History of the Jews in Germany

4079:

modernizing, but they also tried to keep some traditions alive. German Jewish mothers were shifting the way they raised their children in ways such as moving their families out of Jewish neighborhoods, thus changing who Jewish children grew up around and conversed with, all in all shifting the dynamic of the then close-knit Jewish community. Additionally, Jewish mothers wished to integrate themselves and their families into German society in other ways. Because of their mothers, Jewish children participated in walks around the neighborhood, sporting events, and other activities that would mold them into becoming more like their other German peers. For mothers to assimilate into German culture, they took pleasure in reading newspapers and magazines that focused on the fashion styles, as well as other trends that were up and coming for the time and that the Protestant, bourgeois Germans were exhibiting. Similar to this, German-Jewish mothers also urged their children to partake in music lessons, mainly because it was a popular activity among other Germans. Another effort German-Jewish mothers put into assimilating their families was enforcing the importance of manners on their children. It was noted that non-Jewish Germans saw Jews as disrespectful and unable to grasp the concept of time and place. Because of this, Jewish mothers tried to raise their kids having even better manners than the Protestant children in an effort to combat the pre-existing stereotype put on their children. In addition, Jewish mothers put a large emphasis on proper education for their children in hopes that this would help them grow up to be more respected by their communities and eventually lead to prosperous careers. While Jewish mothers worked tirelessly on ensuring the assimilation of their families, they also attempted to keep the familial aspect of Jewish traditions. They began to look at

6511:

hiding and did everything they could to survive. Commonly referred to as "dashers and divers," the Jews lived a submerged life and experienced the struggle to find food, a relatively secure hiding space or shelter, and false identity papers while constantly evading Nazi police and strategically avoiding checkpoints. Non-Jews offered support by allowing the Jews to hide in their homes but when this proved to be too dangerous for both parties, the Jews were forced to seek shelter in more exposed locations including the street. Some Jews were able to attain false papers, despite the risks and sacrifice of resources doing so required. A reliable false ID would cost between 2,000RM and 6,000RM depending on where it came from. Some Jews in Berlin looked to the Black Market to get false papers as this was a most sought-after product following food, tobacco, and clothing. Certain forms of ID were soon deemed unacceptable, leaving the Jews with depleted resources and vulnerable to being arrested. Avoiding arrest was particularly challenging in 1943 as the Nazi police increased their personnel and inspection checkpoints, leading to 65 percent of all submerged Jews being detained and likely deported. On 19 May 1943, only about 20,000 Jews remained and Germany was declared

4126: 6491: 6091: 6153: 6341: 4679: 4003:. Euchel was exposed to European languages and culture while living in Prussian centers: Berlin and Koenigsberg. His interests turned towards promoting the educational interests of the Enlightenment with other Jews. Moses Mendelssohn as another enlightenment thinker was the first Jew to bring secular culture to those living an Orthodox Jewish life. He valued reason and felt that anyone could arrive logically at religious truths while arguing that what makes Judaism unique is its divine revelation of a code of law. Mendelssohn's commitment to Judaism leads to tensions even with some of those who subscribed to Enlightenment philosophy. Faithful Christians who were less opposed to his rationalistic ideas than to his adherence to Judaism found it difficult to accept this 3726:. Speculating that no religious institution should use coercion and emphasized that Judaism does not coerce the mind through dogma, he argued that through reason, all people could discover religious philosophical truths, but what made Judaism unique was its revealed code of legal, ritual, and moral law. He said that Jews must live in civil society, but only in a way that their right to observe religious laws is granted, while also recognizing the needs for respect, and multiplicity of religions. He campaigned for emancipation and instructed Jews to form bonds with the gentile governments, attempting to improve the relationship between Jews and Christians while arguing for tolerance and humanity. He became the symbol of the Jewish Enlightenment, the Haskalah. 4403:

and pogroms had only worsened as the war dragged on. However, German Jews did not always feel a personal kinship with Russian Jews. Many were repelled by Eastern Jews, who dressed and behaved differently, as well as being much more religiously devout. Victor Klemperer, a German Jew working for military censors, stated "No, I did not belong to these people, even if one proved my blood relation to them a hundred times over...I belonged to Europe, to Germany, and I thanked my creator that I was German." This was a common attitude amongst ethnic Germans however; during the invasion of Russia the territories the Germans overran seemed backwards and primitive, thus for many Germans their experiences in Russia simply reinforced their national self-concept.

4366:. While there was partially a desire for vengeance, for many Jews ensuring Russia's Jewish population was saved from a life of servitude was equally important – one German-Jewish publication stated "We are fighting to protect our holy fatherland, to rescue European culture and to liberate our brothers in the east." War fervour was as common amongst Jewish communities as it was amongst ethnic Germans ones. The main Jewish organisation in Germany, the Central Association of German Citizens of the Jewish Faith, declared unconditional support for the war and when 5 August was declared by the Kaiser to be a day of patriotic prayer, synagogues across Germany surged with visitors and filled with patriotic prayers and nationalistic speeches. 4333: 4296:

historians including Marion A. Kaplan, argue that it was the opposite and Jewish women were the initiators of balancing both Jewish and German culture during Imperial Germany. Jewish women played a key role in keeping the Jewish communities in tune with the changing society that was evoked by the Jews being emancipated. Jewish women were the catalyst of modernization within the Jewish community. The years 1870–1918 marked the shift in the women's role in society. Their job in the past had been housekeeping and raising children. Now, however, they began to contribute to the home financially. Jewish mothers were the only tool families had to linking Judaism with

4260: 4561: 4370: 6324:). The storefronts of Jewish shops and offices were smashed and vandalized, and many synagogues were destroyed by fire. Approximately 91 Jews were killed, and another 30,000 arrested, mostly able bodied males, all of whom were sent to the newly formed concentration camps. In the following 3 months some 2,000–2,500 of them died in the concentration camps, the rest were released under the condition that they leave Germany. Many Germans were disgusted by this action when the full extent of the damage was discovered, so Hitler ordered that it be blamed on the Jews. The Nazis announced the " 7234:, to allow Jewish people from the former Soviet Union to emigrate to Germany, which led to a large Jewish emigration. Germany is home to a nominal Jewish population of more than 200,000 (although this number reflects non-Jewish spouses or children who also immigrated under the Quota Refugee Law); around 100,000 are officially registered with Jewish religious communities. The size of the Jewish community in Berlin is estimated at 120,000 people, or 60% of Germany's total Jewish population. Today, between 80 and 90 percent of the Jews in Germany are Russian speaking immigrants from the 164: 7324: 3706:

publications of philosophical essays in German. Mendelssohn conceived of God as a perfect Being and had faith in "God's wisdom, righteousness, mercy, and goodness." He argued, "the world results from a creative act through which the divine will seeks to realize the highest good," and accepted the existence of miracles and revelation as long as belief in God did not depend on them. He also believed that revelation could not contradict reason. Like the deists, Mendelssohn claimed that reason could discover the reality of God, divine providence, and

8323: 4407: 4036: 6246:(SA) had been. Because of this, they were also supported, though distrusted, by the army, which was now more willing to agree with Hitler's decisions than when the SA was dominant. All of this allowed Hitler more direct control over government and political attitude towards Jews in Nazi Germany. In 1937 and 1938, new laws were implemented, and the segregation of Jews from the true "Aryan" German population was started. In particular, Jews were penalized financially for their perceived racial status. 4141: 4492: 7385: 3680: 3476: 6250: 3697:– his first meeting with a sample of European letters. This was only the beginning to Mendelssohn's inquiries about the knowledge of life. Mendelssohn learned many new languages, and with his whole education consisting of Talmud lessons, he thought in Hebrew and translated for himself every new piece of work he met into this language. The divide between the Jews and the rest of society was caused by a lack of translation between these two languages, and 6273: 4300:. They felt it was their job to raise children that would fit in with bourgeois Germany. Women had to balance enforcing German traditions while also preserving Jewish traditions. Women were in charge of keeping kosher and the Sabbath; as well as, teaching their children German speech and dressing them in German clothing. Jewish women attempted to create an exterior presence of German while maintaining the Jewish lifestyle inside their homes. 4398:

life; they could no longer be considered a minority with transnational loyalties but loyal German citizens. German Jews often broke ties with Jews of other countries; the Alliance Israélite Universelle, a French organisation that was dedicated to protecting Jewish rights, saw a German Jewish member quit once the war started, declaring that he could not, as a German, belong to a society that was under French leadership. German Jews supported

3132: 6438: 3415: 35: 4117:. In addition, the traditional Hebrew prayer book was replaced by German text, and reform synagogues began being called temples which were previously considered the Temple of Jerusalem. Reform communities composed of similar beliefs and Judaism changed at the same pace as the rest of society had. The Jewish people have adapted to religious beliefs and practices to the meet the needs of the Jewish people throughout the generation. 3307: 7486: 4104:

reinforced such observance disintegrated, falling away from vigilant observance without deliberately breaking with Judaism was easy. Some tried to reconcile their religious heritage with their new social surroundings; they reformed traditional Judaism to meet their new needs and to express their spiritual desires. A movement was formed with a set of religious beliefs, and practices that were considered expected and tradition.

7472: 3557: 3991:. Using their connections with Jewish businessmen to serve as military contractors, managers of mints, founders of new industries and providers to the court of precious stones and clothing, they gave economic assistance to the local rulers. Court Jews were protected by the rulers and acted as did everyone else in society in their speech, manners, and awareness of European literature and ideas. 7364:, pointed out the official policy of Germany: "We will not tolerate any form of extremism, xenophobia or antisemitism." Although the number of right-wing groups and organisations grew from 141 (2001) to 182 (2006), especially in the formerly communist East Germany, Germany's measures against right-wing groups and antisemitism are effective: according to the annual reports of the 8511:(University Press of Kansas; 2002). Quote, p 72: "About 10,000 volunteered for duty, and over 100,000 out of a total German-Jewish population of 550,000 served during World War I. Some 78% saw front-line duty, 12,000 died in battle, over 30,000 received decorations, and 19,000 were promoted. Approximately 2,000 Jews became military officers and 1,200 became medical officers." 6219:, "subject of the state". This meant that they had no basic civil rights, such as that to vote, but at this time the right to vote for the non-Jewish Germans only meant the obligation to vote for the Nazi party. This removal of basic citizens' rights preceded harsher laws to be passed in the future against Jews. The drafting of the Nuremberg Laws is often attributed to 2993:(including Germany) to the Jews: Jewish people were sought everywhere, as well as avoided. This ambivalence about Jews occurred because their capital was indispensable, while their business was viewed as disreputable. This curious combination of circumstances increased Jewish influence, and Jews went about the country freely, settling also in the eastern portions ( 3543:

promise of full protection, to return to those districts and cities from which they had shortly before been expelled. However, as soon as Jewish people acquired some property, they were again plundered and driven away. These episodes thenceforth constituted a large portion of the medieval history of the German Jews. Emperor

6809:

keen to promote East Germany as an anti-fascist state; improve its legitimacy domestically and internationally; and due to their increasingly precarious economic situation, to build bridges with the US especially in a bid to secure more favourable trading terms and to stabilise the economy. Many East German Jews

4443:). For many Jews, the fact the census was carried out at all caused a sense of betrayal, as German Jews had taken part in the violence, food shortages, nationalist sentiment and misery of attrition alongside their fellow Germans, however most German-Jewish soldiers carried on dutifully to the bitter end. 3973:, which was able to boast of native figures who competed with the finest Western European writers, scholars, and intellectuals. Aside from the externalities of language and dress, the Jews internalized the cultural and intellectual norms of German society. The movement, becoming known as the German or 6808:

which were utilised extensively in the 70s and 80s. In the 1980s there was a reprieve, in general, of such persecution and the previous antisemitism was markedly changed with an attempt to "reinvigorate Jewish culture". Economic and political pragmatism drove this change: the socialist leadership was

4190:

As a result, many German Jews began to emigrate. The emigration was encouraged by German-Jewish newspapers. At first, most emigrants were young, single men from small towns and villages. A smaller number of single women also emigrated. Individual family members would emigrate alone, and then send for

4066:

created a moderate reform movement in assurance with German communities. Public worships were reorganized, reduction of medieval additions to the prayer, congregational singing was introduced, and regular sermons required scientifically trained rabbis. Religious schools were enforced by the state due

3705:

into German, bridging the gap between the two; this book allowed Jews to speak and write in German, preparing them for participation in German culture and secular science. In 1750, Mendelssohn began to serve as a teacher in the house of Isaac Bernhard, the owner of a silk factory, after beginning his

7373:

warned in October 2006 that Jews in Germany feel increasingly unsafe, stating that they "are not able to live a normal Jewish life" and that heavy security surrounds most synagogues or Jewish community centers. Yosef Havlin, Rabbi at the Chabad Lubavitch in Frankfurt, does not agree with the Israeli

4402:

in Africa and Eastern Europe, out of the desire to increase German power and to rescue Eastern European Jews from Tsarist rule. The eastern advance became important for German Jews because it combined German military superiority with rescuing Eastern Jews from Russian brutality; Russian antisemitism

4397:

was accepted part of their spiritual mobilisation for war. After all, the conflict also pitted German Catholics and Protestants against their fellow believers in the east and west. Indeed, for some Jews the fact that Jews were going to war with one another was proof of the normality of German-Jewish

4353:

Jews believed Germany was responding to the actions of other countries, particularly Russia. For many Jews it was never a question as to whether or not they would stand behind Germany, it was simply a given that they would. The fact that the enemy was Russia also gave an additional reason for German

4103:

ideas began to influence many intellectuals, and the resulting political, economic, and social changes were overpowering. Many Jews felt a tension between Jewish tradition and the way they were now leading their lives – religiously – resulting in less tradition. As the insular religious society that

4310:

Many immigrants travelled through Germany on the way to other countries. By the outbreak of World War I, five million emigrants from Russia had passed through German territory. Around two million Jews passed through the eastern border of Germany between 1880 and 1914 with around 78,000 remaining in

3400:

dualism, therefore recent German research proposed the term “Thronkrisenverfolgungen” (throne crisis persecutions). Royal policy and public ambivalence towards Jews helped the persecuted Jews fleeing to the East from the German-speaking lands to form the foundations of what would become the largest

6571:

A simple model of cultural transmission and persistence of attitudes comes from Bisin and Verdier, who state that children acquire their preference scheme through imitating their parents, who in turn attempt to socialize their children to their own preferences, without taking into consideration if

6510:

Overall, of the 522,000 Jews living in Germany in January 1933, approximately 304,000 emigrated during the first six years of Nazi rule and about 214,000 were left on the eve of World War II. Of these, 160,000–180,000 were killed as a part of the Holocaust. Those that remained in Germany went into

6268:

Beginning 17 August 1938, Jews with first names of non-Jewish origin had to add Israel (males) or Sarah (females) to their names, and a large J was to be imprinted on their passports beginning 5 October. On 15 November Jewish children were banned from going to normal schools. By April 1939, nearly

6264:

As of 1 March 1938, government contracts could no longer be awarded to Jewish businesses. On 30 September, "Aryan" doctors could only treat "Aryan" patients. Provision of medical care to Jews was already hampered by the fact that Jews were banned from being doctors or having any professional jobs.

6062:

antisemitism on the other. The conservative variety functions, as Shulamit Volkov has pointed out, as something of a "cultural code." This variety of German antisemitism later on played a significant role insofar as it prevented the functional elite from distancing itself from the repercussions of

3852:

did not eliminate all forms of discrimination against Jews, who often remained barred from holding official state positions. The German federal edicts of 1815 merely held out the prospect of full equality, but it was not genuinely implemented at that time, and even the promises which had been made

3839:

in Berlin) gained equal status with their Christian fellow city dwellers, but had a different status from noblemen, Huguenots, or serfs. They often did not enjoy the right to freedom of movement across territorial or even municipal boundaries, let alone the same status in any new place as in their

3735: 3547:

was particularly skilled at transferring gold from wealthier Jews to his own coffers. He entered compacts with many cities, estates, and princes whereby he annulled all outstanding debts to the Jews in return for a certain sum paid to him. Emperor Wenceslaus declared that anyone helping Jews with

3253:

period brought peace and prosperity to Mainz and much of central–western Europe. For the next 400 years, Mainz attracted many Jews as trade flourished. The greatest Jewish teachers and rabbis flocked to the Rhine. Their teachings, dialogues, decisions, and influence propelled Mainz and neighboring

7368:

the overall number of far-right extremists in Germany has dropped in recent years from 49,700 (2001), 45,000 (2002), 41,500 (2003), 40,700 (2004), 39,000 (2005), to 38,600 in 2006. Germany provided several million euros to fund "nationwide programs aimed at fighting far-right extremism, including

6575:

Economic factors had the potential to undermine this persistence throughout the centuries. Hatred against outsiders was more costly in trade open cities, like the members of the Hanseatic League. Faster growing cities saw less persistence in antisemitic attitudes, this may be due to the fact that

6348:

Increasing antisemitism prompted a wave of Jewish mass emigration from Germany throughout the 1930s. Among the first wave were intellectuals, politically active individuals, and Zionists. However, as Nazi legislation worsened the Jews' situation, more Jews wished to leave Germany, with a panicked

4255:

had entered German to describe anyone who had anti-Jewish feelings. However, despite massive protests and petitions, the völkisch movement failed to persuade the government to revoke Jewish emancipation, and in the 1912 Reichstag elections, the parties with völkisch-movement sympathies suffered a

4178:

were dismissed. Throughout numerous German states, Jews had their rights to work, settle, and marry restricted. Without special letters of protection, Jews were banned from many different professions, and often had to resort to jobs considered unrespectable, such as peddling or cattle dealing, to

6754:

numbered only a few hundred active members. Most Jews who settled in East Germany did so either because their pre-1933 homes had been there or because they had been politically leftist before the Nazi seizure of power and, after 1945, wished to build an anti-fascist, socialist Germany. Most such

4531:

Author Jay Howard Geller says that four possible responses were available to the German Jewish community. The majority of German Jews were only nominally religious and they saw their Jewish identity as only one of several identities; they opted for bourgeois liberalism and assimilation into all

4482:

In 1914, Jews were well-represented among the wealthy, including 23.7 percent of the 800 richest individuals in Prussia, and eight percent of the university students. Jewish businesses, however, no longer had the economic prominence they had in previous decades. The Jewish middle class suffered

3987:, marks the political, social, and intellectual transition of European Jewry to modernity. Some of the elite members of Jewish society knew European languages. Absolutist governments in Germany, Austria, and Russia deprived the Jewish community's leadership of its authority and many Jews became 2779:

policy. In 1935 and 1936, the pace of antisemitic persecution increased. In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs, effectively preventing them from participating in education, politics, higher education and industry. On 10 November 1938, the state police and Nazi paramilitary forces

6121:

The Civil Service Law reached immediately into the education system because university professors, for example, were civil servants. While the majority of the German intellectual classes were not thoroughgoing National Socialists, academia had been suffused with a "cultured antisemitism" since

6067:

government. This is especially true with respect to Hitler's proclamation of the "racial annihilation war" against the Soviet Union. Besides conservative antisemitism, there existed in Germany a rather silent anti-Judaism within the Catholic Church, which had a certain impact on immunizing the

4446:

When strikes broke out in Germany towards the end of the war, some Jews supported them. However, the majority of Jews had little sympathy for the strikers and one Jewish newspaper accused the strikers of "stabbing the frontline army in the back." Like many Germans, German Jews would lament the

4295:

was Jewish. However, opportunity for high appointments in the military, the diplomatic service, judiciary or senior bureaucracy was very small. Some historians believe that with emancipation the Jewish people lost their roots in their culture and began only using German culture. However, other

3542:

From this time onward, for reasons that also apparently concerned taxes, the Jews of Germany gradually passed in increasing numbers from the authority of the emperor to that of both the lesser sovereigns and the cities. For the sake of sorely needed revenue, the Jews were now invited, with the

6567:

According to a study by Nico Voigtländer and Hans-Joachim Voth, Germans who grew up during Nazi rule are significantly more antisemitic than Germans born before or after them. In addition, Voigtländer and Voth found Nazi antisemitic indoctrination was more effective in areas with pre-existing

4435:(census of Jews). Designed to confirm accusations of the lack of patriotism among German Jews, the census disproved the charges, but its results were not made public. Denounced as a "statistical monstrosity", the census was a catalyst to intensified antisemitism and social myths such as the " 6799:

values and for having contact with the West. However, in the case of the Jewish population, this persecution was also related to Soviet hostility to Israel, which the Soviet state considered imperialist and capitalist. This hostility was also reflected in the media. Jewish community leaders

7428:

youths, causing a head wound that required hospitalization. The rabbi was walking with his six-year-old daughter in downtown Berlin when the group asked if he was a Jew, and then proceeded to assault him. They also threatened to kill the rabbi's young daughter. On 9 November 2012, the 74th

4078:

Another vital part of the reorganization of the Jewish-German community was the heavy involvement of Jewish women in the community and their new tendencies to assimilate their families into a different lifestyle. Jewish women were contradicting their view points in the sense that they were

6591:

in late April 1945, only 8,000 Jews remained in the city, all of them either in hiding or married to non-Jews. Most German Jews who survived the war in exile decided to remain abroad; however, a small number returned to Germany. Additionally, approximately 15,000 German Jews survived the

4290:

concludes that by 1900, what had emerged was a Jewish-German symbiosis, where German Jews had merged elements of German and Jewish culture into a unique new one. Marriages between Jews and non-Jews became somewhat common from the 19th century; for example, the wife of German Chancellor

7302:

have departments or institutes of Jewish studies, culture, or history. Active Jewish religious communities have sprung up across Germany, including in many cities where the previous communities were no longer extant or were moribund. Several cities in Germany have Jewish day schools,

6666:; however, a disproportionate number of its students were not Jewish. By 1990, the community numbered between 30,000 and 40,000. Although the Jewish community of Germany did not have the same impact as the pre-1933 community, some Jews were prominent in German public life, including 9165:

Except for a few individual cases, the mathematical society didn't care about the Jews. They collaborated with the state and with the party at every level. They took active steps and expelled the Jewish members even before they were compelled to—to be in step with the spirit of the

2869: 6375:, between 1929 and 1939, a total of 250,000 Jewish immigrants arrived in Palestine—more than 55,000 of them from Germany, Austria, or Bohemia. Many of them were doctors, lawyers, engineers, architects, and other professionals, who contributed greatly to the development of the 6226:

In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs, effectively preventing them from exerting any influence in education, politics, higher education and industry. Because of this, there was nothing to stop the anti-Jewish actions which spread across the Nazi-German economy.

6269:

all Jewish companies had either collapsed under financial pressure and declining profits, or had been forced to sell out to the Nazi German government. This further reduced Jews' rights as human beings. They were in many ways officially separated from the German population.

3637:, brought no relief to the Jews. Jews in Germany remained the victims of a religious hatred that ascribed to them all possible evils. When the established Church, threatened in its spiritual power in Germany and elsewhere, prepared for its conflict with the culture of the 4571:

Jewish intellectuals and creative professionals were among the leading figures in many areas of Weimar culture. German university faculties became universally open to Jewish scholars in 1918. Leading Jewish intellectuals on university faculties included physicist

3876:, the government materially modified the promises made in the disastrous year of 1813. The promised uniform regulation of Jewish affairs was time and again postponed. In the period between 1815 and 1847, no less than 21 territorial laws affecting Jews in the 7380:

in September 2007 that the German public does not support far-right groups; instead, he has personally experienced the support of Germans, and as a Jew and rabbi he "feels welcome in his (hometown) Frankfurt, he is not afraid, the city is not a no-go-area".

2834:-speaking. By 2018, the Jewish population of Germany had leveled off at 116,000, not including non-Jewish members of households; the total estimated enlarged population of Jews living in Germany, including non-Jewish household members, was close to 225,000. 3358:. About 12,000 Jews are said to have perished in the Rhenish cities alone between May and July 1096. Alleged crimes, like desecration of the host, ritual murder, poisoning of wells, and treason, brought hundreds to the stake and drove thousands into exile. 7271:. Germany has the third-largest Jewish population in Western Europe after France (600,000) and Britain (300,000) and the fastest-growing Jewish population in Europe in recent years. The influx of immigrants, many of them seeking renewed contact with their 3847:

and its aftermath, citizenship was established as a new franchise generally applying to all former subjects of the monarchs. Prussia conferred citizenship on the Prussian Jews in 1812, though this by no means resulted in full equality with other citizens.

6596:, Eastern European Jewish Holocaust survivors. They came to Allied-occupied western Germany after finding no homes left for them in eastern Europe or after having been liberated on German soil. The overwhelming majority of the DPs wished to emigrate to 4187:, which could cost up to 1,000 florins, was usually restricted to firstborn sons. As a result, most Jewish men were unable to legally marry. Throughout Germany, Jews were heavily taxed, and were sometimes discriminated against by gentile craftsmen. 4250:

were the first to describe themselves as such, because they viewed Jews as part of a Semitic race that could never be properly assimilated into German society. Such was the ferocity of the anti-Jewish feeling of the völkisch movement that by 1900,

7416:—have been renovated and opened, and Berlin's annual week of Jewish culture and the Jewish Cultural Festival in Berlin, held for the 21st time, featuring concerts, exhibitions, public readings and discussions can only partially explain why Rabbi 3044:, with the consequence that the majority Christian populace mistrusted the Jewish unbelievers. This feeling, among both princes and people, was further stimulated by the attacks on the civic equality of the Jews. Beginning with the 10th century, 3823:). City dwellers of other denominations or religions and those who lacked the necessary wealth to qualify as citizens were considered to be mere inhabitants who lacked political rights, and were sometimes subject to revocable residence permits. 3298:; and "in the mid-14th century, it had the largest Jewish community in Europe: some 6,000." "In essence," states the City of Mainz web site, "this was a golden age as area bishops protected the Jews resulting in increased trade and prosperity." 4314:

The Jewish population grew from 512,000 in 1871 to 615,000 in 1910, including 79,000 recent immigrants from Russia, just under one percent of the total. About 15,000 Jews converted to Christianity between 1871 and 1909. The typical attitude of

3826:

Most Jews then living in those parts of Germany that allowed them to settle were automatically defined as mere indigenous inhabitants, depending on permits that were typically less generous than those granted to gentile indigenous inhabitants

7423:

In spite of Germany's measures against right-wing groups and antisemites, a number of incidents have occurred in recent years. On 29 August 2012, in Berlin, Daniel Alter, a rabbi in visible Jewish garb, was physically attacked by a group of

4520:(1920), a forgery which claimed that Jews were taking over the world, was widely circulated. The second half of the 1920s were prosperous, and antisemitism was much less noticeable. When the Great Depression hit in 1929, it surged again as 4191:

family members once they had earned enough money. Emigration eventually swelled, with some German Jewish communities losing up to 70% of their members. At one point, a German-Jewish newspaper reported that all the young Jewish males in the

3552:

and peacebreaker, and be forced to make restitution. This decree, which is believed to have impaired the public availability of credit was also reported to have impoverished thousands of Jewish families near the close of the 14th century.

6800:

criticized the media for "provoking popular anti-semitism by the negative portrayal of Israel and Jews". According to the historian Mike Dennis, 'Already decimated by the Holocaust, East German Jewry reeled from the shock of the SED's (

3105:

produced such a devotion to Judaism that the Jews considered life without their religion not worth living; but they did not realize this clearly until the time of the Crusades, when they were often compelled to choose between life and

3052:

emperors did not treat the Jews badly, exacting from them merely the taxes levied upon all other merchants. Although the Jews in Germany were as ignorant as their contemporaries in secular studies, they could read and understand the

4067:

to a want for the addition of religious structure to secular education of Jewish children. Pulpit oratory started to thrive mainly due to German preachers, such as M. Sachs and M. Joel. Synagogal music was accepted with the help of

6156:

Taken in March 1933, immediately after the Nazis seized power, this photo shows Nazi SA militants forcing a Jewish lawyer to walk barefoot through the streets of Munich wearing a sign that says "I will never again complain to the

4483:

increasing economic deprivation, and by 1930 a quarter of the German Jewish community had to be supported through community welfare programs. Germany's Jewish community was also highly urbanized, with 80 percent living in cities.

4323:

summarised this position, saying "The Jews are simply here. You cannot strike them dead." This position, however, did not tolerate cultural differences between Jews and non-Jews, advocating instead eliminating this difference.

7254:

asking Israelis to emigrate to Berlin, gained notoriety in 2014. Some eventually return to Israel after a period of residence in Germany. There are also a handful of Jewish families from Muslim-majority countries, including

2935:

Jews were otherwise free to follow any occupation open to indigenous Germans and were engaged in agriculture, trade, industry, and gradually money-lending. These conditions at first continued in the subsequently established

3294:"was the first to bring copies of the Talmud to Western Europe" and that his directives "helped Jews adapt to European practices." Gershom's school attracted Jews from all over Europe, including the famous biblical scholar 6795:) persecuted the surviving small Jewish communities in East Germany. This was in keeping with the treatment of religious groups in general, who were often persecuted for their belief systems being considered contrary to 4108:

was the first modern response to the Jew's emancipation, though reform Judaism differing in all countries caused stresses of autonomy on both the congregation and individual. Some of the reforms were in the practices:

3928:

by the law of 3 July 1869, all remaining statutory restrictions imposed on the followers of different religions were abolished; this decree was extended to all the states of the German empire after the events of 1870.

4011:

ended with large numbers of Jews assimilating. Many Jews stopped adhering to Jewish law, and the struggle for emancipation in Germany awakened some doubts about the future of Jews in Europe and eventually led to both

3807:. No general franchise existed, which remained a privilege for the few, who had inherited the status or acquired it when they reached a certain level of taxed income or could afford the expense of the citizen's fee ( 4099:, who was the rabbi at the largest Reform congregation. The increasing political centralization of the late 18th and early 19th centuries undermined the societal structure that perpetuated traditional Jewish life. 6612:

became independent in 1948, most European-Jewish DPs left for the new state; however, 10,000 to 15,000 Jews decided to resettle in Germany. Despite hesitations and a long history of antagonism between German Jews

3526:

devised other means of taxation. They turned their prerogatives in regard to the Jews to further account by selling at a high price to the princes and free towns of the empire the valuable privilege of taxing and

2786:), in which the storefronts of Jewish shops and offices were smashed and vandalized, and many synagogues were destroyed by fire. Only roughly 214,000 Jews were left in Germany proper (1937 borders) on the eve of 6661:

chose to remain in Germany, and many of those who did married non-Jews. Many critics of the community and its leadership accused it of ossification. In the 1980s, a college for Jewish studies was established in

4544:

and minimized or hid their Jewish heritage. When the Nazis came to power in 1933, a fifth option was seized upon by hundreds of thousands: escape into exile, typically at the cost of leaving all wealth behind.

6336:

tax (equivalent to US$ 4 billion in 2023). Any Jews owning assets exceeding 5,000 ℛ︁ℳ︁ had to surrender 20% of those assets. The Jews also had to repair all damages at their own cost.

7459:

Through the start of the 21st century, Germany has witnessed a sizable migration of young, educated Israeli Jews seeking academic and employment opportunities, with Berlin being their favorite destination.

3880:

of the Prussian state were in effect, each having to be observed by part of the Jewish community. At that time, no official was authorized to speak in the name of all Prussian Jews, or Jewry in most of the

7408:, Germany. This is particularly crucial given the fact that Munich was once at the ideological heart of Nazi Germany. Jewish life in the capital Berlin is prospering, the Jewish community is growing, the 7307:

facilities, and other Jewish institutions beyond synagogues. Additionally, many of the Russian Jews were alienated from their Jewish heritage and unfamiliar or uncomfortable with religion. American-style

6122:

imperial times, even more so during Weimar. With the majority of non-Jewish professors holding such feelings about Jews, coupled with how the Nazis' outwardly appeared in the period during and after the

3392:, the members of the entire Jewish community were murdered or expelled from the city, due to superstitions about the Black Death. Many persecutions were clearly favoured by a royal throne crisis and the 7625: 4125: 11377: 6068:

Catholic population against the escalating persecution. The famous protest of the Catholic Church against the euthanasia program was, therefore, not accompanied by any protest against the Holocaust.

7279:-Lubavitch of Berlin opened a center. In 2003, Chabad-Lubavitch of Berlin ordained 10 rabbis, the first rabbis to be ordained in Germany since World War II. In 2002 a Reform rabbinical seminary, 5876: 3772:

regulations. In different ways from one territory of the empire to another, these regulations classified inhabitants into different groups, such as dynasts, members of the court entourage, other

9950: 6114:

was passed, banning Jews from being employed in government. This law meant that Jews were now indirectly and directly dissuaded or banned from privileged and upper-level positions reserved for "

4024:. Some Jews responded to this antisemitism by campaigning for emancipation, while others joined revolutionary movements and assimilated, and some turned to Jewish nationalism in the form of the 10121: 10157: 4463:, 1919–1933, German Jews played a major role in politics and diplomacy for the first time in their history, and they strengthened their position in financial, economic, and cultural affairs. 4155:

emancipated the Jews across Europe, but with Napoleon's fall in 1815, growing nationalism resulted in increasing repression. From August to October 1819, pogroms that came to be known as the

3857:, many laws restricting the trade and traffic of Jewish subjects remained in force until the middle of the 19th century in spite of the patent of toleration. Some of the crown lands, such as 4307:

sought to keep to Jewish religious tradition, while liberal Jews sought to "modernise" their communities by shifting from liturgical traditions to organ music and German-language prayers.

4226:, came their emancipation, but the growing mood of despair among assimilated Jews was reinforced by the antisemitic penetrations of politics. In the 1870s, antisemitism was fueled by the 3388:. Compared to the south and west of the Holy Roman Empire, the persecutions appear to have brought less drastic effects in the eastern parts of the Holy Roman Empire. Nonetheless, in the 2932:. They enjoyed some civil liberties, but were restricted regarding the dissemination of their culture, the keeping of non-Jewish slaves, and the holding of office under the government. 4342:(German Jewish veterans organization) in response to accusations of lack of patriotism: Inscription on the tomb: "12,000 Jewish soldiers died on the field of honor for the fatherland". 4393:

While going to war brought the unsavoury prospect of fighting fellow Jews in Russia, France and Britain, for the majority of Jews this severing of ties with Jewish communities in the

3241:"Enactments of ShUM") were a set of decrees formulated and agreed upon over a period of decades by their Jewish community leaders. The official website for the city of Mainz states: 11402: 4083:

and holidays as less of culturally Jewish days, but more as family reunions of sorts. What was once viewed as a more religious event became more of a social gathering of relatives.

3689:

Though reading German books was forbidden in the 1700s by Jewish inspectors who had a measure of police power in Germany, Moses Mendelson found his first German book, an edition of

11372: 3495:, who claimed the right of possession and protection of all the Jews of the empire. A justification for this claim was that the Holy Roman Emperor was the successor of the emperor 2841:

or that six million Jews were murdered in the Holocaust (§ 130 StGB) is a criminal act; violations can be punished with up to five years of prison. In 2006, on the occasion of the

4174:

reverted to Prussian control, Jews lost the rights Napoleon had granted them, were banned from certain professions, and the few who had been appointed to public office before the

7360:

or that six million Jews were murdered in the Holocaust (§ 130 StGB); violations can be punished with up to five years of prison. In 2007, the Interior Minister of Germany,

4410:

The headstones of the fallen Jewish soldiers who fought for Germany in World War I were removed during World War II, and were later replaced. This cemetery is in northern France.

8534: 3203:

formed the league of cities which became the center of Jewish life during Medieval times. These are referred to as the ShUM cities, after the first letters of the Hebrew names:

2956:

rulers who succeeded to the Burgundian empire were devoid of fanaticism and gave scant support to the efforts of the Church to restrict the civic and social status of the Jews.

6242:

was eager to please Hitler and so willingly obeyed his orders. Since the SS had been Hitler's personal bodyguard, its members were far more loyal and skilled than those of the

6537:

from 1348 to 1350 hatred and violence against Jews increased. Approximately 72% of towns with a Jewish settlement suffered from violent attacks against the Jewish population.

7341:

signed the first-ever agreement on a federal level with the Central Council, so that Judaism was granted the same elevated, semi-established legal status in Germany as the

7420:

of the orthodox Jewish community in Berlin states: "Orthodox Jewish life is alive in Berlin again. Germany is the only European country with a growing Jewish community."

4549: 7448:, but mall security and local police instructed him to delete the photos. The rabbi exited the mall, pursued by his attackers, and was driven away by an acquaintance. In 4963: 3710:. He was the first to speak out against the use of excommunication as a religious threat. At the height of his career, in 1769, Mendelssohn was publicly challenged by a 1313: 9679: 4552:, the major organization of German Jewry, used the court system to vigorously defend Jewry against antisemitic attacks across Germany; it proved generally successful. 10190: 9793: 6111: 3626:

brought a similar fate upon the communities in southern and western Germany. As a consequence of the fictitious confessions extracted under torture from the Jews of

4346:

A higher percentage of German Jews fought in World War I than of any other ethnic, religious or political minority in Germany; around 12,000 died in the fighting.

2819:

and their collaborators. A total of about six million European Jews were murdered under the direction of the Nazis, in the genocide that later came to be known as

3977:

offered many effects to the challenges of German society. As early as the 1740s, many German Jews and some individual Polish and Lithuanian Jews had a desire for

10896:

Krisen, Chancen und Bedrohungen. Studien zur Geschichte der Juden in der Mark Brandenburg während des späteren Mittelalters (13. bis Anfang des 16. Jahrhunderts)

7812: 6804:) antisemitic campaigns.' Persecution methods ranged from the more brutal repression methods found in the Stalinist era of the 1940s and 50s, to the more subtle 6605: 3514:, was a prolific creator of new taxes. In 1342, he instituted the "golden sacrificial penny" and decreed that every year all the Jews should pay the emperor one 6126:, there was little motivation to oppose the anti-Jewish measures being enacted—few did, and many were actively in favor. According to a German professor of the 5901: 2729:

became the signal for renewed persecution of Jews. The end of the 15th century was a period of religious hatred that ascribed to Jews all possible evils. With

1891: 9717: 3896:, who demanded full civic equality for his people. He won over public opinion to such an extent that this equality was granted in Prussia on 6 April 1848, in 9147: 1546: 1241: 7437:

vandalized the city's Holocaust memorial. Additionally, a group of Jewish children was taunted by unidentified young people on the basis of their religion.

6063:

racial antisemitism. Thus, there was almost no relevant protest against the Jewish persecution on the part of the generals or the leading groups within the

11029: 10900:

Crises, Opportunities and Threats. Studies on the History of the Jews in the Magraviate of Brandenburg in the Late Middle Ages (13th to early 16th Century)

6292:

regime which was being imposed on Germany by Hitler allowed him to control the actions of the SS and the military. On 7 November 1938, a young Polish Jew,

4241: 3028:. Jews were unrestricted in their commerce; however, they paid somewhat higher taxes into the state treasury than did the non-Jews. A special officer, the 2771:

ideology and policies, the Jewish community was increasingly persecuted. About 60% (numbering around 304,000) emigrated during the first six years of the

1433: 3245:

One of the most glorious epochs in Mainz's long history was the period from the beginning of the 900s and evidently much earlier. Following the barbaric

2826:

After the war, the Jewish community in Germany started to slowly grow again. Beginning around 1990, a spurt of growth was fueled by immigration from the

10582: 10138: 9947: 6188:, giving him power over the military; this position allowed him to enforce his beliefs further by creating more pressure on the Jews than ever before. 5809: 2641: 10118: 11423: 11002: 10161: 8729: 4873: 405: 9818: 7578: 6625:), the two disparate groups united to form the basis of a new Jewish community. In 1950 they founded their unitary representative organization, the 2920:

is not known, the first authentic document relating to a large and well-organized Jewish community in these regions dates from 321 CE and refers to

6200: 5969: 5055: 1428: 9309: 7714: 7226:

contributed to a growth of the Jewish community of Germany. An important step for the renaissance of Jewish life in Germany occurred in 1990 when

6058:—found especially in the German officer corps and the high civil administration—and mainly directed against the Eastern Jews on the one hand, and 10231: 6455: 6308:

issued instructions that demonstrations against Jews were to be organized and undertaken in retaliation throughout Germany. On 10 November 1938,

6033: 5459: 3436: 1676: 52: 9243: 7937: 4236:, fleeing from Russian territories; by the 1890s it was a parliamentary presence, threatening anti-Jewish laws. In 1879 the Hamburg pamphleteer 11157: 9405:

Voigtländer, Nico; Voth, Hans-Joachim (August 2012). "Persecution Perpetuated: The Medieval Origins of anti-Semitic Violence in Nazi Germany".

8701:

Bajohr, Frank (2006). "The 'Folk Community' and the Persecution of the Jews: German Society under National Socialist Dictatorship, 1933-1945".

4647: 3753:

In the late 18th century, a youthful enthusiasm for new ideals of religious equality began to take hold in the western world. Austrian Emperor

9920: 4303:

During the history of the German Empire, there were various divisions within the German Jewish community over its future; in religious terms,

2860:, or antisemitism." In spite of Germany's measures against these groups and antisemites, a number of incidents have occurred in recent years. 11087: 7350: 6490: 6394:. By 1940, only 90,000 German Jews had been granted visas and allowed to settle in the United States. Some 100,000 German Jews also moved to 3722:, to defend the superiority of Judaism over Christianity. From then on, he was involved in defending Judaism in print. In 1783, he published 1930: 99: 9550: 8037: 7287:. In 2006, the college announced that it would be ordaining three new rabbis, the first Reform rabbis to be ordained in Germany since 1942. 4635: 71: 9835: 3853:

were modified. However, such forms of discrimination were no longer the guiding principle for ordering society, but a violation of it. In

2966:

for the purpose of infusing coherence into the loosely joined parts of his extensive empire, but was not by any means a blind tool of the

7676: 5673: 4726: 3093:(1901–1906) draws a direct connection to the great spiritual fortitude later shown by the Jewish communities in the era of the Crusades: 2830:, so that at the turn of the 21st century, Germany had the only growing Jewish community in Europe, and the majority of German Jews were 915: 878: 6102:

The continuing and exacerbating abuse of Jews in Germany triggered calls throughout March 1933 by Jewish leaders around the world for a

6386:

was another destination for German Jews seeking to leave the country, though the number allowed to immigrate was restricted due to the

4991: 4973: 4349:

Many German Jews supported the war out of patriotism; like many Germans, they viewed Germany's actions as defensive in nature and even

4204: 8544: 6118:" Germans. From then on, Jews were forced to work at more menial positions, beneath non-Jews, pushing them to more labored positions. 78: 11294: 11107: 10143: 6090: 3522:

of their property in addition to the taxes they were already paying to both the state and municipal authorities. The emperors of the

1854: 6211:

was passed and was reinforced in November by a decree, stating that all Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, were no longer citizens (

11132: 11022: 8430:

Cohen, Robin; Cohen, Professor of Sociology at the University of Warwick and Currently Dean of Humanities Robin (2 November 1995).

5914: 1877: 9646: 8478: 6371:, which was signed on 25 August 1933. Under its terms, 60,000 German Jews were to be allowed to emigrate to Palestine. During the 11304: 7787: 6679: 6000: 5976: 5929: 5870: 5803: 4948: 1227: 3503:. The German emperors apparently claimed this right of possession more for the sake of taxing the Jews than of protecting them. 85: 11392: 11344: 11219: 11214: 10693:

Schuler-Springorum, Stefanie (1999). "Assimilation and Community Reconsidered: The Jewish Community in Konigsberg, 1871-1914".

9661: 7989: 3957:, started to be neglected. In the 18th century, some traditional German scholars and leaders, such as the doctor and author of 2634: 1804: 1739: 1621: 10249: 6152: 10915: 10552: 10442: 10419: 10382: 10360: 10333: 10314: 9892: 9359: 9227: 9037:

Fraiman, Sarah (2000). "The Transformation of Jewish Consciousness in Nazi Germany as Reflected in the German Jewish Journal

8891: 8776: 8739: 8441: 8194: 8139: 7947: 7601: 7396:

A flagship moment for the burgeoning Jewish community in modern Germany occurred on 9 November 2006 (the 68th anniversary of

5924: 4958: 925: 9683: 8985:

Beer, Udo (1988). "The Protection of Jewish Civil Rights in the Weimar Republic: Jewish Self-Defense Through Legal Action".

8019: 7440:

On 2 June 2013, a rabbi was physically assaulted by a group of six to eight "southern-looking" youths in a shopping mall in

4510:. There was some violence against German Jews in the early years of the Weimar Republic, and it was led by the paramilitary 4338: 3693:, at a well-organized system of Jewish charity for needy Talmud students. Mendelssohn read this book and found proof of the 3586:

The 15th century did not bring any amelioration. What happened in the time of the Crusades happened again. The war upon the

11433: 11349: 11179: 9501:

Bisin, Alberto; Verdier, Thierry (1 April 2001). "The Economics of Cultural Transmission and the Dynamics of Preferences".

7317: 6822: 6534: 6166: 5959: 4678: 1363: 67: 9855: 9797: 9551:"– "By the time the Nazi regime was brought to itslovesknees in 1945, there were but a few thousand Jews left in Berlin."" 6694:; former Hesse Minister of Economics Heinz-Herbert Karry; West Berlin politician Jeanette Wolff; television personalities 6340: 5289: 4475:, chairman of the General Electricity Company (AEG), served as foreign minister in 1922, when he negotiated the important 3614:

to win the renegades back into the fold and inspire them with loathing for heresy and unbelief; 41 martyrs were burned in

11354: 11015: 10305:

Ben-Sasson, Haim Hillel (2007). "Germany". In Skolnik, Fred; Berenbaum, Michael; Gafni, Shlomo S.; Gilon, Rachel (eds.).

10208: 7499: 6359:

was a popular destination for German Jewish emigration. Soon after the Nazis' rise to power in 1933, they negotiated the

6026: 5204: 4516: 4211: 1631: 1448: 1438: 678: 9529:"– "By 1945, only 8,000 Jews remained in Berlin. Those who survived were either in hiding or were married to non-Jews."" 4319:

towards Jews was that they were in Germany to stay and were capable of being assimilated; anthropologist and politician

3811:). Citizenship was often further restricted to city dwellers affiliated to the locally dominant Christian denomination ( 11279: 7389: 7320:, even though the Central Council of Jews in Germany and most local Jewish communities officially adhere to Orthodoxy. 6731: 6626: 6318:(SA) to destroy Jewish property and arrest as many Jews as possible in what became known as the Night of Broken Glass ( 4062:

defended traditional customs, denying the modern "spirit". Neither of these beliefs was followed by the faithful Jews.

3905: 3882: 3097:

He first stimulated the German Jews to study the treasures of their religious literature. This continuous study of the

2027: 1977: 1942: 1636: 1501: 1368: 9943: 7365: 6755:

politically engaged Jews were not religious or active in the official Jewish community. They included writers such as

11443: 11438: 11249: 11209: 11189: 11169: 11072: 10943: 10883: 9983: 9870: 8372: 7920: 7743: 7686: 6545: 6477: 6107: 6095: 5244: 3603: 3569: 3462: 3014: 2627: 1719: 1681: 1656: 1576: 1561: 1408: 1348: 1303: 118: 7650: 6261:

and Isaac Utting, were both executed for being involved in a plot to bomb the Nazi party headquarters in Nuremberg.

6083:

policy, but at first laws were not as rigorously obeyed or as devastating as in later years. Such clauses, known as

5219: 3444: 11382: 11184: 6801: 6391: 5952: 5739: 5367: 5224: 5189: 5154: 4698: 4207:

had emigrated or were about to emigrate. The United States was the primary destination for emigrating German Jews.

4013: 2971: 2012: 1994: 1900: 1794: 1646: 1641: 1566: 1531: 1398: 9284: 6576:

trade-openness was associated with more economic success and therefore higher migration rates into these regions.

6553: 5744: 11387: 11334: 11309: 11264: 11259: 11234: 11092: 10994: 9728: 7525: 6544:

were 6 times more likely to engage in antisemitic violence during the 1920s, racist and fascist parties like the

6541: 5239: 2764: 2530: 2429: 1984: 1967: 1920: 1819: 1729: 1666: 1616: 1596: 1591: 1511: 1485: 1460: 1338: 1328: 1318: 1298: 1293: 8581: 11428: 11299: 11289: 11239: 11199: 11152: 11147: 11122: 11117: 11112: 11097: 11082: 11077: 11067: 11062: 11057: 11052: 9021: 8509:

Hitler's Jewish Soldiers: The Untold Story of Nazi Racial Laws and Men of Jewish Descent in the German Military

7520: 7515: 6459: 6019: 5184: 5099: 4532:

phases of German culture. A second group (especially recent migrants from eastern Europe) embraced Judaism and

3849: 3544: 3532: 3507: 3440: 3002: 2003: 1989: 1957: 1937: 1905: 1849: 1824: 1799: 1779: 1754: 1749: 1744: 1724: 1714: 1709: 1686: 1601: 1586: 1506: 1465: 1418: 1413: 1333: 1278: 56: 8468:

Zimmerman, Andrew. Anthropology and antihumanism in imperial Germany. University of Chicago Press, 2010, p.292

6204: 6191:

In 1935 and 1936, the pace of persecution of the Jews increased. In May 1935, Jews were forbidden to join the

5786: 5119: 3610:

for the sake of their faith. When the Hussites made peace with the Church, the Pope sent the Franciscan friar

11397: 11339: 11284: 11274: 11254: 11244: 11229: 11224: 11204: 11174: 11142: 11127: 11102: 11038: 8160: 7535: 7530: 7401: 6592:

concentration camps or survived by going into hiding. These German Jews were joined by approximately 200,000

5947: 5641: 5325: 5209: 5199: 5164: 5159: 4903: 3947:(the 1600s to late 1700s), many Jewish women began to frequently visit non-Jewish salons and to campaign for 3800:, with different privileges and burdens attached to each classification. Legal inequality was the principle. 3754: 3480: 3370: 3351: 3010: 2691: 2424: 1962: 1947: 1910: 1872: 1844: 1834: 1829: 1814: 1809: 1789: 1774: 1759: 1734: 1700: 1671: 1571: 1556: 1480: 1470: 1388: 1358: 1283: 1269: 10575:

Hertz, Deborah: "How Jews Became Germans: The History of Conversion and Assimilation in Berlin". New Haven:

5104: 3144: 92: 11314: 11269: 11194: 11164: 9274:, making 5,000 ℛ︁ℳ︁ equal to US$ 1,190 at the time (equivalent to $ 25,758 in 2023). 8684: 8063: 7504: 7346: 6557: 6410:. However, these countries would later be occupied by Germany, and most of them would still fall victim to 6300:. (Grynszpan was angry about the treatment of his parents by the Nazis.) On 9 November the German Attache, 6196: 5909: 5559: 5409: 5249: 5229: 5129: 5109: 4332: 3511: 3083:

as a model of wisdom, humility, and piety, and became known to succeeding generations as the "Light of the

2970:. He employed Jews for diplomatic purposes, sending, for instance, a Jew as interpreter and guide with his 2846: 2815:: free of Jews). By the end of the war, an estimated 160,000 to 180,000 German Jews had been killed by the 2032: 1952: 1915: 1839: 1784: 1651: 1626: 1551: 1526: 1516: 1455: 1378: 1373: 1353: 1343: 1323: 1308: 1201: 905: 669: 664: 8653: 5776: 4747: 2974:. Yet, even then, a gradual change occurred in the lives of the Jews. The Church forbade Christians to be 10509: 8224: 7555: 6195:(Armed Forces), and that year, anti-Jewish propaganda appeared in Nazi German shops and restaurants. The 6134: 6131: 6005: 5895: 5549: 5234: 5194: 5114: 4855: 4110: 2022: 2017: 1972: 1925: 1611: 1581: 1541: 1536: 1393: 699: 17: 8848: 7963: 5342: 4282:

passed the legislation that gave the Jews complete equality before the law in 1861–64. The newly formed

4259: 9313: 7738:

Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1991). The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading. University of Pennsylvania.

7722: 5848: 5726: 5419: 5124: 4113:

were abandoned, rabbis wore vests after Protestant ministers, and instrumental accompaniment was used:

3925: 3121: 2941: 2496: 2341: 2049: 1443: 639: 629: 365: 10309:. Vol. 7 (2nd ed.). Detroit / Jerusalem: MacMillan Reference USA / Keter. pp. 352–363. 3539:, granted this privilege to the seven electors of the empire when the empire was reorganized in 1356. 9253: 9085: 7779: 6297: 6103: 5919: 5656: 5254: 5179: 5169: 3362: 2610: 2303: 2154: 2095: 986: 10802:

Jews and other Germans: civil society, religious diversity, and urban politics in Breslau, 1860–1925

9388: 8240:(Summer 2002). "Origin and Transformation: Salomon Maimon and German-Jewish Enlightenment Culture". 4467:

was Interior Minister under the first post-imperial regime and wrote the first draft of the liberal

4279: 3909: 10351:

Dennis, Mike; LaPorte, Norman (2011). "Between Torah and Sickle: Jews in East Germany, 1945-1990".

9917: 7540: 6427: 6231: 5817: 5519: 5139: 4540:, which downplayed ethnicity and antisemitism. A fourth group contained some who embraced hardcore 4054:

were two founders of the conservative movement in modern Judaism who accepted the modern spirit of

3425: 3168: 3036:, however, followed the demands of the Church more and more. The bishops continually argued at the 2313: 2293: 1403: 883: 424: 10033: 5574: 10296: 9554: 9248: 8115: 8041: 7893: 7313: 6448: 6387: 6071:

The third and most vitriolic variety of antisemitism in Germany (and elsewhere) is the so-called

6055: 5995: 5689: 5514: 5330: 4881: 4476: 4179:

survive. A Jewish man who wanted to marry had to purchase a registration certificate, known as a

4167: 4134: 4130: 3707: 3429: 3365:, though they suffered equally with the Christians. Jews suffered intense persecution during the 3254:

towns along the Rhine into world-wide prominence. Their fame spread, rivaling that of other post-

3089: 2454: 2444: 2409: 2288: 2278: 2061: 1232: 1174: 1008: 687: 644: 359: 45: 10456: 6325: 5554: 5361: 4823: 3995:, for example, represented a new generation of Jews. He maintained a leading role in the German 3645:. At this time, as once before in France, Jewish converts spread false reports in regard to the 3630:, the populace of many cities, especially of Regensburg, fell upon the Jews and massacred them. 9528: 8792:

Stirk, P. (1 March 2002). "Hugo Preuss, German political thought and the Weimar constitution".

7280: 6601: 6127: 5771: 5301: 5214: 4660: 4630:, was established in 1925. It published essays and stories by prominent Jewish writers such as 4399: 4163: 3389: 3381: 2573: 2308: 2222: 1288: 840: 459: 429: 10795:

Christians and Jews in Germany: Religion, Politics and Ideology in the Second Reich, 1870–1914

8766: 8431: 8110: 8097: 7369:

teams of traveling consultants, and victims' groups". Despite these facts, Israeli Ambassador

4846: 4560: 4369: 3967:, appreciated the secular culture. The most important feature during this time was the German 10576: 8874:

Friedman, Jonathan C. (2007). "The Jewish Communities of Europe on the Eve of World War II".

8663: 8360: 7413: 7342: 6399: 6390:. Between 1933 and 1939, more than 300,000 Germans, of whom about 90% were Jews, applied for 6208: 6170: 6050:, there were three types of antisemitism. In a 1997 interview, Mommsen was quoted as saying: 5509: 5282: 5094: 4626: 4564: 4507: 4436: 4426: 4394: 4316: 4059: 3719: 3711: 3374: 3366: 3355: 2904:

as early as 139 BCE. While the date of the first settlement of Jews in the regions which the

2464: 2459: 2404: 2192: 1107: 835: 822: 717: 434: 9335: 8907:

Geller, Jay Howard (2012). "The Scholem Brothers and the Paths of German Jewry, 1914-1939".

7323: 6564:", and they deported more Jews during the Nazi reign. This is due to cultural transmission. 6087:, had been postulated previously by antisemitism and enacted in many private organizations. 4214:

swung the pendulum back towards freedom for the Jews. A noted reform rabbi of that time was

10049: 10007: 9966: 9455: 9271: 7835: 6739: 6593: 6137:, and did nothing to save or help their Jewish colleagues." "German physicians were highly 5860: 5569: 5494: 5373: 5313: 5296: 5063: 4448: 4275: 4170:

the city's Jewish community had paid in 1811 for its emancipation was forfeited. After the

4100: 3944: 3913: 3877: 3869:

many cities were closed to them. The Jews were also burdened with heavy taxes and imposts.

3804: 3769: 3623: 3393: 2535: 2487: 2227: 2085: 898: 763: 752: 710: 7361: 5694: 4246: 3768:

was largely nonexistent in the Holy Roman Empire, its inhabitants were subject to varying

3738: 2849: 8: 10907: 10631:

The Origins of the Modern Jew: Jewish Identity and European Culture in Germany, 1749–1824

10451: 9267: 9186: 7888: 7545: 7299: 6642: 6597: 6356: 6162: 5865: 5684: 5504: 4777: 4468: 3959: 3948: 3742: 3690: 3642: 3578: 3536: 3523: 3397: 3343: 3331: 3250: 3033: 2889: 2842: 2757: 2588: 2283: 961: 828: 731: 724: 654: 542: 417: 10754:

Stern-Taeubler, Selma (1949). "The Jews in the Economic Policy of Frederick the Great".

10392: 9916:

Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz. Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution.

9459: 7338: 6199:

were passed around the time of the Nazi rallies at Nuremberg; on 15 September 1935, the

5018: 4998: 2928:. It indicates that the legal status of the Jews there was the same as elsewhere in the 10847: 10839: 10763: 10710: 10687:

Jewish responses to antisemitism in Germany, 1870–1914: a study in the history of ideas

10669: 9478: 9443: 9376: 9349: 9066: 9058: 8967: 8932: 8924: 8801: 8486: 8312: 8257: 8148:

The Gutenberg revolution: the story of a genius and an invention that changed the world

8096:(pp. 385–723). Translated from the Hebrew. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 7607: 7235: 6727: 6675: 6503: 6368: 6293: 5749: 5631: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5084: 4624:(1919–1933), five of whom were Jewish scientists. The German-Jewish literary magazine, 4541: 4297: 4264: 3897: 3888:

Nevertheless, a few men came forward to promote their cause, foremost among them being

3873: 3638: 3611: 3492: 2998: 2990: 2900:

is considered the most likely source of the first Jews on German territory. There were

2853: 2827: 2734: 2730: 2439: 2389: 2336: 2331: 2245: 2115: 1383: 1212: 971: 891: 745: 311: 245: 237: 163: 10594:

The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany

10291: 10092: 8928: 5489: 5404: 3087:". In highlighting his role in the religious development of Jews in the German lands, 2749:

stripped Jews of their civil rights. As a result, many German Jews began to emigrate.

10939: 10911: 10879: 10868:

Eisernes Kreuz und Davidstern – Die Geschichte Jüdischer Soldaten in Deutschen Armeen

10851: 10714: 10548: 10502: 10438: 10431: 10415: 10378: 10356: 10339: 10329: 10310: 9704: 9483: 9355: 9223: 9070: 9017: 8936: 8887: 8772: 8578: 8539: 8437: 8368: 8261: 8190: 8135: 7943: 7916: 7739: 7682: 7611: 7597: 7441: 7417: 6671: 6360: 6309: 4941: 4918: 4752: 4617: 4292: 4223: 4072: 4068: 4063: 3978: 3921: 3917: 3816: 3746: 3698: 3683: 3674: 3519: 3488: 3291: 3275: 3246: 3072: 2913: 2909: 2884: 2753: 2746: 2659: 2583: 2525: 2505: 2322: 1882: 1521: 981: 852: 782: 659: 572: 439: 241: 9624: 7997: 6608:-administered displaced persons camps, remaining isolated from German society. When 6130:, "There is no doubt that most of the German mathematicians who were members of the 5709: 5444: 4772: 4567:

was considered to be one of the most eminent institutions of Jewish-German learning.

4495:

Austrian postcard published in 1919, depicting the legend of Jewish betrayal during

3548:

the collection of their debts, in spite of this annulment, would be dealt with as a

10831: 10809:

Socialism and the Jews: The Dilemmas of Assimilation in Germany and Austria-Hungary

10780: 10702: 10627: 10498: 9510: 9473: 9463: 9422: 9414: 9050: 8994: 8916: 8879: 8710: 8628: 8304: 8249: 7993: 7589: 7409: 7357: 7291: 7247: 6695: 6588: 6239: 5830: 5721: 5589: 5584: 5479: 4737: 4609: 4472: 4304: 3866: 3694: 3561: 3500: 3475: 3315: 3079:

and Mainz, gathering about him pupils from far and near. He is described in Jewish

2949: 2937: 2838: 2831: 2794: 2663: 2553: 2434: 2394: 2358: 2056: 1606: 1117: 873: 777: 692: 582: 374: 5781: 5524: 5380: 5013: 4620:, and many others. Seventeen German citizens were awarded Nobel prizes during the 2717:

began an era of persecution of Jews in Germany. Entire communities, like those of

2710:

as area bishops protected the Jews, resulting in increased trade and prosperity."

10998: 10872:

Iron Cross and Star of David: The history of Jewish soldiers in the German Armies

10409: 10125: 9954: 9924: 8023: 6764: 6711: 6499: 6305: 6181: 6138: 6123: 6084: 5761: 5626: 5579: 5484: 5003: 4968: 4953: 4923: 4787: 4762: 4742: 4621: 4593: 4573: 4548:

The German legal system generally treated Jews fairly throughout the period. The

4460: 4415: 4240:

introduced the term 'antisemitism' into the political vocabulary by founding the

4175: 4162:

During this time, many German states stripped Jews of their civil rights. In the

4096: 4051: 3974: 3901: 3889: 3854: 3773: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3607: 3234: 3136: 3084: 3025: 2963: 2515: 2474: 2469: 2449: 2371: 2365: 2298: 2250: 2090: 2071: 1222: 951: 863: 846: 390: 249: 11007: 8998: 7862: 7593: 7392:

is the nationally sanctioned organization to manage the German-Jewish community.

4431: 4406: 3024:

The status of the German Jews remained unchanged under Charlemagne's successor,

10287: 10067: 10053: 10011: 9970: 9206: 8237: 8208: 7884: 7843: 7715:"The Magic Land of Magenza: Jewish Life and Times in Medieval and Modern Mainz" 7509: 7491: 7477: 7327: 7309: 7295: 7272: 7231: 6715: 6699: 6645:

and generally private nature. Although there were Jewish elementary schools in

6415: 6395: 6314: 6301: 6243: 5835: 5734: 5600: 5534: 5464: 5414: 5277: 5174: 4913: 4838: 4832: 4757: 4601: 4597: 4589: 4585: 4355: 4320: 4219: 4105: 4092: 4047: 3844: 3528: 3385: 3323: 3287: 3263: 3196: 3080: 3054: 3006: 2802: 2703: 2683: 2671: 2615: 2414: 2269: 2149: 2128: 2105: 2100: 2078: 2066: 1661: 1142: 1076: 1041: 1019: 956: 794: 772: 634: 613: 589: 355: 337: 287: 225: 173: 10986: 10835: 8883: 8189:

Christophersen, Jörn R. (2021). Krisen, Chancen und Bedrohungen. Harrassowitz

7813:"Rabbiner Ehrenberg: Orthodoxes jüdisches Leben ist wieder lebendig in Berlin" 6561: 6054:

One should differentiate between the cultural antisemitism symptomatic of the

5469: 5028: 4782: 4374: 4268: 4159:

took place throughout Germany. Jewish property was destroyed in large number.

4140: 4075:

and associations created with teachers, rabbis, and leaders of congregations.

3865:, forbade any Jews to settle within their territory; in Bohemia, Moravia, and 11417: 10977:

a research library and archive focused on the history of German-speaking Jews

10400: 10343: 10282: 9779: 9605: 8295:

Philipson, David (1903). "The Beginnings of the Reform Movement in Judaism".

7397: 6411: 6383: 6350: 6320: 6258: 6235: 5651: 5499: 5454: 5043: 5023: 4908: 4815: 4767: 4668: 4651: 4577: 4363: 4283: 4227: 4156: 4145: 3862: 3797: 3339: 3311: 3229: 3204: 2901: 2820: 2782: 2742: 2714: 2563: 2558: 1764: 1691: 1217: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1046: 1024: 976: 738: 577: 482: 444: 395: 291: 205: 10570:

The Jews and Germans of Hamburg: The Destruction of a Civilization 1790–1945

9468: 8675:

Strachan, Hew. The First World War: A New History. Simon and Schuster, 2014.

8633: 8616: 6110:

against Jewish doctors, shops, lawyers and stores. Only six days later, the

6075:

antisemitism or racism, and this is the foremost advocate of using violence.

4491: 4464: 4035: 3969: 3757:

was foremost in espousing these new ideals. As early as 1782, he issued the

3487:

The legal and civic status of the Jews underwent a transformation under the

2793:

Beginning in late 1941, the remaining community was subjected to systematic

10718: 10068:"New Munich synagogue symbolizes German Jew's growing presence, confidence" 9514: 9487: 9222:(in German and English). Basel: Christoph Merian Verlag. pp. 158–161. 9178: 8940: 8768:

Dreamland of Humanists: Warburg, Cassirer, Panofsky, and the Hamburg School

8718: 7908: 7445: 7384: 7370: 6784: 6768: 6756: 6751: 6723: 6719: 6703: 6638: 6372: 6285: 6178: 6142: 6141:, compared to other professionals, in terms of party membership," observed 6047: 5822: 5699: 5399: 5048: 5033: 5008: 4861: 4732: 4708: 4521: 4503: 4350: 4237: 4215: 4025: 3992: 3836: 3785: 3679: 3212: 2979: 2929: 2905: 2816: 2787: 2772: 2768: 2726: 2593: 2419: 2260: 2255: 2213: 2166: 1260: 1127: 1112: 1071: 1036: 649: 491: 295: 10748:

Gold and Iron: Bismark, Bleichroder, and the Building of the German Empire

10706: 9991: 9351:

Submerged on the Surface: The Not-So-Hidden Jews of Nazi Berlin, 1941–1945

8920: 8253: 7815:[Rabbi Ehrenberg: Orthodox Jewish life is alive again in Berlin]. 6791:. However, from the 1950s to early 1980s, the State Security Service (the 4166:, only 12 Jewish couples were allowed to marry each year, and the 400,000 3835:, or citizen). In the 18th century, some Jews and their families (such as 3266:

or Germanic – Judaism became centered in Mainz, breaking free of the

3032:, was appointed by the government to protect Jewish privileges. The later 10743: 10680:

Jews and the German State: The Political History of a Minority, 1848–1933

10615:

The Berlin Jewish community: enlightenment, family, and crisis, 1770–1830

10175: 10016: 9418: 9148:"Setting the record straight about Jewish mathematicians in Nazi Germany" 9054: 8714: 8092:

Ben-Sasson, Haim Hillel (1976). "The Middle Ages," in: Ben-Sasson (Ed.),

7550: 7376: 7268: 7227: 6788: 6780: 6776: 6760: 6735: 6707: 6691: 6683: 6658: 6646: 6530: 6407: 6249: 6220: 6185: 5704: 5149: 5038: 4631: 4581: 4419: 4378: 4287: 3964: 3820: 3777: 3765: 3634: 3573: 3384:

swept over Europe in 1348–49, some Christian communities accused Jews of

2959: 2953: 2897: 2798: 2687: 2675: 2578: 2520: 2185: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1051: 270: 10750:(1979) Baron Bleichroder was the richest and most powerful Jewish leader 10489:

Bookbinder, P (2008). "Reborn Jews: A New Jewish Community in Germany".

9754:"Germany: Berlin Facing Challenge Of Assimilating Russian-Speaking Jews" 8805: 8038:"Medieval Source book Legislation Affecting the Jews from 300 to 800 CE" 6495: 4362:

and for many German Jews, the war against Russia would become a sort of

3590:

became the signal for renewed persecution of Jews. The Jews of Austria,

10928:

Zu einer anderen Zeit: Porträt der jüdisch-deutschen Epoche (1743-1933)

10843: 10767: 9680:"Statistical Abstract of Israel 2012 – No. 63 Subject 2 – Table No. 27" 9427: 9062: 8971: 8585: 8316: 7434: 7430: 7275:

heritage, has led to a renaissance of Jewish life in Germany. In 1996,

6805: 6663: 6560:, their inhabitants wrote more letters to antisemitic newspapers like " 6549: 6462: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6333: 6289: 5564: 4805: 4525: 4152: 4114: 4071:. Part of the evolution of the Jewish community was the cultivation of 4055: 3803:

The concept of citizenship was mostly restricted to cities, especially

3662: 3653:, the German humanist, who was the first one in Germany to include the 3619: 3565: 2994: 2874: 2857: 2776: 2707: 2236: 1250: 1179: 1137: 966: 946: 505: 412: 332: 10991: 10954:

Unmögliche Heimat. Eine deutsch-jüdische Geschichte der Bundesrepublik

10935: 9753: 8944: 8722: 6533:

antisemitism flourished in Germany. Especially during the time of the

6272: 3904:

on 5 September and on 12 December, respectively, and also in his home

3615: 3157: 10903: 10785: 10722: 10370: 9718:"Mitgliederstatistik 2011 der jüdischen Gemeinden und Landesverbände" 9244:"Heydrich's secret instructions regarding the riots in November 1938" 8820:

Walther Rathenau and the Weimar Republic: the politics of reparations

7449: 7331: 7251: 6796: 6650: 6513: 6277: 6192: 6146: 6145:

and some even carried out experiments on human beings at places like

4978: 4928: 4687: 4605: 4511: 4386: 4382: 4196: 4192: 4171: 3988: 3951:. In Western Europe and the German states, observance of Jewish law, 3812: 3267: 3045: 3041: 2967: 2807: 2399: 2384: 1474: 1422: 1184: 1132: 1122: 803: 799: 789: 704: 464: 213: 10608:

Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution

10522:

The Pity of It All: A Portrait of the German-Jewish Epoch, 1743-1933

10326:

Imperial Germany, 1871-1914: Economy, Society, Culture, and Politics

9836:"Israeli expats flocking to Berlin for the culture and the passport" 8419:. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 200–212. 8308: 8132:

The Gutenberg Revolution: How Printing Changed the Course of History

6437: 6238:(SS) became the dominant policing power in Germany. Reichsführer-SS 6174: 3734: 3715: 3414: 3131: 2706:

became the center of Jewish life during medieval times. "This was a

1152: 34: 10250:"Global Anti-Semitism: Selected Incidents Around the World in 2013" 10209:"Global Anti-Semitism: Selected Incidents Around the World in 2012" 9849: 8958:

Niewyk, Donald L. (1975). "Jews and the Courts in Weimar Germany".

7817: 7453: 7239: 7223: 6621: 6585: 5544: 4536:. A third group of left-wing elements endorsed the universalism of 4232: 4200: 3983: 3938: 3781: 3587: 3306: 3283: 3255: 2982: 2917: 2679: 2568: 2178: 2110: 941: 449: 400: 299: 10281:

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the

10232:"Antisemitismus: Jugendliche attackieren Rabbi in Einkaufszentrum" 6253:

German Jewish passports could be used to leave, but not to return.

6177:. This, and a tame government with no opposition parties, allowed 3908:, then home to the second-largest Jewish community in Germany. In 3657:

among the humanities. His opinion, though strongly opposed by the

3110: 2989:. This decree caused a mixed reaction of people in general in the 10961:

Doppelte Loyalität: Fritz Rathenau als deutscher Beamter und Jude

10822:

Pulzer, Peter (June 1991). "New Books on German-Jewish History".

9183:

Perpetrators Victims Bystanders: The Jewish Catastrophe 1933–1945

9152: 7304: 7284: 7264: 6667: 6579: 6403: 6364: 4810: 4537: 4533: 4359: 4358:

was regarded as the oppressor in the eyes of German Jews for its

4080: 4017: 3953: 3893: 3793: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3549: 3515: 3271: 3259: 3062: 3048:

became more and more a period of antisemitic activities, yet the

2945: 2921: 2722: 2658:

goes back at least to the year 321 CE, and continued through the

2544: 2510: 2379: 2173: 1162: 1157: 1029: 920: 815: 811: 807: 556: 551: 528: 510: 385: 380: 370: 348: 323: 274: 266: 253: 197: 169: 9204:. Lincolnwood, IL: Publications International. p. 384. 9127: 4030: 3981:. The German-Jewish Enlightenment of the late 18th century, the 2737:

resulted in increasing repression. From August to October 1819,

10980: 10875: 10397:

The Years of Persecution: Nazi Germany & the Jews 1933–1939

10375:

The Pity of It All: A History of the Jews in Germany, 1743-1933

7405: 7276: 7260: 7243: 6810: 6654: 6609: 6376: 6080: 5855: 5716: 4133:

to His Family Still Living in Accordance with Old Customs", by

3858: 3761:, thereby establishing civic equality for his Jewish subjects. 3646: 3633:

The end of the 15th century, which brought a new epoch for the

3627: 3556: 3319: 3192: 3102: 3049: 3037: 3018: 2763:

In January 1933, some 522,000 Jews lived in Germany. After the

2738: 2699: 2204: 2199: 2159: 2144: 1255: 1147: 567: 533: 519: 454: 221: 217: 201: 9400: 9398: 9115: 3491:. Jewish people found a certain degree of protection with the 3342:

began an era of persecution of Jews in Germany, especially in

3181: 2868: 10191:"German Jewish college shuns skullcaps after attack on rabbi" 8275: 8273: 8271: 8074: 7456:

and the words "Hitler now" on the exteriors of local houses.

7425: 6792: 6772: 6687: 6615: 6115: 5474: 4040: 3843:

With the abolition of differences in legal status during the

3702: 3496: 3347: 3327: 3295: 3200: 3098: 3058: 2975: 2925: 2718: 2695: 2690:(1346–53) led to mass slaughter of German Jews, while others 1167: 596: 500: 469: 209: 10093:"World | Europe | Major German synagogue reopened" 10012:

Berlin police say 16 arrested during neo-Nazi demonstration.

8223:

By the introduction of the basic freedoms decided on by the

3618:

alone, and all Jews were forever banished from Silesia. The

10673:

The rise of political antisemitism in Germany & Austria

9967:

German Jewish Leader Says Right-wing Violence Recalls 1930s

9593: 9581: 9569: 9395: 8825: 8450: 8393: 8227:, adopted into Hamburg's statutory law on 21 February 1849. 7256: 6816: 4683: 4613: 4183:, proving he was in a "respectable" trade or profession. A 3789: 3661:

and their followers, finally prevailed when the humanistic

3076: 2986: 319: 10461: 10050:

New Munich Synagogue Opens on Nazi Persecution Anniversary

8268: 8146:(first published in 2002 by Headline Book under the title 7512:– an online magazine for Jews in German-speaking countries 4422:

played major roles in supervising the German war economy.

10622:

Jewish Culture and Society in Medieval France and Germany

10547:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 10476:

A Community under Siege: The Jews of Breslau under Nazism

9946:. Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. 9444:"Nazi indoctrination and anti-Semitic beliefs in Germany" 9202:

The Holocaust Chronicles: A History in Words and Pictures

9103: 6112:

Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service

4496: 4222:. In 1871, with the unification of Germany by Chancellor 3220: 3069: 2756:

until the 20th century, the community gradually achieved

10601:

Between Dignity and Despair: Jewish Life in Nazi Germany

10563:

Jews in Germany: From Roman Times to the Weimar Republic

9270:

at an exchange rate of 4.20 ℛ︁ℳ︁ per

7939:

The Jews Among Pagans and Christians in the Roman Empire

7630:

Federal Ministry of the Interior, Building and Community

4274:

Jews experienced a period of legal equality after 1848.

10777:

Culture and Exchange: The Jews of Königsberg, 1700-1820

8381: 4230:

and scandals; in the 1880s by the arrival of masses of

2856:, saying: "We will not tolerate any form of extremism, 10974: 10483:

Berlin metropolis: Jews and the new culture, 1890–1918

10117:

Die Bundesregierung (Federal government of Germany): "

9442:

Voigtländer, Nico; Voth, Hans-Joachim (30 June 2015).

8909:

Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies

8641: 8514: 8242:

Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies

6344:

Jews emigrating from Berlin to the United States, 1939

6205:

sexual relations and marriages between Aryans and Jews

4638:

until its liquidation by the Nazi government in 1938.

3005:, the earliest communities were established in Mainz, 2775:. In 1933, persecution of the Jews became an official 2745:

took place throughout Germany. During this time, many

9016:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. p. 341. 8610: 8608: 8606: 7964:"Already during Roman times, Jews resided in Cologne" 7366:

Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution

7246:, for its relaxed atmosphere and low cost of living. 6678:

Minister of Justice (and Deputy Chief Justice of the

6641:

from the 1950s to the 1970s was characterized by its

6215:) of their own country. Their official status became 4414:

Prominent Jewish industrialists and bankers, such as

3649:, but an advocate of the book arose in the person of 9819:

An Israeli in Berlin: The chocolate pudding exodus,

9780:"German Jews more than victims, community head says" 9725:

Zentralwohlfahrtsstelle der Juden in Deutschland e.V

7996:: Institut für angewandte Geschichte. Archived from 7759:. The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot. 7467: 6280:, c. 1890–1900. The structure was destroyed in 1938. 4508:

wartime Germany had been betrayed by an enemy within

4263:

1890: Gustav Ermann, a Jewish soldier in the German

3301: 2183: 2164: 587: 10514:

The Renaissance of Jewish Culture in Weimar Germany

10260: 10139:

Cantor who led Berlin's Jews for past 50 years dies

8591: 8559: 3924:on 3 December 1868. After the establishment of the 59:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 10692: 10430: 10176:"Youths attack rabbi in street for 'being Jewish'" 8603: 8183: 7907: 7444:. The rabbi took pictures of the attackers on his 6738:, and Germany's most influential literary critic, 6079:In 1933, persecution of the Jews became an active 3759:Patent of Toleration for the Jews of Lower Austria 3641:, one of its most convenient points of attack was 11037: 11003:The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot 10738:Moses Mendelssohn and the Religious Enlightenment 10003: 10001: 9760:. Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty. 8 April 2008 9220:Jewish Switzerland: 50 Objects Tell Their Stories 8849:"1815-1933: Emanzipation und Akkulturation | bpb" 8200: 8171: 7734: 7732: 6657:, the community had a very high average age. Few 4641: 3741:was a German-Jewish communal leader who promoted 2670:1000–1299 CE) when Jewish immigrants founded the 11415: 10485:. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999 10437:. New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press. 10164:on 1 September 2012 – via Sueddeutsche.de. 10119:Germany's largest synagogue officially reopened. 9662:"Germany Plans to Raise Status of Nation's Jews" 8617:"A Deadly Legacy: German Jews and the Great War" 7936:Lieu, Judith; North, John; Rajak, Tessa (2013). 7678:The Black Death, 1346–1353: The Complete History 6296:, attacked and shot two German officials in the 6201:Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honor 3499:, who was said to have acquired the Jews as his 3350:, Worms, Mainz, and Cologne, were attacked. The 10987:Berkley Center: Being Jewish in the New Germany 10478:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007 9448:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 9441: 9404: 9217: 8764: 7298:have become a popular academic study, and many 4086: 3912:, equality was conceded on 3 December 1861; in 3111:Cultural and religious centre of European Jewry 10893: 10753: 10411:A Deadly Legacy: German Jews and the Great War 10353:State and Minorities in Communist East Germany 9998: 9939: 9937: 9935: 9933: 9912: 9910: 9908: 9906: 9012:Kaplan, Edward K.; Dresner, Samuel H. (1998). 7935: 7729: 7572: 7570: 7290:Partly owing to the deep similarities between 6580:Jews in Germany from 1945 to the reunification 6556:gained a 1.5 times higher voting share in the 6524: 6184:control of law-making. The army also swore an 4648:Anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany 3373:were subjected to massacres by the outlaws of 11023: 10731:The Transformation of German Jewry, 1780–1840 10350: 9984:"Jewish leader: Attacks just like Hitler era" 9893:"First rabbis since 1942 ordained in Germany" 9611: 9599: 9587: 9575: 9011: 8282:Gender and Jewish History in Imperial Germany 7780:"German Jews During The Holocaust, 1939–1945" 7774: 7772: 7770: 7768: 7766: 7351:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany 6027: 4031:Reorganization of the German Jewish community 3665:permitted the Talmud to be printed in Italy. 2635: 10922:(with an English Summary, pp. 719–727). 9948:Verfassungsschutzbericht 2006. Annual Report 9500: 8064:"Cologne: Germany's Oldest Jewish Community" 7915:. Cambridge University Press. p. 1042. 7857: 7855: 7853: 7806: 7804: 7576: 6106:. The Nazis responded with further bans and 3724:Jerusalem, or On Religious Power and Judaism 3286:describes Mainz as "the capital of European 2863: 140: 10391: 10286: 9930: 9903: 9133: 9121: 9109: 8735: 7883: 7830: 7828: 7567: 7374:Ambassador and states in an interview with 7337:On 27 January 2003, then German chancellor 6421: 3932: 3443:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3404: 3040:for including and enforcing decrees of the 879:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire 11030: 11016: 10983:Digital collections at Leo Baeck Institute 10530:The Jews of Germany: A Historical Portrait 10488: 10304: 9649:. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 8535:"The Jews Who Stabbed Germany in the Back" 8429: 8342: 8340: 8338: 8080: 7810: 7763: 7674: 6034: 6020: 5879:Israel and the Federal Republic of Germany 3784:(in Prussia a special estate until 1810), 3130: 2694:. The Jewish communities of the cities of 2642: 2628: 162: 10784: 10651:Emancipation and Acculturation, 1780–1871 10516:. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996. 10144:J. The Jewish News of Northern California 10036:Wir dürfen uns auf keinen Fall verstecken 9868: 9477: 9467: 9426: 9218:Battegay, Caspar; Lubrich, Naomi (2018). 9193: 8847:Herzig, Prof em Dr Arno (5 August 2010). 8632: 8294: 7850: 7836:"No Room for Holocaust Denial in Germany" 7801: 7316:), has re-emerged in Germany, led by the 6478:Learn how and when to remove this message 3602:passed through all the terrors of death, 3463:Learn how and when to remove this message 119:Learn how and when to remove this message 11424:History of the Jews in Europe by country 10532:. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992 10323: 10188: 10158:"Jugendliche schlagen Rabbiner zusammen" 9794:"Jewish Berlin: Myths and Fragmentation" 9014:Abraham Josua Heschel: Prophetic Witness 8873: 8831: 8456: 8399: 8387: 7825: 7749: 7651:"German Jewish culture through the ages" 7383: 7322: 6817:Jews in the reunited Germany (post-1990) 6489: 6339: 6304:, who had been shot by Grynszpan, died. 6271: 6248: 6151: 6089: 5915:Timeline of Treblinka extermination camp 4559: 4490: 4479:. He was assassinated two months later. 4454: 4405: 4368: 4331: 4258: 4139: 4124: 4034: 3733: 3678: 3555: 3474: 3305: 3191:The Jewish communities of the cities of 2867: 2780:orchestrated the Night of Broken Glass ( 10587:Jewish Daily Life in Germany, 1618–1945 10542: 9833: 9177: 9083: 9036: 9030: 8433:The Cambridge Survey of World Migration 8359: 8335: 8284:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 8236: 8134:. London: Bantam Books. pp. 27–8. 7811:Schoelkopf, Katrin (18 November 2004). 7788:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 7709: 7707: 7705: 6745: 6632: 6257:On 4 June 1937, two young German Jews, 5871:Central Committee of the Liberated Jews 14: 11416: 10963:. Published by Georg Olms Verlag, 2002 10865: 10821: 10740:. University of California Press, 1996 10645:Tradition and Enlightenment, 1600–1780 10545:The extermination of the European Jews 9899:. Associated Press. 13 September 2006. 9869:Lubavitch, Chabad (20 February 2003). 9856:Oberrabbiner tagen erstmals in Berlin. 9659: 9199: 9145: 8957: 8906: 8876:The Routledge History of the Holocaust 8846: 8700: 8532: 8414: 7968:Archäologische Zone – Jüdisches Museum 7626:"1700 years of Jewish life in Germany" 6841: 6392:immigration visas to the United States 4129:"The Return of the Volunteer from the 4043:was built in 1740 and is still in use. 3065:studies began to flourish about 1000. 11011: 10804:. University of Wisconsin Press, 2008 10774: 10638:German–Jewish History in Modern Times 10407: 10189:Chambers, Madeline (30 August 2012). 9647:"Jewish Population of Europe in 1945" 8842: 8840: 8791: 8659: 8647: 8597: 8565: 8520: 8410: 8408: 7412:and several synagogues—including the 3116:ShUM Sites of Speyer, Worms and Mainz 10925: 10733:. Wayne State University Press, 1999 10675:(2nd Harvard University Press, 1988) 10519: 10428: 10369: 10266: 10229: 10065: 9796:. Humanity in Action. Archived from 9660:Butler, Desmond (15 November 2002). 9553:. Atlantic-times.com. Archived from 8984: 8614: 8329: 8206: 8161:"Early History (4th – 11th Century)" 7702: 7318:Union of Progressive Jews in Germany 6823:Antisemitism in 21st-century Germany 6460:adding citations to reliable sources 6431: 6186:oath of loyalty personally to Hitler 6169:was appointed; with Adolf Hitler as 3999:, is one of the founding editors of 3668: 3441:adding citations to reliable sources 3408: 3249:, a relatively safe and enlightened 2805:. In May 1943, Germany was declared 192:Regions with significant populations 57:adding citations to reliable sources 28: 8771:. U of Chicago Press. p. 194. 8177: 8165:Germany Virtual Jewish History Tour 8153: 8129: 7500:Association of German National Jews 7356:In Germany it is a criminal act to 7242:also move to Germany, particularly 6828:Historical German Jewish population 6173:, he took control of the office of 6046:In Germany, according to historian 4517:The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 4506:based on the false allegation that 4336:A leaflet published in 1920 by the 4020:. In Russia, antisemitism ended the 3401:Jewish community in all of Europe. 3274:was founded in the 10th century by 3238: 24: 10689:. Hebrew Union College Press, 1980 10663:Renewal and Destruction, 1918–1945 10640:, vols. 1–4. New York, 1996–1998: 10467: 9354:. Berghahn Books. September 2019. 9084:Mommsen, Hans (12 December 1997). 8837: 8405: 8279: 7987: 7863:"Germans warned of neo-Nazi surge" 7681:. Boydell Press. pp. 392–93. 7390:Central Council of Jews in Germany 6836: 6750:The Jewish community of communist 6732:Central Council of Jews in Germany 6627:Central Council of Jews in Germany 6414:. Another 48,000 emigrated to the 4339:Reichsbund jüdischer Frontsoldaten 3560:Jews burned alive for the alleged 2962:(800–814) readily made use of the 25: 11455: 10968: 10815: 10657:Integration in Dispute, 1871–1918 10491:Journal of the Historical Society 10290:; et al., eds. (1901–1906). 9990:. 24 October 2006. Archived from 9871:"Yeshiva Trains Rabbis In Berlin" 9782:. Jewish Journal. 5 January 2011. 9266:In the 1930s, the Reichsmark was 9146:Aderet, Ofer (25 November 2011). 7887:; et al., eds. (1901–1906). 6312:ordered the state police and the 5970:Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 4874:Collaborators during World War II 3885:, let alone for all German Jews. 3361:Jews were alleged to have caused 3302:A period of massacres (1096–1349) 670:Historical population comparisons 10894:Christophersen, Jörn R. (2021). 10589:. Oxford University Press, 2005. 10503:10.1111/j.1540-5923.2008.00258.x 10300:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. 10242: 10223: 10201: 10182: 10168: 10160:. 30 August 2012. Archived from 10150: 10131: 10111: 10085: 10059: 10043: 10023: 9976: 9960: 9885: 9862: 9842: 9827: 9705:Einwanderer So leise wie möglich 9614:, pp. 29, 34–38, 40–44, 49. 8348:A History of the Jews in America 7913:The Cambridge History of Judaism 7897:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. 7484: 7470: 7452:, also in 2013, vandals painted 6802:Socialist Unity Party of Germany 6572:these traits are useful or not. 6436: 5953:List of books about Nazi Germany 5740:Resistance movement in Auschwitz 5368:Concentration Camps Inspectorate 4677: 4555: 4286:did the same in 1871. Historian 3892:(d. 1863), a Jewish lawyer from 3413: 1314:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1228:Historical population by country 68:"History of the Jews in Germany" 33: 10890:Chapters' summary (in English). 10617:. Oxford University Press, 1994 10537:Jews in Post-Holocaust Germany 10433:Being Jewish in the new Germany 9944:Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz 9927:. Annual Report. 2003, page 29. 9812: 9786: 9772: 9758:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 9746: 9710: 9698: 9672: 9653: 9639: 9617: 9543: 9521: 9494: 9435: 9342: 9328: 9302: 9277: 9260: 9236: 9211: 9171: 9139: 9077: 9005: 8978: 8951: 8900: 8867: 8812: 8785: 8758: 8745: 8694: 8678: 8669: 8571: 8526: 8501: 8471: 8462: 8423: 8367:. Harper Collins. p. 395. 8353: 8288: 8230: 8217: 8123: 8103: 8086: 8056: 8030: 8020:"Cologne, City of the Arts '07" 8012: 7981: 7956: 7929: 7901: 7877: 7721:. City of Mainz. Archived from 7675:Benedictow, Ole Jørgen (2004). 7579:"World Jewish Population, 2018" 7526:History of the Jews in Hannover 6540:Regions that suffered from the 6447:needs additional citations for 5810:Joint Declaration by Members of 4486: 4218:, a contemporary and friend of 4007:In most of Western Europe, the 2797:to ghettos and, ultimately, to 2692:fled in large numbers to Poland 2674:. The community survived under 2662:(5th to 10th centuries CE) and 44:needs additional citations for 11039:History of the Jews in Europe 10775:Storm, Jill (1 January 2010). 10324:Berghahn, Volker Rolf (1994). 9727:. 4 April 2013. Archived from 9407:Quarterly Journal of Economics 8703:Holocaust and Genocide Studies 8436:. Cambridge University Press. 8111:"Germany / Up to the Crusades" 8094:A History of the Jewish People 7911:; Frankenstein, Louis (1984). 7668: 7643: 7618: 7586:American Jewish Year Book 2018 7521:History of the Jews in Hamburg 7516:History of the Jews in Cologne 7400:), when the newly constructed 6418:and other European countries. 4642:Jews under the Nazis (1933–45) 4327: 3576:, in 1492; a woodcut from the 3318:ravaged Jewish communities in 2656:history of the Jews in Germany 13: 1: 10275: 9918:Verfassungsschutzbericht 2003 9834:Axelrod, Toby (5 July 2011). 9682:. .cbs.gov.il. Archived from 9086:"Interview with Hans Mommsen" 8987:Leo Baeck Institute Year Book 8533:Mikics, David (9 July 2017). 7588:. Vol. 118. p. 54. 7577:DellaPergola, Sergio (2019). 7536:History of the Jews in Poland 7531:History of the Jews in Munich 7014:Jewish population in Germany 5877:Reparations Agreement between 5745:Związek Organizacji Wojskowej 5420:Human medical experimentation 4377:, a German Jewish soldier in 4026:Zionist Hibbat Zion movement. 3354:was saved by the bishop, but 2741:that came to be known as the 885:Christianity and Judaism 10859: 10178:. The Local. 29 August 2012. 8794:History of Political Thought 8691:Bavarian National Exhibition 7347:Protestant Church in Germany 7020:Jewish % of population 6680:Federal Constitutional Court 6298:Nazi German embassy in Paris 6197:Nuremberg Racial Purity Laws 6161:On 2 August 1934, President 5410:Extermination through labour 5264:Transit and collection camps 4612:; sexologist and pioneering 4528:promoted a virulent strain. 4427:German Military High Command 4120: 4087:Birth of the Reform Movement 3512:Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor 2847:Interior Minister of Germany 7: 11434:Jews and Judaism in Germany 10565:. Heavily illustrated. 1998 10543:Gerlach, Christian (2016). 10124:September 26, 2011, at the 9312:. Ushmm.org. Archived from 9200:Harran, Marilyn J. (2000). 8297:The Jewish Quarterly Review 8197:. p. 720 (English Summary). 7594:10.1007/978-3-030-03907-3_8 7556:Peter Stevens (RAF officer) 7463: 7429:Kristallnacht anniversary, 6525:Persistence of antisemitism 6135:collaborated with the Nazis 6006:Righteous Among the Nations 5902:Deportations of French Jews 3568:, Bavaria, in 1338, and in 2184: 2165: 1892:Latin America and Caribbean 588: 10: 11460: 10408:Grady, Timothy L. (2017). 9531:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org 9503:Journal of Economic Theory 8753:The Jews in Weimar Germany 8689:" (German Jewish soldiers) 8687:Deutsche Jüdische Soldaten 8417:Assimilation and Community 8207:Bach, Hans (Summer 1976). 7942:. Routledge. p. 117. 6820: 6714:; Jewish communal leaders 6619:) and East European Jews ( 6425: 6104:boycott of German products 4645: 4093:Reform Movement in Judaism 3936: 3926:North German Confederation 3764:Before 1806, when general 3672: 3483:meeting Jews in Rome, 1312 3363:the inroads of the Mongols 3352:Jewish community of Speyer 3310:Mobs of French and German 3262:. Western European – 3123:UNESCO World Heritage Site 2978:, so the Jews secured the 2972:embassy to Harun al-Rashid 2852:, urged vigilance against 2845:held in Germany, the then- 2678:, but suffered during the 2672:Ashkenazi Jewish community 2497:Jewish political movements 2194:Conversion to Judaism 11363: 11325: 11045: 10836:10.1017/S0008938900018926 10414:. Yale University Press. 9923:25 September 2007 at the 9612:Dennis & LaPorte 2011 9600:Dennis & LaPorte 2011 9588:Dennis & LaPorte 2011 9576:Dennis & LaPorte 2011 8999:10.1093/leobaeck/33.1.149 8884:10.4324/9780203837443.ch1 8582:given by Ermann's brother 8213:(2 ed.). p. 24. 8167:. Jewish Virtual Library. 8119:. 1901–1906. p. 631. 7001: 6854:— 6568:widespread antisemitism. 6349:rush in the months after 6132:professional organization 4400:German colonial ambitions 4381:: Ermann was murdered at 4354:Jews to support the war; 3175: 3163: 3153: 3143: 3129: 3120: 2864:From Rome to the Crusades 900:Hinduism and Judaism 286: 281: 265: 260: 236: 231: 196: 191: 186: 181: 161: 149: 11444:Ethnic groups in Germany 11439:The Holocaust in Germany 10866:Berger, Michael (2006). 10824:Central European History 10636:Meyer, Michael A., ed.: 10238:– via www.welt.de. 8765:Emily J. Levine (2013). 8483:Die Judischen Gefallenen 7561: 7541:Jewish Agency for Israel 7505:Germany–Israel relations 7017:Total German population 6813:to Israel in the 1970s. 6637:The Jewish community in 6428:The Holocaust in Germany 6422:The Holocaust in Germany 6232:Night of the Long Knives 5818:Auschwitz bombing debate 5140:Nazi concentration camps 5085:Nazi extermination camps 5064:List of selected ghettos 4979:People with disabilities 3933:The Jewish Enlightenment 3920:on 14 July 1863; and in 3405:In the Holy Roman Empire 2725:, were slaughtered. The 726:Temple in Jerusalem 419:Bar and bat mitzvah 10975:Leo Baeck Institute, NY 10297:The Jewish Encyclopedia 9469:10.1073/pnas.1414822112 9249:Simon Wiesenthal Center 8615:Crim, Brian E. (2018). 8415:Kaplan, Marion (2004). 8116:The Jewish Encyclopedia 7894:The Jewish Encyclopedia 7865:. BBC News. 22 May 2006 6734:), film score composer 6594:displaced persons (DPs) 6494:Jews are deported from 6388:Immigration Act of 1924 6207:. At the same time the 6203:was passed, preventing 4969:Slavs in Eastern Europe 4954:Romani people (Gypsies) 4135:Moritz Daniel Oppenheim 4014:immigrations to America 3708:immortality of the soul 3390:Erfurt Massacre of 1349 3356:800 were slain in Worms 3090:The Jewish Encyclopedia 2839:denial of the Holocaust 2731:Napoleon's fall in 1815 688:Twelve Tribes of Israel 11088:Bosnia and Herzegovina 10938:: Carl Hanser Verlag. 10613:Lowenstein, Steven M. 10606:Levy, Richard S., ed. 10481:Bilski, Emily D., ed. 10457:Jewish Virtual Library 10429:Peck, Jeffrey (2006). 10254:Anti-Defamation League 9515:10.1006/jeth.2000.2678 9289:Jewish Virtual Library 8929:10.5703/shofar.30.2.52 7393: 7334: 7281:Abraham Geiger College 6507: 6398:countries, especially 6345: 6332:), a one billion 6329: 6281: 6254: 6158: 6128:history of mathematics 6099: 6077: 5960:The Destruction of the 5804:International response 5240:Transnistria (Romania) 5058:German-occupied Poland 4568: 4499: 4411: 4390: 4343: 4271: 4164:Free City of Frankfurt 4149: 4137: 4044: 3916:on 4 October 1862; in 3883:other 41 German states 3750: 3686: 3583: 3484: 3335: 3280: 3108: 3061:in the original text. 2952:took root slowly. The 2896:Jewish migration from 2893: 2767:and implemented their 2760:, and then prospered. 156:דײַטשע ייִדן (Yiddish) 141: 11429:Jewish German history 10952:Kauders, Anthony D.: 10756:Jewish Social Studies 10707:10.1353/jss.1999.0008 10695:Jewish Social Studies 10577:Yale University Press 10307:Encyclopaedia Judaica 9953:9 August 2007 at the 9136:, pp. 56, 59–60. 8960:Jewish Social Studies 8921:10.1353/sho.2012.0020 8634:10.1093/gerhis/ghx133 8365:A History of the Jews 8254:10.1353/sho.2002.0051 7990:"A Jewish beginnings" 7387: 7349:, at least since the 7343:Roman Catholic Church 7326: 7314:originated in Germany 7283:, was established in 6806:decomposition methods 6517:(clean of Jews; also 6493: 6343: 6275: 6252: 6209:Reich Citizenship Law 6171:Chancellor of Germany 6155: 6093: 6052: 6001:Memorials and museums 5930:Memorials and museums 5391:Extermination methods 5095:Auschwitz II-Birkenau 4686:on selection ramp at 4646:Further information: 4565:Heidelberg University 4563: 4494: 4455:Weimar years, 1919–33 4437:stab-in-the-back myth 4425:In October 1916, the 4409: 4372: 4335: 4262: 4244:. Antisemites of the 4143: 4128: 4091:The beginning of the 4060:Samson Raphael Hirsch 4038: 3945:General Enlightenment 3878:older eight provinces 3737: 3682: 3559: 3478: 3375:Arnold von Uissigheim 3367:Rintfleisch massacres 3346:. The communities of 3309: 3243: 3149:Cultural: ii, iii, vi 3095: 2964:Roman Catholic Church 2871: 2811:(clean of Jews; also 1434:São Tomé and Príncipe 1429:Republic of the Congo 823:Second Temple Judaism 694:Kingdom of Judah 665:Modern historiography 282:Related ethnic groups 150:יְהוּדִים גֶּרְמָנִים 10997:17 July 2019 at the 10807:Wistrich, Robert S. 10535:Geller, Jay Howard. 10462:Jewish Museum Berlin 10230:WELT (7 June 2013). 10008:The Associated Press 9734:on 16 September 2012 9187:Secker & Warburg 8083:, pp. 518–519. 7725:on 13 November 2013. 7402:Ohel Jakob synagogue 6746:Jews of East Germany 6740:Marcel Reich-Ranicki 6633:Jews of West Germany 6456:improve this article 6330:Judenvermögensabgabe 6056:German conservatives 5977:Functionalism versus 5910:Survivors of Sobibor 5622:Operation "Reinhard" 5374:Politische Abteilung 5362:SS-Totenkopfverbände 4449:Treaty of Versailles 3965:Tobias b. Moses Cohn 3805:Free Imperial Cities 3624:Bernardine of Feltre 3437:improve this section 2536:World Agudath Israel 1677:United Arab Emirates 764:Second Temple period 754:Babylonian captivity 172:(dark green) in the 53:improve this article 11326:States with limited 10992:The Jews of Germany 10934:] (in German). 10926:Elon, Amos (2003). 10902:] (in German). 10874:] (in German). 10568:Grenville, J.A.S. 10561:Gidal, Nachum Tim. 10520:Elon, Amos (2003). 10452:Jewish Encyclopedia 10040:. 12 September 2007 9707:Spiegel 27 May 1996 9686:on 13 November 2012 9460:2015PNAS..112.7931V 9310:"Teacher Resources" 8834:, pp. 104–105. 8459:, pp. 102–103. 8402:, pp. 105–106. 8346:Sachar, Howard M.: 8044:on 8 September 2015 8026:on 19 January 2009. 7846:. 23 December 2005. 7757:The Jews of Germany 7546:List of German Jews 7300:German universities 7236:former Soviet Union 6829: 6643:social conservatism 6598:Mandatory Palestine 6542:Black Death pogroms 6357:Mandatory Palestine 6326:Jewish Capital Levy 6163:Paul von Hindenburg 5996:Days of remembrance 5896:Holocaust survivors 5690:Vrba–Wetzler report 5685:Auschwitz Protocols 5642:End of World War II 5632:Extermination camps 5617:Mogilev Conference 5560:Kamianets-Podilskyi 4778:Ernst Kaltenbrunner 4608:political theorist 4502:There was sporadic 4469:Weimar Constitution 4212:Revolutions of 1848 3850:Jewish emancipation 3840:previous location. 3743:Jewish emancipation 3712:Christian apologist 3691:Protestant theology 3643:rabbinic literature 3579:Nuremberg Chronicle 3537:Golden Bull of 1356 3524:House of Luxembourg 3479:Holy Roman Emperor 3332:Rhineland massacres 3117: 2940:kingdoms under the 2890:Herrad of Landsberg 2854:far-right extremism 2828:former Soviet Union 2721:, Worms, Mainz and 829:Hellenistic Judaism 407:Land of Israel 366:Principles of faith 158: 10932:The Pity of It All 10800:Van Rahden, Till. 10670:Pulzer, Peter G.J. 10599:Kaplan, Marion A. 10592:Kaplan, Marion A. 10355:. Berghahn Books. 10328:. Berghahn Books. 10056:, 9 November 2006. 9897:The Jerusalem Post 9859:" 17 November 2004 9666:The New York Times 9627:. Edwardvictor.com 9419:10.1093/qje/qjs019 9124:, p. 56 n.65. 9055:10.1093/mj/20.1.41 8751:Donald L. Niewyk, 8715:10.1093/hgs/dcl001 8547:on 9 November 2017 8489:on 2 November 2004 8130:Man, John (2010). 8000:on 9 November 2013 7909:Davies, William D. 7414:largest in Germany 7394: 7358:deny the Holocaust 7335: 6827: 6728:Charlotte Knobloch 6676:Schleswig-Holstein 6508: 6346: 6294:Herschel Grynszpan 6282: 6255: 6159: 6100: 5812:the United Nations 5612:Wannsee Conference 4727:Major perpetrators 4569: 4542:German nationalism 4500: 4412: 4391: 4344: 4272: 4256:temporary defeat. 4242:Antisemitic League 4150: 4138: 4131:Wars of Liberation 4095:was emphasized by 4045: 3874:Kingdom of Prussia 3751: 3730:Early 19th century 3687: 3639:German Renaissance 3612:John of Capistrano 3584: 3506:A variety of such 3493:Holy Roman Emperor 3485: 3336: 3115: 2999:Duchy of Thuringia 2991:Carolingian Empire 2894: 2390:Jewish Koine Greek 1932:Dominican Republic 1213:Judaism by country 892:Jews and Christmas 747:Assyrian captivity 187:116,000 to 225,000 136: 11411: 11410: 10917:978-3-447-11710-4 10719:Project MUSE 10685:Ragins, Sanford. 10628:Meyer, Michael A. 10583:Kaplan, Marion A. 10554:978-0-521-70689-6 10539:. Cambridge, 2005 10474:Ascher, Abraham. 10444:978-0-8135-3723-8 10421:978-0-300-19204-9 10393:Friedländer, Saul 10384:978-0-8050-5964-9 10362:978-0-85745-196-5 10335:978-1-57181-013-7 10316:978-0-02-865935-0 10147:. 21 January 2000 10066:Williams, Robin. 10020:. 22 October 2006 9454:(26): 7931–7936. 9361:978-1-78533-455-9 9256:on 7 August 2017. 9229:978-3-85616-847-6 8941:Project MUSE 8893:978-0-203-83744-3 8778:978-0-226-06171-9 8719:Project MUSE 8650:, pp. 74–79. 8579:Page of Testimony 8523:, pp. 22–23. 8507:Bryan Mark Rigg. 8443:978-0-521-44405-7 8225:National Assembly 8210:Moses Mendelssohn 8195:978-3-447-11710-4 8141:978-1-4090-4552-6 7988:Adrian, Johanna. 7949:978-1-135-08188-1 7603:978-3-030-03906-6 7418:Yitzhak Ehrenberg 7404:was dedicated in 7362:Wolfgang Schäuble 7220: 7219: 7006: 7005: 6787:, and politician 6690:Attorney General 6672:Herbert Weichmann 6521:: free of Jews). 6488: 6487: 6480: 6361:Haavara Agreement 6310:Reinhard Heydrich 6284:The increasingly 6217:Reichsangehöriger 6044: 6043: 5920:Victims of Nazism 5861:Displaced persons 5794: 5793: 5695:Czesław Mordowicz 5664: 5663: 5427: 5426: 5056:Jewish ghettos in 4929:Forced euthanasia 4919:Haavara Agreement 4889: 4888: 4825:Totenkopfverbände 4753:Reinhard Heydrich 4618:Magnus Hirschfeld 4477:Treaty of Rapallo 4429:administered the 4293:Gustav Stresemann 4267:'s army, born in 4247:völkisch movement 4224:Otto von Bismarck 4073:Jewish literature 4069:Louis Lewandowski 4064:Zecharias Frankel 4039:The synagogue in 3979:secular education 3817:Roman Catholicism 3776:, city dwellers ( 3747:Holy Roman Empire 3739:David Friedländer 3684:Moses Mendelssohn 3675:Moses Mendelssohn 3669:Moses Mendelssohn 3489:Holy Roman Empire 3473: 3472: 3465: 3369:of 1298. In 1336 3292:Gershom ben Judah 3276:Gershom ben Judah 3189: 3188: 3073:Gershom ben Judah 2914:Germania Inferior 2910:Germania Superior 2885:Hortus deliciarum 2872:Jews wearing the 2850:Wolfgang Schäuble 2773:Nazi dictatorship 2754:Moses Mendelssohn 2752:From the time of 2682:. Accusations of 2660:Early Middle Ages 2652: 2651: 2601: 2600: 2349: 2348: 2096:Reconstructionist 2040: 2039: 1192: 1191: 999: 998: 836:Jewish–Roman wars 784:Hasmonean dynasty 700:Kingdom of Israel 604: 603: 305: 304: 157: 153: 146: 129: 128: 121: 103: 16:(Redirected from 11451: 11364:Dependencies and 11305:Northern Ireland 11046:Sovereign states 11032: 11025: 11018: 11009: 11008: 10949: 10921: 10889: 10878:: Trafo-Verlag. 10855: 10830:(2–3): 176–186. 10790: 10788: 10786:10.7936/K7T43R5J 10771: 10726: 10620:Marcus, Ivan G. 10558: 10525: 10510:Brenner, Michael 10506: 10448: 10436: 10425: 10404: 10388: 10366: 10347: 10320: 10301: 10270: 10264: 10258: 10257: 10246: 10240: 10239: 10227: 10221: 10220: 10218: 10216: 10205: 10199: 10198: 10186: 10180: 10179: 10172: 10166: 10165: 10154: 10148: 10137:Axelrod, Toby. " 10135: 10129: 10128:" 31 August 2007 10115: 10109: 10108: 10106: 10104: 10099:. 31 August 2007 10089: 10083: 10082: 10080: 10078: 10063: 10057: 10047: 10041: 10027: 10021: 10005: 9996: 9995: 9994:on 7 March 2008. 9980: 9974: 9964: 9958: 9957:. 2006, page 51. 9941: 9928: 9914: 9901: 9900: 9889: 9883: 9882: 9880: 9878: 9866: 9860: 9846: 9840: 9839: 9831: 9825: 9816: 9810: 9809: 9807: 9805: 9800:on 13 March 2017 9790: 9784: 9783: 9776: 9770: 9769: 9767: 9765: 9750: 9744: 9743: 9741: 9739: 9733: 9722: 9714: 9708: 9702: 9696: 9695: 9693: 9691: 9676: 9670: 9669: 9657: 9651: 9650: 9643: 9637: 9636: 9634: 9632: 9621: 9615: 9609: 9603: 9597: 9591: 9585: 9579: 9573: 9567: 9566: 9564: 9562: 9557:on 21 March 2012 9547: 9541: 9540: 9538: 9536: 9525: 9519: 9518: 9498: 9492: 9491: 9481: 9471: 9439: 9433: 9432: 9430: 9413:(3): 1339–1392. 9402: 9393: 9392: 9386: 9382: 9380: 9372: 9370: 9368: 9346: 9340: 9339: 9332: 9326: 9325: 9323: 9321: 9306: 9300: 9299: 9297: 9295: 9281: 9275: 9264: 9258: 9257: 9252:. Archived from 9240: 9234: 9233: 9215: 9209: 9205: 9197: 9191: 9190: 9175: 9169: 9168: 9162: 9160: 9143: 9137: 9134:Friedländer 2007 9131: 9125: 9122:Friedländer 2007 9119: 9113: 9110:Friedländer 2007 9107: 9101: 9100: 9098: 9096: 9090: 9081: 9075: 9074: 9034: 9028: 9027: 9009: 9003: 9002: 8982: 8976: 8975: 8955: 8949: 8948: 8904: 8898: 8897: 8871: 8865: 8864: 8862: 8860: 8844: 8835: 8829: 8823: 8816: 8810: 8809: 8789: 8783: 8782: 8762: 8756: 8749: 8743: 8736:Friedländer 2007 8733: 8727: 8726: 8698: 8692: 8682: 8676: 8673: 8667: 8657: 8651: 8645: 8639: 8638: 8636: 8612: 8601: 8595: 8589: 8575: 8569: 8563: 8557: 8556: 8554: 8552: 8543:. Archived from 8530: 8524: 8518: 8512: 8505: 8499: 8498: 8496: 8494: 8485:. Archived from 8475: 8469: 8466: 8460: 8454: 8448: 8447: 8427: 8421: 8420: 8412: 8403: 8397: 8391: 8385: 8379: 8378: 8357: 8351: 8344: 8333: 8327: 8321: 8320: 8292: 8286: 8285: 8280:Kaplan, Marion. 8277: 8266: 8265: 8234: 8228: 8221: 8215: 8214: 8204: 8198: 8187: 8181: 8175: 8169: 8168: 8157: 8151: 8145: 8127: 8121: 8120: 8107: 8101: 8090: 8084: 8078: 8072: 8071: 8060: 8054: 8053: 8051: 8049: 8040:. Archived from 8034: 8028: 8027: 8022:. Archived from 8016: 8010: 8009: 8007: 8005: 7985: 7979: 7978: 7976: 7974: 7960: 7954: 7953: 7933: 7927: 7926: 7905: 7899: 7898: 7881: 7875: 7874: 7872: 7870: 7859: 7848: 7847: 7832: 7823: 7822: 7808: 7799: 7798: 7796: 7794: 7776: 7761: 7760: 7753: 7747: 7736: 7727: 7726: 7711: 7700: 7699: 7697: 7695: 7672: 7666: 7665: 7663: 7661: 7647: 7641: 7640: 7638: 7636: 7622: 7616: 7615: 7583: 7574: 7494: 7489: 7488: 7487: 7480: 7475: 7474: 7473: 7410:Centrum Judaicum 7339:Gerhard Schröder 7008: 7007: 6843: 6838: 6830: 6826: 6775:Colonel General 6696:Hugo Egon Balder 6589:took over Berlin 6483: 6476: 6472: 6469: 6463: 6440: 6432: 6396:Western European 6240:Heinrich Himmler 6124:seizure of power 6085:Aryan paragraphs 6036: 6029: 6022: 5925:Rescuers of Jews 5831:Nuremberg trials 5762:Ghetto uprisings 5722:Jewish partisans 5679: 5678: 5627:Holocaust trains 5440: 5439: 5205:Mauthausen-Gusen 5080: 5079: 4848:Verfügungstruppe 4738:Heinrich Himmler 4711: 4704: 4703: 4681: 4671: 4656: 4655: 4610:Arthur Rosenberg 4473:Walther Rathenau 4441:Dolchstoßlegende 4373:Willi Ermann of 4228:financial crisis 4148:in 1819 (German) 3960:Ma'aseh Tuviyyah 3906:state of Hamburg 3867:Austrian Silesia 3831:, as opposed to 3695:existence of God 3562:host desecration 3501:private property 3468: 3461: 3457: 3454: 3448: 3417: 3409: 3371:Jews from Alsace 3316:Peter the Hermit 3240: 3185: 3184: 3182:Official website 3134: 3124: 3118: 3114: 3075:was teaching at 2765:Nazis took power 2664:High Middle Ages 2644: 2637: 2630: 2493: 2492: 2374: 2195: 2189: 2170: 2134: 2133: 2081: 2028:New Zealand 1980: 1943:El Salvador 1933: 1865:Northern America 1857: 1451: 1207: 1206: 1118:Crimean Karaites 1014: 1013: 992: 990: 911: 909: 901: 895: 886: 874:Rabbinic Judaism 855: 849: 843: 831: 819: 785: 778:Maccabean Revolt 755: 748: 742: 734: 727: 721: 713: 695: 619: 618: 593: 488: 487: 420: 408: 307: 306: 182:Total population 168:The location of 166: 159: 155: 152:‎ (Hebrew) 151: 148: 144: 139: 135: 124: 117: 113: 110: 104: 102: 61: 37: 29: 21: 11459: 11458: 11454: 11453: 11452: 11450: 11449: 11448: 11414: 11413: 11412: 11407: 11365: 11359: 11345:Northern Cyprus 11327: 11321: 11220:North Macedonia 11041: 11036: 10999:Wayback Machine 10971: 10966: 10956:. Munich, 2007. 10946: 10918: 10886: 10862: 10818: 10736:Sorkin, David. 10729:Sorkin, David. 10678:Pulzer, Peter. 10624:. Ashgate, 2014 10555: 10524:. Picador, USA. 10470: 10468:Further reading 10445: 10422: 10385: 10363: 10336: 10317: 10288:Singer, Isidore 10278: 10273: 10265: 10261: 10248: 10247: 10243: 10228: 10224: 10214: 10212: 10207: 10206: 10202: 10187: 10183: 10174: 10173: 10169: 10156: 10155: 10151: 10136: 10132: 10126:Wayback Machine 10116: 10112: 10102: 10100: 10091: 10090: 10086: 10076: 10074: 10064: 10060: 10048: 10044: 10028: 10024: 10006: 9999: 9982: 9981: 9977: 9965: 9961: 9955:Wayback Machine 9942: 9931: 9925:Wayback Machine 9915: 9904: 9891: 9890: 9886: 9876: 9874: 9873:. Lubavitch.com 9867: 9863: 9847: 9843: 9832: 9828: 9817: 9813: 9803: 9801: 9792: 9791: 9787: 9778: 9777: 9773: 9763: 9761: 9752: 9751: 9747: 9737: 9735: 9731: 9720: 9716: 9715: 9711: 9703: 9699: 9689: 9687: 9678: 9677: 9673: 9658: 9654: 9645: 9644: 9640: 9630: 9628: 9623: 9622: 9618: 9610: 9606: 9598: 9594: 9586: 9582: 9574: 9570: 9560: 9558: 9549: 9548: 9544: 9534: 9532: 9527: 9526: 9522: 9499: 9495: 9440: 9436: 9403: 9396: 9384: 9383: 9374: 9373: 9366: 9364: 9362: 9348: 9347: 9343: 9334: 9333: 9329: 9319: 9317: 9316:on 2 April 2013 9308: 9307: 9303: 9293: 9291: 9283: 9282: 9278: 9265: 9261: 9242: 9241: 9237: 9230: 9216: 9212: 9198: 9194: 9176: 9172: 9158: 9156: 9144: 9140: 9132: 9128: 9120: 9116: 9108: 9104: 9094: 9092: 9088: 9082: 9078: 9035: 9031: 9024: 9010: 9006: 8983: 8979: 8956: 8952: 8905: 8901: 8894: 8872: 8868: 8858: 8856: 8845: 8838: 8830: 8826: 8817: 8813: 8790: 8786: 8779: 8763: 8759: 8750: 8746: 8734: 8730: 8699: 8695: 8683: 8679: 8674: 8670: 8658: 8654: 8646: 8642: 8613: 8604: 8596: 8592: 8576: 8572: 8564: 8560: 8550: 8548: 8540:Tablet Magazine 8531: 8527: 8519: 8515: 8506: 8502: 8492: 8490: 8477: 8476: 8472: 8467: 8463: 8455: 8451: 8444: 8428: 8424: 8413: 8406: 8398: 8394: 8386: 8382: 8375: 8358: 8354: 8350:– Vintage Books 8345: 8336: 8328: 8324: 8309:10.2307/1450629 8293: 8289: 8278: 8269: 8238:Barnouw, Dagmar 8235: 8231: 8222: 8218: 8205: 8201: 8188: 8184: 8176: 8172: 8159: 8158: 8154: 8142: 8128: 8124: 8109: 8108: 8104: 8091: 8087: 8081:Ben-Sasson 2007 8079: 8075: 8062: 8061: 8057: 8047: 8045: 8036: 8035: 8031: 8018: 8017: 8013: 8003: 8001: 7986: 7982: 7972: 7970: 7962: 7961: 7957: 7950: 7934: 7930: 7923: 7906: 7902: 7885:Singer, Isidore 7882: 7878: 7868: 7866: 7861: 7860: 7851: 7834: 7833: 7826: 7809: 7802: 7792: 7790: 7778: 7777: 7764: 7755: 7754: 7750: 7737: 7730: 7713: 7712: 7703: 7693: 7691: 7689: 7673: 7669: 7659: 7657: 7649: 7648: 7644: 7634: 7632: 7624: 7623: 7619: 7604: 7581: 7575: 7568: 7564: 7490: 7485: 7483: 7476: 7471: 7469: 7466: 7222:The end of the 6825: 6819: 6765:Stephan Hermlin 6748: 6712:Michel Friedman 6635: 6582: 6531:medieval period 6527: 6506:, 25 April 1942 6504:occupied Poland 6500:Lublin District 6484: 6473: 6467: 6464: 6453: 6441: 6430: 6424: 6367:authorities in 6306:Joseph Goebbels 6098:of 1 April 1933 6070: 6069: 6040: 6011: 6010: 5991: 5983: 5982: 5981: 5978: 5965: 5961: 5943: 5935: 5934: 5906: 5903: 5891: 5883: 5882: 5881: 5878: 5851: 5841: 5840: 5814: 5811: 5806: 5796: 5795: 5750:Witold's Report 5676: 5666: 5665: 5495:Radziłów pogrom 5437: 5429: 5428: 5077: 5069: 5068: 5060: 5057: 5053: 4994: 4984: 4983: 4944: 4934: 4933: 4924:Madagascar Plan 4899: 4891: 4890: 4882:Nazi ideologues 4878: 4788:Christian Wirth 4763:Odilo Globocnik 4748:Heinrich Müller 4743:Joseph Goebbels 4707: 4701: 4691: 4669: 4654: 4644: 4622:Weimar Republic 4596:; philosophers 4594:Herbert Marcuse 4576:; sociologists 4574:Albert Einstein 4558: 4489: 4461:Weimar Republic 4457: 4416:Walter Rathenau 4330: 4317:German liberals 4176:Napoleonic Wars 4123: 4097:David Philipson 4089: 4052:Samuel Holdheim 4033: 4005:Juif de Berlin. 3975:Berlin Haskalah 3941: 3935: 3890:Gabriel Riesser 3701:translated the 3677: 3671: 3655:Hebrew language 3651:Johann Reuchlin 3635:Christian world 3608:self-immolation 3606:, or voluntary 3469: 3458: 3452: 3449: 3434: 3418: 3407: 3386:poisoning wells 3304: 3290:", noting that 3258:cities such as 3180: 3179: 3139: 3137:Worms Synagogue 3122: 3113: 3026:Louis the Pious 2950:ecclesiasticism 2875:pileus cornutus 2866: 2837:By German law, 2648: 2603: 2602: 2490: 2480: 2479: 2470:Judeo-Malayalam 2450:Judaeo-Georgian 2370: 2361: 2351: 2350: 2251:Yiddish theatre 2193: 2131: 2121: 2120: 2079: 2052: 2042: 2041: 1978: 1931: 1855: 1449: 1233:Genetic studies 1204: 1194: 1193: 1011: 1001: 1000: 988: 987: 907: 906: 899: 889: 884: 866:and Middle Ages 864:Rabbinic period 851: 845: 838: 826: 797: 783: 753: 746: 737: 729: 725: 716: 711:in Judaism 708: 693: 616: 606: 605: 485: 475: 474: 418: 406: 351: 200: 177: 154: 147: 138: 134: 125: 114: 108: 105: 62: 60: 50: 38: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11457: 11447: 11446: 11441: 11436: 11431: 11426: 11409: 11408: 11406: 11405: 11400: 11395: 11390: 11385: 11380: 11375: 11369: 11367: 11366:other entities 11361: 11360: 11358: 11357: 11352: 11347: 11342: 11337: 11331: 11329: 11323: 11322: 11320: 11319: 11318: 11317: 11312: 11307: 11302: 11295:United Kingdom 11292: 11287: 11282: 11277: 11272: 11267: 11262: 11257: 11252: 11247: 11242: 11237: 11232: 11227: 11222: 11217: 11212: 11207: 11202: 11197: 11192: 11187: 11182: 11177: 11172: 11167: 11162: 11160: 11155: 11150: 11145: 11140: 11135: 11130: 11125: 11120: 11115: 11110: 11108:Czech Republic 11105: 11100: 11095: 11090: 11085: 11080: 11075: 11070: 11065: 11060: 11055: 11049: 11047: 11043: 11042: 11035: 11034: 11027: 11020: 11012: 11006: 11005: 10989: 10984: 10978: 10970: 10969:External links 10967: 10965: 10964: 10959:Rink, Thomas: 10957: 10950: 10944: 10923: 10916: 10891: 10884: 10861: 10858: 10857: 10856: 10817: 10816:Historiography 10814: 10813: 10812: 10805: 10798: 10791: 10772: 10762:(2): 129–152. 10751: 10741: 10734: 10727: 10701:(3): 104–131. 10690: 10683: 10682:. Oxford, 1992 10676: 10667: 10666: 10665: 10659: 10653: 10647: 10634: 10625: 10618: 10611: 10610:. 2 vols. 2005 10604: 10597: 10590: 10580: 10573: 10566: 10559: 10553: 10540: 10533: 10526: 10517: 10507: 10497:(4): 503–522. 10486: 10479: 10471: 10469: 10466: 10465: 10464: 10459: 10454: 10449: 10443: 10426: 10420: 10405: 10389: 10383: 10367: 10361: 10348: 10334: 10321: 10315: 10302: 10277: 10274: 10272: 10271: 10259: 10241: 10222: 10200: 10181: 10167: 10149: 10130: 10110: 10084: 10058: 10054:Deutsche Welle 10042: 10022: 9997: 9975: 9971:Deutsche Welle 9959: 9929: 9902: 9884: 9861: 9841: 9826: 9811: 9785: 9771: 9745: 9709: 9697: 9671: 9652: 9638: 9616: 9604: 9592: 9580: 9568: 9542: 9520: 9509:(2): 298–319. 9493: 9434: 9394: 9385:|website= 9360: 9341: 9327: 9301: 9276: 9259: 9235: 9228: 9210: 9192: 9170: 9138: 9126: 9114: 9102: 9076: 9043:Modern Judaism 9041:, 1925–1938". 9029: 9022: 9004: 8977: 8950: 8899: 8892: 8866: 8836: 8824: 8811: 8800:(3): 497–516. 8784: 8777: 8757: 8744: 8728: 8709:(2): 183–206. 8693: 8677: 8668: 8652: 8640: 8627:(2): 295–297. 8621:German History 8602: 8590: 8570: 8558: 8525: 8513: 8500: 8479:"Introduction" 8470: 8461: 8449: 8442: 8422: 8404: 8392: 8390:, p. 102. 8380: 8373: 8352: 8334: 8322: 8303:(3): 475–521. 8287: 8267: 8229: 8216: 8199: 8182: 8170: 8152: 8140: 8122: 8102: 8085: 8073: 8055: 8029: 8011: 7994:Frankfurt/Oder 7980: 7955: 7948: 7928: 7921: 7900: 7876: 7849: 7844:Deutsche Welle 7824: 7800: 7762: 7748: 7728: 7701: 7687: 7667: 7642: 7617: 7602: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7559: 7558: 7553: 7548: 7543: 7538: 7533: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7510:HaGalil Online 7507: 7502: 7496: 7495: 7492:Germany portal 7481: 7478:Judaism portal 7465: 7462: 7328:Public menorah 7310:Reform Judaism 7296:Jewish studies 7232:Heinz Galinski 7230:convened with 7218: 7217: 7214: 7211: 7208: 7204: 7203: 7200: 7197: 7194: 7190: 7189: 7186: 7183: 7180: 7176: 7175: 7172: 7169: 7166: 7162: 7161: 7158: 7155: 7152: 7148: 7147: 7144: 7141: 7138: 7134: 7133: 7130: 7127: 7124: 7120: 7119: 7116: 7113: 7110: 7106: 7105: 7102: 7099: 7096: 7092: 7091: 7088: 7085: 7082: 7078: 7077: 7074: 7071: 7068: 7064: 7063: 7060: 7057: 7054: 7050: 7049: 7046: 7043: 7040: 7036: 7035: 7032: 7029: 7026: 7022: 7021: 7018: 7015: 7012: 7004: 7003: 6999: 6998: 6995: 6992: 6988: 6987: 6984: 6981: 6977: 6976: 6973: 6970: 6966: 6965: 6962: 6959: 6955: 6954: 6951: 6948: 6944: 6943: 6940: 6937: 6933: 6932: 6929: 6926: 6922: 6921: 6918: 6915: 6911: 6910: 6907: 6904: 6900: 6899: 6896: 6893: 6889: 6888: 6885: 6882: 6878: 6877: 6874: 6871: 6867: 6866: 6863: 6860: 6856: 6855: 6852: 6849: 6845: 6844: 6839: 6834: 6818: 6815: 6747: 6744: 6716:Heinz Galinski 6700:Hans Rosenthal 6634: 6631: 6581: 6578: 6526: 6523: 6486: 6485: 6444: 6442: 6435: 6426:Main article: 6423: 6420: 6416:United Kingdom 6315:Sturmabteilung 6302:Ernst vom Rath 6244:Sturmabteilung 6042: 6041: 6039: 6038: 6031: 6024: 6016: 6013: 6012: 6009: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5992: 5989: 5988: 5985: 5984: 5979:intentionalism 5975: 5974: 5973: 5957: 5956: 5955: 5950: 5944: 5941: 5940: 5937: 5936: 5933: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5904:to death camps 5900: 5899: 5898: 5892: 5889: 5888: 5885: 5884: 5875: 5874: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5852: 5847: 5846: 5843: 5842: 5839: 5838: 5836:Denazification 5833: 5828: 5820: 5808: 5807: 5802: 5801: 5798: 5797: 5792: 5791: 5790: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5766: 5765: 5757: 5756: 5755: 5754: 5753: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5735:Witold Pilecki 5732: 5728:Sonderkommando 5724: 5719: 5714: 5713: 5712: 5710:Alfréd Wetzler 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5677: 5672: 5671: 5668: 5667: 5662: 5661: 5660: 5659: 5654: 5646: 5645: 5637: 5636: 5635: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5606: 5605: 5601:Final Solution 5595: 5594: 5593: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5539: 5538: 5535:Einsatzgruppen 5530: 5529: 5528: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5449: 5448: 5438: 5435: 5434: 5431: 5430: 5425: 5424: 5423: 5422: 5417: 5415:Einsatzgruppen 5412: 5407: 5402: 5394: 5393: 5387: 5386: 5385: 5384: 5377: 5370: 5365: 5355: 5354: 5348: 5347: 5346: 5345: 5339: 5338: 5334: 5333: 5328: 5322: 5321: 5317: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5305: 5304: 5299: 5293: 5292: 5286: 5285: 5280: 5274: 5273: 5267: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5258: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5245:Theresienstadt 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5180:Gonars (Italy) 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5144: 5143: 5135: 5134: 5133: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5089: 5088: 5078: 5075: 5074: 5071: 5070: 5067: 5066: 5054: 5052: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4995: 4990: 4989: 4986: 4985: 4982: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4945: 4940: 4939: 4936: 4935: 4932: 4931: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4914:Nuremberg Laws 4911: 4906: 4900: 4898:Early policies 4897: 4896: 4893: 4892: 4887: 4886: 4885: 4884: 4877: 4876: 4870: 4867: 4866: 4865: 4864: 4859: 4852: 4844: 4840:Sturmabteilung 4836: 4833:Einsatzgruppen 4829: 4821: 4813: 4808: 4800: 4799: 4793: 4792: 4791: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4773:Richard Glücks 4770: 4765: 4760: 4758:Adolf Eichmann 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4720: 4719: 4713: 4712: 4702: 4699:Responsibility 4697: 4696: 4693: 4692: 4682: 4674: 4673: 4665: 4664: 4643: 4640: 4602:Edmund Husserl 4598:Ernst Cassirer 4590:Max Horkheimer 4586:Theodor Adorno 4557: 4554: 4488: 4485: 4456: 4453: 4356:Tsarist Russia 4329: 4326: 4321:Rudolf Virchow 4298:German culture 4220:Heinrich Heine 4122: 4119: 4106:Reform Judaism 4088: 4085: 4048:Abraham Geiger 4032: 4029: 3937:Main article: 3934: 3931: 3872:In the German 3845:Napoleonic era 3673:Main article: 3670: 3667: 3604:forced baptism 3471: 3470: 3421: 3419: 3412: 3406: 3403: 3303: 3300: 3270:traditions. A 3187: 3186: 3177: 3173: 3172: 3165: 3161: 3160: 3155: 3151: 3150: 3147: 3141: 3140: 3135: 3127: 3126: 3112: 3109: 3081:historiography 3068:At that time, 3055:Hebrew prayers 3001:). Aside from 2918:Magna Germania 2888:of the Abbess 2882:. 1185 in the 2865: 2862: 2803:Eastern Europe 2684:well poisoning 2650: 2649: 2647: 2646: 2639: 2632: 2624: 2621: 2620: 2619: 2618: 2613: 2605: 2604: 2599: 2598: 2597: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2576: 2571: 2566: 2561: 2556: 2548: 2547: 2541: 2540: 2539: 2538: 2533: 2531:Territorialism 2528: 2523: 2518: 2513: 2508: 2500: 2499: 2491: 2486: 2485: 2482: 2481: 2478: 2477: 2472: 2467: 2462: 2457: 2452: 2447: 2442: 2437: 2432: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2415:Judaeo-Spanish 2412: 2410:Judaeo-Iranian 2407: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2377: 2376: 2375: 2362: 2357: 2356: 2353: 2352: 2347: 2346: 2345: 2344: 2339: 2334: 2326: 2325: 2319: 2318: 2317: 2316: 2311: 2306: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2273: 2272: 2266: 2265: 2264: 2263: 2258: 2253: 2248: 2240: 2239: 2233: 2232: 2231: 2230: 2225: 2217: 2216: 2210: 2209: 2208: 2207: 2202: 2197: 2190: 2181: 2176: 2171: 2162: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2139: 2138: 2132: 2127: 2126: 2123: 2122: 2119: 2118: 2113: 2108: 2103: 2098: 2093: 2088: 2083: 2076: 2075: 2074: 2069: 2064: 2053: 2048: 2047: 2044: 2043: 2038: 2037: 2036: 2035: 2030: 2025: 2020: 2015: 2007: 2006: 2000: 1999: 1998: 1997: 1992: 1987: 1982: 1975: 1970: 1965: 1960: 1955: 1950: 1945: 1940: 1935: 1928: 1923: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1895: 1894: 1888: 1887: 1886: 1885: 1880: 1875: 1867: 1866: 1862: 1861: 1860: 1859: 1856:United Kingdom 1852: 1847: 1842: 1837: 1832: 1827: 1822: 1817: 1812: 1807: 1802: 1797: 1792: 1787: 1782: 1777: 1772: 1767: 1762: 1757: 1752: 1747: 1742: 1737: 1732: 1727: 1722: 1717: 1712: 1704: 1703: 1697: 1696: 1695: 1694: 1689: 1684: 1679: 1674: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1634: 1629: 1624: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1604: 1599: 1594: 1589: 1584: 1579: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1559: 1554: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1529: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1509: 1504: 1496: 1495: 1491: 1490: 1489: 1488: 1483: 1478: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1453: 1446: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1416: 1411: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1361: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1289:Bilad-el-Sudan 1286: 1281: 1273: 1272: 1266: 1265: 1264: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1245: 1244: 1242:Land of Israel 1238: 1237: 1236: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1205: 1200: 1199: 1196: 1195: 1190: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1182: 1177: 1172: 1171: 1170: 1165: 1160: 1155: 1150: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1115: 1110: 1102: 1101: 1100:Related groups 1097: 1096: 1095: 1094: 1089: 1084: 1079: 1074: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1033: 1032: 1027: 1012: 1007: 1006: 1003: 1002: 997: 996: 995: 994: 984: 979: 974: 969: 964: 959: 957:Jewish atheism 954: 949: 944: 936: 935: 931: 930: 929: 928: 923: 918: 913: 908:Islamic–Jewish 903: 896: 881: 876: 868: 867: 860: 859: 858: 857: 833: 820: 792: 787: 780: 775: 773:Yehud Medinata 767: 766: 760: 759: 758: 757: 750: 743: 735: 722: 714: 702: 697: 690: 682: 681: 679:Ancient Israel 675: 674: 673: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 647: 642: 637: 635:Land of Israel 632: 624: 623: 617: 612: 611: 608: 607: 602: 601: 600: 599: 594: 590:Shulchan Aruch 585: 580: 575: 570: 562: 561: 560: 559: 554: 546: 545: 539: 538: 537: 536: 531: 523: 522: 516: 515: 514: 513: 508: 503: 495: 494: 486: 481: 480: 477: 476: 473: 472: 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 442: 437: 432: 427: 422: 415: 410: 403: 398: 393: 388: 383: 378: 368: 363: 356:God in Judaism 352: 347: 346: 343: 342: 341: 340: 335: 327: 326: 316: 315: 303: 302: 288:Ashkenazi Jews 284: 283: 279: 278: 263: 262: 258: 257: 234: 233: 229: 228: 226:United Kingdom 194: 193: 189: 188: 184: 183: 179: 178: 174:European Union 167: 142:Deutsche Juden 132: 127: 126: 41: 39: 32: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11456: 11445: 11442: 11440: 11437: 11435: 11432: 11430: 11427: 11425: 11422: 11421: 11419: 11404: 11401: 11399: 11396: 11394: 11391: 11389: 11386: 11384: 11381: 11379: 11378:Faroe Islands 11376: 11374: 11371: 11370: 11368: 11362: 11356: 11353: 11351: 11350:South Ossetia 11348: 11346: 11343: 11341: 11338: 11336: 11333: 11332: 11330: 11324: 11316: 11313: 11311: 11308: 11306: 11303: 11301: 11298: 11297: 11296: 11293: 11291: 11288: 11286: 11283: 11281: 11278: 11276: 11273: 11271: 11268: 11266: 11263: 11261: 11258: 11256: 11253: 11251: 11248: 11246: 11243: 11241: 11238: 11236: 11233: 11231: 11228: 11226: 11223: 11221: 11218: 11216: 11213: 11211: 11208: 11206: 11203: 11201: 11198: 11196: 11193: 11191: 11188: 11186: 11183: 11181: 11180:Liechtenstein 11178: 11176: 11173: 11171: 11168: 11166: 11163: 11161: 11159: 11156: 11154: 11151: 11149: 11146: 11144: 11141: 11139: 11136: 11134: 11131: 11129: 11126: 11124: 11121: 11119: 11116: 11114: 11111: 11109: 11106: 11104: 11101: 11099: 11096: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11084: 11081: 11079: 11076: 11074: 11071: 11069: 11066: 11064: 11061: 11059: 11056: 11054: 11051: 11050: 11048: 11044: 11040: 11033: 11028: 11026: 11021: 11019: 11014: 11013: 11010: 11004: 11000: 10996: 10993: 10990: 10988: 10985: 10982: 10979: 10976: 10973: 10972: 10962: 10958: 10955: 10951: 10947: 10945:9783446202832 10941: 10937: 10933: 10929: 10924: 10919: 10913: 10909: 10905: 10901: 10897: 10892: 10887: 10885:3-89626-476-1 10881: 10877: 10873: 10869: 10864: 10863: 10853: 10849: 10845: 10841: 10837: 10833: 10829: 10825: 10820: 10819: 10810: 10806: 10803: 10799: 10796: 10792: 10787: 10782: 10778: 10773: 10769: 10765: 10761: 10757: 10752: 10749: 10745: 10742: 10739: 10735: 10732: 10728: 10724: 10720: 10716: 10712: 10708: 10704: 10700: 10696: 10691: 10688: 10684: 10681: 10677: 10674: 10671: 10668: 10664: 10660: 10658: 10654: 10652: 10648: 10646: 10642: 10641: 10639: 10635: 10632: 10629: 10626: 10623: 10619: 10616: 10612: 10609: 10605: 10602: 10598: 10595: 10591: 10588: 10584: 10581: 10578: 10574: 10571: 10567: 10564: 10560: 10556: 10550: 10546: 10541: 10538: 10534: 10531: 10527: 10523: 10518: 10515: 10511: 10508: 10504: 10500: 10496: 10492: 10487: 10484: 10480: 10477: 10473: 10472: 10463: 10460: 10458: 10455: 10453: 10450: 10446: 10440: 10435: 10434: 10427: 10423: 10417: 10413: 10412: 10406: 10402: 10398: 10394: 10390: 10386: 10380: 10377:. Macmillan. 10376: 10372: 10368: 10364: 10358: 10354: 10349: 10345: 10341: 10337: 10331: 10327: 10322: 10318: 10312: 10308: 10303: 10299: 10298: 10293: 10289: 10284: 10283:public domain 10280: 10279: 10269:, p. xi. 10268: 10263: 10255: 10251: 10245: 10237: 10233: 10226: 10210: 10204: 10196: 10192: 10185: 10177: 10171: 10163: 10159: 10153: 10146: 10145: 10140: 10134: 10127: 10123: 10120: 10114: 10098: 10094: 10088: 10073: 10069: 10062: 10055: 10051: 10046: 10039: 10037: 10031: 10026: 10019: 10018: 10013: 10009: 10004: 10002: 9993: 9989: 9985: 9979: 9972: 9968: 9963: 9956: 9952: 9949: 9945: 9940: 9938: 9936: 9934: 9926: 9922: 9919: 9913: 9911: 9909: 9907: 9898: 9894: 9888: 9872: 9865: 9858: 9857: 9852: 9851: 9845: 9837: 9830: 9824: 9822: 9815: 9799: 9795: 9789: 9781: 9775: 9759: 9755: 9749: 9730: 9726: 9719: 9713: 9706: 9701: 9685: 9681: 9675: 9667: 9663: 9656: 9648: 9642: 9626: 9620: 9613: 9608: 9602:, p. 48. 9601: 9596: 9590:, p. 37. 9589: 9584: 9578:, p. 41. 9577: 9572: 9556: 9552: 9546: 9530: 9524: 9516: 9512: 9508: 9504: 9497: 9489: 9485: 9480: 9475: 9470: 9465: 9461: 9457: 9453: 9449: 9445: 9438: 9429: 9424: 9420: 9416: 9412: 9408: 9401: 9399: 9390: 9378: 9363: 9357: 9353: 9352: 9345: 9337: 9331: 9315: 9311: 9305: 9290: 9286: 9280: 9273: 9269: 9263: 9255: 9251: 9250: 9245: 9239: 9231: 9225: 9221: 9214: 9208: 9203: 9196: 9189:. p. 66. 9188: 9184: 9180: 9179:Hilberg, Raul 9174: 9167: 9155: 9154: 9149: 9142: 9135: 9130: 9123: 9118: 9112:, p. 59. 9111: 9106: 9087: 9080: 9072: 9068: 9064: 9060: 9056: 9052: 9048: 9044: 9040: 9033: 9025: 9019: 9015: 9008: 9000: 8996: 8992: 8988: 8981: 8973: 8969: 8966:(2): 99–113. 8965: 8961: 8954: 8946: 8942: 8938: 8934: 8930: 8926: 8922: 8918: 8914: 8910: 8903: 8895: 8889: 8885: 8881: 8877: 8870: 8854: 8850: 8843: 8841: 8833: 8832:Berghahn 1994 8828: 8821: 8818:David Felix, 8815: 8807: 8803: 8799: 8795: 8788: 8780: 8774: 8770: 8769: 8761: 8754: 8748: 8741: 8737: 8732: 8724: 8720: 8716: 8712: 8708: 8704: 8697: 8690: 8688: 8681: 8672: 8665: 8661: 8656: 8649: 8644: 8635: 8630: 8626: 8622: 8618: 8611: 8609: 8607: 8600:, p. 33. 8599: 8594: 8587: 8583: 8580: 8574: 8568:, p. 26. 8567: 8562: 8546: 8542: 8541: 8536: 8529: 8522: 8517: 8510: 8504: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8474: 8465: 8458: 8457:Berghahn 1994 8453: 8445: 8439: 8435: 8434: 8426: 8418: 8411: 8409: 8401: 8400:Berghahn 1994 8396: 8389: 8388:Berghahn 1994 8384: 8376: 8374:9780061828096 8370: 8366: 8362: 8361:Johnson, Paul 8356: 8349: 8343: 8341: 8339: 8331: 8326: 8318: 8314: 8310: 8306: 8302: 8298: 8291: 8283: 8276: 8274: 8272: 8263: 8259: 8255: 8251: 8247: 8243: 8239: 8233: 8226: 8220: 8212: 8211: 8203: 8196: 8192: 8186: 8180:, p. 22. 8179: 8174: 8166: 8162: 8156: 8149: 8143: 8137: 8133: 8126: 8118: 8117: 8112: 8106: 8099: 8095: 8089: 8082: 8077: 8069: 8065: 8059: 8043: 8039: 8033: 8025: 8021: 8015: 7999: 7995: 7991: 7984: 7969: 7965: 7959: 7951: 7945: 7941: 7940: 7932: 7924: 7922:1-397-80521-8 7918: 7914: 7910: 7904: 7896: 7895: 7890: 7886: 7880: 7864: 7858: 7856: 7854: 7845: 7841: 7837: 7831: 7829: 7820: 7819: 7814: 7807: 7805: 7789: 7785: 7781: 7775: 7773: 7771: 7769: 7767: 7758: 7752: 7745: 7744:0-8122-1363-7 7741: 7735: 7733: 7724: 7720: 7716: 7710: 7708: 7706: 7690: 7688:1-84383-214-3 7684: 7680: 7679: 7671: 7656: 7652: 7646: 7631: 7627: 7621: 7613: 7609: 7605: 7599: 7595: 7591: 7587: 7580: 7573: 7571: 7566: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7497: 7493: 7482: 7479: 7468: 7461: 7457: 7455: 7451: 7447: 7443: 7438: 7436: 7432: 7427: 7421: 7419: 7415: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7398:Kristallnacht 7391: 7386: 7382: 7379: 7378: 7372: 7367: 7363: 7359: 7354: 7352: 7348: 7344: 7340: 7333: 7329: 7325: 7321: 7319: 7315: 7311: 7306: 7301: 7297: 7293: 7288: 7286: 7282: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7266: 7262: 7258: 7253: 7250:, a Facebook 7249: 7248:Olim L'Berlin 7245: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7225: 7215: 7212: 7209: 7206: 7205: 7201: 7198: 7195: 7192: 7191: 7187: 7184: 7181: 7178: 7177: 7173: 7170: 7167: 7164: 7163: 7159: 7156: 7153: 7150: 7149: 7145: 7142: 7139: 7136: 7135: 7131: 7128: 7125: 7122: 7121: 7117: 7114: 7111: 7108: 7107: 7103: 7100: 7097: 7094: 7093: 7089: 7086: 7083: 7080: 7079: 7075: 7072: 7069: 7066: 7065: 7061: 7058: 7055: 7052: 7051: 7047: 7044: 7041: 7038: 7037: 7033: 7030: 7027: 7024: 7023: 7019: 7016: 7013: 7010: 7009: 7000: 6996: 6993: 6990: 6989: 6985: 6982: 6979: 6978: 6974: 6971: 6968: 6967: 6963: 6960: 6957: 6956: 6952: 6949: 6946: 6945: 6941: 6938: 6935: 6934: 6930: 6927: 6924: 6923: 6919: 6916: 6913: 6912: 6908: 6905: 6902: 6901: 6897: 6894: 6891: 6890: 6886: 6883: 6880: 6879: 6875: 6872: 6869: 6868: 6864: 6861: 6858: 6857: 6853: 6850: 6847: 6846: 6840: 6835: 6832: 6831: 6824: 6814: 6812: 6807: 6803: 6798: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6782: 6778: 6774: 6770: 6766: 6762: 6758: 6753: 6743: 6741: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6709: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6685: 6681: 6677: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6660: 6656: 6652: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6630: 6628: 6624: 6623: 6618: 6617: 6611: 6607: 6603: 6600:and lived in 6599: 6595: 6590: 6587: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6565: 6563: 6559: 6558:1928 election 6555: 6551: 6547: 6543: 6538: 6536: 6532: 6522: 6520: 6516: 6515: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6492: 6482: 6479: 6471: 6468:February 2022 6461: 6457: 6451: 6450: 6445:This section 6443: 6439: 6434: 6433: 6429: 6419: 6417: 6413: 6412:the Holocaust 6409: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6384:United States 6380: 6378: 6374: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6352: 6351:Kristallnacht 6342: 6338: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6322: 6321:Kristallnacht 6317: 6316: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6279: 6276:Synagogue at 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6260: 6259:Helmut Hirsch 6251: 6247: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6236:Schutzstaffel 6233: 6228: 6224: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6189: 6187: 6183: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6165:died. No new 6164: 6154: 6150: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6119: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6097: 6092: 6088: 6086: 6082: 6076: 6074: 6066: 6061: 6057: 6051: 6049: 6037: 6032: 6030: 6025: 6023: 6018: 6017: 6015: 6014: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5993: 5987: 5986: 5980: 5972: 5971: 5967: 5966: 5964: 5963: 5962:European Jews 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5945: 5939: 5938: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5907: 5905: 5897: 5894: 5893: 5887: 5886: 5880: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5853: 5850: 5845: 5844: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5826: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5815: 5813: 5805: 5800: 5799: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5769: 5768: 5767: 5764: 5763: 5759: 5758: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5737: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5729: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5687: 5686: 5683: 5682: 5681: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5669: 5658: 5657:Death marches 5655: 5653: 5652:Wola massacre 5650: 5649: 5648: 5647: 5644: 5643: 5639: 5638: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5609: 5608: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5597: 5596: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5542: 5541: 5540: 5537: 5536: 5532: 5531: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5455:Kristallnacht 5453: 5452: 5451: 5450: 5447: 5446: 5442: 5441: 5433: 5432: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5397: 5396: 5395: 5392: 5389: 5388: 5383: 5382: 5381:Sanitätswesen 5378: 5376: 5375: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5363: 5359: 5358: 5357: 5356: 5353: 5350: 5349: 5344: 5341: 5340: 5336: 5335: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5319: 5318: 5315: 5312: 5311: 5307: 5306: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5275: 5271: 5270: 5269: 5268: 5265: 5262: 5261: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5225:Sachsenhausen 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5190:Herzogenbusch 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5155:Bergen-Belsen 5153: 5151: 5148: 5147: 5146: 5145: 5142: 5141: 5137: 5136: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5092: 5091: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5082: 5081: 5073: 5072: 5065: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4996: 4993: 4988: 4987: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4946: 4943: 4938: 4937: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4909:Nazi eugenics 4907: 4905: 4904:Racial policy 4902: 4901: 4895: 4894: 4883: 4880: 4879: 4875: 4872: 4871: 4869: 4868: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4857: 4853: 4851: 4849: 4845: 4843: 4841: 4837: 4835: 4834: 4830: 4828: 4826: 4822: 4820: 4818: 4817:Schutzstaffel 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4803: 4802: 4801: 4798: 4797:Organizations 4795: 4794: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4768:Theodor Eicke 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4728: 4724: 4723: 4722: 4721: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4694: 4689: 4685: 4680: 4676: 4675: 4672: 4670:The Holocaust 4667: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4657: 4653: 4652:The Holocaust 4649: 4639: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4628: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4578:Karl Mannheim 4575: 4566: 4562: 4556:Intellectuals 4553: 4551: 4550:Centralverein 4546: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4529: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4518: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4498: 4493: 4484: 4480: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4452: 4450: 4444: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4421: 4417: 4408: 4404: 4401: 4396: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4371: 4367: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4341: 4340: 4334: 4325: 4322: 4318: 4312: 4308: 4306: 4305:Orthodox Jews 4301: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4285: 4284:German Empire 4281: 4277: 4270: 4266: 4261: 4257: 4254: 4249: 4248: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4208: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4188: 4186: 4182: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4160: 4158: 4157:Hep-Hep riots 4154: 4147: 4146:Hep-Hep riots 4142: 4136: 4132: 4127: 4118: 4116: 4112: 4111:circumcisions 4107: 4102: 4101:Enlightenment 4098: 4094: 4084: 4082: 4076: 4074: 4070: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4042: 4037: 4028: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3985: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3971: 3966: 3962: 3961: 3956: 3955: 3950: 3946: 3940: 3930: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3886: 3884: 3879: 3875: 3870: 3868: 3864: 3863:Upper Austria 3860: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3824: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3801: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3786:free peasants 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3762: 3760: 3756: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3731: 3727: 3725: 3721: 3718:pastor named 3717: 3713: 3709: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3685: 3681: 3676: 3666: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3631: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3581: 3580: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3558: 3554: 3551: 3546: 3540: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3525: 3521: 3518:out of every 3517: 3513: 3509: 3504: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3482: 3477: 3467: 3464: 3456: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3432: 3431: 3427: 3422:This section 3420: 3416: 3411: 3410: 3402: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3359: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3344:the Rhineland 3341: 3340:First Crusade 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3308: 3299: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3279: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3252: 3248: 3242: 3236: 3232: 3231: 3230:Takkanot Shum 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3183: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3159: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3133: 3128: 3125: 3119: 3107: 3104: 3100: 3094: 3092: 3091: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3071: 3066: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3042:canonical law 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3022: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2987:money-lending 2984: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2968:canonical law 2965: 2961: 2957: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2933: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2891: 2887: 2886: 2881: 2877: 2876: 2870: 2861: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2835: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2822: 2821:the Holocaust 2818: 2814: 2810: 2809: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2791: 2789: 2785: 2784: 2783:Kristallnacht 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2761: 2759: 2755: 2750: 2748: 2747:German states 2744: 2743:Hep-Hep riots 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2715:First Crusade 2711: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2645: 2640: 2638: 2633: 2631: 2626: 2625: 2623: 2622: 2617: 2614: 2612: 2609: 2608: 2607: 2606: 2595: 2592: 2590: 2587: 2585: 2582: 2580: 2577: 2575: 2572: 2570: 2567: 2565: 2562: 2560: 2557: 2555: 2552: 2551: 2550: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2542: 2537: 2534: 2532: 2529: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2519: 2517: 2514: 2512: 2509: 2507: 2504: 2503: 2502: 2501: 2498: 2495: 2494: 2489: 2484: 2483: 2476: 2473: 2471: 2468: 2466: 2463: 2461: 2458: 2456: 2455:Judeo-Aramaic 2453: 2451: 2448: 2446: 2445:Judeo-Italian 2443: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2431: 2428: 2426: 2425:Ghardaïa Sign 2423: 2421: 2418: 2416: 2413: 2411: 2408: 2406: 2403: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2373: 2369: 2368: 2367: 2364: 2363: 2360: 2355: 2354: 2343: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2329: 2328: 2327: 2324: 2321: 2320: 2315: 2312: 2310: 2307: 2305: 2302: 2300: 2297: 2295: 2292: 2290: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2276: 2275: 2274: 2271: 2268: 2267: 2262: 2259: 2257: 2254: 2252: 2249: 2247: 2244: 2243: 2242: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2234: 2229: 2226: 2224: 2221: 2220: 2219: 2218: 2215: 2212: 2211: 2206: 2203: 2201: 2198: 2196: 2191: 2188: 2187: 2182: 2180: 2177: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2168: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2142: 2141: 2140: 2136: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2124: 2117: 2114: 2112: 2109: 2107: 2104: 2102: 2099: 2097: 2094: 2092: 2089: 2087: 2084: 2082: 2077: 2073: 2070: 2068: 2065: 2063: 2060: 2059: 2058: 2055: 2054: 2051: 2050:Denominations 2046: 2045: 2034: 2031: 2029: 2026: 2024: 2021: 2019: 2016: 2014: 2011: 2010: 2009: 2008: 2005: 2002: 2001: 1996: 1993: 1991: 1988: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1976: 1974: 1971: 1969: 1966: 1964: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1951: 1949: 1946: 1944: 1941: 1939: 1936: 1934: 1929: 1927: 1924: 1922: 1919: 1917: 1914: 1912: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1902: 1899: 1898: 1897: 1896: 1893: 1890: 1889: 1884: 1881: 1879: 1878:United States 1876: 1874: 1871: 1870: 1869: 1868: 1864: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1851: 1848: 1846: 1843: 1841: 1838: 1836: 1833: 1831: 1828: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1811: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1798: 1796: 1793: 1791: 1788: 1786: 1783: 1781: 1778: 1776: 1773: 1771: 1768: 1766: 1763: 1761: 1758: 1756: 1753: 1751: 1748: 1746: 1743: 1741: 1738: 1736: 1733: 1731: 1728: 1726: 1723: 1721: 1718: 1716: 1713: 1711: 1708: 1707: 1706: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1698: 1693: 1690: 1688: 1685: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1618: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1608: 1605: 1603: 1600: 1598: 1595: 1593: 1590: 1588: 1585: 1583: 1580: 1578: 1575: 1573: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1548: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1538: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1528: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1518: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1508: 1505: 1503: 1500: 1499: 1498: 1497: 1493: 1492: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1472: 1469: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1440: 1437: 1435: 1432: 1430: 1427: 1424: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1375: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1365: 1364:Guinea-Bissau 1362: 1360: 1357: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1276: 1275: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1267: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1248: 1247: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1218:Lists of Jews 1216: 1214: 1211: 1210: 1209: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1197: 1186: 1183: 1181: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1169: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1145: 1144: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1105: 1104: 1103: 1099: 1098: 1093: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1083: 1080: 1078: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1068: 1065: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1031: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1022: 1021: 1018: 1017: 1016: 1015: 1010: 1005: 1004: 993: 985: 983: 980: 978: 977:The Holocaust 975: 973: 970: 968: 965: 963: 960: 958: 955: 953: 950: 948: 945: 943: 940: 939: 938: 937: 933: 932: 927: 924: 922: 919: 917: 914: 912: 904: 902: 897: 893: 887: 882: 880: 877: 875: 872: 871: 870: 869: 865: 862: 861: 854: 848: 842: 837: 834: 830: 824: 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 801: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 781: 779: 776: 774: 771: 770: 769: 768: 765: 762: 761: 756: 751: 749: 744: 740: 736: 733: 728: 723: 719: 715: 712: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 691: 689: 686: 685: 684: 683: 680: 677: 676: 671: 668: 666: 663: 661: 658: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 638: 636: 633: 631: 628: 627: 626: 625: 621: 620: 615: 610: 609: 598: 595: 592: 591: 586: 584: 581: 579: 578:Mishneh Torah 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 565: 564: 563: 558: 555: 553: 550: 549: 548: 547: 544: 541: 540: 535: 532: 530: 527: 526: 525: 524: 521: 518: 517: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 498: 497: 496: 493: 490: 489: 484: 479: 478: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 416: 414: 411: 409: 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 376: 372: 369: 367: 364: 361: 357: 354: 353: 350: 345: 344: 339: 338:Who is a Jew? 336: 334: 331: 330: 329: 328: 325: 321: 318: 317: 313: 309: 308: 301: 297: 293: 292:Sephardi Jews 289: 285: 280: 276: 272: 268: 264: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 230: 227: 223: 219: 215: 211: 207: 206:United States 203: 199: 195: 190: 185: 180: 176:(light green) 175: 171: 165: 160: 143: 131: 123: 120: 112: 109:February 2022 101: 98: 94: 91: 87: 84: 80: 77: 73: 70: – 69: 65: 64:Find sources: 58: 54: 48: 47: 42:This article 40: 36: 31: 30: 27: 19: 11355:Transnistria 11137: 10960: 10953: 10931: 10927: 10908:Harrassowitz 10899: 10895: 10871: 10867: 10827: 10823: 10808: 10801: 10794: 10793:Tal, Uriel. 10776: 10759: 10755: 10747: 10744:Stern, Fritz 10737: 10730: 10698: 10694: 10686: 10679: 10672: 10662: 10656: 10650: 10644: 10637: 10630: 10621: 10614: 10607: 10600: 10593: 10586: 10569: 10562: 10544: 10536: 10529: 10521: 10513: 10494: 10490: 10482: 10475: 10432: 10410: 10396: 10374: 10352: 10325: 10306: 10295: 10262: 10253: 10244: 10235: 10225: 10213:. Retrieved 10203: 10194: 10184: 10170: 10162:the original 10152: 10142: 10133: 10113: 10101:. Retrieved 10096: 10087: 10075:. Retrieved 10071: 10061: 10045: 10035: 10029: 10025: 10015: 9992:the original 9987: 9978: 9962: 9896: 9887: 9875:. Retrieved 9864: 9854: 9848: 9844: 9829: 9820: 9814: 9802:. Retrieved 9798:the original 9788: 9774: 9762:. Retrieved 9757: 9748: 9736:. Retrieved 9729:the original 9724: 9712: 9700: 9688:. Retrieved 9684:the original 9674: 9665: 9655: 9641: 9629:. Retrieved 9619: 9607: 9595: 9583: 9571: 9559:. Retrieved 9555:the original 9545: 9533:. Retrieved 9523: 9506: 9502: 9496: 9451: 9447: 9437: 9410: 9406: 9365:. Retrieved 9350: 9344: 9338:. Ushmm.org. 9330: 9318:. Retrieved 9314:the original 9304: 9292:. Retrieved 9288: 9279: 9262: 9254:the original 9247: 9238: 9219: 9213: 9201: 9195: 9182: 9173: 9164: 9159:19 September 9157:. Retrieved 9151: 9141: 9129: 9117: 9105: 9093:. Retrieved 9091:. Yad Vashem 9079: 9049:(1): 41–59. 9046: 9042: 9038: 9032: 9013: 9007: 8990: 8986: 8980: 8963: 8959: 8953: 8915:(2): 52–73. 8912: 8908: 8902: 8875: 8869: 8857:. Retrieved 8852: 8827: 8819: 8814: 8797: 8793: 8787: 8767: 8760: 8752: 8747: 8731: 8706: 8702: 8696: 8686: 8680: 8671: 8655: 8643: 8624: 8620: 8593: 8573: 8561: 8549:. Retrieved 8545:the original 8538: 8528: 8516: 8508: 8503: 8491:. Retrieved 8487:the original 8482: 8473: 8464: 8452: 8432: 8425: 8416: 8395: 8383: 8364: 8355: 8347: 8325: 8300: 8296: 8290: 8281: 8248:(4): 64–80. 8245: 8241: 8232: 8219: 8209: 8202: 8185: 8173: 8164: 8155: 8147: 8131: 8125: 8114: 8105: 8093: 8088: 8076: 8067: 8058: 8046:. Retrieved 8042:the original 8032: 8024:the original 8014: 8002:. Retrieved 7998:the original 7983: 7971:. Retrieved 7967: 7958: 7938: 7931: 7912: 7903: 7892: 7879: 7867:. Retrieved 7839: 7821:(in German). 7816: 7791:. Retrieved 7783: 7756: 7751: 7723:the original 7718: 7692:. Retrieved 7677: 7670: 7658:. Retrieved 7654: 7645: 7633:. Retrieved 7629: 7620: 7585: 7458: 7439: 7422: 7395: 7375: 7371:Shimon Stein 7355: 7336: 7294:and German, 7289: 7221: 6785:Hanns Eisler 6769:Jurek Becker 6757:Anna Seghers 6752:East Germany 6749: 6724:Paul Spiegel 6720:Ignatz Bubis 6704:Ilja Richter 6659:young adults 6639:West Germany 6636: 6620: 6614: 6583: 6574: 6570: 6566: 6539: 6528: 6518: 6512: 6509: 6474: 6465: 6454:Please help 6449:verification 6446: 6381: 6373:Fifth Aliyah 6355: 6347: 6319: 6313: 6290:militaristic 6286:totalitarian 6283: 6267: 6263: 6256: 6229: 6225: 6216: 6213:Reichsbürger 6212: 6190: 6182:totalitarian 6179:Adolf Hitler 6160: 6143:Raul Hilberg 6120: 6101: 6078: 6072: 6064: 6059: 6053: 6048:Hans Mommsen 6045: 5968: 5958: 5948:Bibliography 5824: 5760: 5727: 5700:Jerzy Tabeau 5640: 5598: 5533: 5443: 5390: 5379: 5372: 5360: 5351: 5263: 5138: 5083: 4862:Trawniki men 4854: 4847: 4839: 4831: 4824: 4816: 4796: 4733:Adolf Hitler 4725: 4716: 4709:Nazi Germany 4625: 4570: 4547: 4530: 4522:Adolf Hitler 4515: 4504:antisemitism 4501: 4487:Antisemitism 4481: 4458: 4445: 4440: 4432:Judenzählung 4430: 4424: 4413: 4392: 4351:left-liberal 4348: 4345: 4337: 4313: 4309: 4302: 4273: 4252: 4245: 4238:Wilhelm Marr 4231: 4216:Leopold Zunz 4209: 4189: 4184: 4180: 4161: 4151: 4090: 4077: 4046: 4021: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3993:Isaac Euchel 3989:'Court Jews' 3982: 3968: 3958: 3952: 3949:emancipation 3942: 3887: 3871: 3842: 3837:Daniel Itzig 3832: 3828: 3825: 3808: 3802: 3763: 3758: 3752: 3729: 3728: 3723: 3720:John Lavater 3688: 3632: 3585: 3577: 3541: 3505: 3486: 3459: 3453:January 2020 3450: 3435:Please help 3423: 3379: 3360: 3337: 3281: 3244: 3228: 3224: 3216: 3208: 3207:for Speyer ( 3190: 3096: 3088: 3067: 3034:Carolingians 3030:Judenmeister 3029: 3023: 2980:remunerative 2958: 2934: 2930:Roman Empire 2902:Jews in Rome 2895: 2883: 2879: 2873: 2836: 2825: 2812: 2806: 2795:deportations 2792: 2788:World War II 2781: 2762: 2758:emancipation 2751: 2727:Hussite Wars 2712: 2667: 2655: 2653: 2594:Post-Zionism 2465:Judeo-Berber 2460:Judeo-Arabic 2420:Judeo-Gascon 2167:Pidyon haben 2086:Conservative 1769: 1632:Saudi Arabia 1450:South Africa 1439:Sierra Leone 1261:Israeli Jews 1175:Mosaic Arabs 1128:Kaifeng Jews 989:Arab–Israeli 962:Emancipation 841:Great Revolt 650:Anti-Judaism 645:Antisemitism 640:Name "Judea" 435:Baal teshuva 296:Mizrahi Jews 277:, and others 256:, and others 133:Ethnic group 130: 115: 106: 96: 89: 82: 75: 63: 51:Please help 46:verification 43: 26: 11393:Isle of Man 11328:recognition 11280:Switzerland 11215:Netherlands 10528:Gay, Ruth. 10077:13 February 10072:Taiwan News 10030:Der Spiegel 10017:Taiwan News 9428:10230/19886 9294:13 February 8993:: 149–176. 8855:(in German) 8738:, pp. 8493:13 February 8332:, p. . 8004:10 November 7840:dw-world.de 7746:. pp. 50–7. 7660:21 February 7635:21 February 7551:Orientalism 7377:Der Spiegel 7269:Afghanistan 7228:Helmut Kohl 7213:80,233,100 7199:82,536,680 7185:81,817,499 7171:79,753,227 7157:68,374,000 7143:70,244,000 7129:69,314,000 7115:66,027,000 7101:63,110,000 7087:64,568,000 7073:56,046,000 7059:49,239,000 7045:45,095,000 7031:40,997,000 6789:Gregor Gysi 6783:, composer 6781:Lin Jaldati 6777:Markus Wolf 6761:Stefan Heym 6736:Hans Zimmer 6708:Inge Meysel 6692:Fritz Bauer 6684:Rudolf Katz 6647:West Berlin 6562:Der Stürmer 6535:Black Death 6529:During the 6408:Netherlands 6328:" (German: 6221:Hans Globke 5990:Remembrance 5787:Częstochowa 5730:photographs 5705:Rudolf Vrba 5555:Częstochowa 5505:Lviv (Lvov) 5405:Gas chamber 5320:Netherlands 5220:Ravensbrück 5185:Gross-Rosen 5150:Auschwitz I 4974:Homosexuals 4964:Soviet POWs 4783:Rudolf Höss 4632:Franz Kafka 4582:Erich Fromm 4420:Max Warburg 4379:World War I 4375:Saarbrücken 4328:World War I 4288:Fritz Stern 4280:Württemberg 4269:Saarbrücken 4253:antisemitic 4144:Map of the 4115:pipe organs 4001:Ha-Me/assef 3943:During the 3910:Württemberg 3821:Lutheranism 3774:aristocrats 3766:citizenship 3699:Mendelssohn 3574:Mecklenburg 3394:Wittelsbach 3382:Black Death 3330:during the 3251:Carolingian 3223:for Mainz ( 3215:for Worms ( 3167:2021 (44th 3164:Inscription 2960:Charlemagne 2954:Merovingian 2942:Burgundians 2898:Roman Italy 2817:Nazi regime 2799:death camps 2769:antisemitic 2735:nationalism 2688:Black Death 2686:during the 2676:Charlemagne 2589:Revisionist 2579:Neo-Zionism 2186:Zeved habat 1979:Puerto Rico 1805:Netherlands 1637:South Korea 1622:Philippines 1502:Afghanistan 1369:Ivory Coast 1143:Crypto-Jews 1108:Bnei Anusim 1087:Bene Israel 1052:Beta Israel 1009:Communities 916:Middle Ages 655:Persecution 430:Bereavement 271:agnosticism 137:German Jews 18:German Jews 11418:Categories 11250:San Marino 11210:Montenegro 11190:Luxembourg 11170:Kazakhstan 11073:Azerbaijan 10779:(Thesis). 10399:. London: 10371:Elon, Amos 10276:References 9336:"Refugees" 9185:. London: 9095:6 February 9039:Der Morgen 9023:0300071868 8859:18 January 8662:, p. 8660:Grady 2017 8648:Grady 2017 8598:Grady 2017 8586:Yad Vashem 8566:Grady 2017 8551:15 October 8521:Grady 2017 8048:1 February 7973:1 November 7655:amp.dw.com 7435:Greifswald 6821:See also: 6664:Heidelberg 6406:, and the 6334:Reichsmark 6230:After the 5674:Resistance 5565:Ninth Fort 5520:Vel' d'Hiv 5436:Atrocities 5331:Westerbork 5326:Amersfoort 5210:Neuengamme 5200:Kaiserwald 5165:Buchenwald 5160:Bogdanovka 4806:Nazi Party 4690:, May 1944 4636:Leo Hirsch 4627:Der Morgen 4526:Nazi party 4465:Hugo Preuß 4459:Under the 4193:Franconian 4153:Napoleon I 4056:liberalism 3970:Aufklärung 3809:Bürgergeld 3663:Pope Leo X 3659:Dominicans 3620:Franciscan 3566:Deggendorf 3545:Wenceslaus 3535:, via the 3533:Charles IV 3531:the Jews. 3398:Luxembourg 3282:Historian 3268:Babylonian 3264:Ashkenazic 3239:תקנות שו"ם 3015:Regensburg 2995:Old Saxony 2858:xenophobia 2733:, growing 2708:golden age 2574:Maximalism 2526:Secularism 2506:Autonomism 2323:Literature 2116:Humanistic 1720:Azerbaijan 1682:Uzbekistan 1657:Tajikistan 1577:Kyrgyzstan 1562:Kazakhstan 1409:Mozambique 1384:Madagascar 1304:Cape Verde 1256:New Yishuv 1251:Old Yishuv 1202:Population 1180:Subbotniks 1138:Samaritans 1077:Romanyotim 1020:Ashkenazim 967:Old Yishuv 947:Sabbateans 934:Modern era 926:Golden Age 853:Bar Kokhba 573:Beit Yosef 440:Philosophy 224:, and the 79:newspapers 11383:Gibraltar 11185:Lithuania 10981:DigiBaeck 10904:Wiesbaden 10860:In German 10852:145786333 10715:201796942 10395:(2007) . 10344:647072809 10292:"Germany" 10267:Peck 2006 10211:. Adl.org 9625:"Germany" 9387:ignored ( 9377:cite book 9285:"Haavara" 9207:Full text 9181:(1995) . 9071:162162089 8937:144015938 8330:Elon 2002 8262:144021515 7793:1 October 7784:USHMM.org 7694:1 October 7612:146549764 7454:swastikas 7450:Salzwedel 7446:cellphone 7442:Offenbach 7431:neo-Nazis 7353:of 1949. 7332:Karlsruhe 7273:Ashkenazi 7252:snowclone 6811:emigrated 6797:socialist 6779:, singer 6651:Frankfurt 6584:When the 6519:judenfrei 6514:judenrein 6369:Palestine 6353:in 1938. 6278:Nuremberg 6193:Wehrmacht 6167:president 6147:Auschwitz 5942:Resources 5866:Survivors 5849:Aftermath 5825:St. Louis 5777:Białystok 5590:Erntefest 5550:Bydgoszcz 5510:Marseille 5480:Szczuczyn 5460:Bucharest 5352:Divisions 5278:Breendonk 5250:Uckermark 5230:Salaspils 5130:Treblinka 5110:Jasenovac 4999:Białystok 4856:Wehrmacht 4688:Auschwitz 4616:advocate 4606:communist 4512:Freikorps 4387:Holocaust 4383:Auschwitz 4311:Germany. 4197:Hagenbach 4195:towns of 4172:Rhineland 4121:1815–1918 3829:Einwohner 3813:Calvinism 3782:Huguenots 3780:), Jews, 3755:Joseph II 3570:Sternberg 3510:existed. 3481:Henry VII 3424:does not 3380:When the 3312:Crusaders 3247:Dark Ages 3154:Reference 3046:Holy Week 2878:depicted 2843:World Cup 2813:judenfrei 2808:judenrein 2584:Religious 2440:Zarphatic 2430:Bukharian 2400:Judeo-Tat 2385:Yeshivish 2359:Languages 2314:Sephardic 2304:Israelite 2294:Ethiopian 2284:Ashkenazi 2223:Religious 2013:Australia 1995:Venezuela 1901:Argentina 1883:Greenland 1795:Lithuania 1647:Sri Lanka 1642:Singapore 1567:Kurdistan 1532:Indonesia 1522:Hong Kong 1475:Abayudaya 1399:Mauritius 1133:Igbo Jews 1123:Krymchaks 1042:Sephardim 910:relations 804:Sadducees 800:Pharisees 790:Sanhedrin 705:Jerusalem 465:Synagogue 333:Etymology 232:Languages 214:Argentina 11403:Svalbard 11388:Guernsey 11335:Abkhazia 11310:Scotland 11265:Slovenia 11260:Slovakia 11235:Portugal 11093:Bulgaria 10995:Archived 10373:(2002). 10236:Die Welt 10215:16 April 10122:Archived 10103:16 April 10097:BBC News 9951:Archived 9921:Archived 9877:16 April 9850:Die Welt 9804:12 March 9764:12 March 9738:16 April 9690:16 April 9631:16 April 9561:16 April 9535:16 April 9488:26080394 9320:16 April 8806:26219879 8363:(2009). 8178:Man 2010 7818:Die Welt 7719:Mainz.de 7464:See also 7345:and the 7240:Israelis 7224:Cold War 7210:119,000 7196:100,000 7140:164,000 7126:234,000 7112:503,000 7098:564,379 7084:615,021 7070:586,833 7056:567,884 7042:562,612 7028:512,158 7002:Source: 6622:Ostjuden 6586:Red Army 6496:Würzburg 6139:Nazified 6108:boycotts 6073:völkisch 6060:völkisch 5575:Piaśnica 5545:Babi Yar 5485:Jedwabne 5337:Slovakia 5283:Mechelen 5235:Stutthof 5195:Janowska 5120:Sajmište 5115:Majdanek 5004:Budapest 4661:a series 4659:Part of 4524:and his 4364:holy war 4233:Ostjuden 4205:Warnbach 4201:Ottingen 4185:Matrikel 4181:Matrikel 4022:Haskalah 4009:Haskalah 3997:Haskalah 3984:Haskalah 3939:Haskalah 3918:Holstein 3794:peddlers 3778:burghers 3588:Hussites 3516:kreutzer 3334:of 1096. 3284:John Man 3256:Diaspora 3225:Magentza 3217:Varmaisa 3145:Criteria 3101:and the 3063:Halakhic 3057:and the 2983:monopoly 2938:Germanic 2680:Crusades 2611:Category 2569:Kahanism 2516:Feminism 2488:Politics 2372:Biblical 2342:American 2289:Bukharan 2279:American 2179:Shidduch 2155:Clothing 2111:Haymanot 2057:Orthodox 1985:Suriname 1968:Paraguay 1921:Colombia 1820:Portugal 1730:Bulgaria 1667:Thailand 1617:Pakistan 1597:Mongolia 1592:Malaysia 1512:Cambodia 1486:Zimbabwe 1461:Tanzania 1339:Eswatini 1329:Ethiopia 1319:Djibouti 1299:Cameroon 1294:Botswana 1223:Diaspora 1185:Noahides 1158:Marranos 1082:Cochinim 1067:Bukharim 1057:Gruzinim 1047:Teimanim 1037:Mizrahim 1025:Galician 991:conflict 952:Hasidism 942:Haskalah 847:Diaspora 718:timeline 630:Timeline 543:Rabbinic 450:Kabbalah 425:Marriage 401:Tzedakah 391:Holidays 349:Religion 312:a series 310:Part of 300:Israelis 261:Religion 145:(German) 11300:England 11290:Ukraine 11240:Romania 11200:Moldova 11158:Ireland 11153:Iceland 11148:Hungary 11138:Germany 11133:Georgia 11123:Finland 11118:Estonia 11113:Denmark 11098:Croatia 11083:Belgium 11078:Belarus 11068:Austria 11063:Armenia 11058:Andorra 11053:Albania 10936:München 10844:4546201 10768:4464809 10661:vol. 4 10655:vol. 3 10649:vol. 2 10643:vol. 1 10603:. 1999. 10596:. 1994. 10401:Phoenix 10285:: 10195:Reuters 9821:Spiegel 9479:4491745 9456:Bibcode 9367:16 June 9153:Haaretz 9063:1396629 8972:4466872 8822:(1971). 8588:website 8317:1450629 7312:(which 7292:Yiddish 7285:Potsdam 7265:Morocco 7238:. Many 7182:60,000 7168:30,000 7154:37,000 6994:119,000 6983:100,000 6975:+100.0% 6939:164,000 6928:234,000 6917:503,000 6906:564,379 6895:615,021 6884:586,833 6873:567,884 6862:562,612 6851:512,158 6668:Hamburg 6498:to the 6404:Belgium 6365:Zionist 6157:police" 6096:boycott 5585:Rumbula 5515:Tykocin 5465:Dorohoi 5445:Pogroms 5400:Gas van 5314:Bolzano 5272:Belgium 5125:Sobibor 5105:Chełmno 5049:Vilnius 4992:Ghettos 4942:Victims 4850:(SS-VT) 4827:(SS-TV) 4811:Gestapo 4538:Marxism 4534:Zionism 4395:Entente 4385:in the 4360:pogroms 4168:florins 4081:Shabbat 4018:Zionism 3954:Halacha 3898:Hanover 3894:Hamburg 3855:Austria 3798:Gypsies 3745:in the 3616:Wrocław 3600:Silesia 3596:Moravia 3592:Bohemia 3520:florins 3445:removed 3430:sources 3314:led by 3272:Yeshiva 3260:Baghdad 3227:). The 3176:Website 3169:Session 3003:Cologne 2976:usurers 2924:on the 2922:Cologne 2908:called 2832:Russian 2739:pogroms 2723:Cologne 2554:General 2545:Zionism 2521:Leftism 2511:Bundism 2435:Knaanic 2395:Yevanic 2380:Yiddish 2337:Yiddish 2332:Israeli 2309:Mizrahi 2299:Israeli 2270:Cuisine 2246:Ancient 2228:Secular 2174:Kashrut 2150:Wedding 2137:Customs 2129:Culture 2106:Science 2101:Renewal 2091:Karaite 2072:Hasidic 2004:Oceania 1990:Uruguay 1958:Jamaica 1938:Ecuador 1906:Bolivia 1850:Ukraine 1825:Romania 1800:Moldova 1780:Hungary 1770:Germany 1765:Georgia 1755:Finland 1750:Estonia 1745:Denmark 1740:Czechia 1725:Belarus 1715:Austria 1710:Armenia 1687:Vietnam 1602:Myanmar 1587:Lebanon 1507:Bahrain 1466:Tunisia 1444:Somalia 1419:Nigeria 1414:Namibia 1404:Morocco 1334:Eritrea 1279:Algeria 1163:Neofiti 1072:Italkim 1062:Juhurim 972:Zionism 921:Khazars 816:Sicarii 812:Zealots 808:Essenes 795:Schisms 660:Leaders 622:General 614:History 557:Tosefta 552:Midrash 529:Mishnah 511:Ketuvim 506:Nevi'im 455:Customs 386:Shabbat 381:Halakha 373: ( 371:Mitzvot 358: ( 324:Judaism 275:atheism 267:Judaism 254:Yiddish 246:Russian 238:English 198:Germany 170:Germany 93:scholar 11398:Jersey 11340:Kosovo 11285:Turkey 11275:Sweden 11255:Serbia 11245:Russia 11230:Poland 11225:Norway 11205:Monaco 11175:Latvia 11143:Greece 11128:France 11103:Cyprus 10942: 10914: 10882: 10876:Berlin 10850: 10842: 10811:. 1982 10797:. 1975 10766: 10721: 10713: 10633:. 1972 10585:, ed. 10579:, 2007 10572:, 2011 10551: 10441: 10418: 10381: 10359: 10342: 10332: 10313: 9838:. JTA. 9486: 9476: 9358: 9272:dollar 9226: 9166:times. 9069: 9061: 9020: 8970: 8945:478136 8943: 8935: 8927: 8890: 8853:bpb.de 8804: 8775: 8755:(2001) 8740:73–112 8723:202190 8721: 8440: 8371: 8315: 8260: 8193: 8138: 8098:p. 433 8068:dw.com 7946: 7919: 7889:"Rome" 7869:1 June 7742: 7685: 7610: 7600: 7406:Munich 7305:kosher 7277:Chabad 7267:, and 7261:Turkey 7244:Berlin 7216:0.15% 7202:0.12% 7188:0.07% 7174:0.04% 7160:0.05% 7146:0.23% 7132:0.34% 7118:0.76% 7104:0.89% 7090:0.95% 7076:1.05% 7062:1.15% 7048:1.25% 7034:1.25% 6997:+19.0% 6986:+66.7% 6972:60,000 6964:−18.9% 6961:30,000 6953:−77.4% 6950:37,000 6942:−29.9% 6931:−53.5% 6920:−10.9% 6730:(see: 6726:, and 6710:, and 6670:mayor 6655:Munich 6653:, and 6616:Yekkes 6610:Israel 6604:- and 6602:Allied 6400:France 6377:Yishuv 6234:, the 6175:Führer 5856:Bricha 5782:Łachwa 5772:Warsaw 5717:Bricha 5580:Ponary 5570:Odessa 5525:Wąsosz 5500:Kaunas 5490:Plungė 5302:Drancy 5290:France 5255:Warsaw 5170:Dachau 5100:Bełżec 5044:Warsaw 5024:Lublin 5014:Kraków 5009:Kaunas 4717:People 4592:, and 4265:Kaiser 4203:, and 3922:Saxony 3902:Nassau 3859:Styria 3833:Bürger 3770:estate 3716:Zurich 3647:Talmud 3622:friar 3598:, and 3582:(1493) 3550:robber 3529:fining 3326:, and 3320:Speyer 3235:Hebrew 3219:) and 3209:Shpira 3199:, and 3193:Speyer 3106:faith. 3103:Talmud 3038:synods 3019:Aachen 3017:, and 3011:Speyer 2948:, for 2946:Franks 2916:, and 2906:Romans 2700:Speyer 2616:Portal 2475:Domari 2405:Shassi 2366:Hebrew 2261:Humour 2205:Hiloni 2200:Aliyah 2160:Niddah 2145:Minyan 2080:Reform 2067:Haredi 2062:Modern 1963:Mexico 1948:Guyana 1911:Brazil 1873:Canada 1845:Sweden 1835:Serbia 1830:Russia 1815:Poland 1810:Norway 1790:Latvia 1775:Greece 1760:France 1735:Cyprus 1701:Europe 1672:Turkey 1662:Taiwan 1572:Kuwait 1557:Jordan 1547:Israel 1481:Zambia 1471:Uganda 1389:Malawi 1359:Guinea 1349:Gambia 1284:Angola 1270:Africa 1153:Dönmeh 1148:Anusim 1092:Berber 1030:Litvak 982:Israel 888: 825: 739:Second 707: 568:Targum 534:Gemara 520:Talmud 492:Tanakh 445:Ethics 396:Prayer 250:Hebrew 242:German 222:Mexico 218:Brazil 202:Israel 95: 88: 81: 74: 66: 11373:Åland 11315:Wales 11270:Spain 11195:Malta 11165:Italy 10930:[ 10898:[ 10870:[ 10848:S2CID 10840:JSTOR 10764:JSTOR 10723:18213 10711:S2CID 9732:(PDF) 9721:(PDF) 9268:fixed 9089:(PDF) 9067:S2CID 9059:JSTOR 8968:JSTOR 8933:S2CID 8925:JSTOR 8802:JSTOR 8584:, at 8313:JSTOR 8258:S2CID 7608:S2CID 7582:(PDF) 7562:Notes 7207:2011 7193:2002 7179:1995 7165:1990 7151:1950 7137:1941 7123:1939 7109:1933 7095:1925 7081:1910 7067:1900 7053:1890 7039:1880 7025:1871 7011:Year 6991:2011 6980:2002 6969:1995 6958:1990 6947:1950 6936:1941 6925:1939 6914:1933 6909:−8.2% 6903:1925 6898:+4.8% 6892:1910 6887:+3.3% 6881:1900 6876:+0.9% 6870:1890 6865:+9.9% 6859:1880 6848:1871 6793:Stasi 6773:Stasi 6688:Hesse 6606:UNRRA 6550:NSDAP 6363:with 6116:Aryan 6065:Reich 5890:Lists 5475:Izieu 5343:Sereď 5308:Italy 5076:Camps 5034:Minsk 4959:Poles 4276:Baden 4041:Celle 3914:Baden 3819:, or 3790:serfs 3703:Torah 3628:Trent 3508:taxes 3497:Titus 3348:Trier 3328:Mainz 3324:Worms 3296:Rashi 3288:Jewry 3201:Mainz 3197:Worms 3099:Torah 3085:Exile 3059:Bible 3050:Saxon 3007:Worms 2926:Rhine 2719:Trier 2704:Worms 2696:Mainz 2668:circa 2564:Labor 2559:Green 2256:Dance 2214:Music 2033:Palau 1953:Haiti 1916:Chile 1840:Spain 1785:Italy 1692:Yemen 1652:Syria 1627:Qatar 1607:Nepal 1552:Japan 1527:India 1517:China 1456:Sudan 1379:Libya 1374:Kenya 1354:Ghana 1344:Gabon 1324:Egypt 1309:Benin 1168:Xueta 1113:Lemba 732:First 597:Zohar 501:Torah 483:Texts 470:Rabbi 460:Rites 360:names 210:Chile 100:JSTOR 86:books 10940:ISBN 10912:ISBN 10880:ISBN 10549:ISBN 10439:ISBN 10416:ISBN 10379:ISBN 10357:ISBN 10340:OCLC 10330:ISBN 10311:ISBN 10217:2013 10105:2013 10079:2022 9988:IFCJ 9879:2013 9823:2014 9806:2017 9766:2017 9740:2013 9692:2013 9633:2013 9563:2013 9537:2013 9484:PMID 9389:help 9369:2021 9356:ISBN 9322:2013 9296:2022 9224:ISBN 9161:2012 9097:2010 9018:ISBN 8888:ISBN 8861:2022 8773:ISBN 8553:2019 8495:2022 8438:ISBN 8369:ISBN 8191:ISBN 8136:ISBN 8050:2008 8006:2013 7975:2013 7944:ISBN 7917:ISBN 7871:2007 7795:2012 7740:ISBN 7696:2012 7683:ISBN 7662:2021 7637:2021 7598:ISBN 7426:Arab 7388:The 7257:Iran 6837:Pop. 6833:Year 6554:DVFP 6552:and 6546:DNVP 6382:The 6094:The 6081:Nazi 5470:Iași 5297:Gurs 5175:Dora 5039:Riga 5029:Lwów 5019:Łódź 4949:Jews 4842:(SA) 4819:(SS) 4684:Jews 4650:and 4634:and 4614:LGBT 4600:and 4418:and 4278:and 4210:The 4050:and 4016:and 3900:and 3861:and 3796:and 3714:, a 3428:any 3426:cite 3338:The 3205:Shin 3158:1636 3077:Metz 2997:and 2944:and 2777:Nazi 2713:The 2702:and 2654:The 2023:Guam 2018:Fiji 1973:Peru 1926:Cuba 1612:Oman 1582:Laos 1542:Iraq 1537:Iran 1494:Asia 1423:Igbo 1394:Mali 413:Brit 322:and 320:Jews 72:news 10832:doi 10781:doi 10703:doi 10499:doi 10141:." 10010:. " 9853:: " 9511:doi 9474:PMC 9464:doi 9452:112 9423:hdl 9415:doi 9411:127 9051:doi 8995:doi 8917:doi 8880:doi 8711:doi 8629:doi 8305:doi 8250:doi 7590:doi 7433:in 7330:in 6502:of 6458:by 5823:MS 5215:Rab 4497:WWI 4439:" ( 3564:in 3439:by 3221:Mem 3213:Waw 3211:), 3070:Rav 2985:of 2801:in 2237:Art 583:Tur 375:613 55:by 11420:: 11001:, 10910:. 10906:: 10846:. 10838:. 10828:24 10826:. 10760:11 10758:. 10746:. 10717:. 10709:. 10697:. 10512:. 10493:. 10338:. 10294:. 10252:. 10234:. 10193:. 10095:. 10070:. 10052:, 10032:: 10014:" 10000:^ 9986:. 9969:, 9932:^ 9905:^ 9895:. 9756:. 9723:. 9664:. 9507:97 9505:. 9482:. 9472:. 9462:. 9450:. 9446:. 9421:. 9409:. 9397:^ 9381:: 9379:}} 9375:{{ 9287:. 9246:. 9163:. 9150:. 9065:. 9057:. 9047:20 9045:. 8991:33 8989:. 8964:37 8962:. 8939:. 8931:. 8923:. 8913:30 8911:. 8886:. 8878:. 8851:. 8839:^ 8798:23 8796:. 8717:. 8707:20 8705:. 8664:86 8625:36 8623:. 8619:. 8605:^ 8577:A 8537:. 8481:. 8407:^ 8337:^ 8311:. 8301:15 8299:. 8270:^ 8256:. 8246:20 8244:. 8163:. 8150:). 8113:. 8066:. 7992:. 7966:. 7891:. 7852:^ 7842:. 7838:. 7827:^ 7803:^ 7786:. 7782:. 7765:^ 7731:^ 7717:. 7704:^ 7653:. 7628:. 7606:. 7596:. 7584:. 7569:^ 7263:, 7259:, 6842:±% 6771:, 6767:, 6763:, 6759:, 6742:. 6722:, 6718:, 6706:, 6702:, 6698:, 6686:; 6682:) 6674:; 6649:, 6629:. 6548:, 6402:, 6379:. 6288:, 6223:. 6149:. 4663:on 4604:; 4588:, 4584:, 4580:, 4514:. 4471:. 4451:. 4199:, 4058:. 3963:, 3815:, 3792:, 3788:, 3594:, 3572:, 3377:. 3322:, 3237:: 3195:, 3021:. 3013:, 3009:, 2912:, 2880:ca 2823:. 2790:. 2698:, 850:, 844:, 814:, 810:, 806:, 802:, 314:on 298:, 294:, 290:, 273:, 269:, 252:, 248:, 244:, 240:, 220:, 216:, 212:, 208:, 204:, 11031:e 11024:t 11017:v 10948:. 10920:. 10888:. 10854:. 10834:: 10789:. 10783:: 10770:. 10725:. 10705:: 10699:5 10557:. 10505:. 10501:: 10495:8 10447:. 10424:. 10403:. 10387:. 10365:. 10346:. 10319:. 10256:. 10219:. 10197:. 10107:. 10081:. 10038:" 10034:" 9973:. 9881:. 9808:. 9768:. 9742:. 9694:. 9668:. 9635:. 9565:. 9539:. 9517:. 9513:: 9490:. 9466:: 9458:: 9431:. 9425:: 9417:: 9391:) 9371:. 9324:. 9298:. 9232:. 9099:. 9073:. 9053:: 9026:. 9001:. 8997:: 8974:. 8947:. 8919:: 8896:. 8882:: 8863:. 8808:. 8781:. 8742:. 8725:. 8713:: 8685:" 8666:. 8637:. 8631:: 8555:. 8497:. 8446:. 8377:. 8319:. 8307:: 8264:. 8252:: 8144:, 8100:. 8070:. 8052:. 8008:. 7977:. 7952:. 7925:. 7873:. 7797:. 7698:. 7664:. 7639:. 7614:. 7592:: 6613:( 6481:) 6475:( 6470:) 6466:( 6452:. 6035:e 6028:t 6021:v 5603:" 5599:" 4389:. 3827:( 3749:. 3466:) 3460:( 3455:) 3451:( 3447:. 3433:. 3396:- 3278:. 3233:( 3171:) 2892:. 2666:( 2643:e 2636:t 2629:v 1477:) 1473:( 1425:) 1421:( 894:) 890:( 856:) 839:( 832:) 827:( 818:) 798:( 741:) 730:( 720:) 709:( 377:) 362:) 122:) 116:( 111:) 107:( 97:· 90:· 83:· 76:· 49:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Knowledge

History of the Jews in Germany

Index