336:
and poor weather conditions and combat stress may add to the confusion, especially if fire is exchanged. Accurate navigation and fire discipline are vital. In high-risk situations, leaders need to ensure units are properly informed of the location of friendly units and must issue clear, unambiguous orders, but they must also react correctly to responses from soldiers who are capable of using their own judgement. Miscommunication can be deadly. Radios, field telephones, and signalling systems can be used to address the problem, but when these systems are used to co-ordinate multiple forces such as ground troops and aircraft, their breakdown can dramatically increase the risk of friendly fire. When allied troops are operating, the situation is even more complex, especially with language barriers to overcome.
36:
357:
377:
actions has risen dramatically. In the 1991 Gulf War, most of the
Americans killed by their own forces were crew members of armored vehicles hit by anti-tank rounds. The response in training includes recognition training for Apache helicopter crews to help them distinguish American tanks and armored vehicles at night and in bad weather from those of the enemy. In addition, tank gunners must watch for "friendly" robotic tanks that pop out on training courses in California's Mojave Desert. They also study video footage to help them recognize American forces in battle more quickly.
464:
people doing the shooting are
American, then a high percentage of total casualties are bound to be the result of friendly fire, blunting the effectiveness of the shock and awe tactic. It is probably the fact that friendly fire has proven to be the only fundamental weakness of the tactics that has caused the American military to take significant steps to overturn a blasé attitude to friendly fire and assess ways to eliminate it.
1647:
369:
soldiers must be trained to operate effectively in these conditions, as well as being trained to fight at night. Such simulated training is now commonplace for soldiers worldwide. Avoiding friendly fire can be as straightforward as ensuring fire discipline is instilled in troops, so that they fire and cease firing when they are told to. Firing ranges now also include
456:
dangerous that the attackers wanted them to be shelled, considering the shells far less deadly than the machine guns. Tactical adjustments include the use of "kill boxes", or zones that are placed off-limits to ground forces while allied aircraft attack targets, which goes back to the beginning of military aircraft in World War I.
239:" – the confusion inherent in warfare. Friendly fire that is the result of apparent recklessness or incompetence may be improperly lumped into this category. The concept of a fog of war has come under considerable criticism, as it can be used as an excuse for poor planning, weak or compromised intelligence and incompetent command.
75:
forces on friendly troops while attempting to attack enemy or hostile targets. Examples include misidentifying the target as hostile, cross-fire while engaging an enemy, long range ranging errors or inaccuracy. Accidental fire not intended to attack enemy or hostile targets, and deliberate firing on
463:
battle tactics adopted by the
American military – overwhelming power, battlefield awareness, dominant maneuvers, and spectacular displays of force – are employed because they are believed to be the best way to win a war quickly and decisively, reducing casualties on both sides. However, if the only
344:
Some analyses dismiss the material impact of friendly fire, by concluding friendly-fire casualties are usually too few to affect the outcome of a battle. The effects of friendly fire, however, are not just material. Troops expect to be targeted by the enemy, but being hit by their own forces has a
335:
A number of situations can lead to or exacerbate the risk of friendly fire. Difficult terrain and visibility are major factors. Soldiers fighting on unfamiliar ground can become disoriented more easily than on familiar terrain. The direction from which enemy fire comes may not be easy to identify,
203:
is an untoward but inevitable aspect of warfare, so, too, is the tendency by military commanders to sweep such tragedies under the rug. It's part of a larger pattern: the temptation among generals and politicians to control how the press portrays their military campaigns, which all too often leads
376:
The increasing sophistication of weaponry, and the tactics employed against
American forces to deliberately confuse them has meant that while overall casualties have fallen for American soldiers in the late 20th and 21st centuries, the overall percentage of deaths due to friendly fire in American
499:
has been used on
Russian vehicles as a form of marking. There are various explanations as to its meaning, however, one is that both sides are using the same equipment. Ukrainian forces have responded by using visible Ukrainian flags on their vehicles. The picture has become more confused as both
247:
Errors of position occur when fire aimed at enemy forces may accidentally end up hitting one's own. Such incidents are exacerbated by close proximity of combatants and were relatively common during the First and Second World Wars, where troops fought in close combat and targeting was relatively
455:
posts in the final moments before capture. This practice continued throughout the 20th century since machine guns were first used in World War I. The high friendly fire risk has generally been accepted by troops since machine gun emplacements are tactically so valuable, and at the same time so
368:
Most militaries use extensive training to ensure troop safety as part of normal coordination and planning, but are not always exposed to possible friendly-fire situations to ensure they are aware of situations where the risk is high. Difficult terrain and bad weather cannot be controlled, but
154:
Paul R. Syms argues that friendly fire is an ancient phenomenon. He notes recorded events in
Ancient Greece and other early accounts of battles. He and other historians also note that weapons such as guns, artillery, and aircraft dramatically increased friendly-fire casualties.
256:
Errors of identification happen when friendly troops are mistakenly attacked in the belief that they are the enemy. Highly mobile battles, and battles involving troops from many nations are more likely to cause this kind of incident as evidenced by incidents in the 1991
331:
Errors of response inhibition have recently been proposed as another potential cause of some friendly fire accidents. These types of errors are different from visual misidentification, and instead appear to be caused by a failure to inhibit a shooting response.
385:
Improved technology to assist in identifying friendly forces is also an ongoing response to friendly fire problems. From the earliest days of warfare, identification systems were visual and developed into extremely elaborate suits of armour with distinctive
1280:
951:
Wilson, K. M., Head, J., de Joux, N. R., Finkbeiner, K. M., & Helton, W. S. (2015). Friendly fire and the sustained attention to response task. Human
Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society,
1247:
364:
Joint
Maneuver Training Center during Bold Quest 2011, a combat assessment exercise to test the interoperability of target identification systems of different allied nations to reduce friendly fire incidents.
417:
is vital to ensuring units know where they are in relation to their own force and the enemy. Efforts to provide accurate compasses inside metal boxes in tanks and trucks has proven difficult, with
432:
that are invisible to observers without night-goggles, or fibres and dyes that reflect only specific wavelengths are developing into key identifiers for friendly infantry units at night.
935:
Biggs, A. T., Cain, M. S., & Mitroff, S. R. (2015). Cognitive training can reduce civilian casualties in a simulated shooting environment. Psychological science, 26(8), 1164–1176.
1172:
348:
Attempts to reduce this effect by military leaders involve identifying the causes of friendly fire and overcoming repetition of the incident through training, tactics and technology.
484:
were mistakenly fired upon by
American ground and naval forces and 23 planes were shot down and 37 damaged, resulting in 318 casualties, with 60 airmen and 81 paratroopers killed.
1270:
370:
191:
are important, especially in modern warfare, the military may be inclined to under-report incidents of friendly-fire, especially when in charge of both investigations and
622:
when US Air
National Guard pilots in 2002 bombed 12 Canadian soldiers, four of whom were killed; these were the first Canadian casualties of the war in Afghanistan.
714:
1449:
183:
In the annals of warfare, deaths at the hand of the enemy are often valorized, while those at the hand of friendly forces may be cast in shame. Moreover, because
170:
While acknowledging that the "statistical dimensions of the friendly fire problem have yet to be defined; reliable data are simply not available in most cases,"
1078:
435:
There is also some development of remote sensors to detect enemy vehicles – the Remotely Monitored Battlefield Sensor System (REMBASS) uses a combination of
830:
Claire Outteridge, Simon Henderson, Raphael Pascual, Paul Shanahan, "How can Human Factors be Exploited to Reduce the Risk of Fratricide?" in Kirke, p. 115
319:
was first introduced into use as it was otherwise very similar in profile to a German aircraft. Late in the war the "protection squadron" that covered the
394:, Admiral Nelson ordered that ships under his command adopt a common paint scheme to reduce friendly fire incidents; this pattern became known as the
515:
591:
914:
282:
345:
huge negative impact on morale. Forces doubt the competence of their command, and its prevalence makes commanders more cautious in the field.
1147:
894:
1412:
158:
By the 20th and 21st centuries, friendly-fire casualties have likely become a significant percentage of combat injuries and fatalities.
747:
978:
1622:
218:
Although there may well be a longstanding history of such bias, Krakauer claims "the scale and sophistication of these recent
1173:"The Ukrainian Army Has More Tanks Now Than When The War Began – Because It Keeps Capturing Them From Russia"
1698:
741:"Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 20 November 2010 (As amended through 31 January 2011)"
571:
579:
1435:
1471:
Yaniszewski, Mark (2007). "Reporting on Fratricide: Canadian Newspapers and the Incident at Tarnak Farm, Afghanistan".
1369:
615:
599:
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regiment which was conducting a night firing exercise near Kandahar. Another case of such an accident was the death of
174:
estimates that between 2 percent and 25 percent of the casualties in America's wars are attributable to friendly fire.
135:
dominated, death from a "friendly" was rare, but in industrialized warfare, deaths from friendly fire are more common.
116:
428:
signals, giving ground forces the exact location of enemy forces as well as their own. The use of infrared lights and
1658:
1611:
1566:
1406:
1339:
1241:
1070:
1043:
975:
44:
1683:
1445:
84:. Training accidents and bloodless incidents also do not qualify as friendly fire in terms of casualty reporting.
1148:"Russia Starts Erasing 'Z' – The Infamous Ukraine Invasion Symbol From Their Tanks & Armored Vehicles – Kiev"
1125:
585:
509:
248:
inaccurate. As the accuracy of weapons improved, this class of incident has become less common but still occurs.
35:
1651:
1634:
1597:
1552:
1538:
27:
19:
This article is about unintentional incidents. For institutionalised, intentional instances of fratricide, see
610:, the Italian governor of Libya over Tobruk by Italian anti aircraft fire in 1940; the accidental shooting of
1688:
76:
one's own troops for disciplinary reasons is not called friendly fire, and neither is unintentional harm to
43:"Miss Donna Mae II" is damaged by bombs after drifting under the American bomber flying above it during the
1100:
647:
407:
542:
492:
429:
289:
in Afghanistan, although the exact circumstances of that incident are yet to be definitively determined.
40:
614:
during the American Civil War; the killing of a Royal Military Policeman by a British sniper during the
1703:
632:
574:, killing 117 sailors and wounding 153 more; the eight-hour firefight between British units during the
451:
make friendly fire virtually inevitable, such as the practice of dropping barrages of mortars on enemy
104:
910:
879:
Friendly Fire: The Untold Story of the U.S. Bombing that Killed Four Canadian Soldiers in Afghanistan.
1708:
640:
477:
473:
771:
Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. cites a 1925 reference to a term used in trenches during the war
312:
1693:
323:
as it landed or took off were brightly painted to distinguish them from raiding Allied fighters.
274:
1302:
708:"The Wrong Target – The Problem of Mistargeting Resulting in Fratricide and Civilian Casualties"
301:
1325:
891:
644:, 1979 television docudrama about a high-profile friendly fire incident during the Vietnam War
356:
1482:
1473:
1392:
1227:
481:
266:
48:
1033:
740:
204:
them to misrepresent the truth in order to bolster public support for the war of the moment.
1629:, US Command & Staff College, Fort Leavenworth: University Press of the Pacific, 2005;
619:
554:
550:
500:
sides are using captured or abandoned equipment with Ukraine using captured Russian tanks.
308:
270:
56:
51:
caused the plane to go into an uncontrollable spin and crash, killing all 11 crew members.
8:
1678:
1275:
874:
558:
496:
132:
1617:
402:
served a similar function during the Allied invasion of Normandy in World War II. When
1502:
1494:
603:
96:
1630:
1607:
1593:
1579:
1562:
1548:
1534:
1531:
Friendly Fire in the Civil War: More than 100 True Stories of Comrade Killing Comrade
1506:
1402:
1335:
1271:"The little known D-Day operation that accidentally killed more than 100 U.S. troops"
1237:
1200:
1039:
611:
519:
124:
81:
1486:
953:
936:
575:
565:
523:
488:
448:
399:
297:
222:
efforts, and the unabashedness of their executors" in Iraq and Afghanistan is new.
184:
163:
146:(or attempted) killing of servicemen by fellow personnel serving on the same side.
491:
that were used during D-Day as a visible way to prevent friendly fire. During the
1626:
898:
530:
391:
262:
108:
92:
72:
1490:
1360:
707:
395:
361:
320:
316:
192:
20:
1663:
1672:
1331:
957:
940:
595:
460:
439:, seismic vibration, and infrared to not just detect, but identify vehicles.
410:") systems to identify aircraft developed into a multitude of radio beacons.
1355:
694:
Backfire: a history of friendly fire from ancient warfare to the present day
424:
Other technological changes include hand-held navigational devices that use
1440:
534:
293:
159:
1583:
127:
where NATO forces were identified by blue pennants and units representing
1233:
607:
452:
286:
128:
68:
1498:
600:
downing of two U.S. Army Black Hawk helicopters by USAF fighters in 1994
1201:"Russia restoring captured, damaged Ukrainian tanks, vehicles – report"
982:
668:
538:
414:
236:
219:
200:
1664:
The American War Library's best estimates on friendly fire casualties
1398:
436:
425:
273:, four Canadian soldiers were killed and eight others injured when a
546:
387:
304:
258:
139:
77:
839:
Krakauer, Jon. 2009. Where Men Win Glory. NY: Bloomsbury, p. 204.
592:
downing of a British Army Gazelle helicopter by a British warship
526:
162:
provides an overview of American casualties during and since the
1646:
1177:
1031:
188:
1394:
No Fly Zones and International Security: Politics and Strategy
705:
91:
in a military context for allied personnel started during the
403:
131:
forces by red pennants. In classical forms of warfare where
590:
by the Luftwaffe in the North Sea during World War II; the
278:
1303:"Sinking of HMS Britomart and HMS Hussar by friendly fire"
514:
Incidents include: the killing of Royalist commander, the
1365:
418:
277:
major dropped a 500 lb (230 kg) bomb from his
261:, or the shooting down of a British aircraft by a U.S.
80:
or neutral targets, which is sometimes referred to as
1619:
Amicicide: The Problem of Friendly Fire in Modern War
1436:"Sniper escapes prosecution over friendly fire death"
1356:"London Calling the Falklands Islands, Friendly Fire"
1013:, US Command & General Staff College Survey No. 1
1011:
Amicicide: The Problem of Friendly Fire in Modern War
1327:The Cyprus Emergency: The Divided Island 1955–1974
1064:
1062:
172:The Oxford Companion to American Military History
1670:
1152:Latest Asian, Middle-East, Eurasian, Indian News
326:
307:to assist identification in preparation for the
1027:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1019:
819:Where Men Win Glory: The Odyssey of Pat Tillman
1059:
119:(NATO) militaries refer to these incidents as
1323:
1268:
1016:
785:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 193.
1545:Friend or Foe: Friendly Fire at Sea 1939–45
1470:
1390:
283:Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry
251:
99:fell short of the targeted enemy. The term
1071:"U.S. Striving to Prevent 'Friendly Fire'"
138:Friendly fire should not be confused with
1576:Le Massacre de Notre Infanterie 1914–1918
998:Le Massacre de Notre Infanterie 1914–1918
480:, on the night of 11 July 1943, American
406:was developed during World War II, IFF ("
1659:Friendly fire during the Napoleonic Wars
1590:Blue on Blue: A History of Friendly Fire
1032:Office of Technology Assessment (1993).
967:
965:
780:
355:
34:
1559:Fratricide in Battle: (Un)Friendly Fire
1068:
973:Fratricide in Battle: (Un)Friendly Fire
806:Fratricide in Battle: (Un)Friendly Fire
688:
686:
578:; the sinking of the German destroyers
1671:
1533:, Rutledge Hill Press, Nashville, TN;
1524:Friendly Fire in the Literature of War
1433:
1391:Wrage, Stephen; Cooper, Scott (2019).
1145:
911:"U.S. military probes soldier's death"
380:
1225:
962:
518:, by Royalist cannon fire during the
242:
1415:from the original on 25 January 2022
1269:Gibbons-Neff, Thomas (6 June 2016).
1250:from the original on 25 January 2022
1229:Seriously Funny, and Other Oxymorons
1081:from the original on 25 January 2022
1035:Who goes there : friend or foe?
720:from the original on 31 October 2012
683:
522:; the bombing of American troops by
360:Soldiers perform a night assault at
16:Accidental attack on friendly forces
753:from the original on 6 October 2016
606:; the shooting down and killing of
339:
13:
1516:
1434:Doward, Jamie (14 November 2010).
235:Friendly fire can arise from the "
178:
117:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
14:
1720:
1640:
1452:from the original on 31 July 2020
1446:Guardian News & Media Limited
1372:from the original on 25 June 2020
1283:from the original on 24 June 2020
1126:"The History of Invasion Stripes"
1069:Schmitt, Eric (9 December 1991).
917:from the original on 14 June 2010
321:elite German jet fighter squadron
1645:
1146:Tiwari, Sakshi (19 April 2022).
1464:
1427:
1384:
1348:
1324:van der Bijl, Nicholas (2014).
1317:
1295:
1262:
1219:
1193:
1165:
1139:
1118:
1093:
1003:
987:
945:
929:
903:
890:CBC News Online (6 July 2004).
884:
868:
855:
842:
833:
824:
557:RAF on 27 August 1944, sinking
510:List of friendly fire incidents
1574:Percin, Gen. Alexandre (1921)
1557:Kirke, Charles M. (ed., 2012)
996:Percin, Gen. Alexandre (1921)
971:Kirke, Charles M. (ed., 2012)
811:
798:
789:
774:
765:
732:
699:
661:
541:1st Minesweeping Flotilla off
313:Similar markings had been used
103:was originally adopted by the
28:Friendly Fire (disambiguation)
1:
677:
327:Errors of response inhibition
230:
1526:, Jefferson NC: McFairland
804:Kirke, Charles (ed.). 2010.
738:
648:Identification friend or foe
408:Identification friend or foe
7:
1699:Military operations by type
1616:Shrader, Charles R. (1982)
1009:Shrader, Charles R. (1982)
821:, NY: Anchor Books, p. 405.
808:. London: Bloomsbury, p. 7.
625:
570:, and irreparably damaging
503:
493:Russian invasion of Ukraine
467:
351:
47:in 1944. The damage to the
10:
1725:
1491:10.1177/002070200706200210
650:(IFF), aviation technology
633:A Second Knock at the Door
507:
442:
149:
142:, which is the uncondoned
25:
18:
1529:Garrison, Webb B. (1999)
1522:Anderson, Earl R. (2017)
892:"U.S. Air Force Verdict."
852:. NY: Bloomsbury, p. 205.
781:Marshall, S.L.A. (1947).
478:Allied invasion of Sicily
225:
213:. NY: Bloomsbury, p. 205.
1101:"Airborne Reinforcement"
958:10.1177/0018720815605703
941:10.1177/0956797615579274
654:
252:Errors of identification
1684:Friendly fire incidents
1602:Regan, Geoffrey (2004)
1588:Regan, Geoffrey (1995)
1578:, Michel Albin, Paris;
1483:Sage Publications, Ltd.
1105:US Army in World War II
739:Joint Chiefs of Staff.
692:Regan, Geoffrey (2002)
636:(2011 documentary film)
487:This led to the use of
275:U.S. Air National Guard
1604:More Military Blunders
1547:, Leo Cooper, London;
1000:, Michel Albin, Paris;
421:a major breakthrough.
365:
216:
176:
105:United States military
52:
1654:at Wikimedia Commons
1625:20 April 2021 at the
1474:International Journal
1226:Brett, Simon (2017).
897:4 August 2004 at the
863:Closing in on Baghdad
848:Krakauer, Jon. 2009.
817:Krakauer, Jon. 2010.
706:Rasmussen, Robert E.
669:killing one's brother
482:C-47 transport planes
390:patterns. During the
359:
267:2003 invasion of Iraq
197:
168:
123:, which derives from
49:horizontal stabilizer
38:
1689:Military terminology
1038:. Diane Publishing.
913:. CNN. 1 July 2006.
875:Friscolanti, Michael
620:Tarnak Farm incident
537:; the attack on the
371:"don't fire" targets
309:invasion of Normandy
271:Tarnak Farm incident
57:military terminology
41:B-17 Flying Fortress
26:For other uses, see
1561:, Continuum Books;
1543:Kemp, Paul. (1995)
1276:The Washington Post
981:11 October 2017 at
850:Where Men Win Glory
497:Z (military symbol)
476:, codename for the
381:Technological fixes
211:Where Men Win Glory
133:hand-to-hand combat
1592:, Avon Books, NY;
1401:. pp. 34–36.
1368:. 7 January 2003.
1205:The Jerusalem Post
1075:The New York Times
667:From the term for
616:war in Afghanistan
604:Iraqi no-fly zones
366:
300:" were painted on
243:Errors of position
125:military exercises
53:
1704:Military scandals
1650:Media related to
795:Shrader 1982, vii
612:Stonewall Jackson
520:English Civil War
111:used the term in
82:collateral damage
45:bombing of Berlin
1716:
1709:Killings by type
1649:
1606:, Carlton Books
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1511:
1510:
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783:Men Against Fire
778:
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736:
730:
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576:Cyprus Emergency
524:Eighth Air Force
516:Earl of Kingston
489:Invasion stripes
400:Invasion stripes
340:Impact reduction
298:invasion stripes
214:
185:public relations
164:Second World War
113:Men Against Fire
87:Use of the term
67:is an attack by
1724:
1723:
1719:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1714:
1713:
1669:
1668:
1643:
1627:Wayback Machine
1571:
1519:
1517:Further reading
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1418:
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1334:. p. 109.
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1305:. Halcyon Class
1301:
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1267:
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1207:. 17 April 2022
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1181:. 24 March 2022
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1077:. Middle East.
1067:
1060:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1030:
1017:
1008:
1004:
993:
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988:
976:Continuum Books
970:
963:
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946:
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918:
909:
908:
904:
899:Wayback Machine
889:
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746:. p. 149.
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581:Leberecht Maass
531:Operation Cobra
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551:263 Squadron
535:World War II
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39:An American
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1572:(in French)
1485:: 362–380.
1234:Hachette UK
994:(in French)
881:pp. 420–421
877:. (2005).
608:Italo Balbo
602:during the
594:during the
587:Max Schultz
453:machine gun
287:Pat Tillman
265:during the
144:intentional
129:Warsaw Pact
69:belligerent
1679:Euphemisms
1673:Categories
1635:1410219917
1598:0380776553
1553:0850523850
1539:1558537147
1309:27 January
983:Archive-It
678:References
618:; and the
539:Royal Navy
415:navigation
237:fog of war
231:Fog of war
220:propaganda
201:fratricide
65:fratricide
1584:924214914
1507:141837377
1399:Routledge
1085:4 January
1051:4 January
921:4 January
757:18 August
724:4 January
561:Britomart
559:HMS
426:satellite
315:when the
281:onto the
269:. In the
1623:Archived
1499:40204274
1450:Archived
1413:Archived
1370:Archived
1281:Archived
1248:Archived
1211:19 April
1185:19 April
1157:19 April
1131:19 April
1110:10 March
1079:Archived
979:Archived
915:Archived
895:Archived
748:Archived
715:Archived
626:See also
547:Le Havre
504:Examples
468:Markings
437:acoustic
413:Correct
388:heraldic
352:Training
305:aircraft
259:Gulf War
207:—
140:fragging
89:friendly
78:civilian
1456:22 June
1376:22 June
1287:22 June
529:during
527:bombers
472:During
449:tactics
443:Tactics
292:During
150:History
73:neutral
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598:; the
567:Hussar
302:Allied
226:Causes
189:morale
97:shells
1503:S2CID
1495:JSTOR
1481:(2).
751:(PDF)
744:(PDF)
718:(PDF)
711:(PDF)
655:Notes
447:Some
404:radar
1631:ISBN
1608:ISBN
1594:ISBN
1580:OCLC
1563:ISBN
1549:ISBN
1535:ISBN
1458:2020
1421:2020
1403:ISBN
1378:2020
1336:ISBN
1311:2014
1289:2020
1256:2020
1238:ISBN
1213:2022
1187:2022
1159:2022
1133:2022
1112:2009
1087:2011
1053:2011
1040:ISBN
923:2011
759:2016
726:2011
584:and
564:and
553:and
495:the
459:The
279:F-16
187:and
1487:doi
1366:BBC
954:doi
937:doi
549:by
533:in
419:GPS
296:, "
199:If
71:or
63:or
55:In
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