343:(ITC) with the objectives to facilitate businesses, governments and researchers in market access issues. The database, visible via the online tool Market Access Map, includes information on tariff and non-tariff barriers in all active trade agreements, not limited to those officially notified to the WTO. It also documents data on non-preferential trade agreements (for instance, Generalized System of Preferences schemes). Up until 2019, Market Access Map has provided downloadable links to texts agreements and their rules of origin. The new version of Market Access Map forthcoming this year will provide direct web links to relevant agreement pages and connect itself to other ITC's tools, particularly the Rules of Origin Facilitator. It is expected to become a versatile tool which assists enterprises in understanding free trade agreements and qualifying for origin requirements under these agreements.
294:, parties to an FTA do not maintain common external tariffs, which means they apply different customs duties, as well as other policies with respect to non-members. This feature creates the possibility of non-parties may free-riding preferences under an FTA by penetrating the market with the lowest external tariffs. Such risk necessitates the introduction of rules to determine originating goods eligible for preferences under an FTA, a need that does not arise upon the formation of a customs union. Basically, there is a requirement for a minimum extent of processing that results in "substantial transformation" to the goods so that they can be considered originating. By defining which goods are originating in the PTA, preferential
209:
other regulations existing in the same signatory parties prior to the formation of the free-trade area. In other words, the establishment of a free-trade area to grant preferential treatment among its member is legitimate under WTO law, but the parties to a free-trade area are not permitted to treat non-parties less favorably than before the area is established. A second requirement stipulated by
Article XXIV is that tariffs and other barriers to trade must be eliminated to substantially all the trade within the free-trade area.
319:
There are a number of depositories of free trade agreements available either at national, regional or international levels. Some significant ones include the database on Latin
American free trade agreements constructed by the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), the database maintained by the Asian Regional Integration Center (ARIC) providing information agreements of Asian countries, and the portal on the European Union's free trade negotiations and agreements.
147:
205:(WTO) because the preferences that parties to a free-trade area exclusively grant each other go beyond their accession commitments. Although Article XXIV of the GATT allows WTO members to establish free-trade areas or to adopt interim agreements necessary for the establishment thereof, there are several conditions with respect to free-trade areas, or interim agreements leading to the formation of free-trade areas.
105:. While a customs union requires all parties to establish and maintain identical external tariffs with regard to trade with non-parties, parties to a free-trade area are not subject to such a requirement. Instead, they may establish and maintain whatever tariff regime applying to imports from non-parties as they deem necessary. In a free-trade area without harmonized external tariffs, to eliminate the risk of
252:
producer outside the area to a higher-cost one inside the FTA. Such a shift will not benefit consumers within the FTA as they are deprived the opportunity to purchase cheaper imported goods. However, economists find that trade diversion does not always harm aggregate national welfare: it can even improve aggregate national welfare if the volume of diverted trade is small.
331:
trade agreements notified to the WTO by country or by topic (goods, services or goods and services). This database provides users with an updated list of all agreements in force, however, those not notified to the WTO may be missing. It also displays reports, tables and graphs containing statistics on these agreements, and particularly preferential tariff analysis.
306:, such differential treatment is normally provided for in the cumulation or accumulation provision. Such clause further explains the trade creation and trade diversion effects of an FTA mentioned above, because a party to an FTA has the incentive to use inputs originating in another party so that their products may qualify for originating status.
267:
The second way in which FTAs are considered public goods is tied to the evolving trend of them becoming “deeper”. The depth of an FTA refers to the added types of structural policies that it covers. While older trade deals are deemed “shallower” as they cover fewer areas (such as tariffs and quotas),
330:
As WTO members are obliged to notify to the
Secretariat their free trade agreements, this database is constructed based on the most official source of information on free trade agreements (referred to as regional trade agreements in the WTO language). The database allows users to seek information on
301:
It is noted that in qualifying for origin criteria, there is a differential treatment between inputs originating within and outside an FTA. Normally inputs originating in one FTA party will be considered as originating in the other party if they are incorporated in the manufacturing process in that
224:
adopted by signatories to the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1979 (the “Enabling Clause”). It is the WTO's legal basis for the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP). Both free trade agreements and preferential trade arrangements (as named by the WTO) are considered as derogation
318:
provided by ITC's Market Access Map. Since there are hundreds of FTAs currently in force and being negotiated (about 800 according to ITC's Rules of Origin
Facilitator, counting also non-reciprocal trade arrangements), it is important for businesses and policy-makers to keep track of their status.
208:
Firstly, duties and other regulations maintained in each of the signatory parties to a free-trade area, which are applicable at the time such free-trade area is formed, to the trade with non-parties to such free-trade area shall not be higher or more restrictive than the corresponding duties and
212:
Free trade agreements forming free-trade areas generally lie outside the realm of the multilateral trading system. However, WTO members must notify to the
Secretariat when they conclude new free trade agreements and in principle the texts of free trade agreements are subject to review under the
251:
Both trade creation and trade diversion are crucial effects found upon the establishment of an FTA. Trade creation will cause consumption to shift from a high-cost producer to a low-cost one, and trade will thus expand. In contrast, trade diversion will lead to trade shifting from a lower-cost
128:, is named under Article V of the General Agreement on Trade in Service (GATS) as an "economic integration agreement". However, in practice, the term is now widely used in politic science, diplomacy and economics to refer to agreements covering not only goods but also services and even
264:. They first address one key element of FTAs, which is the system of embedded tribunals which act as arbitrators in international trade disputes. These serve as a force of clarification for existing statutes and international economic policies as affirmed in the trade treaties.
213:
Committee on
Regional Trade Agreements. Although a dispute arising within free-trade areas are not subject to litigation at the WTO's Dispute Settlement Body, "there is no guarantee that WTO panels will abide by them and decline to exercise jurisdiction in a given case".
276:. Now that deep trade deals will enhance regulatory harmonization and increase trade flows with non-parties, thus reducing the excludability of FTA benefits, new generation FTAs are obtaining the essential characteristics of public goods.
919:
101:
have internal arrangements which parties conclude in order to liberalize and facilitate trade among themselves. The crucial difference between customs unions and free-trade areas is their approach to
189:- which has been considered by some as a failure for not promoting trade talks, but a success by others for preventing trade wars - states increasingly started exploring options to conclude FTAs.
55:
between the two of them, generally to expand business opportunities. Multilateral trade agreements are agreements among three or more countries, and are the most difficult to negotiate and agree.
298:
distinguish between originating and non-originating goods: only the former will be entitled to preferential tariffs scheduled by the FTA, the latter must pay MFN import duties.
216:
A free trade agreement is a reciprocal agreement, which is allowed by
Article XXIV of the GATT. Whereas, autonomous trade arrangements in favor of developing and
987:
540:"The Integration of Environmental Law into International Investment Treaties and Trade Agreements: Negotiation Process and the Legalization of Commitments"
322:
At the international level, there are two important free-access databases developed by international organizations for policy-makers and businesses:
248:
implies that an FTA area creates trade which may not have otherwise existed. In all cases trade creation will raise a country's national welfare.
1149:
244:
means that an FTA would divert trade away from more efficient suppliers outside the area towards less efficient ones within the areas. Whereas,
272:. Since transactions among parties to an FTA are relatively cheaper as compared to those with non-parties, FTAs are conventionally found to be
700:"Dispute Settlement Mechanisms Under Free Trade Agreements and the WTO: Stakes, Issues and Practical Considerations: A Question of Choice?"
1227:
1197:
422:
1258:
1232:
362:
70:. Such agreements usually "center on a chapter providing for preferential tariff treatment", but they also often "include clauses on
1073:
302:
other party. Sometimes, production costs arising in one party is also considered as that arising in another party. In preferential
792:
1253:
357:
898:
473:
117:
1217:
1212:
1142:
1103:
940:
1172:
386:
995:
1187:
597:"Not That Assertive: The EU's Take on Enforcement of Labour Obligations in Its Free Trade Agreement with South Korea"
1237:
222:
Decision on
Differential and More Favorable Treatment, Reciprocity and Fuller Participation of Developing Countries
132:. Environmental provisions have also become increasingly common in international investment agreements, like FTAs.
1222:
1207:
1192:
1177:
1081:
1279:
1202:
1182:
1135:
398:
158:
87:
520:
340:
568:
268:
more recently concluded agreements address a number of other fields, from services to e-commerce and
217:
880:
202:
186:
573:
261:
62:
and duties that countries impose on imports and exports with the goal of reducing or eliminating
737:
638:
79:
680:
581:
502:
430:
75:
198:
862:
8:
539:
182:
125:
83:
67:
774:
659:
719:
71:
52:
562:
1016:
723:
481:
269:
260:
Economists have made attempts to evaluate the extent to which FTAs can be considered
32:
16:
Bi- or multi-lateral agreement to remove all trade barriers between signatory states
841:
711:
618:
608:
315:
124:. An agreement with a similar purpose, i.e., to enhance liberalization of trade in
106:
102:
1158:
1107:
1085:
807:
367:
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295:
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240:
110:
48:
36:
63:
40:
120:(GATT 1994) originally defined free-trade agreements to include only trade in
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1100:
948:
699:
291:
273:
94:
613:
596:
181:
records the use of the phrase "free trade agreement" with reference to the
98:
44:
860:
846:
829:
808:"Free Trade Area and Welfare:Is A Bigger Trade Diversion More Detrimental"
715:
1127:
1095:
623:
452:
146:
352:
129:
1078:
830:"Free Lunches? WTO as Public Good, and the WTO's View of Public Goods"
51:. Bilateral trade agreements occur when two countries agree to loosen
325:
197:
The formation of free trade areas is considered an exception to the
1117:
969:
861:
Mattoo, Aaditya; Mulabdic, Alen; Ruta, Michele (12 October 2017).
59:
1090:
1052:
28:
899:"Customs unions and FTAs Debate with respect to EU neighbours"
1112:
121:
228:
1122:
1034:
279:
192:
178:
755:
560:
233:
399:"3 Types of Free Trade Agreements and How They Work"
920:"Comparative Study on Preferential Rules of Origin"
561:
326:WTO's Regional Trade Agreements Information System
697:
1271:
1123:American States Foreign Trade Information System
1096:World Bank's Global Preferential Trade Database
1017:"Regional Trade Agreements Information System"
109:, parties will adopt a system of preferential
1143:
756:"Database on Preferential Trade Arrangements"
453:"Free Trade Agreements versus Customs Unions"
423:"Rules of origin under free-trade agreements"
74:and rule-making in areas such as investment,
681:"The Committee on Regional Trade Agreements"
815:ETSG 2010 Lausanne Twelfh Annual Conference
339:The Market Access Map was developed by the
58:FTAs, a form of trade pacts, determine the
43:. There are two types of trade agreements:
1150:
1136:
391:
363:List of multilateral free-trade agreements
334:
1157:
845:
827:
639:"Most-Favored-Nation Treatment Principle"
622:
612:
229:Economic aspects of free trade agreements
660:"General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade"
521:"General Agreement on Trade in Services"
863:"Deep trade agreements as public goods"
775:"International Trade Theory and Policy"
450:
358:List of bilateral free-trade agreements
280:Qualifying for preferences under an FTA
255:
1272:
1101:Latin American Integration Association
945:Latin American Integration Association
805:
594:
537:
193:Legal aspects of free trade agreements
118:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
1131:
834:European Journal of International Law
772:
601:European Journal of International Law
93:Important distinctions exist between
793:"Trade creation and trade diversion"
582:participating institution membership
309:
141:
97:and free-trade areas. Both types of
13:
698:Todeschini-Marthe, CĂ©line (2018).
544:Virginia Environmental Law Journal
234:Trade diversion and trade creation
185:as early as 1877. After the WTO's
14:
1291:
1118:Asian Regional Integration Center
1091:ITC's Rules of Origin Facilitator
1067:
974:Asian Regional Integration Centre
387:Free Trade Agreement, ICC Academy
704:Global Trade and Customs Journal
145:
1193:European Free Trade Association
1045:
1027:
1009:
980:
962:
933:
912:
891:
873:
854:
821:
799:
785:
766:
748:
730:
691:
673:
652:
631:
588:
726:– via Kluwer Law Online.
554:
538:Condon, Madison (2015-01-01).
531:
513:
495:
466:
444:
415:
380:
1:
1053:"Rules of Origin Facilitator"
988:"Negotiations and agreements"
906:EU Parliament Policy Briefing
474:"Rules of Origin Facilitator"
373:
31:is an agreement according to
1074:WTO's RTA Information System
7:
1166:By country / economic union
503:"The basic rules for goods"
460:NBER Working Paper No. 5084
346:
10:
1296:
828:Mavroidis, Petros (2012).
341:International Trade Centre
283:
137:
1246:
1165:
569:Oxford English Dictionary
218:least developed countries
885:Institute for Government
806:Cheong, Juyoung (2010).
203:World Trade Organization
187:World Trade Organization
39:between the cooperating
1079:ITC's Market Access Map
970:"Free Trade Agreements"
574:Oxford University Press
335:ITC's Market Access Map
201:(MFN) principle in the
867:Vox CEPR Policy Portal
738:"Enabling Clause 1979"
451:Krueger, Anne (1995).
225:to the MFN principle.
80:government procurement
1280:Free trade agreements
1159:Free trade agreements
220:are permitted by the
76:intellectual property
716:10.54648/GTCJ2018044
614:10.1093/ejil/chac037
256:FTAs as public goods
21:free trade agreement
1035:"Market Access Map"
992:European Commission
847:10.1093/ejil/chs055
773:Suvanovic, Steven.
595:Nissen, A. (2022).
572:(Online ed.).
199:most favored nation
183:Australian colonies
84:technical standards
68:international trade
66:, thus encouraging
1106:2020-12-03 at the
1084:2019-06-05 at the
887:. 6 February 2018.
157:. You can help by
72:trade facilitation
53:trade restrictions
1267:
1266:
881:"Rules of Origin"
817:– via ETSG.
779:Internationalecon
580:(Subscription or
462:– via NBER.
427:EC Trade Helpdesk
310:Databases on FTAs
270:data localization
175:
174:
86:and sanitary and
33:international law
1287:
1152:
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1043:
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1007:
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1004:
1003:
994:. Archived from
984:
978:
977:
966:
960:
959:
957:
956:
947:. Archived from
941:"Aladi Acuerdos"
937:
931:
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916:
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480:. Archived from
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429:. Archived from
419:
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409:
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389:
384:
316:trade agreements
314:The database on
170:
167:
149:
142:
107:trade deflection
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1108:Wayback Machine
1086:Wayback Machine
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731:
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658:
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607:(XX): 607–630.
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579:
559:
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536:
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368:Trade agreement
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337:
328:
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304:rules of origin
296:rules of origin
288:
286:Rules of origin
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258:
241:trade diversion
236:
231:
195:
171:
165:
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155:needs expansion
140:
111:rules of origin
37:free-trade area
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1283:
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1262:
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1198:European Union
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1110:
1098:
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1069:
1068:External links
1066:
1063:
1062:
1044:
1026:
1008:
979:
961:
932:
911:
890:
872:
853:
840:(3): 731–742.
820:
798:
784:
765:
747:
729:
710:(9): 387–403.
690:
672:
651:
630:
587:
553:
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512:
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95:customs unions
64:trade barriers
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1018:
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998:on 2019-06-11
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951:on 2020-12-03
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484:on 2019-06-23
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433:on 2018-05-07
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166:December 2019
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153:This section
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103:third parties
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88:phytosanitary
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34:
30:
26:
22:
1259:Multilateral
1056:
1047:
1038:
1029:
1020:
1011:
1000:. Retrieved
996:the original
991:
982:
973:
964:
953:. Retrieved
949:the original
944:
935:
926:
914:
905:
893:
884:
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866:
856:
837:
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823:
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732:
707:
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693:
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633:
624:1887/3491990
604:
600:
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567:
563:"free trade"
556:
547:
543:
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524:
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506:
497:
486:. Retrieved
482:the original
477:
468:
459:
446:
435:. Retrieved
431:the original
426:
417:
406:. Retrieved
402:
393:
382:
338:
329:
321:
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266:
262:public goods
259:
250:
245:
239:
238:In general,
237:
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215:
211:
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196:
176:
163:
159:adding to it
154:
133:
115:
99:trading bloc
92:
57:
49:multilateral
24:
20:
18:
1218:South Korea
1213:New Zealand
403:The Balance
1113:Bilaterals
1002:2019-06-06
955:2019-06-06
584:required.)
488:2019-06-06
437:2019-06-06
408:2019-03-24
374:References
353:Free trade
284:See also:
274:excludable
130:investment
35:to form a
1254:Bilateral
1173:Australia
724:158819252
550:(1): 102.
290:Unlike a
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