98: 97: 96: 87: 86: 78: 77: 76: 67: 66: 58: 57: 56: 47: 46: 45: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8201: 8190: 8187: 8185: 8182: 8180: 8177: 8175: 8172: 8170: 8167: 8165: 8162: 8160: 8157: 8155: 8152: 8151: 8149: 8142: 8137: 8132: 8127: 8125: 8115: 8114: 8111: 8100: 8092: 8091: 8078: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8062: 8059: 8057: 8054: 8052: 8049: 8047: 8044: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8027: 8024: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8006: 8002: 8000: 7997: 7995: 7992: 7990: 7987: 7985: 7982: 7980: 7977: 7975: 7972: 7971: 7969: 7963: 7957: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7932: 7930: 7926: 7924: 7920: 7918: 7914: 7911: 7907: 7905: 7901: 7899: 7895: 7893: 7889: 7885: 7883: 7879: 7877: 7873: 7869: 7867: 7863: 7861: 7857: 7854: 7850: 7848: 7844: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7831: 7830: 7826: 7824: 7820: 7818: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7803: 7801: 7797: 7795: 7791: 7790: 7788: 7780: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7757: 7756:United States 7754: 7750: 7747: 7745: 7742: 7741: 7740: 7737: 7735: 7732: 7730: 7727: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7701: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7670: 7667: 7665: 7662: 7661: 7659: 7657: 7647: 7643: 7636: 7631: 7629: 7624: 7622: 7617: 7616: 7613: 7601: 7600: 7591: 7589: 7588: 7579: 7577: 7576: 7565: 7564: 7561: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7523: 7521: 7517: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7494: 7493:electrostatic 7491: 7490: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7478: 7477: 7475: 7473: 7469: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7434: 7432: 7430: 7426: 7422: 7416: 7411: 7405: 7395: 7392: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7379: 7378: 7375: 7374: 7372: 7368: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7282: 7281: 7278: 7277: 7275: 7273: 7272:Generation IV 7269: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7222:Breeder (FBR) 7220: 7219: 7216: 7213: 7208: 7199: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7156: 7154: 7152: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7139: 7127: 7124: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7101: 7100: 7097: 7096: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7083: 7080: 7079: 7078: 7075: 7074: 7072: 7070: 7066: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7048: 7044: 7043: 7041: 7039: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7023: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6994: 6992: 6990: 6982: 6979: 6975: 6972: 6967: 6960: 6955: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6924: 6923: 6920: 6919: 6917: 6915: 6908: 6902: 6899: 6898: 6896: 6894: 6890: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6863: 6862: 6859: 6858: 6856: 6854: 6846: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6802: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6789: 6786: 6783: 6780: 6777: 6774: 6773: 6772: 6769: 6768: 6767: 6764: 6763: 6761: 6759: 6751: 6748: 6744: 6737: 6733: 6727: 6724: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6696: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6651: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6619: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6609: 6607: 6605: 6601: 6596: 6595: 6588: 6583: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6564: 6560: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6524:Nuclear power 6522: 6521: 6519: 6515: 6505: 6504:Transmutation 6502: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6489: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6454: 6452: 6448: 6442: 6439: 6435: 6432: 6431: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6404: 6403: 6400: 6399: 6397: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6384: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6348: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6338: 6336: 6332: 6324: 6321: 6320: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6301:high-altitude 6299: 6298: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6291:Proliferation 6289: 6287: 6284: 6280: 6277: 6276: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6246: 6244: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6231: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6206: 6204: 6202: 6198: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6177:Brachytherapy 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6149: 6147: 6145: 6141: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6111: 6109: 6107: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6094: 6086: 6083: 6082: 6081: 6078: 6074: 6071: 6070: 6069: 6066: 6062: 6059: 6058: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6023: 6021: 6019: 6015: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5973:Cross section 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5955: 5953: 5951: 5947: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5918: 5917: 5914: 5913: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5878: 5876: 5874: 5870: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5853: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5818: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5797: 5792: 5790: 5785: 5783: 5778: 5777: 5774: 5766: 5762: 5759: 5755:(in Japanese) 5753: 5752: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5742: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5730: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5703: 5700: 5697: 5696: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5661: 5642: 5635: 5629: 5627: 5610: 5606: 5605: 5600: 5594: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5564: 5557: 5554: 5550: 5547: 5541: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5522: 5506: 5502: 5495: 5488: 5484: 5481: 5476: 5469: 5465: 5460: 5458: 5449: 5445: 5438: 5419: 5412: 5405: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5382: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5359: 5351: 5350:Energy Policy 5344: 5337: 5335: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5304: 5295: 5276: 5269: 5263: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5233: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5202: 5186: 5182: 5181: 5176: 5170: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5140: 5121: 5117: 5110: 5103: 5087: 5083: 5076: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5046: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5021:"RRDB Search" 5016: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4986: 4970: 4966: 4960: 4936: 4929: 4923: 4907: 4903: 4897: 4890: 4885: 4878: 4874: 4871: 4870: 4864: 4862: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4831: 4823: 4816: 4800: 4796: 4790: 4774: 4770: 4763: 4761: 4752: 4750:9780081009628 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4727: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4696: 4694: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4664:Atomic Energy 4657: 4638: 4631: 4625: 4623: 4621: 4604: 4600: 4593: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4563: 4555: 4553:0-691-09552-3 4549: 4545: 4540: 4539: 4530: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4500: 4481: 4474: 4468: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4449: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4419: 4411: 4404: 4397: 4393: 4390: 4384: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4367: 4366: 4360: 4353: 4349: 4346: 4345: 4339: 4332: 4328: 4325: 4324: 4318: 4310: 4303: 4296: 4292: 4289: 4288: 4282: 4274: 4262: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4231: 4224: 4220: 4217: 4216: 4210: 4203: 4199: 4196: 4195: 4189: 4182: 4178: 4175: 4174: 4168: 4153: 4149: 4143: 4135: 4129: 4125: 4118: 4107: 4100: 4094: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4064: 4062: 4045: 4041: 4035: 4020: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 4001: 3993: 3977: 3973: 3967: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3937: 3918: 3911: 3905: 3890: 3886: 3879: 3864: 3860: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3831: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3806:"RRDB Search" 3801: 3785: 3781: 3780:pris.iaea.org 3777: 3776:"PRIS – Home" 3771: 3752: 3746: 3737: 3735: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3673: 3666: 3662: 3659: 3653: 3649: 3635: 3629: 3622: 3616: 3612: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3595: 3591: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3539: 3536: 3534: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3521: 3520: 3513: 3510: 3505: 3503: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3478: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3459: 3449: 3446: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3431: 3427: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3395: 3385: 3383: 3379: 3374: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3306: 3296: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3270: 3264: 3254: 3252: 3247: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3227:RBMK reactors 3224: 3219: 3217: 3211: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3197: 3187: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3158: 3153: 3151: 3146: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3115: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3092: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3072: 3062: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3042: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3002: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2988: 2983: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2961: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2927: 2924: 2920: 2919: 2918: 2907: 2904: 2902: 2899: 2897: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2887: 2884: 2882: 2879: 2878: 2877: 2874: 2865: 2863: 2853: 2849: 2848:Cerro Impacto 2845: 2842: 2838: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2824: 2821: 2817: 2814: 2813: 2810: 2807: 2803: 2800: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2767: 2763: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2737: 2733: 2732: 2731: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2673: 2672: 2671: 2667: 2664: 2663: 2657: 2653: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2639: 2638: 2637: 2633: 2630: 2629: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2606: 2605: 2604: 2603: 2599: 2596: 2595: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2576:Monju reactor 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2551: 2550: 2549:Sodium-cooled 2547: 2542: 2537: 2532: 2531: 2530: 2527: 2526: 2525: 2524: 2523: 2522: 2518: 2513: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2495: 2494: 2493: 2490: 2485: 2478: 2475: 2472: 2471: 2464: 2459: 2458: 2457: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2445: 2444: 2440: 2435: 2428: 2425: 2420: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2398: 2397: 2396: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2386: 2380: 2375: 2371: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2317: 2316: 2315: 2311: 2308: 2307: 2304: 2301: 2296: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2274: 2273: 2272: 2271: 2267: 2264: 2263: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2228: 2227: 2226: 2225: 2221: 2218: 2217: 2213: 2212:Diablo Canyon 2209: 2199: 2196: 2188: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2164: 2163: 2159: 2154:This section 2152: 2148: 2143: 2142: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2112:Godiva device 2109: 2105: 2101: 2098: 2097:weapons-grade 2094: 2090: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2076: 2072: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2046: 2045: 2043: 2042:transmutation 2039: 2035: 2032:for use in a 2031: 2028: 2025: 2023: 2020: 2019: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2007: 2004: 2003: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1987: 1986: 1984: 1983: 1974: 1971: 1968: 1965: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1950:(theoretical) 1949: 1946: 1942: 1939: 1937: 1934: 1933: 1932:Fluid fueled 1931: 1928: 1927: 1921: 1919: 1914: 1913:(GIF) plans. 1912: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1893: 1890: 1887: 1884: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1872: 1868: 1865: 1862: 1858: 1857: 1854:By generation 1848: 1845: 1842: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1818: 1814: 1811: 1808: 1803: 1798: 1795: 1791: 1788: 1786: 1783: 1782: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1761: 1754: 1751: 1748: 1744: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1723: 1719: 1716: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1702: 1700: 1697: 1691: 1690: 1688: 1685: 1680: 1676: 1673: 1670: 1666: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1659: 1656: 1655: 1650: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1612: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1594: 1590: 1583: 1579: 1576: 1575: 1573: 1568: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1545: 1543: 1541: 1538: 1537: 1536: 1528: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1506: 1502: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1476:fast neutrons 1473: 1470: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1454:boiling point 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1430:plutonium-241 1427: 1426:plutonium-239 1423: 1419: 1415: 1414:cross section 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1388: 1387: 1386: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1346: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1311: 1305: 1299: 1293: 1287: 1281: 1280: 1243:FBR: 2 (0.5%) 1239: 1233: 1227: 1221: 1215: 1209: 1208: 1180:Reactor types 1174: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1154: 1150: 1148: 1143: 1141: 1137: 1132: 1130: 1129: 1123: 1119: 1114: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1084: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1034: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1010: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 989:needed for a 988: 984: 979: 976: 972: 967: 965: 961: 957: 952: 950: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 924: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 894: 890: 886: 881: 874: 870: 866: 860: 856: 851: 846: 836: 833: 828: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 804: 802: 791: 789: 785: 784:steam turbine 781: 771: 769: 765: 761: 756: 754: 750: 745: 742: 739:. The common 738: 733: 731: 727: 723: 717: 714: 713:fast neutrons 710: 706: 702: 697: 695: 691: 690: 684: 679: 675: 674:critical mass 672:to achieve a 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 642: 639: 635: 630: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 595: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 563: 561: 557: 552: 550: 546: 538: 534: 530: 527: 523: 520: 516: 512: 511: 510: 502: 499: 495: 491: 486: 484: 480: 479:free neutrons 476: 472: 469:), releasing 468: 464: 463:plutonium-239 460: 456: 452: 449: 446:When a large 443: 433: 431: 427: 423: 419: 411: 405: 400: 390: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 331: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 307: 305: 301: 297: 294:of vehicles. 293: 288: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 235: 234:working fluid 231: 226: 224: 220: 219:fission bombs 216: 212: 208: 203: 200: 196: 192: 188: 187:plutonium-239 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 153: 152:1986 disaster 149: 145: 142: 139: 136: 132: 130: 126: 123: 120: 117: 114: 111: 110: 102: 91: 82: 71: 62: 51: 40: 33: 19: 8141: 8081: 8003: 7999:Bikini Atoll 7945:Hanford Site 7940:Bikini Atoll 7744:in Australia 7734:Soviet Union 7729:South Africa 7597: 7585: 7566: 7546:Pyroelectric 7500:Laser-driven 7280:Sodium (SFR) 7207:fast-neutron 7046: 6592: 6567: 6482:Reprocessing 6363:WMD treaties 6182:Radiosurgery 6152:Fast-neutron 6124:Scintigraphy 5678:. Retrieved 5669: 5660: 5648:. Retrieved 5613:. Retrieved 5602: 5593: 5581:. Retrieved 5577:the original 5572: 5563: 5555: 5540: 5521: 5509:. Retrieved 5494: 5475: 5467: 5447: 5437: 5425:. Retrieved 5404: 5396:the original 5391: 5381: 5373:the original 5368: 5358: 5352:. p. 6. 5349: 5321:. Retrieved 5312: 5303: 5294: 5282:. Retrieved 5275:the original 5262: 5250:. Retrieved 5246:the original 5232: 5220:. Retrieved 5211: 5201: 5189:. Retrieved 5185:the original 5178: 5169: 5157:. Retrieved 5153:the original 5148: 5139: 5127:. Retrieved 5115: 5102: 5090:. Retrieved 5075: 5063:. Retrieved 5059:the original 5045: 5033:. Retrieved 5024: 5015: 5003:. Retrieved 4999:the original 4994: 4985: 4973:. Retrieved 4969:the original 4959: 4942:. Retrieved 4935:the original 4922: 4910:. Retrieved 4906:the original 4896: 4888: 4884: 4868: 4848:. Retrieved 4839: 4830: 4821: 4815: 4803:. Retrieved 4789: 4777:. Retrieved 4773:the original 4735:. Elsevier. 4732: 4726: 4714:. Retrieved 4706:Hyperphysics 4705: 4667: 4663: 4656: 4644:. Retrieved 4607:. Retrieved 4592: 4580:. Retrieved 4571: 4562: 4537: 4529: 4517:. Retrieved 4508: 4499: 4487:. Retrieved 4480:the original 4467: 4448: 4436:. Retrieved 4427: 4418: 4403: 4387:L. Szilárd, 4383: 4364: 4359: 4343: 4338: 4333:. EDF Energy 4322: 4317: 4308: 4302: 4286: 4281: 4249:. Retrieved 4240: 4230: 4214: 4209: 4193: 4188: 4172: 4167: 4155:. Retrieved 4151: 4142: 4123: 4117: 4106:the original 4093: 4083:25 September 4081:. Retrieved 4072: 4050:25 September 4048:. Retrieved 4034: 4022:. Retrieved 3999: 3992: 3980:. Retrieved 3976:the original 3966: 3956:25 September 3954:. Retrieved 3945: 3936: 3926:24 September 3924:. Retrieved 3917:the original 3904: 3892:. Retrieved 3888: 3878: 3867:, retrieved 3840: 3830: 3818:. Retrieved 3809: 3800: 3788:. Retrieved 3779: 3770: 3758:. Retrieved 3745: 3682: 3678: 3672: 3656:L. Szilárd, 3652: 3628: 3615: 3592: 3509:strontium-90 3506: 3462: 3455: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3397: 3375: 3332: 3272: 3248: 3220: 3212: 3208: 3196:nuclear fuel 3193: 3172:protactinium 3154: 3147: 3132: 3116: 3093: 3074: 3051:fusion power 3044: 3041:Fusion power 2994:Carnot cycle 2965:photovoltaic 2950:neutron flux 2940: 2915: 2871: 2859: 2722:(ESBWR) and 2698: 2503:fast neutron 2474:Liquid metal 2410:Soviet Union 2191: 2182: 2167:Please help 2155: 2044:of elements 2022:Desalination 1985:Electricity 1929:Solid fueled 1915: 1908: 1903: 1897: 1873:, 1965–1996) 1704:SCWRs are a 1534: 1513:fusion power 1510: 1501:fast breeder 1405: 1375:nuclear fuel 1360: 1147:Camp Century 1144: 1133: 1127: 1115: 1107:Soviet Union 1100: 1085: 1058: 1046:Hanford Site 1035: 1026:Enrico Fermi 1011: 980: 975:World War II 971:Nazi Germany 968: 953: 932:Lise Meitner 925: 897: 889:Enrico Fermi 887:, including 883:Some of the 869:Lise Meitner 855:Chicago Pile 829: 825:Hunterston B 805: 797: 777: 762:(especially 757: 734: 718: 698: 693: 686: 669: 643: 634:control rods 631: 627: 588:reactor core 569: 560:kilocalories 553: 542: 508: 490:control rods 487: 445: 426:fossil fuels 415: 332: 308: 289: 279:gas used in 253:desalination 227: 204: 195:control rods 162: 160: 32:Fusion power 18:Nuclear pile 8071:Smiling Sun 7782:Individual 7719:North Korea 7457:Stellarator 7421:confinement 7315:Superphénix 7142:Molten-salt 7094:VHTR (HTGR) 6871:HW BLWR 250 6837:R4 Marviken 6766:Pressurized 6736:Heavy water 6720:many others 6649:Pressurized 6604:Light water 6306:underground 6264:Disarmament 6172:Tomotherapy 6167:Proton-beam 6031:Power plant 5993:Temperature 5826:Engineering 5672:. nrc.gov. 5191:19 December 5005:12 December 4609:9 September 4509:www.pbs.org 4269:|last= 3632:An extinct 3621:Leo Szilard 3502:cosmic rays 3426:Paul Kuroda 3380:especially 3327:radioactive 3315:Fukushima I 3204:uranium-235 3180:uranium-238 3176:uranium-233 3168:beta decays 3160:thorium-232 3138:fissionable 3085:reprocessed 3045:Controlled 2852:coal energy 2726:units (see 2567:Superphénix 2529:Lead-cooled 2517:Superphénix 2361:South Korea 2325:heavy water 2242:, American 2238:, Japanese 2084:for use in 2075:radioactive 1963:Cylindrical 1740:heavy water 1679:heavy water 1523:isotope of 1492:transuranic 1438:uranium-238 1422:uranium-235 1406:thermalized 1377:, though a 1343:pellets in 1170:Hualong One 1166:pressurizer 1136:Calder Hall 1069:Walter Zinn 1065:Arco, Idaho 1030:criticality 1005:within the 999:Tube Alloys 916:Leó Szilárd 893:Leó Szilárd 582:, like the 576:molten salt 556:uranium-235 545:uranium-235 492:containing 459:uranium-233 455:uranium-235 285:reprocessed 211:criticality 183:uranium-235 8148:Categories 8061:Peace camp 7851:1985–1987 7784:accidents 7652:disasters 7482:(acoustic) 7099:PBR (PBMR) 6487:Spent fuel 6477:Repository 6457:Fuel cycle 6424:Activation 6201:Processing 6068:Propulsion 6026:by country 5958:Activation 5284:7 December 5252:29 January 5129:27 October 5092:9 November 5065:29 January 4805:6 November 4646:26 October 4582:9 November 4519:12 January 4007:. p. 3869:2 February 3644:References 3489:beta decay 3382:Kosmos 954 3319:dissociate 3303:See also: 3267:See also: 3162:absorbs a 2794:that uses 2449:(GCR) and 2427:Sizewell A 2254:. 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