Intellectual property

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they can then profit from them, this gives economic incentive for their creation. The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is indivisible – an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation – while a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, a producer of information or an intellectual good can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of information and intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent their wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.

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vision that uniform application of these standards over every country and to several fields with little consideration over social, cultural or environmental values or of the national level of economic development. Morin argues that "the emerging discourse of the global IP regime advocates for greater policy flexibility and greater access to knowledge, especially for developing countries." Indeed, with the Development Agenda adopted by WIPO in 2007, a set of 45 recommendations to adjust WIPO's activities to the specific needs of developing countries and aim to reduce distortions especially on issues such as patients' access to medicines, Internet users' access to information, farmers' access to seeds, programmers' access to source codes or students' access to scientific articles. However, this paradigm shift has not yet manifested itself in concrete legal reforms at the international level.

1770: 1053:: this argument is based on Locke's idea that a person has a natural right over the labour and products which are produced by their body. Appropriating these products is viewed as unjust. Although Locke had never explicitly stated that natural right applied to products of the mind, it is possible to apply his argument to intellectual property rights, in which it would be unjust for people to misuse another's ideas. Locke's argument for intellectual property is based upon the idea that laborers have the right to control that which they create. They argue that we own our bodies which are the laborers, this right of ownership extends to what we create. Thus, intellectual property ensures this right when it comes to production. 358: 1710:

first man to invent a house, according to IP advocates, would have a right to prevent others from building houses on their own land, with their own logs, or to charge them a fee if they do build houses. It is plain that the innovator in these examples becomes a partial owner of the tangible property (e.g., land and logs) of others, due not to first occupation and use of that property (for it is already owned), but due to his coming up with an idea. Clearly, this rule flies in the face of the first-user homesteading rule, arbitrarily and groundlessly overriding the very homesteading rule that is at the foundation of all property rights.

1587: 1807:(MPAA). In amicus briefs in important cases, in lobbying before Congress, and in its statements to the public, the MPAA has advocated strong protection of intellectual property rights. In framing its presentations, the association has claimed that people are entitled to the property that is produced by their labor. Additionally Congress's awareness of the position of the United States as the world's largest producer of films has made it convenient to expand the conception of intellectual property. These doctrinal reforms have further strengthened the industry, lending the MPAA even more power and authority. 919:

property legislators and those who support its implementation appears to be "absolute protection". "If some intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation, they reason, more is better. The thinking is that creators will not have sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social value of their inventions". This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual property as another type of "real" property, typically adopting its law and rhetoric. Other recent developments in intellectual property law, such as the

1376: 605:, in which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man's own ... as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears." The statement that "discoveries are ... property" goes back earlier. Section 1 of the French law of 1791 stated, "All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years." In Europe, 1424:

differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues" and that it creates a "bias" by confusing these monopolies with ownership of limited physical things, likening them to "property rights". Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warns against abstracting disparate laws into a collective term. He argues that, "to avoid spreading unnecessary bias and confusion, it is best to adopt a firm policy not to speak or even think in terms of 'intellectual property'."

85: 1074:: "Every man has the right to turn his will upon a thing or make the thing an object of his will, that is to say, to set aside the mere thing and recreate it as his own". European intellectual property law is shaped by this notion that ideas are an "extension of oneself and of one's personality". Personality theorists argue that by being a creator of something one is inherently at risk and vulnerable for having their ideas and designs stolen and/or altered. Intellectual property protects these moral claims that have to do with personality. 445:

Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from appropriation problems: Landowners can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but producers of information or literature can usually do little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent the goods' wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.

980:(AFTA) found that "nonprofit arts and culture organizations and their audiences generated $ 151.7 billion in economic activity—$ 73.3 billion in spending by the organizations, which leveraged an additional $ 78.4 billion in event-related spending by their audiences." This spending supported 2.6 million jobs and generated $ 29.1 billion in local, state and federal tax revenue." 224,000 audience members and over 16,000 organizations in all 50 states and Puerto Rico were surveyed over an 18-month period to collect the data. 786:) protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Generally speaking, it is what makes a product look appealing, and as such, it increases the commercial value of goods. 1360: 7783: 8831: 7797: 1167:, without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work's creator. It is often called "piracy". In the United States, while copyright is created the instant a work is fixed, generally the copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright. Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder. The 464: 5981: 1320: 1081:(1855) argues "that a man has a natural and absolute right—and if a natural and absolute, then necessarily a perpetual, right—of property, in the ideas, of which he is the discoverer or creator; that his right of property, in ideas, is intrinsically the same as, and stands on identically the same grounds with, his right of property in material things; that no distinction, of principle, exists between the two cases". 6038: 2634:

Coins, Weights, and Measures, with Tabular Values of the Same 1273 (Harper & Brothers 1841). See also "The first patent law was enacted in Sybaris, a city in the South of Italy, before the Roman domination; The law was mentioned by Atheneus, an ancient writer..." in Takenaka, Toshiko (2013). Intellectual Property in Common Law and Civil Law. Edward Elgar Publishing, p. 419. (chapter by Mario Franzosi).

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of time. Supporters argue that because IP laws allow people to protect their original ideas and prevent unauthorized copying, creators derive greater individual economic benefit from the information and intellectual goods they create, and thus have more economic incentives to create them in the first place. Advocates of IP believe that these economic incentives and legal protections stimulate

1652:, Nicola Bianchi and Petra Moser find historical evidence that especially compulsory licensing – which allows governments to license patents without the consent of patent-owners – encouraged invention in Germany in the early 20th century by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low pre-existing levels of competition. 1171:, signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to actively police for infringement. There are 644:

controversies regarding differences in the development level of countries. Despite the controversy, the agreement has extensively incorporated intellectual property rights into the global trading system for the first time in 1995, and has prevailed as the most comprehensive agreement reached by the world.

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costs. In the United States Article I Section 8 Clause 8 of the Constitution, commonly called the Patent and Copyright Clause, reads; "The Congress shall have power 'To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their

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Similarly, it is based on these background that the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement requires members of the WTO to set minimum standards of legal protection, but its objective to have a "one-fits-all" protection law on Intellectual Property has been viewed with

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Charles Anthon, A Classical Dictionary: Containing an Account of the Principal Proper Names Mentioned in Ancient Authors, and Intended to Elucidate All the Important Points Connected with the Geography, History, Biography, Mythology, and Fine Arts of the Greek and Romans. Together with an Account of

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to demonstrate that the law is meant to be an optional and experimental bargain to temporarily trade property rights and free speech for public, not private, benefits in the form of increased artistic production and knowledge. He mentions that "if copyright were a natural right nothing could justify

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that the protection of intellectual property is essentially a moral issue. The belief is that the human mind itself is the source of wealth and survival and that all property at its base is intellectual property. To violate intellectual property is therefore no different morally than violating other

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Supporters of intellectual property laws often describe their main purpose as encouraging the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods. To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to certain information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period

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Women have historically been underrepresented in the creation and ownership of intellectual property covered by intellectual property rights. According to the World Intellectual Property Organization, women composed only 16.5% of patent holders even as recently as 2020. This disparity is the result

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If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every

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issued a document called "Human rights and intellectual property" that argued that intellectual property tends to be governed by economic goals when it should be viewed primarily as a social product; in order to serve human well-being, intellectual property systems must respect and conform to human

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and free software activists, has criticized the implied analogy with physical property (like land or an automobile). They argue such an analogy fails because physical property is generally rivalrous while intellectual works are non-rivalrous (that is, if one makes a copy of a work, the enjoyment of

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in fashions that contradict practice and law. Many detractors think this term specially serves the doctrinal agenda of parties opposing reform in the public interest or otherwise abusing related legislations, and that it disallows intelligent discussion about specific and often unrelated aspects of

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system. By providing innovators with "durable and tangible return on their investment of time, labor, and other resources", intellectual property rights seek to maximize social utility. The presumption is that they promote public welfare by encouraging the "creation, production, and distribution of

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The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three major categories. Personality theorists believe intellectual property is an extension of an individual. Utilitarians believe that intellectual property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further innovation. Lockeans argue

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By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and creative works, society and the patentee/copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for inventors and authors to create and disclose their work. Some commentators have noted that the objective of intellectual

914:

The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods for consumers. To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. Because

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Balancing the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs) (which the third author considers are more accurately described as intellectual monopoly privileges (IMPs)) of pharmaceutical companies, with the need to ensure access to essential medicines in developing countries is one of the

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magine the time when men lived in caves. One bright guy—let's call him Galt-Magnon—decides to build a log cabin on an open field, near his crops. To be sure, this is a good idea, and others notice it. They naturally imitate Galt-Magnon, and they start building their own cabins. But the

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prefer to use the term "intellectual monopoly" as a more appropriate and clear definition of the concept, which, they argue, is very dissimilar from property rights. They further argued that "stronger patents do little or nothing to encourage innovation", mainly explained by its tendency to create

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Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are publicly available. In the United States, trade secrets are protected under state law, and states

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Ethical problems are most pertinent when socially valuable goods like life-saving medicines are given IP protection. While the application of IP rights can allow companies to charge higher than the marginal cost of production in order to recoup the costs of research and development, the price may

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Overall, the weight of the existing historical evidence suggests that patent policies, which grant strong intellectual property rights to early generations of inventors, may discourage innovation. On the contrary, policies that encourage the diffusion of ideas and modify patent laws to facilitate

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is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether, because it "systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from this confusion". He claims that the term "operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws originated separately, evolved

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to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party. In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement.

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in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research. This safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or to gather data to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug. In general, patent infringement cases are handled

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One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations. The second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination and application of its results and to

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includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist—notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term publisher (but not

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According to Jean-Frédéric Morin, "the global intellectual property regime is currently in the midst of a paradigm shift". Indeed, up until the early 2000s the global IP regime used to be dominated by high standards of protection characteristic of IP laws from Europe or the United States, with a

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Violation of intellectual property rights, called "infringement" with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and "misappropriation" with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the

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On the assumption that intellectual property rights are actual rights, Stallman says that this claim does not live to the historical intentions behind these laws, which in the case of copyright served as a censorship system, and later on, a regulatory model for the printing press that may have

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nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is "indivisible", since an unlimited number of people can in theory "consume" an intellectual good without its being depleted.

1963:

The global increase in intellectual property protection is sometimes referred to as a global IP ratchet in which a spiral of bilateral and multilateral agreements result in growing obligations where new agreements never recede from existing standards and very often further heighten them.

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is more than US $ 5 trillion and creates employment for an estimated 18 million American people. The value of intellectual property is considered similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in the European Union. In the UK, IP has become a recognised asset class for use in

624:. Historically, therefore, legal protection was granted only when necessary to encourage invention, and it was limited in time and scope. This is mainly as a result of knowledge being traditionally viewed as a public good, in order to allow its extensive dissemination and improvement. 1741:

Another aspect of current U.S. Intellectual Property legislation is its focus on individual and joint works; thus, copyright protection can only be obtained in 'original' works of authorship. Critics like Philip Bennet argue that this does not provide adequate protection against

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exclude from the market anyone who cannot afford the cost of the product, in this case a life-saving drug. "An IPR driven regime is therefore not a regime that is conductive to the investment of R&D of products that are socially valuable to predominately poor populations".

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As scientific knowledge has expanded and allowed new industries to arise in fields such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, originators of technology have sought IP protection for the new technologies. Patents have been granted for living organisms, and in the United States,

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have been enacted that use criminal law to prevent any circumvention of software used to enforce DRM systems. Equivalent provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example, Article 6 and 7 the

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one, and the receiver cannot dispossess himself of it. Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every other possesses the whole of it. He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his

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notes, "Property rights confer authority over resources. When authority is granted to the few over resources on which the many depend, the few gain power over the goals of the many. This has consequences for both political and economic freedom within a society."

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to set their own IP standards. Developing countries' lack of bargaining power relative to the developed countries driving the global IP ratchet means that developing countries' ability to regulate intellectual property to advance domestic interests is eroding.

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The departure of the U.S. and EU Commission from the OECD BEPS Project process, is attributed to frustrations with the rise in IP as a key BEPS tax tool, creating intangible assets, which are then turned into royalty payment BEPS schemes (double Irish), and/or

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for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process, and generally has to fulfill three main requirements: it has to be

8321: 4405:

Birgitte Andersen. "'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly Privilege: Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On?" CONFERENCIA INTERNACIONAL SOBRE SISTEMAS DE INOVAÇÃO E ESTRATÉGIAS DE DESENVOLVIMENTO PARA O TERCEIRO MILÊNIO. Nov

1834:, and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of copyright. The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use software-based DRM tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works. Laws such as the 763:

to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works". Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.

935:

These exclusive rights allow intellectual property owners to benefit from the property they have created, providing a financial incentive for the creation of an investment in intellectual property, and, in case of patents, pay associated

706:). The term "industrial property" is sometimes used to refer to a large subset of intellectual property rights including patents, trademarks, industrial designs, utility models, service marks, trade names, and geographical indications. 2765:: "The protection of industrial property has as its object patents, utility models, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, trade names, indications of source or appellations of origin, and the repression of unfair competition." 901:

can obtain an economic advantage over competitors and customers. There is no formal government protection granted; each business must take measures to guard its own trade secrets (e.g., Formula of its soft drinks is a trade secret for

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Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder, i.e. from the patent owner. The scope of the patented invention or the extent of protection is defined in the

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rights laws. According to the Committee, when systems fail to do so, they risk infringing upon the human right to food and health, and to cultural participation and scientific benefits. In 2004 the General Assembly of WIPO adopted

1035:, "everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author". Although the relationship between intellectual property and 1059:: according to this rationale, a society that protects private property is more effective and prosperous than societies that do not. Innovation and invention in 19th century America has been attributed to the development of the 923:, stress international harmonization. Recently there has also been much debate over the desirability of using intellectual property rights to protect cultural heritage, including intangible ones, as well as over risks of 862:

is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual and aesthetic appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a building) that signify the source of the product to consumers.

506:"Literary property" was the term predominantly used in the British legal debates of the 1760s and 1770s over the extent to which authors and publishers of works also had rights deriving from the common law of property ( 424:

in the 17th and 18th centuries. The term "intellectual property" began to be used in the 19th century, though it was not until the late 20th century that intellectual property became commonplace in most of the world's

3556:

Ronald V. Bettig. "Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Copyright" in Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property, by Ronald V. Bettig. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996),

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Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights", in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.),

3624:

3576:

3566:

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Farah, Paolo and Elena Cima. "China's Participation in the World Trade Organization: Trade in Goods, Services, Intellectual Property Rights and Transparency Issues". In Aurelio Lopez-Tarruella Martinez (ed.),

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intellectual works". Utilitarians argue that without intellectual property there would be a lack of incentive to produce new ideas. Systems of protection such as Intellectual property optimize social utility.

3290: 596:

obtained by an inventor providing for exclusive control over the production and sale of his mechanical or scientific invention. demonstrating the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law

580:, it was only at this point that the term really began to be used in the United States (which had not been a party to the Berne Convention), and it did not enter popular usage there until passage of the 724:

is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor or their successor-in-title, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an

558: 1440:

benefited authors incidentally, but never interfered with the freedom of average readers. Still referring to copyright, he cites legal literature such as the United States Constitution and

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Economists estimate that two-thirds of the value of large businesses in the United States can be traced to intangible assets. "IP-intensive industries" are estimated to generate 72% more

569: 4298: 1863:, are designed to counter this. Laws may permit circumvention under specific conditions, such as when it is necessary to achieve interoperability with the circumventor's program, or for 1145:

under civil law (e.g., in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea).

3849: 3354: 3108: 5163:

Federal Register, Vol. 77, No. 204. Monday, 22 October 2012. Notices. PP 64555–64561; see p 64555 first column for international efforts and 3rd column for description of the problem.

554: 3076:

Farah, Paolo Davide; Tremolada, Riccardo (15 March 2014). "Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of Intellectual Property Rights".

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BEPS schemes (capital allowances for intangibles). In contrast, the OECD has spent years developing and advocating intellectual property as a legal and a GAAP accounting concept.

3882: 404:

that includes intangible creations of the human intellect. There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others. The best-known types are

4807: 988:

The WIPO treaty and several related international agreements underline that the protection of intellectual property rights is essential to maintaining economic growth. The

741:. To enrich the body of knowledge and to stimulate innovation, it is an obligation for patent owners to disclose valuable information about their inventions to the public. 5938:

Spooner, Lysander. "The Law of Intellectual Property; or An Essay on the Right of Authors and Inventors to a Perpetual Property in their Ideas". Boston: Bela Marsh, 1855.

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which is "capable of distinguishing" the products or services of one business from the products or services of another business is capable of constituting a trademark.

4595: 550: 5925:

Schneider, Patricia H. "International Trade, Economic Growth and Intellectual Property Rights: A Panel Data Study of Developed and Developing Countries". July 2004.

1793: 1023:

measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found "a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic growth."

8662: 6090: 5907:

Reisman, George. 'Capitalism: A Complete & Integrated Understanding of the Nature & Value of Human Economic Life,' Ottawa, Illinois: 1996, pp. 388–389

1117:, IP has been a consideration in punishment of the aggressor through trade sanctions, has been proposed as a method to prevent future wars of aggression involving 5879: 4024: 2681: 2663: 2645: 1237:), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime. This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity. The first, 487:

and ingenious device, not previously made", provided it was useful. By and large, these principles still remain the basic principles of current patent laws. The

5880:

Morin, Jean-Frédéric, Paradigm Shift in the Global IP Regime: The Agency of Academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol. 21(2), 2014, pp. 275–309.

3224: 1830:, which the industry calls "piracy". The industry has had victories against some services, including a highly publicized case against the file-sharing company 1575: 1800:(copyrighted works for which the copyright owner cannot be contacted), a problem that has been noticed and addressed by governmental bodies around the world. 1675:

which argues that WIPO should "focus more on the needs of developing countries, and to view IP as one of many tools for development—not as an end in itself".

1666:(WIPO) recognizes that conflicts may exist between respecting and implementing current intellectual property systems and other human rights. In 2001 the UN 1113:

As of 2011, trade in counterfeit copyrighted and trademarked works was a $ 600 billion industry worldwide and accounted for 5–7% of global trade. During the

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Make no mistake: the headline rate is not what triggers tax evasion and aggressive tax planning. That comes from schemes that facilitate profit shifting.

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in 1769 used the phrase. The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, when it was used as a heading title in a collection of essays.

149: 1874:

ratified in 1994, which formalized regulations for IP rights that had been handled by common law, or not at all, in member states. Pursuant to TRIPs, any

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Also with respect to copyright, the American film industry helped to change the social construct of intellectual property via its trade organization, the

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the copy does not prevent enjoyment of the original). Other arguments along these lines claim that unlike the situation with tangible property, there is

1005:(ACTA) states that "effective enforcement of intellectual property rights is critical to sustaining economic growth across all industries and globally". 3691: 1870:

In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by international efforts to harmonise the definition of "trademark", as exemplified by the

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of a particular idea or information: once it exists at all, it can be re-used and duplicated indefinitely without such re-use diminishing the original.

3004:

A trade mark is a sign which can distinguish your goods and services from those of your competitors (you may refer to your trade mark as your "brand").

1290: 2886: 1613:), preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses, and argue that ever-expansive monopolies in the form of 6296: 5816: 5029:"Rip, mix, burn ... sue ... ad infinitum: The effects of deterrence vs voluntary cooperation on non-commercial online copyright infringing behaviour" 2001: 1952: 1686: 1667: 1570:

The argument that an intellectual property right should (in the interests of better balancing of relevant private and public interests) be termed an

2827: 973:

stated: "There are millions of intangible business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or only being leveraged inadvertently".

807:. The variety must, amongst others, be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is considered. 4869:"Native Americans and Intellectual Property: the Necessity of Implementing Collective Ideals into Current United States Intellectual Property Laws" 5604: 5451: 5397: 5926: 5648:

Farah, Paolo Davide and Tremolada Riccardo. "Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of IPRs". In

3115: 1919: 344: 4306: 3362: 3315: 2807: 4781: 3367: 3123: 2207: 8878: 5433: 5263: 4580: 2986: 5904:

Rand, Ayn. "Patents and Copyrights" in Ayn Rand, ed. 'Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal,' New York: New American Library, 1966, pp. 126–128

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EU Commission 2018 Digital Services Tax, which is less advanced than the U.S. TCJA, but does seek to override IP BEPS tools via a quasi-VAT.

1788:

The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial extensions

8239: 6083: 3865: 5549: 4228: 1487:

to the terminology used by intellectual property supporters as a linguistic weapon to shape public opinion regarding copyright debate and

8499: 5711: 4894: 1951:

of several factors including systemic bias, sexism and discrimination within the intellectual property space, underrepresentation within

134: 5598: 2461:(1808): "New-England Association in favour of Inventors and Discoverers, and particularly for the Protection of intellectual Property.") 3457: 2077: 957: 2470: 592:(1558–1603) for monopoly privileges. Approximately 200 years after the end of Elizabeth's reign, however, a patent represents a legal 7849: 5593:. "Do Stronger Intellectual Property Rights Increase International Technology Transfer? Empirical Evidence from US Firm-Level Data". 2950: 1823: 5138: 3016: 2945: 2682:"Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p. 275" 2664:"Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p. 275" 2646:"Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p. 275" 7764: 6261: 5931:

Shapiro, Robert and Nam Pham. "Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States". July 2007.

5483: 2194: 1663: 1046:

Various moral justifications for private property can be used to argue in favor of the morality of intellectual property, such as:

565: 4356: 1955:, and barriers to access of necessary finance and knowledge in order to obtain intellectual property rights, among other reasons. 6076: 5873: 4166: 3932: 3893: 2981: 2775: 1852: 1789: 1761:

and others, or are otherwise subject to unnecessary burdens and limitations which prevent them from fully expressing themselves.

1563: 1384: 1255:, criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes. (The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses.) In 1172: 252: 5366: 4698: 1278:

The international governance of IP involves multiple overlapping institutions and forums. There is no overall rule-making body.

8873: 6042: 5064: 4131: 3205: 2520: 1922:

timetable, which was set up in 2013 to combat IP BEPS tax tools like the above, and launch their own anti-IP BEPS tax regimes:

1738:, aimed at creating an international policy statement to frame how governments should make balanced intellectual property law. 557:(1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the 483:

is usually considered to be the earliest codified patent system in the world. It states that patents might be granted for "any

3863:

International Patent Litigation Survey: A Survey of the Characteristics of Patent Litigation in 17 International Jurisdictions

3156: 1400:

ranges from discussing its vagueness and abstract overreach to direct contention to the semantic validity of using words like

6450: 5961: 5809: 5718: 5694: 5639: 4956: 4919: 4611:

Moser, Petra. 2013. "Patents and Innovation: Evidence from Economic History." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1): 23–44.

4592: 4004: 3942: 3267: 3199: 3060: 2929: 2869: 2369: 2342: 2317: 2277: 1804: 1777:

Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the expansion of intellectual property, both in duration and in scope.

1032: 210: 5544:

Arai, Hisamitsu. "Intellectual Property Policies for the Twenty-First Century: The Japanese Experience in Wealth Creation",

3254: 620:

Until recently, the purpose of intellectual property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage

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Farah, Paolo Davide and Tremolada Riccardo. "Intellectual Property Rights, Human Rights and Intangible Cultural Heritage".

695: 267: 169: 8430: 8073: 6338: 5946:

The Anarchist in the Library: How the Clash Between Freedom and Control Is Hacking the Real World and Crashing the System

5770:. "Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity", 2004. New York: 5286: 5077: 1168: 1002: 920: 337: 6053: 5778: 4474:

Conferência Internacional Sobre Sistemas De Inovação E Estratégias De Desenvolvimento Para O Terceiro Milênio. Nov. 2003

1769: 1175:, allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement. Examples of such doctrines are the 8868: 2740:"WTO | intellectual property (TRIPS) - Responding to least developed countries' special needs in intellectual property" 1335: 1248: 1239: 1226: 1104: 734: 1340: 1296:

Bilateral and multi-lateral agreements often establish IP requirements above the requirements of the TRIPS Agreement.

8534: 7190: 6748: 6647: 5919: 5855: 5801: 5172:

Dennis Wharton, "MPAA's Rebel With Cause Fights for Copyright Coin", Variety (3 August 1992), Vol. 348, No. 2, p. 18.

3670: 2143: 2054: 34: 8845: 8404: 7968: 7304: 7173: 6271: 6049: 5821: 2700:"Understanding Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement: From Hard and Soft Law Perspective" 2418:(1769): "What a niggard this Doctor is of his own, and how profuse he is of other people's intellectual property.") 1912: 1835: 1747: 1114: 299: 124: 2580: 2267: 564:

The organization subsequently relocated to Geneva in 1960 and was succeeded in 1967 with the establishment of the

8752: 8132: 7759: 7106: 7007: 6154: 6026: 6007: 5687:

4819: 3021: 2919: 2859: 2359: 970: 357: 247: 4380: 3291:"Groundbreaking Arts & Economic Prosperity 6 Study Reveals Impact of the Arts on Communities Across America" 8394: 7266: 6900: 6435: 5836: 2805:

WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law and Use. Chapter 2: Fields of Intellectual Property Protection

1757:, whose participants often commit what technically constitutes violations of such laws, creation works such as 1705:

and infringes on the right to own tangible property. Kinsella uses the following scenario to argue this point:

1477: 1222: 426: 330: 4472:'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly Privilege': Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On? 8888: 8425: 7842: 6619: 6276: 6144: 5932: 4085: 3427: 1927: 1840: 1289:(WTO) must comply with. A member's non-compliance with the TRIPS Agreement may be grounds for suit under the 1090: 62: 7426: 6905: 6371: 5891:

Rozanski, Felix. "Developing Countries and Pharmaceutical Intellectual Property Rights: Myths and Reality"

5865: 5554:

Bettig, R. V. (1996). "Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Copyright". In R. V. Bettig,

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property rights which compromises the very processes of survival and therefore constitutes an immoral act.

55: 5996: 4850: 4654: 3883:"The Persistence of Piracy: The Consequences for Creativity, for Culture, and for Sustainable Development" 2851: 2244:"The Role of Intellectual Property Rights in Technology Transfer and Economic Growth: Theory and Evidence" 1773:

Expansion of U.S. copyright law (assuming authors create their works by age 35 and live for seventy years)

8700: 8142: 8015: 7421: 5760: 5383: 4710:

Chapman, Audrey R. (December 2002). "The Human Rights Implications of Intellectual Property Protection".

1701:, argues against intellectual property because allowing property rights in ideas and information creates 4471: 2834: 8883: 8179: 8157: 7396: 6895: 5749: 5729: 5469: 3837: 538: 5270:. Fordham Intellectual Property, Media & Entertainment Law Journal. 30 August 2016. Archived from 2509:

1 Woodb. & M. 53, 3 West. L.J. 151, 7 F.Cas. 197, No. 3662, 2 Robb.Pat.Cas. 303, Merw.Pat.Inv. 414

8273: 7479: 6585: 6485: 6381: 6203: 6134: 5707: 5314: 2435: 2392: 1782: 1488: 1218: 1202:

Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law.

1020: 800: 795: 154: 30: 5139:"Arguing For Infinite Copyright... Using Copied Ideas And A Near Total Misunderstanding Of Property" 4941:

Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing

3329: 2804: 1796:. With no need for registration or copyright notices, this is thought to have led to an increase in 1639:

has asserted that historical analysis suggests that intellectual property laws may harm innovation:

601:

The term can be found used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case

8110: 7835: 7274: 7256: 6440: 6343: 5748:

Lai, Edwin. "The Economics of Intellectual Property Protection in the Global Economy", April 2001.

5204: 4834: 3961: 2202: 1500: 1412: 1286: 1285:(TRIPS). The TRIPS Agreement sets minimum international standards for IP which every member of the 937: 738: 677: 454: 7608: 5271: 5240: 2762: 361:

Intellectual property laws such as trademark laws forbid the sale of infringing goods like these "

8316: 8283: 8063: 7649: 7436: 6925: 6910: 6571: 6281: 6176: 6119: 4559: 4111: 3993:

China in Global Governance of Intellectual Property: Implications for Global Distributive Justice

3119: 2440: 2429: 2397: 2386: 2006: 1930:, which has several anti-IP BEPS abuse tax regimes, including GILTI tax and the BEAT tax regimes. 1622: 1309: 1256: 779: 773: 661: 530: 476: 159: 129: 119: 5675: 5657: 5520: 5225: 4538:"Protecting Freedom In The Patent System: The Public Patent Foundation's Mission and Activities" 4200: 3862: 1764: 1586: 1469:

on the grounds that the word "property" implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas.

8760: 8643: 8389: 8358: 8174: 8078: 8056: 7704: 7689: 6391: 6376: 6251: 6218: 6124: 4236: 2955: 1991: 1827: 1743: 1192: 1154: 977: 230: 5753: 5028: 4889: 4868: 3821: 3089: 2458: 2415: 2166: 1753:

Intellectual property law has been criticized as not recognizing new forms of art such as the

8840: 8813: 8793: 8785: 8637: 8409: 7808: 7401: 7079: 6386: 6291: 6256: 4982:""Fair use is legal use": Copyright negotiations and strategies in the fan-vidding community" 2448: 2405: 1986: 1731: 1625:

harm the public interest. More recently scientists and engineers are expressing concern that

1610: 1606: 1591: 834: 488: 458: 6021: 5183:

The Growth of Intellectual Property:A History of the Ownership of Ideas in the United States

5105: 3705: 3692:

Rethinking the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement's Criminal Copyright Enforcement Measures

3539: 3467: 3393: 2099: 1918:

In 2017–2018, both the U.S. and the EU Commission simultaneously decided to depart from the

1915:(BEPS) tools, which the OECD estimates costs $ 100–240 billion in lost annual tax revenues. 1211: 8676: 8010: 7872: 7529: 6875: 6331: 6326: 6306: 5609: 4810:, "LewRockwell.com", published 2004-01-20, archived 15 April 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2018. 2125: 2036: 1305: 1198: 669: 5146: 4943:. CSCW '15. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 116–129. 8: 8799: 8487: 8482: 8169: 8083: 8025: 7958: 7684: 6824: 6741: 6246: 6114: 5831: 5196: 4697:

Staff, UN Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights. Geneva, 12–30 November 2001.

4082: 4053: 3026: 2959: 2739: 1702: 1614: 1504: 1458: 1329: 1130: 1121:, and has caused concern about stifling innovation by keeping patent information secret. 966: 842: 804: 441: 220: 5986: 5125: 3428:"Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States" 3394:"Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States" 632:

author) copyright in the 16th century. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of

8766: 8090: 7887: 7499: 7158: 7012: 6997: 6975: 6719: 6699: 6652: 6642: 6564: 6510: 6414: 5941: 5182: 5121: 5009: 4962: 4736: 4623:"Compulsory licensing and innovation–Historical evidence from German patents after WWI" 4567: 4512: 4485: 4444: 4417: 3996: 3809: 3733: 3607: 2193:"property as a common descriptor of the field probably traces to the foundation of the 1996: 1968: 1843:. Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91/250/EEC), and the 1694: 1375: 588:

The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by

520: 514: 480: 304: 114: 94: 5160: 4174: 2991: 2783: 2078:"Intellectual, industrial and commercial property | Fact Sheets on the European Union" 1867:

reasons; however, distribution of circumvention tools or instructions may be illegal.

1644:

entry and encourage competition may be an effective mechanism to encourage innovation.

8835: 8559: 8544: 8164: 8030: 7980: 7975: 7484: 7406: 7244: 6987: 6982: 6935: 6860: 6854: 6694: 6612: 6445: 6208: 6062: 5957: 5915: 5851: 5805: 5797: 5793: 5743: 5714: 5690: 5671: 5653: 5635: 5384:"A Hybrid Approach: The Treatment of Foreign Profits under the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act" 5333:"Intellectual Property Tax Planning in the light of Base Erosion and Profit Shifting" 5046: 5001: 4952: 4915: 4884: 4766: 4517: 4449: 4332: 4000: 3938: 3817: 3813: 3774: 3737: 3725: 3666: 3659: 3263: 3195: 3085: 3056: 2925: 2865: 2721: 2588: 2365: 2338: 2313: 2273: 2139: 2050: 2011: 1939: 1758: 1698: 1473: 1141: 636:

offered one year's patent "to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury".

589: 581: 84: 5573: 5013: 4966: 4753:

Sonderholm, Jorn (2010). "Ethical Issues Surrounding Intellectual Property Rights".

4738:

The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization

4138: 3186: 2528: 1673:

The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization

1436:

market monopolies, thereby restricting further innovations and technology transfer.

1243: 8736: 8728: 8656: 8353: 8293: 8046: 7932: 7922: 7907: 7877: 7489: 7456: 6955: 6819: 6814: 6779: 6525: 6470: 6430: 6311: 6149: 5899:

Steal This Idea: Intellectual Property and The Corporate Confiscation of Creativity

5843: 5735: 5631: 5613: 5470:"What the EU's new taxes on the tech giants mean – and how they would hurt Ireland" 5036: 4993: 4944: 4876: 4762: 4719: 4634: 4507: 4497: 4439: 4429: 4196: 4162: 3801: 3764: 3717: 3611: 3599: 3489: 3148: 2711: 2131: 2042: 1893: 1875: 1714: 1690: 1618: 1543: 1462: 1416: 1197:

Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or

1160: 1078: 838: 826: 730: 484: 215: 4639: 4622: 4486:"Editorial: Balancing the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs)" 1252: 1234: 1230: 927:

derived from this possibility. The issue still remains open in legal scholarship.

8779: 8601: 8591: 8567: 8504: 8370: 8326: 8227: 7927: 7912: 7738: 7711: 7699: 7679: 7613: 7591: 7571: 7566: 7546: 7411: 7391: 7386: 7289: 7249: 6960: 6885: 6809: 6794: 6714: 6557: 6520: 6355: 6213: 6129: 6068: 5869: 5782: 5767: 5620:, eds. (pp. 408–439). 1st ed. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d. 5569: 5565: 4909: 4782:"Libertarian Views of Intellectual Property: Rothbard, Tucker, Spooner, and Rand" 4599: 4555: 4418:"Balancing intellectual monopoly privileges and the need for essential medicines" 4328: 4118: 4056: 3869: 3834: 3273: 3182: 3178: 2811: 2361:

The making of modern intellectual property law: the British experience, 1760–1911

2211: 1871: 1735: 1626: 1561:, have also found supporters, especially among those who have used the backronym 1480: 1449: 1432: 1428: 1282: 1247:, criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers. The second, 1164: 997:

encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic and social development.

950: 946: 924: 760: 699: 508: 492: 468: 225: 5346: 1159:

549:) to the confederation. When the administrative secretariats established by the 8684: 8455: 8438: 8375: 8348: 8331: 8020: 7953: 7917: 7897: 7815: 7623: 7541: 7130: 7096: 7047: 7032: 6804: 6709: 6689: 6679: 6515: 6480: 6455: 6196: 6169: 6159: 5590: 5586: 5580:

Intellectual Property Rights in Frontier Industries: Software and Biotechnology

5559: 5297: 4299:"Language Matters: Framing The Copyright Monopoly So We Can Keep Our Liberties" 4294: 3644:

The Law of Intellectual Property, Part 1 Chapter 1 Section 9 – Lysander Spooner

3510: 2612: 2198: 2034: 1630: 1137: 1118: 573: 272: 235: 164: 109: 4537: 3721: 3603: 2716: 2699: 2310:

Patents, trademarks, and related rights: national and international protection

1511:

and other personal protections that cannot be bought or sold. Use of the term

8862: 8774: 8741: 8539: 8519: 8470: 8147: 8127: 8068: 7985: 7882: 7669: 7628: 7514: 7494: 7466: 7416: 7381: 7355: 7350: 7343: 7294: 7234: 7074: 7064: 7022: 6945: 6940: 6870: 6829: 6753: 6505: 6230: 6057: 5861: 5775: 5771: 5703: 5050: 5005: 4997: 4250: 4025:"If Intellectual Property Is Neither Intellectual, Nor Property, What Is It?" 3910: 3778: 3729: 2725: 2592: 1908: 1864: 1848: 1765:

Objections to the expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws

1754: 1574:(IMP) has been advanced by several academics including Birgitte Andersen and 1043:

that intellectual property is justified based on deservedness and hard work.

1012:(price minus material cost) per employee than "non-IP-intensive industries". 362: 294: 189: 6460: 5886:'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,' 5627:

El comercio con China. Oportunidades empresariales, incertidumbres jurídicas

4948: 2497:'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,' 1649: 1270:

right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as in the United States.

698:

for pharmaceutical products (after expiry of a patent protecting them), and

8746: 8722: 8689: 8670: 8651: 8606: 8579: 8572: 8554: 8492: 8268: 8222: 8217: 8120: 8105: 7948: 7801: 7551: 7519: 7474: 7212: 7207: 7178: 7091: 7069: 7037: 6970: 6950: 6844: 6784: 6774: 6726: 6684: 6662: 6605: 6540: 6465: 6301: 6286: 6223: 6181: 6164: 5790:

Intellectual Property and Open Source: A Practical Guide to Protecting Code

4981: 4723: 4666: 4521: 4453: 4259: 4020: 3793: 3404: 3230: 3104: 1907:

Intellectual property has become a core tool in corporate tax planning and

1797: 1655: 1595: 1380: 1368: 1359: 1263: 1180: 1036: 961: 878: 872: 681: 542: 417: 320: 289: 284: 257: 179: 139: 5814:

Maskus, Keith E. "Intellectual Property Rights and Economic Development".

5041: 4936: 4935:

Fiesler, Casey; Feuston, Jessica L.; Bruckman, Amy S. (28 February 2015).

4502: 4434: 3769: 3752: 2861:

Intellectual Property and Information Wealth: Copyright and related rights

8714: 8514: 8399: 8288: 8263: 8251: 8232: 8115: 8095: 8005: 7902: 7723: 7664: 7654: 7451: 7446: 7284: 7185: 7101: 7060: 7027: 6992: 6915: 6839: 6789: 6704: 6535: 6530: 6350: 6321: 6186: 5332: 4907: 4880: 3805: 3794:"The War in Ukraine Raises Questions About Patents for Secret Inventions" 3225:"Why Chemotherapy That Costs $ 70,000 in the U.S. Costs $ 2,500 in India" 1682: 1636: 1009: 894: 859: 854: 686: 673: 577: 279: 205: 174: 5498: 5284:

Intellectual property (IP) has become the leading tax-avoidance vehicle.

4086:"Words to Avoid (or Use with Care) Because They Are Loaded or Confusing" 2135: 2123: 2046: 1629:

are undermining technological development even in high-tech fields like

1581: 559:

United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property

545:

granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (

503:

respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property.

8807: 8694: 8311: 7892: 7787: 7716: 7596: 7534: 7279: 7200: 7195: 7153: 7135: 7123: 7084: 6930: 6920: 6880: 6865: 6849: 6799: 6736: 6731: 6316: 6139: 5352:. Centre for European Economic Research (ZEW). October 2013. p. 3. 3962:

The Puzzle of Criminal Sanctions for Intellectual Property Infringement

3850:

The Hatch-Waxman Act: When Is Research Exempt from Patent Infringement?

1259: 628: 621: 496: 434: 372: 5347:"Profit Shifting and "Aggressive" Tax Planning by Multinational Firms" 4355:

Stephan Kinsella for Ludwig von Mises Institute blog, 6 January 2011.

8708: 8509: 8460: 8443: 8381: 8363: 8137: 8051: 7694: 7659: 7601: 7576: 7441: 7338: 7326: 7311: 7299: 7227: 7145: 7118: 7002: 6191: 3590:

Spinello, Richard A. (January 2007). "Intellectual property rights".

2130:. WIPO publication. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). 1981: 1860: 1609:, point at intellectual monopolies as harming health (in the case of 1547: 903: 897:

which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a

822: 816: 756: 750: 725: 691: 665: 657: 500: 413: 409: 240: 184: 104: 7782: 5912:

Intellectual Property: The Law of Copyrights, Patents and Trademarks

5679: 5661: 5643: 5556:

Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property

2884: 1262:

jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an

8596: 8529: 8465: 8278: 8256: 8152: 8100: 7858: 7743: 7728: 7431: 7316: 7113: 6657: 6266: 5885: 5827: 4581:

Stallman's got company: Researcher wants nanotech patent moratorium

4281: 4032: 3654: 2496: 2483: 1911:. IP is a key component of the leading multinational tax avoidance 1856: 1819: 1811: 1503:

jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as

1484: 1453: 1441: 1267: 1176: 1085: 898: 401: 316: 262: 99: 5484:"New UN tax handbook: Lower-income countries vs OECD BEPS failure" 4459:

most pressing challenges facing international policy makers today.

3435: 2291: 2289: 1872:

Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

1826:, in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against 1283:

Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

1098: 463: 8549: 8343: 8336: 8201: 7997: 7633: 7581: 7561: 7509: 7321: 7239: 7055: 7017: 6965: 6578: 6475: 5185:

Eigentumskulturen im Vergleich (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999)

4593:

Freeze on nanotechnology patents proposed to help grow the sector

3039:

Trade marks identify the goods and services of particular traders

2335:

The industrial revolution in national context: Europe and the USA

1831: 1281:

One of the most important aspects of global IP governance is the

1039:

is complex, there are moral arguments for intellectual property.

890: 882: 633: 421: 4908:

Dariusz Jemielniak; Aleksandra Przegalinska (18 February 2020).

4676: 3516: 3392:

Shapiro, Robert J.; Pham, Nam D.; Blinder, Alan S. (July 2007).

3262:. Newport, Wales: The Intellectual Property Office. p. 15. 3102: 2427: 2384: 8524: 8476: 8245: 7733: 7586: 7331: 7222: 7217: 7163: 6834: 6037: 5497:

WIPO, World Intellectual Property Organization (8 March 2021).

2286: 1723: 1364: 1060: 886: 830: 721: 715: 703: 653: 606: 405: 382: 144: 5519:

WIPO, World Intellectual Property Organization (21 May 2021).

4057:"Did You Say "Intellectual Property"? It's a Seductive Mirage" 2226: 2224: 2222: 2220: 2214:, Texas Law Review, 2005, Vol. 83:1031, page 1033, footnote 4. 1483:

have independently compared George Orwell's fictional dialect

1383:

in reference to the "in popular culture" rationale behind the

8613: 8209: 7674: 7618: 7524: 7365: 7168: 6667: 4560:"Authors@Google: Joseph Stiglitz – Making Globalization Work" 4167:"copyright and globalization in the age of computer networks" 3934:

Intellectual property enforcement: international perspectives

3051:

Merges, Robert P.; Menell, Peter S.; Lemley, Mark A. (2007).

1958: 1815: 1507:, traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included 1391: 1071: 803:

or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a

627:

The concept's origin can potentially be traced back further.

593: 386: 5228:

Wake Forest Intellectual Property Law Journal 10(2): 215–239

4937:"Understanding Copyright Law in Online Creative Communities" 4901: 2776:"Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property" 1717:

once said in a letter to Isaac McPherson on 13 August 1813:

1605:

Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the

1221:. The United States also has federal law in the form of the 960:

approximated that the worth of intellectual property to the

7827: 7556: 7504: 7360: 6758: 6674: 5594: 5545: 5398:"Trump's US tax reform a significant challenge for Ireland" 3694:

The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 102(1):67–117

3462: 3323: 3109:"Prudential Reasons for IPR Reform. A Report for Innova-P2" 3055:(4th rev. ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer. p. 29. 2217: 1847:

of 1998 (98/84/EEC). This can hinder legal uses, affecting

1016: 969:

and other types of business finance. However, in 2013, the

437:

and contribute to technological progress of certain kinds.

420:. The modern concept of intellectual property developed in 5951: 5612:"Intellectual Property Rights". In George G. Brenkert and 3706:"Russia-Ukraine War and WTO's National Security Exception" 3426:

Shapiro, Robert; Pham, Nam; Blinder, Alan S. (July 2007).

1379:"Copying is not theft!" badge with a character resembling 684:. There are also more specialized or derived varieties of 54:"Intellectual Property" redirects here. For the film, see 8586: 6628: 5848:

Intellectual Property: Patents, Trademarks, and Copyright

5452:"EU digital levy could hit tech FDI and tax revenue here" 3753:"Leveraging Intellectual Property to Prevent Nuclear War" 1822:, have represented a challenge for copyright policy. The 377: 367: 8663:

The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State

5603:

Connell, Shaun. "Intellectual Ownership". October 2007.

3892:. UNESCO e-Copyright Bulletin. p. 2. Archived from 2035:

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) (2016).

1445:

terminating this right after a certain period of time".

690:

exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called

537:

The German equivalent was used with the founding of the

1515:

has declined since the early 1980s, as use of the term

6597: 5726:

Innovation, Intellectual Property, and Economic Growth

5499:"Gender Equality, Diversity and Intellectual Property" 5434:"Why Ireland faces a fight on the corporate tax front" 5287:"Intellectual Property Law Solutions to Tax Avoidance" 4934: 4655:

Information Feudalism: Who Owns the Knowledge Economy?

2471:'Article 4 No. 6 of the Constitution of 1867 (German)' 2455:

Medical Repository Of Original Essays And Intelligence

2337:(1. publ ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. 1945: 5161:

Docket No. 2012–12 Orphan Works and Mass Digitization

4669:"Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview" 3964:

Harvard Journal of Law & Technology 24(2):469–518

3513:"Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview" 3511:

WIPO – The World Intellectual Property Organization.

3450: 3177: 1582:

Objections to overly broad intellectual property laws

5264:"Intellectual Property and Tax Avoidance in Ireland" 5106:

A Great Idea Lives Forever. Shouldn't Its Copyright?

4483: 4415: 2613:"Jewish Law – Articles ("Jewish Law and Copyright")" 845:

from similar products or services of other traders.

5361: 5359: 4621:Baten, Jörg; Bianchi, Nicola; Moser, Petra (2017). 4367: 3326:

Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law and Use

1814:, and particularly distributed search engines like 1327:It has been suggested that this article should be 6098: 5241:"Multinationals pay lower taxes than a decade ago" 5239: 4535: 4223: 4221: 3658: 3425: 3391: 3223: 3053:Intellectual Property in the New Technological Age 3050: 2798: 2555:"Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding" 2484:"Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding" 2428: 2385: 992:gives two reasons for intellectual property laws: 528:dates to this time, when a piece published in the 5954:The Patent Crisis and How the Courts Can Solve It 5888:Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001 5817:Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 5065:DNA Patents Create Monopolies on Living Organisms 4667:WIPO – World Intellectual Property Organization. 4620: 4370:run by the Free Software Foundation Europe (FSFE) 3792:Matthews, Duncan; Ostapenko, Hanna (2023-01-31). 3791: 2911: 2548: 2546: 2357: 2172:. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) 2124:World Intellectual Property Organization (2021). 2002:Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property 1967:The global IP ratchet has limited the freedom of 1881: 1668:Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 615:Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs 8860: 5822:journals/jil/32-3/maskusarticle.pdf law.case.edu 5416:"Donald Trump singles out Ireland in tax speech" 5356: 3585: 3583: 3546:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2204:Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding 1855:, or uses allowed by the copyright holder. Some 1205: 5650:Transnational Dispute Management, Special Issue 4218: 1530:have emerged among those who argue against the 1099:Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement 909: 51:Ownership of creative expressions and processes 5742:(pp. 1–53), vol. 15, no. 2, Spring 2001. 5684: 5224:Katherine Beckman and Christa Pletcher (2009) 4748: 4746: 4293: 4255:""Intellectual property" is a silly euphemism" 4121:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. 4075: 3930: 3363:Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada 3075: 2543: 2295: 2230: 495:(1710) are seen as the origins of the current 7843: 6613: 6084: 6063:Internet/Media Piracy: Statistics & Facts 5625: 3874: 3580: 3458:"Measuring the Economic Impact of IP Systems" 2917: 2312:. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. 2189: 2187: 1726:at mine, receives light without darkening me. 1448:Law professor, writer and political activist 338: 5706:. "Gowers Review of Intellectual Property". 5689:(6th ed.). New York: Foundation Press. 5130: 4019: 3665:(paperback 2nd ed.). New York: Signet. 3419: 3252: 2887:"Understanding Copyright and Related Rights" 2499:Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001 2473:Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001 2041:. World Intellectual Property Organization. 6056:legislature and covers media laws in their 5685:Goldstein, Paul; Reese, R. Anthony (2008). 4808:"What It Means To Be an Anarcho-Capitalist" 4743: 4484:Martin, G; Sorenson, C; Faunce, TA (2007). 4416:Martin, G; Sorenson, C; Faunce, TA (2007). 4327: 3881:Panethiere, Darrell (July–September 2005). 3490:"The Universal Declaration of Human Rights" 2864:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 346. 2857: 2822: 2820: 2364:. Cambridge University Press. p. 207. 2332: 958:United States Patent & Trademark Office 767: 135:Integrated circuit layout design protection 15: 7850: 7836: 6620: 6606: 6091: 6077: 5952:Burk, Dan L. & Mark A. Lemley (2009). 5850:, 3rd ed. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2000. 5194: 4752: 4333:"1984+30: GNU speech to defeat e-newspeak" 3880: 3848:Pradip K. Sahu and Shannon Mrksich, Ph.D. 2885:World Intellectual Property Organisation. 2552: 2333:Teich, Mikuláš; Porter, Roy, eds. (1996). 2184: 1959:Global IP ratchet and developing countries 1273: 345: 331: 16: 5910:Schechter, Roger E., and John R. Thomas. 5572:. "Against Intellectual Monopoly", 2008. 5486:. Tax Justice Network. 11 September 2017. 5237: 5040: 4888: 4638: 4511: 4501: 4443: 4433: 4284:Journal of Libertarian Studies 15(2):1–53 3924: 3768: 3686: 3684: 3682: 2951:United States Patent and Trademark Office 2715: 2521:"Patent Archives – Ladas & Parry LLP" 2272:. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 33–35. 1824:Recording Industry Association of America 1785:have been patentable for over a century. 1186: 1148: 1070:: this argument is based on a quote from 837:that distinguishes a particular trader's 524:(1774)). The first known use of the term 7765:History of the American legal profession 6262:Business models for open-source software 5678:, Giuffre, pp. 21–47. Available at 5325: 5126:Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U. S. 186 (2003) 4554: 4249: 4161: 3937:. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 211. 3589: 3096: 2817: 2195:World Intellectual Property Organization 2100:"What are intellectual property rights?" 1768: 1687:differing views on intellectual property 1664:World Intellectual Property Organization 1585: 1374: 1358: 566:World Intellectual Property Organization 462: 356: 24:This is an accepted version of this page 5874:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5296:. UCLA Law Review. 2015. Archived from 5256: 5136: 4779: 4709: 4110:Boldrin, Michele, and David K. Levine. 3995:. Palgrave Socio-Legal Studies series. 3956: 3954: 3931:Correa, Carlos Maria; Li, Xuan (2009). 3253:Brassell, Martin; King, Kelvin (2013). 3221: 3171: 2265: 1853:limitations and exceptions to copyright 1385:Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act 1173:limitations and exceptions to copyright 253:Limitations and exceptions to copyright 14: 8861: 5724:Greenhalgh, C. and M. Rogers, (2010). 5618:The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics 4979: 4866: 4699:Human rights and intellectual property 4046: 3750: 3703: 3679: 3316:"The Concept of Intellectual Property" 3153:Stanford Copyright and Fair Use Center 2697: 1124: 930: 759:gives the creator of an original work 479:of March 19, 1474, established by the 7831: 6601: 6451:Organization for Transformative Works 6072: 5278: 5238:Toplensky, Rochelle (11 March 2018). 5226:Expanding Global Trademark Regulation 5159:Library of Congress Copyright Office 5027:Allen, Peter James (24 August 2008). 5026: 4712:Journal of International Economic Law 3990: 3986: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3970: 3537: 3355:"Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement" 2358:Brad, Sherman; Lionel Bently (1999). 2307: 1805:Motion Picture Association of America 1746:of indigenous knowledge, for which a 1409:copyright, patents, trademarks, etc. 1033:Universal Declaration of Human Rights 696:supplementary protection certificates 652:Intellectual property rights include 211:Artificial intelligence and copyright 8879:Economics of the arts and literature 5668:Journal of Intellectual Property Law 5518: 5496: 5476: 5339: 5307: 4536:Daniel B. Ravicher (6 August 2008). 4195: 4081: 4052: 3951: 3852:ABA-IPL Newsletter 22(4) Summer 2004 3653: 2763:Article 1(2) of the Paris Convention 2449:participating institution membership 2406:participating institution membership 1599:that bears little or no restrictions 1494: 1313: 1217:have nearly universally adopted the 1212:Trade secret § Misappropriation 941:respective writings and discoveries. 782:(sometimes called "design right" or 170:Supplementary protection certificate 5738:. "Against Intellectual Property". 5335:. University of Tilburg. June 2017. 5063:Council for Responsible Genetics, " 4980:Freund, Katharina (1 August 2016). 4653:Peter Drahos and John Braithwaite. 3544:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3466:. 19 September 2007. Archived from 2924:. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. 2698:Roisah, Kholis (26 December 2017). 2167:"Understanding Industrial Property" 1946:Gender gap in intellectual property 1003:Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 990:WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook 48: 5914:. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2003, 5548:Publication Number 834 (E). 2000. 4897:from the original on Nov 26, 2023. 3967: 3211:from the original on Jan 22, 2024. 3025:. 28 November 2014. Archived from 2982:"What is a trade mark (or brand)?" 2958:. 13 December 2015. Archived from 2946:"Trademark, Patent, or Copyright?" 2197:(WIPO) by the United Nations." in 1336:Criticism of intellectual property 1291:WTO's Dispute Settlement Mechanism 1105:Intellectual property infringement 983: 976:An October 2023 study released by 789: 49: 8900: 6749:Restitution and unjust enrichment 5972: 4849:Boyle, James (14 October 2005). " 3222:Bollyky, Thomas (10 April 2013). 3159:from the original on Aug 26, 2017 2892:. WIPO. p. 8. Archived from 2679: 2661: 2643: 2038:Understanding Industrial Property 8830: 8829: 7796: 7795: 7781: 6272:Commercial use of copyleft works 6050:European Audiovisual Observatory 6036: 5979: 5761:Scope and Interplay of IP Rights 5597:Working Paper 11516. July 2005. 5512: 5490: 5462: 5444: 5426: 5408: 5390: 5376: 5252:from the original on 2022-12-10. 5231: 5218: 5188: 5175: 5166: 5153: 5114: 5098: 5082: 5070: 5057: 5020: 4973: 4928: 4860: 4843: 4828: 4813: 4800: 4773: 4767:10.1111/j.1747-9991.2010.00358.x 4730: 4703: 4691: 4660: 4647: 4627:Journal of Development Economics 4614: 3078:Transnational Dispute Management 2828:"What is Intellectual Property?" 2308:Ladas, Stephen Pericles (1975). 1913:base erosion and profit shifting 1836:Digital Millennium Copyright Act 1392:The term "intellectual property" 1318: 1140:of the granted patent. There is 1115:2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine 1015:A joint research project of the 866: 300:Outline of intellectual property 125:Indigenous intellectual property 83: 61:. For the Waterparks album, see 7760:History of the legal profession 6252:Alternative compensation system 5956:. University of Chicago Press. 5652:, vol. 11, iss. 2, March 2014. 5472:. thejournal.ie. 24 March 2018. 5367:"BEPS Project Background Brief" 4605: 4586: 4574: 4548: 4528: 4477: 4464: 4409: 4399: 4373: 4361: 4349: 4321: 4287: 4274: 4243: 4189: 4155: 4124: 4104: 4063:. Free Software Foundation, Inc 4013: 3903: 3855: 3842: 3828: 3785: 3744: 3704:Ranjan, Prabhash (2022-07-17). 3697: 3647: 3638: 3628: 3618: 3570: 3560: 3550: 3531: 3504: 3482: 3385: 3347: 3308: 3283: 3246: 3215: 3141: 3069: 3044: 3022:Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt 3009: 2974: 2938: 2878: 2768: 2756: 2732: 2691: 2673: 2655: 2637: 2627: 2605: 2573: 2513: 2502: 2489: 2476: 2464: 2421: 2378: 2351: 2326: 2301: 1572:intellectual monopoly privilege 1564:digital restrictions management 1419:argues that, although the term 1051:Natural Rights/Justice Argument 1031:According to Article 27 of the 971:UK Intellectual Property Office 8395:Right of way (property access) 6436:Electronic Frontier Foundation 5948:. New York: Basic Books, 2004. 5837:New York University Law Review 5834:, Legal Studies Paper No. 40. 5740:Journal of Libertarian Studies 5558:(pp. 9–32). Boulder, CO: 5521:"Closing the Gender Gap in IP" 3194:. Cambridge University Press. 2269:Safeguarding Intangible Assets 2259: 2236: 2159: 2127:What is Intellectual Property? 2117: 2092: 2070: 2028: 1882:Use in corporate tax avoidance 1223:Economic Espionage Act of 1996 1057:Utilitarian-Pragmatic Argument 953:, dispute this justification. 945:" "Some commentators, such as 848: 547:Schutz des geistigen Eigentums 13: 1: 8874:Social information processing 6277:Commons-based peer production 6145:Legal aspects of file sharing 5386:. Tax Foundation. 3 May 2018. 5137:Masnick, Mike (21 May 2007). 4822:Against Intellectual property 4640:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2017.01.002 4282:Against Intellectual Property 4229:"Against perpetual copyright" 4112:Against intellectual monopoly 3798:Queen Mary Law Research Paper 3661:Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal 3188:Against intellectual monopoly 2581:"The liquidity of innovation" 2486:(Abstract); see Table 1: 4–5. 2017: 1928:Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 1897:European Commissioner for Tax 1648:In support of that argument, 1299: 1206:Trade secret misappropriation 1091:Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal 810: 576:. According to legal scholar 7857: 6372:Access to Knowledge movement 6027:Resources in other libraries 5093:Copyright Term Extension Act 4851:Protecting the public domain 3366:. p. 24. Archived from 3234:. The Atlantic Monthly Group 2987:Intellectual Property Office 2296:Goldstein & Reese (2008) 2266:Moberly, Michael D. (2014). 2231:Goldstein & Reese (2008) 2022: 1845:Conditional Access Directive 1699:right-wing of libertarianism 1594:champions the production of 1472:Entrepreneur and politician 910:Motivation and justification 744: 680:, and in some jurisdictions 7: 8701:Two Treatises of Government 5901:. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. 5840:, no. 81, 2006. (Abstract.) 5670:, iss. 2, p. I, June 2014. 4201:"Misinterpreting Copyright" 3960:Irina D. Manta Spring 2011 3328:. p. 3. Archived from 2527:. Ladas.com. Archived from 1975: 1026: 248:Idea–expression distinction 10: 8905: 7427:International legal theory 6906:International slavery laws 6901:International human rights 6896:International criminal law 5750:Princeton University Press 5730:Princeton University Press 5537: 5195:Smith, Brett (2007–2010). 3751:Pearce, Joshua M. (2022). 1557:, whose initials are also 1551:intellectual protectionism 1333:into a new article titled 1303: 1209: 1190: 1152: 1128: 1102: 870: 852: 814: 793: 771: 748: 713: 709: 539:North German Confederation 452: 448: 53: 8869:Intellectual property law 8825: 8622: 8424: 8304: 8197: 8190: 8039: 7996: 7941: 7865: 7775: 7752: 7642: 7480:Administration of justice 7465: 7374: 7265: 7144: 7046: 6767: 6635: 6549: 6498: 6486:Students for Free Culture 6423: 6407: 6400: 6382:Cultural environmentalism 6364: 6339:Prizes instead of patents 6239: 6135:Digital rights management 6107: 6022:Resources in your library 5781:16 September 2009 at the 5634:, Valencia, Spain, 2010. 4837:Letter to Isaac McPherson 3868:22 September 2013 at the 3861:Matthew L. Cutler (2008) 3722:10.1177/00157325221114586 3604:10.1108/07378830710735821 2717:10.20956/halrev.v3i3.1153 2436:Oxford English Dictionary 2393:Oxford English Dictionary 1524:monopolies on information 1489:digital rights management 1219:Uniform Trade Secrets Act 1021:United Nations University 737:and there needs to be an 647: 609:author A. Nion mentioned 8753:The Great Transformation 8111:Labor theory of property 7257:Basic structure doctrine 7107:Natural and legal rights 6988:Public international law 6441:Free Software Foundation 5846:, and Michael H. Davis. 5582:, AEI Press, March 2005. 5205:Free Software Foundation 5197:"A Quick Guide to GPLv3" 5067:". Retrieved 2008.12.18. 4998:10.1177/1461444814555952 4490:Globalization and Health 4422:Globalization and Health 4280:Stephan Kinsella (2001) 2210:26 February 2009 at the 2104:World Trade Organization 1783:certain living organisms 1452:, along with many other 1413:Free Software Foundation 1287:World Trade Organization 938:research and development 768:Industrial design rights 739:industrial applicability 678:geographical indications 662:industrial design rights 611:propriété intellectuelle 471:came into force in 1710. 455:History of copyright law 31:latest accepted revision 8322:Forest-dwelling (India) 8284:restraint on alienation 8064:Common good (economics) 7437:Principle of typicality 6911:International trade law 6627: 6572:RiP!: A Remix Manifesto 6282:Electronic sell-through 6177:Monopolies of knowledge 6120:Censorship by copyright 5935:. Retrieved 2008-04-09. 5866:"Intellectual Property" 5181:William W. Fisher III, 4986:New Media & Society 4949:10.1145/2675133.2675234 4867:Bennet, Philip (2009). 4117:6 December 2017 at the 3991:Cheng, Wenting (2023). 3540:"Intellectual Property" 3120:University of Melbourne 2441:Oxford University Press 2430:"intellectual property" 2398:Oxford University Press 2387:"intellectual property" 2007:New product development 1623:business method patents 1310:Opposition to copyright 1274:International framework 780:industrial design right 774:Industrial design right 491:(1624) and the British 477:Venetian Patent Statute 160:Plant genetic resources 130:Industrial design right 120:Geographical indication 8761:Pierre-Joseph Proudhon 8535:Primitive accumulation 8390:Right of way (transit) 8175:Tragedy of the commons 8057:fictitious commodities 6586:The Internet's Own Boy 6392:Free software movement 6219:software patent debate 6125:Copyright infringement 5876:, Summer 2011 Edition. 5844:Miller, Arthur Raphael 5708:Her Majesty's Treasury 5626: 5315:"Patently problematic" 4602:- Wired UK 23 Nov 2012 4368:Official drm.info site 4132:"A Model of Discovery" 3295:Americans for the Arts 2956:Department of Commerce 2918:Simon, Stokes (2001). 2680:Morin, Jean-Frédéric. 2662:Morin, Jean-Frédéric. 2644:Morin, Jean-Frédéric. 1992:Freedom of information 1890: 1828:copyright infringement 1774: 1744:cultural appropriation 1728: 1712: 1646: 1611:pharmaceutical patents 1602: 1427:Similarly, economists 1396:Criticism of the term 1388: 1372: 1193:Trademark infringement 1187:Trademark infringement 1155:Copyright infringement 1149:Copyright infringement 1110:nature of the action. 1068:"Personality" Argument 999: 978:Americans for the Arts 805:new variety of a plant 801:Plant breeders' rights 796:Plant breeders' rights 603:Davoll et al. v. Brown 599: 472: 390: 231:Criticism of copyright 155:Plant breeders' rights 8814:The Wealth of Nations 8794:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 8786:The Ethics of Liberty 7432:Principle of legality 7191:Delegated legislation 6891:Intellectual property 6387:Free-culture movement 6297:Libertarian positions 6292:Free-software license 6257:Anti-copyright notice 6100:Intellectual property 6043:Intellectual property 6013:Intellectual property 5997:Intellectual property 5893:stockholm-network.org 5610:De George, Richard T. 5605:rebirthofffreedom.org 5599:weblog.ipcentral.info 5372:. OECD. January 2017. 5104:Mark Helprin, Op-ed: 5042:10.5210/fm.v13i9.2073 4911:Collaborative Society 4820:N. Stephan Kinsella, 4503:10.1186/1744-8603-3-4 4435:10.1186/1744-8603-3-4 4387:. Defective by Design 3918:U.S. Copyright Office 3770:10.3390/safety8030055 3690:Miriam Bitton (2012) 2704:Hasanuddin Law Review 2080:. European Parliament 1987:Defensive publication 1886: 1772: 1732:Royal Society of Arts 1719: 1707: 1641: 1607:free culture movement 1592:free culture movement 1589: 1542:assumptions, notably 1528:intellectual monopoly 1517:intellectual property 1467:intellectual property 1421:intellectual property 1398:intellectual property 1378: 1362: 1304:Further information: 994: 885:, practice, process, 617:, published in 1846. 586: 526:intellectual property 489:Statute of Monopolies 466: 459:History of patent law 394:Intellectual property 360: 77:Intellectual property 64:Intellectual Property 57:Intellectual Property 8889:Intellectual capital 8677:Progress and Poverty 8011:Common-pool resource 7650:Barristers' chambers 7592:Legal representation 7530:Justice of the peace 6876:Financial regulation 6307:Open-design movement 6045:at Wikimedia Commons 5820:, vol. 32, no. 471. 5149:on 7 September 2009. 4881:10.2139/ssrn.1498783 4724:10.1093/jiel/5.4.861 4598:2 March 2014 at the 4357:Intellectual Poverty 4253:(21 February 2008). 4083:Stallman, Richard M. 4054:Stallman, Richard M. 3806:10.2139/ssrn.4344212 3710:Foreign Trade Review 3538:Moore, Adam (2014). 3279:on 14 November 2013. 3185:(7 September 2008). 3129:on 27 September 2011 3103:Doris Schroeder and 2858:Peter K, Yu (2007). 1969:developing countries 1790:in the United States 1748:collective IP regime 1615:copyright extensions 1576:Thomas Alured Faunce 1555:intellectual poverty 1306:Criticism of patents 1266:right rather than a 1169:ACTA trade agreement 893:, or compilation of 670:plant variety rights 572:as an agency of the 8800:The Social Contract 8488:population transfer 8405:prior-appropriation 8084:homestead principle 7685:Election commission 7397:Expressive function 6926:Landlord–tenant law 6825:Consumer protection 6247:All rights reversed 6115:Artificial scarcity 5942:Vaidhyanathan, Siva 5933:the-value-of.ip.org 5897:Perelman, Michael. 5832:Brooklyn Law School 5764:. Accralaw Offices. 5630:(pp. 85–121). 5422:. 29 November 2017. 5404:. 30 November 2017. 4558:(13 October 2006). 4470:Birgitte Andersen. 4239:on 3 November 2009. 3438:on 16 February 2008 3432:the-value-of-ip.org 3029:on 29 November 2014 2962:on 13 December 2012 2810:20 May 2013 at the 2439:(Online ed.). 2396:(Online ed.). 2136:10.34667/tind.43765 2047:10.34667/tind.36288 1859:licenses, like the 1841:Copyright Directive 1703:artificial scarcity 1513:intellectual rights 1505:intellectual rights 1459:no natural scarcity 1199:confusingly similar 1131:Patent infringement 1125:Patent infringement 1088:argued in her book 967:pension-led funding 931:Financial incentive 921:America Invents Act 694:rights in the US), 400:) is a category of 221:Copyright abolition 21:Page version status 8780:Murray N. Rothbard 8091:Free-rider problem 7643:Legal institutions 7510:Lawsuit/Litigation 7500:Dispute resolution 7305:Catholic canon law 7013:State of emergency 6976:Will and testament 6700:Law of obligations 6653:Constitutional law 6643:Administrative law 6565:Good Copy Bad Copy 6511:Alexandra Elbakyan 6415:Copyright Alliance 6052:hosts articles on 5712:hm-treasury.gov.uk 5585:Branstetter, Lee, 5122:Eldred v. Ashcroft 5109:The New York Times 4835:Thomas Jefferson, 4806:Stephan Kinsella, 4786:Libertarianism.org 4755:Philosophy Compass 4679:on 22 October 2011 3997:Palgrave Macmillan 3911:"Copyright Basics" 3899:on 16 August 2008. 3519:on 22 October 2011 3335:on 15 January 2013 2531:on 15 January 2013 1997:Information policy 1810:The growth of the 1775: 1759:anime music videos 1695:anarcho-capitalist 1603: 1522:Alternative terms 1389: 1373: 825:is a recognizable 521:Donaldson v Becket 515:Hinton v Donaldson 481:Republic of Venice 473: 391: 313:Higher categories: 305:Outline of patents 27: 8884:Intangible assets 8856: 8855: 8767:What Is Property? 8560:human trafficking 8545:Regulatory taking 8420: 8419: 8165:Right to property 7825: 7824: 7485:Constitutionalism 7407:Law and economics 7245:Act of parliament 6983:Product liability 6936:Legal archaeology 6861:Environmental law 6855:Entertainment law 6695:International law 6595: 6594: 6494: 6493: 6446:Open Rights Group 6041:Media related to 6008:Library resources 5963:978-0-226-08061-1 5826:Mazzone, Jason. " 5810:978-0-596-51796-0 5758:Lee, Richmond K. 5736:Kinsella, Stephan 5719:978-0-11-840483-9 5710:, November 2006. 5696:978-1-59941-139-2 5640:978-84-8456-981-7 5578:Hahn, Robert W., 5456:Irish Independent 5303:on 16 March 2015. 5095:, Pub.L. 105–298. 4958:978-1-4503-2922-4 4921:978-0-262-35645-9 4840:(August 13, 1813) 4761:(12): 1107–1115. 4385:defectivebydesign 4197:Stallman, Richard 4165:(19 April 2001). 4163:Stallman, Richard 4092:. The GNU Project 4006:978-3-031-24369-1 3944:978-1-84844-663-2 3920:. September 2021. 3800:. Rochester, NY. 3269:978-1-908908-86-5 3201:978-0-521-87928-6 3149:"US Constitution" 3062:978-0-7355-6989-8 2931:978-1-84113-225-9 2921:Art and copyright 2871:978-0-275-98883-8 2525:Ladas & Parry 2447:(Subscription or 2404:(Subscription or 2371:978-0-521-56363-5 2344:978-0-521-40940-7 2319:978-0-674-65775-5 2298:, pp. 18–19. 2279:978-0-12-800516-3 2012:Sweat of the brow 1940:capital allowance 1920:OECD BEPS Project 1495:Alternative terms 1474:Rickard Falkvinge 1363:Demonstration in 1357: 1356: 590:Queen Elizabeth I 355: 354: 18: 8896: 8833: 8832: 8737:John Stuart Mill 8657:Friedrich Engels 8638:Frédéric Bastiat 8631: 8483:Forced migration 8451:Collectivization 8195: 8194: 8074:First possession 8047:Bundle of rights 7852: 7845: 7838: 7829: 7828: 7800: 7799: 7798: 7786: 7785: 7609:Question of fact 7490:Criminal justice 6820:Construction law 6815:Conflict of laws 6780:Agricultural law 6622: 6615: 6608: 6599: 6598: 6526:Richard Stallman 6471:Public Knowledge 6431:Creative Commons 6405: 6404: 6312:Open music model 6093: 6086: 6079: 6070: 6069: 6040: 5983: 5982: 5967: 5768:Lessig, Lawrence 5700: 5632:Tirant lo Blanch 5629: 5614:Tom L. Beauchamp 5566:Boldrin, Michele 5532: 5531: 5529: 5527: 5516: 5510: 5509: 5507: 5505: 5494: 5488: 5487: 5480: 5474: 5473: 5466: 5460: 5459: 5458:. 21 March 2018. 5448: 5442: 5441: 5440:. 14 March 2018. 5430: 5424: 5423: 5412: 5406: 5405: 5394: 5388: 5387: 5380: 5374: 5373: 5371: 5363: 5354: 5353: 5351: 5343: 5337: 5336: 5329: 5323: 5322: 5311: 5305: 5304: 5302: 5291: 5282: 5276: 5275: 5260: 5254: 5253: 5243: 5235: 5229: 5222: 5216: 5215: 5213: 5211: 5192: 5186: 5179: 5173: 5170: 5164: 5157: 5151: 5150: 5145:. Archived from 5134: 5128: 5118: 5112: 5102: 5096: 5086: 5080: 5074: 5068: 5061: 5055: 5054: 5044: 5024: 5018: 5017: 4992:(7): 1347–1363. 4977: 4971: 4970: 4932: 4926: 4925: 4905: 4899: 4898: 4892: 4864: 4858: 4847: 4841: 4832: 4826: 4817: 4811: 4804: 4798: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4788:. Cato Institute 4780:D'Amato, David. 4777: 4771: 4770: 4750: 4741: 4734: 4728: 4727: 4707: 4701: 4695: 4689: 4688: 4686: 4684: 4675:. Archived from 4664: 4658: 4657:, Earthscan 2002 4651: 4645: 4644: 4642: 4618: 4612: 4609: 4603: 4590: 4584: 4578: 4572: 4571: 4566:. Archived from 4556:Stiglitz, Joseph 4552: 4546: 4545: 4532: 4526: 4525: 4515: 4505: 4481: 4475: 4468: 4462: 4461: 4447: 4437: 4413: 4407: 4403: 4397: 4396: 4394: 4392: 4377: 4371: 4365: 4359: 4353: 4347: 4346: 4344: 4342: 4337: 4325: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4314: 4305:. Archived from 4303:torrentfreak.com 4297:(14 July 2013). 4291: 4285: 4278: 4272: 4271: 4269: 4267: 4247: 4241: 4240: 4235:. Archived from 4225: 4216: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4193: 4187: 4186: 4184: 4182: 4173:. Archived from 4159: 4153: 4152: 4150: 4149: 4143: 4137:. Archived from 4136: 4128: 4122: 4108: 4102: 4101: 4099: 4097: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4070: 4068: 4050: 4044: 4043: 4041: 4039: 4023:(6 March 2008). 4017: 4011: 4010: 3988: 3965: 3958: 3949: 3948: 3928: 3922: 3921: 3915: 3907: 3901: 3900: 3898: 3887: 3878: 3872: 3859: 3853: 3846: 3840: 3832: 3826: 3825: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3772: 3748: 3742: 3741: 3701: 3695: 3688: 3677: 3676: 3664: 3651: 3645: 3642: 3636: 3632: 3626: 3622: 3616: 3615: 3587: 3578: 3574: 3568: 3564: 3558: 3554: 3548: 3547: 3535: 3529: 3528: 3526: 3524: 3515:. Archived from 3508: 3502: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3492:. United Nations 3486: 3480: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3454: 3448: 3447: 3445: 3443: 3434:. Archived from 3423: 3417: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3398: 3389: 3383: 3382: 3380: 3378: 3372: 3359: 3351: 3345: 3344: 3342: 3340: 3334: 3320: 3312: 3306: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3287: 3281: 3280: 3278: 3272:. Archived from 3261: 3250: 3244: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3227: 3219: 3213: 3212: 3210: 3193: 3175: 3169: 3168: 3166: 3164: 3155:. 8 April 2013. 3145: 3139: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3128: 3122:. Archived from 3113: 3100: 3094: 3093: 3073: 3067: 3066: 3048: 3042: 3041: 3036: 3034: 3013: 3007: 3006: 3001: 2999: 2990:. Archived from 2978: 2972: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2942: 2936: 2935: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2898: 2891: 2882: 2876: 2875: 2855: 2849: 2848: 2846: 2845: 2839: 2833:. Archived from 2832: 2824: 2815: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2782:. Archived from 2772: 2766: 2760: 2754: 2753: 2751: 2750: 2736: 2730: 2729: 2719: 2695: 2689: 2688: 2686: 2677: 2671: 2670: 2668: 2659: 2653: 2652: 2650: 2641: 2635: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2609: 2603: 2602: 2600: 2599: 2577: 2571: 2570: 2568: 2566: 2561:. Heinonline.org 2553:Mark A. Lemley. 2550: 2541: 2540: 2538: 2536: 2517: 2511: 2506: 2500: 2493: 2487: 2482:Mark A. Lemley, 2480: 2474: 2468: 2462: 2452: 2444: 2432: 2425: 2419: 2409: 2401: 2389: 2382: 2376: 2375: 2355: 2349: 2348: 2330: 2324: 2323: 2305: 2299: 2293: 2284: 2283: 2263: 2257: 2256: 2254: 2253: 2248: 2240: 2234: 2228: 2215: 2191: 2182: 2181: 2179: 2177: 2171: 2163: 2157: 2156: 2154: 2152: 2121: 2115: 2114: 2112: 2110: 2096: 2090: 2089: 2087: 2085: 2074: 2068: 2067: 2065: 2063: 2032: 1903: 1894:Pierre Moscovici 1715:Thomas Jefferson 1691:Stephan Kinsella 1619:software patents 1544:Richard Stallman 1465:has objected to 1463:Stephan Kinsella 1417:Richard Stallman 1352: 1349: 1322: 1321: 1314: 1246: 1165:derivative works 1079:Lysander Spooner 944: 761:exclusive rights 555:Berne Convention 551:Paris Convention 347: 340: 333: 216:Brand protection 150:Peasants' rights 87: 73: 72: 39:8 September 2024 8904: 8903: 8899: 8898: 8897: 8895: 8894: 8893: 8859: 8858: 8857: 8852: 8821: 8625: 8624: 8618: 8568:husband-selling 8505:Illegal logging 8500:Illegal fishing 8429: 8416: 8327:Freedom to roam 8300: 8213:(agrarian land) 8186: 8143:Property rights 8035: 7992: 7954:Estate (landed) 7937: 7861: 7856: 7826: 7821: 7794: 7780: 7771: 7748: 7739:Political party 7712:Legal education 7700:Law enforcement 7680:Court of equity 7638: 7614:Question of law 7567:Practice of law 7547:Judicial review 7461: 7412:Legal formalism 7392:Comparative law 7387:Contract theory 7370: 7290:Legal pluralism 7261: 7250:Act of Congress 7174:Executive order 7140: 7042: 6961:Nationality law 6886:Immigration law 6810:Competition law 6763: 6631: 6626: 6596: 6591: 6558:Steal This Film 6545: 6521:Lawrence Lessig 6490: 6419: 6396: 6360: 6356:Video on demand 6235: 6130:Copyright troll 6103: 6097: 6033: 6032: 6031: 6016: 6015: 6011: 6004: 6003: 6002: 5984: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5964: 5870:Edward N. Zalta 5788:Lindberg, Van. 5783:Wayback Machine 5776:free-culture.cc 5697: 5642:. Available at 5570:David K. Levine 5540: 5535: 5525: 5523: 5517: 5513: 5503: 5501: 5495: 5491: 5482: 5481: 5477: 5468: 5467: 5463: 5450: 5449: 5445: 5438:The Irish Times 5432: 5431: 5427: 5420:The Irish Times 5414: 5413: 5409: 5402:The Irish Times 5396: 5395: 5391: 5382: 5381: 5377: 5369: 5365: 5364: 5357: 5349: 5345: 5344: 5340: 5331: 5330: 5326: 5313: 5312: 5308: 5300: 5289: 5285: 5283: 5279: 5262: 5261: 5257: 5246:Financial Times 5236: 5232: 5223: 5219: 5209: 5207: 5193: 5189: 5180: 5176: 5171: 5167: 5158: 5154: 5135: 5131: 5119: 5115: 5103: 5099: 5087: 5083: 5075: 5071: 5062: 5058: 5025: 5021: 4978: 4974: 4959: 4933: 4929: 4922: 4906: 4902: 4865: 4861: 4848: 4844: 4833: 4829: 4818: 4814: 4805: 4801: 4791: 4789: 4778: 4774: 4751: 4744: 4735: 4731: 4708: 4704: 4696: 4692: 4682: 4680: 4665: 4661: 4652: 4648: 4619: 4615: 4610: 4606: 4600:Wayback Machine 4591: 4587: 4579: 4575: 4553: 4549: 4533: 4529: 4482: 4478: 4469: 4465: 4414: 4410: 4404: 4400: 4390: 4388: 4379: 4378: 4374: 4366: 4362: 4354: 4350: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4329:Alexandre Oliva 4326: 4322: 4312: 4310: 4292: 4288: 4279: 4275: 4265: 4263: 4248: 4244: 4233:wiki.lessig.org 4227: 4226: 4219: 4209: 4207: 4194: 4190: 4180: 4178: 4177:on 2 March 2015 4160: 4156: 4147: 4145: 4141: 4134: 4130: 4129: 4125: 4119:Wayback Machine 4109: 4105: 4095: 4093: 4080: 4076: 4066: 4064: 4051: 4047: 4037: 4035: 4018: 4014: 4007: 3989: 3968: 3959: 3952: 3945: 3929: 3925: 3913: 3909: 3908: 3904: 3896: 3885: 3879: 3875: 3870:Wayback Machine 3860: 3856: 3847: 3843: 3833: 3829: 3790: 3786: 3749: 3745: 3702: 3698: 3689: 3680: 3673: 3652: 3648: 3643: 3639: 3633: 3629: 3623: 3619: 3592:Library Hi Tech 3588: 3581: 3575: 3571: 3565: 3561: 3555: 3551: 3536: 3532: 3522: 3520: 3509: 3505: 3495: 3493: 3488: 3487: 3483: 3473: 3471: 3456: 3455: 3451: 3441: 3439: 3424: 3420: 3410: 3408: 3396: 3390: 3386: 3376: 3374: 3370: 3357: 3353: 3352: 3348: 3338: 3336: 3332: 3318: 3314: 3313: 3309: 3299: 3297: 3289: 3288: 3284: 3276: 3270: 3259: 3251: 3247: 3237: 3235: 3220: 3216: 3208: 3202: 3191: 3183:Michele Boldrin 3176: 3172: 3162: 3160: 3147: 3146: 3142: 3132: 3130: 3126: 3111: 3101: 3097: 3074: 3070: 3063: 3049: 3045: 3032: 3030: 3015: 3014: 3010: 2997: 2995: 2980: 2979: 2975: 2965: 2963: 2944: 2943: 2939: 2932: 2916: 2912: 2902: 2900: 2896: 2889: 2883: 2879: 2872: 2856: 2852: 2843: 2841: 2837: 2830: 2826: 2825: 2818: 2812:Wayback Machine 2803: 2799: 2789: 2787: 2786:on 11 July 2014 2774: 2773: 2769: 2761: 2757: 2748: 2746: 2738: 2737: 2733: 2696: 2692: 2684: 2678: 2674: 2666: 2660: 2656: 2648: 2642: 2638: 2632: 2628: 2618: 2616: 2611: 2610: 2606: 2597: 2595: 2579: 2578: 2574: 2564: 2562: 2551: 2544: 2534: 2532: 2519: 2518: 2514: 2507: 2503: 2494: 2490: 2481: 2477: 2469: 2465: 2459:vol. 11. p. 303 2446: 2426: 2422: 2416:vol. 41. p. 290 2403: 2383: 2379: 2372: 2356: 2352: 2345: 2331: 2327: 2320: 2306: 2302: 2294: 2287: 2280: 2264: 2260: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2242: 2241: 2237: 2229: 2218: 2212:Wayback Machine 2192: 2185: 2175: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2164: 2160: 2150: 2148: 2146: 2122: 2118: 2108: 2106: 2098: 2097: 2093: 2083: 2081: 2076: 2075: 2071: 2061: 2059: 2057: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2020: 1978: 1961: 1948: 1905: 1902:, 11 March 2018 1900:Financial Times 1898: 1896: 1892: 1884: 1767: 1736:Adelphi Charter 1627:patent thickets 1584: 1519:has increased. 1497: 1481:Alexandre Oliva 1450:Lawrence Lessig 1394: 1353: 1347: 1344: 1323: 1319: 1312: 1302: 1276: 1238: 1214: 1208: 1195: 1189: 1157: 1151: 1133: 1127: 1119:nuclear weapons 1107: 1101: 1029: 986: 984:Economic growth 951:Michele Boldrin 942: 933: 925:commodification 912: 875: 869: 857: 851: 819: 813: 798: 792: 790:Plant varieties 776: 770: 753: 747: 718: 712: 700:database rights 650: 553:(1883) and the 509:Millar v Taylor 493:Statute of Anne 469:Statute of Anne 461: 453:Main articles: 451: 351: 315: 311: 226:Copyright troll 115:Farmers' rights 95:Authors' rights 69: 52: 47: 46: 45: 44: 43: 42: 26: 12: 11: 5: 8902: 8892: 8891: 8886: 8881: 8876: 8871: 8854: 8853: 8851: 8850: 8849: 8848: 8838: 8826: 8823: 8822: 8820: 8819: 8818: 8817: 8805: 8804: 8803: 8791: 8790: 8789: 8777: 8772: 8771: 8770: 8758: 8757: 8756: 8744: 8739: 8734: 8733: 8732: 8720: 8719: 8718: 8706: 8705: 8704: 8692: 8687: 8685:Garrett Hardin 8682: 8681: 8680: 8668: 8667: 8666: 8654: 8649: 8648: 8647: 8634: 8632: 8620: 8619: 8617: 8616: 8611: 8610: 8609: 8604: 8599: 8594: 8584: 8583: 8582: 8577: 8576: 8575: 8570: 8562: 8557: 8547: 8542: 8537: 8532: 8527: 8522: 8517: 8512: 8507: 8502: 8497: 8496: 8495: 8490: 8480: 8473: 8468: 8463: 8458: 8456:Eminent domain 8453: 8448: 8447: 8446: 8439:Bioprospecting 8435: 8433: 8431:redistribution 8422: 8421: 8418: 8417: 8415: 8414: 8413: 8412: 8407: 8397: 8392: 8387: 8386: 8385: 8373: 8368: 8367: 8366: 8361: 8356: 8346: 8341: 8340: 8339: 8329: 8324: 8319: 8314: 8308: 8306: 8302: 8301: 8299: 8298: 8297: 8296: 8291: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8266: 8261: 8260: 8259: 8249: 8242: 8237: 8236: 8235: 8230: 8225: 8215: 8207: 8198: 8192: 8188: 8187: 8185: 8184: 8183: 8182: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8161: 8160: 8155: 8150: 8140: 8135: 8133:Natural rights 8130: 8125: 8124: 8123: 8113: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8088: 8087: 8086: 8081: 8071: 8066: 8061: 8060: 8059: 8049: 8043: 8041: 8037: 8036: 8034: 8033: 8028: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8008: 8002: 8000: 7994: 7993: 7991: 7990: 7989: 7988: 7978: 7973: 7972: 7971: 7961: 7956: 7951: 7945: 7943: 7939: 7938: 7936: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7910: 7905: 7900: 7895: 7890: 7885: 7880: 7875: 7869: 7867: 7863: 7862: 7855: 7854: 7847: 7840: 7832: 7823: 7822: 7820: 7819: 7812: 7805: 7791: 7788:Law portal 7776: 7773: 7772: 7770: 7769: 7768: 7767: 7756: 7754: 7750: 7749: 7747: 7746: 7741: 7736: 7731: 7726: 7721: 7720: 7719: 7709: 7708: 7707: 7697: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7677: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7646: 7644: 7640: 7639: 7637: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7624:Trial advocacy 7621: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7605: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7584: 7579: 7574: 7564: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7538: 7537: 7532: 7522: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7471: 7469: 7463: 7462: 7460: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7378: 7376: 7372: 7371: 7369: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7347: 7346: 7336: 7335: 7334: 7329: 7324: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7308: 7307: 7292: 7287: 7282: 7277: 7271: 7269: 7263: 7262: 7260: 7259: 7254: 7253: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7232: 7231: 7230: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7204: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7183: 7182: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7161: 7156: 7154:Ballot measure 7150: 7148: 7142: 7141: 7139: 7138: 7133: 7131:Legal treatise 7128: 7127: 7126: 7121: 7111: 7110: 7109: 7099: 7097:Letters patent 7094: 7089: 7088: 7087: 7077: 7072: 7067: 7058: 7052: 7050: 7048:Sources of law 7044: 7043: 7041: 7040: 7035: 7033:Unenforced law 7030: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6979: 6978: 6973: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6852: 6847: 6842: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6805:Commercial law 6802: 6797: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6771: 6769: 6765: 6764: 6762: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6745: 6744: 6734: 6729: 6724: 6723: 6722: 6717: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6671: 6670: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6639: 6637: 6633: 6632: 6625: 6624: 6617: 6610: 6602: 6593: 6592: 6590: 6589: 6582: 6575: 6568: 6561: 6553: 6551: 6547: 6546: 6544: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6516:Rick Falkvinge 6513: 6508: 6502: 6500: 6496: 6495: 6492: 6491: 6489: 6488: 6483: 6481:Shadow library 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6456:The Pirate Bay 6453: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6427: 6425: 6421: 6420: 6418: 6417: 6411: 6409: 6402: 6398: 6397: 6395: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6377:Anti-copyright 6374: 6368: 6366: 6362: 6361: 6359: 6358: 6353: 6348: 6347: 6346: 6336: 6335: 6334: 6329: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6243: 6241: 6237: 6236: 6234: 6233: 6228: 6227: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6201: 6200: 6199: 6197:Bioprospecting 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6173: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6111: 6109: 6105: 6104: 6096: 6095: 6088: 6081: 6073: 6067: 6066: 6060: 6046: 6030: 6029: 6024: 6018: 6017: 6006: 6005: 5985: 5978: 5977: 5976: 5974: 5973:External links 5971: 5969: 5968: 5962: 5949: 5939: 5936: 5929: 5923: 5908: 5905: 5902: 5895: 5889: 5882: 5877: 5859: 5841: 5824: 5812: 5794:O'Reilly Books 5786: 5765: 5756: 5746: 5733: 5728:. New Jersey: 5722: 5704:Gowers, Andrew 5701: 5695: 5682: 5664: 5646: 5621: 5607: 5601: 5591:C. Fritz Foley 5587:Raymond Fisman 5583: 5576: 5563: 5560:Westview Press 5552: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5533: 5511: 5489: 5475: 5461: 5443: 5425: 5407: 5389: 5375: 5355: 5338: 5324: 5321:. August 2015. 5306: 5277: 5274:on 2 May 2019. 5255: 5230: 5217: 5187: 5174: 5165: 5152: 5129: 5113: 5111:, 20 May 2007. 5097: 5081: 5076:Plant Patents 5069: 5056: 5019: 4972: 4957: 4927: 4920: 4900: 4859: 4842: 4827: 4825:(2008), p. 44. 4812: 4799: 4772: 4742: 4729: 4718:(4): 861–882. 4702: 4690: 4659: 4646: 4613: 4604: 4585: 4583:– Ars Technica 4573: 4570:on 2021-10-28. 4547: 4527: 4476: 4463: 4408: 4398: 4381:"What is DRM?" 4372: 4360: 4348: 4320: 4309:on 4 June 2014 4295:Rick Falkvinge 4286: 4273: 4251:Doctorow, Cory 4242: 4217: 4188: 4154: 4123: 4103: 4074: 4045: 4012: 4005: 3966: 3950: 3943: 3923: 3902: 3873: 3854: 3841: 3827: 3784: 3743: 3716:(2): 246–258. 3696: 3678: 3671: 3646: 3637: 3627: 3617: 3579: 3569: 3559: 3549: 3530: 3503: 3481: 3470:on 21 May 2017 3449: 3418: 3384: 3346: 3307: 3282: 3268: 3256:Banking on IP? 3245: 3214: 3200: 3170: 3140: 3095: 3068: 3061: 3043: 3008: 2994:on 3 July 2012 2973: 2937: 2930: 2910: 2899:on 6 June 2012 2877: 2870: 2850: 2816: 2797: 2767: 2755: 2731: 2710:(3): 277–289. 2690: 2672: 2654: 2636: 2626: 2604: 2572: 2542: 2512: 2501: 2488: 2475: 2463: 2420: 2412:Monthly Review 2377: 2370: 2350: 2343: 2325: 2318: 2300: 2285: 2278: 2258: 2235: 2216: 2199:Mark A. Lemley 2183: 2158: 2144: 2116: 2091: 2069: 2055: 2026: 2024: 2021: 2019: 2016: 2015: 2014: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1994: 1989: 1984: 1977: 1974: 1960: 1957: 1947: 1944: 1935: 1934: 1931: 1885: 1883: 1880: 1766: 1763: 1631:nanotechnology 1583: 1580: 1496: 1493: 1393: 1390: 1367:in support of 1355: 1354: 1326: 1324: 1317: 1301: 1298: 1275: 1272: 1249:18 U.S.C. 1244:§ 1831(a) 1227:18 U.S.C. 1210:Main article: 1207: 1204: 1191:Main article: 1188: 1185: 1153:Main article: 1150: 1147: 1129:Main article: 1126: 1123: 1103:Main article: 1100: 1097: 1076: 1075: 1065: 1054: 1028: 1025: 985: 982: 932: 929: 911: 908: 889:, instrument, 871:Main article: 868: 865: 853:Main article: 850: 847: 815:Main article: 812: 809: 794:Main article: 791: 788: 772:Main article: 769: 766: 749:Main article: 746: 743: 714:Main article: 711: 708: 649: 646: 574:United Nations 531:Monthly Review 450: 447: 353: 352: 350: 349: 342: 335: 327: 324: 323: 310: 309: 308: 307: 297: 292: 287: 282: 277: 276: 275: 273:Right to quote 270: 265: 260: 250: 245: 244: 243: 236:Bioprospecting 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 200: 199: 198:Related topics 195: 194: 193: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 165:Related rights 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 137: 132: 127: 122: 117: 112: 110:Database right 107: 102: 97: 89: 88: 80: 79: 50: 28: 22: 19: 17: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8901: 8890: 8887: 8885: 8882: 8880: 8877: 8875: 8872: 8870: 8867: 8866: 8864: 8847: 8844: 8843: 8842: 8839: 8837: 8834:Categories: 8828: 8827: 8824: 8816: 8815: 8811: 8810: 8809: 8806: 8802: 8801: 8797: 8796: 8795: 8792: 8788: 8787: 8783: 8782: 8781: 8778: 8776: 8775:David Ricardo 8773: 8769: 8768: 8764: 8763: 8762: 8759: 8755: 8754: 8750: 8749: 8748: 8745: 8743: 8742:Elinor Ostrom 8740: 8738: 8735: 8731: 8730: 8726: 8725: 8724: 8721: 8717: 8716: 8712: 8711: 8710: 8707: 8703: 8702: 8698: 8697: 8696: 8693: 8691: 8688: 8686: 8683: 8679: 8678: 8674: 8673: 8672: 8669: 8665: 8664: 8660: 8659: 8658: 8655: 8653: 8650: 8646: 8645: 8641: 8640: 8639: 8636: 8635: 8633: 8629: 8621: 8615: 8612: 8608: 8605: 8603: 8600: 8598: 8595: 8593: 8590: 8589: 8588: 8585: 8581: 8578: 8574: 8571: 8569: 8566: 8565: 8563: 8561: 8558: 8556: 8553: 8552: 8551: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8540:Privatization 8538: 8536: 8533: 8531: 8528: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8520:Legal plunder 8518: 8516: 8513: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8494: 8491: 8489: 8486: 8485: 8484: 8481: 8479: 8478: 8474: 8472: 8471:Expropriation 8469: 8467: 8464: 8462: 8459: 8457: 8454: 8452: 8449: 8445: 8442: 8441: 8440: 8437: 8436: 8434: 8432: 8427: 8423: 8411: 8408: 8406: 8403: 8402: 8401: 8398: 8396: 8393: 8391: 8388: 8384: 8383: 8379: 8378: 8377: 8374: 8372: 8369: 8365: 8362: 8360: 8357: 8355: 8352: 8351: 8350: 8347: 8345: 8342: 8338: 8335: 8334: 8333: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8313: 8310: 8309: 8307: 8303: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8271: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8258: 8255: 8254: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8247: 8243: 8241: 8238: 8234: 8231: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8220: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8212: 8208: 8206: 8205:(watercourse) 8204: 8200: 8199: 8196: 8193: 8189: 8181: 8178: 8177: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8163: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8148:primogeniture 8146: 8145: 8144: 8141: 8139: 8136: 8134: 8131: 8129: 8128:Legal plunder 8126: 8122: 8119: 8118: 8117: 8114: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8079:appropriation 8077: 8076: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8069:Excludability 8067: 8065: 8062: 8058: 8055: 8054: 8053: 8050: 8048: 8045: 8044: 8042: 8038: 8032: 8029: 8027: 8024: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8003: 8001: 7999: 7995: 7987: 7984: 7983: 7982: 7979: 7977: 7974: 7970: 7967: 7966: 7965: 7962: 7960: 7957: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7947: 7946: 7944: 7940: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7904: 7901: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7889: 7886: 7884: 7881: 7879: 7876: 7874: 7871: 7870: 7868: 7864: 7860: 7853: 7848: 7846: 7841: 7839: 7834: 7833: 7830: 7818: 7817: 7813: 7811: 7810: 7806: 7804: 7803: 7792: 7790: 7789: 7784: 7778: 7777: 7774: 7766: 7763: 7762: 7761: 7758: 7757: 7755: 7751: 7745: 7742: 7740: 7737: 7735: 7732: 7730: 7727: 7725: 7722: 7718: 7715: 7714: 7713: 7710: 7706: 7703: 7702: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7693: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7670:Civil society 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7647: 7645: 7641: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7629:Trier of fact 7627: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7569: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7527: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7515:Legal opinion 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7495:Court-martial 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7472: 7470: 7468: 7467:Jurisprudence 7464: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7379: 7377: 7373: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7356:Statutory law 7354: 7352: 7351:Socialist law 7349: 7345: 7344:Byzantine law 7342: 7341: 7340: 7337: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7306: 7303: 7302: 7301: 7298: 7297: 7296: 7295:Religious law 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7272: 7270: 7268: 7267:Legal systems 7264: 7258: 7255: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7237: 7236: 7235:Statutory law 7233: 7229: 7226: 7225: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7188: 7187: 7184: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7166: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7151: 7149: 7147: 7143: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7116: 7115: 7112: 7108: 7105: 7104: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7090: 7086: 7083: 7082: 7081: 7078: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7065:Statutory law 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7053: 7051: 7049: 7045: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7023:Transport law 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6968: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6941:Legal fiction 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6871:Financial law 6869: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6830:Corporate law 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6772: 6770: 6766: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6754:Statutory law 6752: 6750: 6747: 6743: 6740: 6739: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6712: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6669: 6666: 6665: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6640: 6638: 6636:Core subjects 6634: 6630: 6623: 6618: 6616: 6611: 6609: 6604: 6603: 6600: 6588: 6587: 6583: 6581: 6580: 6576: 6574: 6573: 6569: 6567: 6566: 6562: 6560: 6559: 6555: 6554: 6552: 6550:Documentaries 6548: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6506:Cory Doctorow 6504: 6503: 6501: 6497: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6428: 6426: 6422: 6416: 6413: 6412: 6410: 6408:Pro-copyright 6406: 6403: 6401:Organizations 6399: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6363: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6345: 6342: 6341: 6340: 6337: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6324: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6244: 6242: 6238: 6232: 6231:Public domain 6229: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6206: 6205: 6202: 6198: 6195: 6194: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6152: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6112: 6110: 6106: 6101: 6094: 6089: 6087: 6082: 6080: 6075: 6074: 6071: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6044: 6039: 6035: 6034: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6000: 5999: 5998: 5992: 5988: 5965: 5959: 5955: 5950: 5947: 5943: 5940: 5937: 5934: 5930: 5928: 5927:mtholyoke.edu 5924: 5921: 5920:0-314-06599-7 5917: 5913: 5909: 5906: 5903: 5900: 5896: 5894: 5890: 5887: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5860: 5857: 5856:0-314-23519-1 5853: 5849: 5845: 5842: 5839: 5838: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5823: 5819: 5818: 5813: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5802:0-596-51796-3 5799: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5784: 5780: 5777: 5773: 5772:Penguin Press 5769: 5766: 5763: 5762: 5757: 5755: 5751: 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MIT Press. 4913: 4912: 4904: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4863: 4856: 4852: 4846: 4839: 4838: 4831: 4824: 4823: 4816: 4809: 4803: 4787: 4783: 4776: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4749: 4747: 4740: 4739: 4733: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4706: 4700: 4694: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4663: 4656: 4650: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4617: 4608: 4601: 4597: 4594: 4589: 4582: 4577: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4551: 4543: 4539: 4534:On patents – 4531: 4523: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4480: 4473: 4467: 4460: 4455: 4451: 4446: 4441: 4436: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4412: 4402: 4386: 4382: 4376: 4369: 4364: 4358: 4352: 4334: 4330: 4324: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4290: 4283: 4277: 4262: 4261: 4256: 4252: 4246: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4224: 4222: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4192: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4158: 4144:on 2017-08-09 4140: 4133: 4127: 4120: 4116: 4113: 4107: 4091: 4087: 4084: 4078: 4062: 4058: 4055: 4049: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4016: 4008: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3963: 3957: 3955: 3946: 3940: 3936: 3935: 3927: 3919: 3912: 3906: 3895: 3891: 3890:portal.unesco 3884: 3877: 3871: 3867: 3864: 3858: 3851: 3845: 3839: 3836: 3831: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3788: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3747: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3700: 3693: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3674: 3672:9780451147950 3668: 3663: 3662: 3656: 3650: 3641: 3631: 3621: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3586: 3584: 3573: 3563: 3553: 3545: 3541: 3534: 3518: 3514: 3507: 3491: 3485: 3469: 3465: 3464: 3459: 3453: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3422: 3406: 3402: 3395: 3388: 3373:on 7 May 2012 3369: 3365: 3364: 3356: 3350: 3331: 3327: 3325: 3317: 3311: 3296: 3292: 3286: 3275: 3271: 3265: 3258: 3257: 3249: 3233: 3232: 3226: 3218: 3207: 3203: 3197: 3190: 3189: 3184: 3180: 3179:Levine, David 3174: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3144: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3110: 3106: 3099: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3072: 3064: 3058: 3054: 3047: 3040: 3028: 3024: 3023: 3018: 3017:"Trade Marks" 3012: 3005: 2993: 2989: 2988: 2983: 2977: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2952: 2947: 2941: 2933: 2927: 2923: 2922: 2914: 2895: 2888: 2881: 2873: 2867: 2863: 2862: 2854: 2840:on 2020-11-11 2836: 2829: 2823: 2821: 2813: 2809: 2806: 2801: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2771: 2764: 2759: 2745: 2741: 2735: 2727: 2723: 2718: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2694: 2683: 2676: 2665: 2658: 2647: 2640: 2630: 2614: 2608: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2585:The Economist 2582: 2576: 2560: 2556: 2549: 2547: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2516: 2510: 2505: 2498: 2492: 2485: 2479: 2472: 2467: 2460: 2456: 2450: 2442: 2438: 2437: 2431: 2424: 2417: 2413: 2407: 2399: 2395: 2394: 2388: 2381: 2373: 2367: 2363: 2362: 2354: 2346: 2340: 2336: 2329: 2321: 2315: 2311: 2304: 2297: 2292: 2290: 2281: 2275: 2271: 2270: 2262: 2245: 2239: 2233:, p. 17. 2232: 2227: 2225: 2223: 2221: 2213: 2209: 2206: 2205: 2200: 2196: 2190: 2188: 2168: 2162: 2147: 2145:9789280532210 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2128: 2120: 2105: 2101: 2095: 2079: 2073: 2058: 2056:9789280525939 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2039: 2031: 2027: 2013: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2003: 2000: 1998: 1995: 1993: 1990: 1988: 1985: 1983: 1980: 1979: 1973: 1970: 1965: 1956: 1954: 1943: 1941: 1932: 1929: 1925: 1924: 1923: 1921: 1916: 1914: 1910: 1909:tax avoidance 1904: 1901: 1895: 1889: 1879: 1877: 1873: 1868: 1866: 1865:accessibility 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1849:public domain 1846: 1842: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1808: 1806: 1801: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1786: 1784: 1778: 1771: 1762: 1760: 1756: 1755:remix culture 1751: 1749: 1745: 1739: 1737: 1734:launched the 1733: 1727: 1725: 1718: 1716: 1711: 1706: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1674: 1669: 1665: 1660: 1657: 1653: 1651: 1645: 1640: 1638: 1634: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1600: 1597: 1593: 1588: 1579: 1577: 1573: 1568: 1566: 1565: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1492: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1479: 1475: 1470: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1455: 1451: 1446: 1443: 1437: 1434: 1430: 1425: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1386: 1382: 1377: 1370: 1366: 1361: 1351: 1342: 1338: 1337: 1332: 1331: 1325: 1316: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1279: 1271: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1245: 1241: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1213: 1203: 1200: 1194: 1184: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1163:, or to make 1162: 1156: 1146: 1143: 1139: 1132: 1122: 1120: 1116: 1111: 1106: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1087: 1082: 1080: 1073: 1069: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1055: 1052: 1049: 1048: 1047: 1044: 1040: 1038: 1034: 1024: 1022: 1018: 1013: 1011: 1006: 1004: 998: 993: 991: 981: 979: 974: 972: 968: 963: 959: 954: 952: 948: 939: 928: 926: 922: 916: 907: 905: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 874: 867:Trade secrets 864: 861: 856: 846: 844: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 818: 808: 806: 802: 797: 787: 785: 784:design patent 781: 775: 765: 762: 758: 752: 742: 740: 736: 732: 727: 723: 717: 707: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 688: 683: 682:trade secrets 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 645: 641: 637: 635: 630: 625: 623: 618: 616: 612: 608: 604: 598: 595: 591: 585: 583: 582:Bayh–Dole Act 579: 575: 571: 567: 562: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 535: 533: 532: 527: 523: 522: 517: 516: 511: 510: 504: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 470: 465: 460: 456: 446: 443: 438: 436: 430: 428: 427:legal systems 423: 419: 418:trade secrets 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 388: 384: 380: 379: 374: 370: 369: 364: 359: 348: 343: 341: 336: 334: 329: 328: 326: 325: 322: 318: 314: 306: 303: 302: 301: 298: 296: 295:Public domain 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 281: 278: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 255: 254: 251: 249: 246: 242: 239: 238: 237: 234: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 207: 204: 203: 202: 201: 197: 196: 191: 190:Utility model 188: 186: 183: 181: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 141: 138: 136: 133: 131: 128: 126: 123: 121: 118: 116: 113: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 92: 91: 90: 86: 82: 81: 78: 75: 74: 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