Flower - Knowledge

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outcrossing on progeny is also recognized as hybrid vigour or heterosis. Once outcrossing is established due to the benefits of genetic complementation, subsequent switching to inbreeding becomes disadvantageous because it allows the expression of the previously masked deleterious recessive mutations, usually referred to as inbreeding depression. Charles Darwin in his 1889 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom at the beginning of chapter XII noted, “The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented.”

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modifying the frequency (or rather wavelength) of the light reflected. Most flowers absorb light in the blue to yellow region of the spectrum and reflect light from the green to red region of the spectrum. For many species of flowering plant, it is the transition point that characterizes the color that they produce. Color may be modulated by shifting the transition point between absorption and reflection and in this way a flowering plant may specify which pollinator it seeks to attract. Some flowering plants also have a limited ability to modulate areas of absorption. This is typically not as precise as control over wavelength. Humans observers will perceive this as degrees of

1544: 1988: 1206: 1526: 2173: 2239: 1042: 786: 3114: 1778: 1932: 2393: 1750: 2639: 1564: 683: 2773: 511: 203: 2683: 901: 9076: 721:. These gene functions are called A, B, and C. Genes are expressed in only the outer and lower most section of the apical meristem, which becomes a whorl of sepals. In the second whorl, both A and B genes are expressed, leading to the formation of petals. In the third whorl, B and C genes interact to form stamens and in the center of the flower C genes alone give rise to carpels. The model is based upon studies of aberrant flowers and mutations in 309:, or corolla, are almost or completely fiberless leaf-like structures that form the innermost whorl of the perianth. They are often delicate and thin and are usually colored, shaped, or scented to encourage pollination. Although similar to leaves in shape, they are more comparable to stamens in that they form almost simultaneously with one another, but their subsequent growth is delayed. If the corolla is fused together it is called sympetalous. 1417: 2580: 2106: 2061:

proposed reason for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island, or chain of islands, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example), the way many island species develop today. This symbiotic relationship, with a hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way

7821: 324: 49: 1028: 2834: 1092:. They do not need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to grow large, showy, or colorful flowers, and do not have nectaries, nor a noticeable scent. Because of this, plants typically have many thousands of tiny flowers which have comparatively large, feathery stigmas; to increase the chance of pollen being received. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers is usually large, sticky, and rich in 838:, and this is typically reflected in the morphology of the flowers and the behavior of the plants. Pollen may be transferred between plants via several 'vectors,' or methods. Around 80% of flowering plants make use of biotic or living vectors. Others use abiotic, or non-living, vectors and some plants make use of multiple vectors, but most are highly specialized. 733:. For example, when there is a loss of B gene function, mutant flowers are produced with sepals in the first whorl as usual, but also in the second whorl instead of the normal petal formation. In the third whorl, the lack of the B function but the presence of the C function mimics the fourth whorl, leading to the formation of carpels also in the third whorl. 1133:, or protective layer, around the pollen grain. Paul Knuth identified two types of hydrophilous pollination in 1906 and Ernst Schwarzenbach added a third in 1944. Knuth named his two groups 'Hyphydrogamy' and the more common 'Ephydrogamy'. In hyphydrogamy pollination occurs below the surface of the water and so the pollen grains are typically negatively 591:. The use of schematic diagrams can replace long descriptions or complicated drawings as a tool for understanding both floral structure and evolution. Such diagrams may show important features of flowers, including the relative positions of the various organs, including the presence of fusion and symmetry, as well as structural details. 1953:, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by 1141:. Marine flowers have floating thread-like stigmas and may have adaptations for the tide, while freshwater species create indentations in the water. The third category, set out by Schwarzenbach, is those flowers which transport pollen above the water through conveyance. This ranges from floating plants, ( 1389:

Whereas in fertilization only plasmogamy, or the fusion of the whole sex cells, results, in Angiosperms (flowering plants) a process known as double fertilization, which involves both karyogamy and plasmogamy, occurs. In double fertilization the second sperm cell subsequently also enters the synergid

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The principal adaptive function of flowers is the promotion of cross-pollination or outcrossing, a process that allows the masking of deleterious mutations in the genome of progeny. The masking effect of outcrossing sexual reproduction is known as “genetic complementation”. This beneficial effect of

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have 8 stamens etc.), while class eleven has 11–20 stamens and classes twelve and thirteen have 20 stamens; differing only in their point of attachment. The next five classes deal with the length of the stamens and the final five with the nature of the reproductive capability of the plant; where the

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The general assumption is that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve animals in the reproduction process. Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes, which would therefore be a liability, using the plant's resources, unless they provide some other benefit. One

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Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-pollination and hence, self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The latter flower types,

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Cross-pollination is the pollination of the carpel by pollen from a different plant of the same species. Because the genetic make-up of the sperm contained within the pollen from the other plant is different, their combination will result in a new, genetically distinct, plant, through the process of

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Although this arrangement is considered "typical", plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. The four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions

2207:) relies on the modulation of pigments that divide the spectrum into broad areas of absorption. Flowering plants by contrast are able to shift the transition point wavelength between absorption and reflection. If it is assumed that the visual systems of most pollinators view the visible spectrum as 2091:

Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that many of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with

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Following the pollination of a flower, fertilization, and finally the development of a seed and fruit, a mechanism is typically used to disperse the fruit away from the plant. In Angiosperms (flowering plants) seeds are dispersed away from the plant so as to not force competition between the mother

965:. Flowers pollinated by night visitors, including bats and moths, are likely to concentrate on scent to attract pollinators and so most such flowers are white. Some plants pollinated by bats have a sonar-reflecting petal above its flowers, which helps the bat find them, and one species, the cactus 865:

in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers

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structure can be very important, because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants, a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots. The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate

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by a human observer. An important feature of white flowers is that they reflect equally across the visible spectrum. While many flowering plants use white to attract pollinators, the use of color is also widespread (even within the same species). Color allows a flowering plant to be more specific

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then it may be said that flowering plants produce color by absorbing the light in one region of the spectrum and reflecting the light in the other region. With CMYK, color is produced as a function of the amplitude of the broad regions of absorption. Flowering plants by contrast produce color by

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Since the flowers are the reproductive organs of the plant, they mediate the joining of the sperm, contained within pollen, to the ovules — contained in the ovary. Pollination is the movement of pollen from the anthers to the stigma. Normally pollen is moved from one plant to another, known as

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The first step of the transition is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia. This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change the cellular differentiation of leaf, bud and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into the reproductive organs. Growth of the

1137:. For marine plants that exhibit this method, the stigmas are usually stiff, while freshwater species have small and feathery stigmas. In ephydrogamy pollination occurs on the surface of the water and so the pollen has a low density to enable floating, though many also use rafts, and are 1289:

mean that plants are producing more pollen, which is also more allergenic. Pollen is difficult to avoid, however, because of its small size and prevalence in the natural environment. Most of the pollen which causes allergies is that produced by wind-dispersed pollinators such as the

815:, however, can also be employed. To accomplish this, flowers have specific designs which encourage the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of the same species. The period during which this process can take place (when the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called 1263:, it rubs off the stigmatic covering and allows for pollen from the bird to enter the stigma. If no pollinators visit, however, then the stigmatic covering falls off naturally to allow for the flower's own anthers to pollinate the flower through self-pollination. 1502:. The size, shape, toughness, and thickness varies among different fruit. This is because it is directly connected to the method of seed dispersal; that being the purpose of fruit - to encourage or enable the seed's dispersal and protect the seed while doing so. 995:

Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating organisms. Many flowers, for example, attract only one specific species of insect and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction. This close relationship is an example of

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of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. This is how early plants reproduced. But plants soon evolved methods of protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other damage which is even more likely on land than in the sea. The protection became the

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refers specifically to plants adapted to grow fruit in order to attract animals to eat them. Once eaten they go through typically go through animal's digestive system and are dispersed away from the plant. Some seeds are specially adapted either to last in the

370:. Although they exhibit the widest variation among floral organs, the androecium is usually confined just to one whorl and to two whorls only in rare cases. Stamens range in number, size, shape, orientation, and in their point of connection to the flower. 2033:, which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering plants, though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves, because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail; one of the earliest examples of 2073:, especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. 1163:

Flowers can be pollinated by two mechanisms; cross-pollination and self-pollination. No mechanism is indisputably better than the other as they each have their advantages and disadvantages. Plants use one or both of these mechanisms depending on their

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pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits. Many flowers rely on simple proximity between flower parts to ensure pollination, while others have elaborate designs to ensure pollination and prevent

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The flower-giving tradition goes back to prehistoric times when flowers often had a medicinal and herbal attributes. Archaeologists found in several grave sites remnants of flower petals. Flowers were first used as sacrificial and burial objects.

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Wind and water are common abiotic seed dispersal mechanisms, but there are several biotic dispersal mechanisms, such as movement via animals by adhesion (epizoochory) or ingestion (endozoochory), and even movement resulting from human activities

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mature at the same time, and are positioned so that the pollen can land on the flower's stigma. This pollination does not require an investment from the plant to provide nectar and pollen as food for pollinators. Some flowers produce

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remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland organisms, flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production, spreading (whatever their actual origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life.

2057:(female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary inferior". 691:

central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end. These protuberances develop into the sepals, petals, stamens, and

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Plants cannot move from one location to another, thus many flowers have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed populations. Most commonly, flowers are insect-pollinated, known as

623:. Taking into account the whole diversity in the development of the androecium of flowering plants, we find a continuum between modified leaves (phyllomes), modified stems (caulomes), and modified branchlets (shoots). 761:

inside anthers and megaspores are produced inside ovules that are within an ovary. Anthers typically consist of four microsporangia and an ovule is an integumented megasporangium. Both types of spores develop into

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to attract pollinators. Many orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees or wasps in color, shape, and scent. Males move from one flower to the next in search of a mate, pollinating the flowers.

584:(2010) devised an extension of the existing model to broaden the descriptive capability of the formula. The format of floral formulae differs in different parts of the world, yet they convey the same information. 484:. In some species of plants, the flowers are imperfect or unisexual: having only either male (stamen) or female (carpel) parts. If unisexual male and female flowers appear on the same plant, the species is called 3045:

in Spain. Many cultures draw a connection between flowers and life and death, and because of their seasonal return flowers also suggest rebirth, which may explain why many people place flowers upon graves. The

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detach the entire shoot to let the seeds roll away with the wind. Another common adaptation are wings, plumes or balloon-like structures that let the seeds stay in the air for longer and hence travel farther.

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and folklore. It is common for students to give flowers to their teachers. To give yellow flowers in a romantic relationship means breakup in Russia. Nowadays, flowers are often given away in the form of a

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Because of their varied and colorful appearance, flowers have long been a favorite subject of visual artists as well. Some of the most celebrated paintings from well-known painters are of flowers, such as

951:, though not all flower scents are appealing to humans; several flowers are pollinated by insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals. These are often called 373:

In general, there is only one type of stamen, but there are plant species where the flowers have two types; a "normal" one and one with anthers that produce sterile pollen meant to attract pollinators.

4377:"CHAPTER 2 - an Outline of the History of Anthecology, or Pollination Biology**Based on, but expanded and updated from, a paper published in the N.Z. J. Bot. (Baker, 1979), by permission of the editor" 3082: 2803:

have been used as a replacement for traditional tea in China for centuries. Most recently many other herbs and flowers used traditionally across the world are gaining importance to preapare a range of

182:, which referred to both the ground grain and the reproductive structure in plants, before splitting off in the 17th century. It comes originally from the Latin name of the Italian goddess of flowers, 2080:

used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the flower. This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it, and thus scattering the seeds it contains.

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as a whole is better prepared for an adverse occurrence in the environment. Cross-pollination, therefore, increases the survival of the species and is usually preferred by flowers for this reason.

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which involves neither the digestion of the seeds, nor the unintentional carrying of the seed on the body, but the deliberate carrying of the seeds by the animals. This is usually in the mouth or

695:. Once this process begins, in most plants, it cannot be reversed and the stems develop flowers, even if the initial start of the flower formation event was dependent on some environmental cue. 7235: 7270: 3799: 1216:

Self-pollination is the pollination of the carpel of a flower by pollen from either the same flower or another flower on the same plant, leading to the creation of a genetic clone through

6518: 1155:). Most species in this group have dry, spherical pollen which sometimes forms into larger masses, and female flowers which form depressions in the water; the method of transport varies. 580:, usually giving ranges of the numbers of different organs, or particular species. Floral formulae have been developed in the early 19th century and their use has declined since. Prenner 5938:

Seeds on plants can be dispersed via a variety of primary dispersal mechanisms, including abiotic factors, like wind or ballistic projection, or biotic factors, like fruit-eating birds.

1100:. In order for the wind to effectively pick up and transport the pollen, the flowers typically have anthers loosely attached to the end of long thin filaments, or pollen forms around a 1586:

and the daughter plants, as well as to enable the colonization of new areas. They are often divided into two categories, though many plants fall in between or in one or more of these:

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is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols, presenting substantial information about the flower in a compact form. It can represent a

133:, when pollen is transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species. Self-pollination happens in flowers where the 3089: 534:. Some inflorescences are composed of many small flowers arranged in a formation that resembles a single flower. A common example of this is most members of the very large composite ( 1818:

involves using the wind as a vector to disperse plant's seeds. Because these seeds have to travel in the wind, they are almost always small — sometimes even dust-like, have a high

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Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277-81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363

1964:, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. An early fossil of a flowering plant, 8906: 2566:. Apart from the association with Vishnu, the Hindu tradition also considers the lotus to have spiritual significance. For example, it figures in the Hindu stories of creation. 7329: 1847:

These plants fall into three categories: ones where seeds are dispersed on the surface of water currents, under the surface of water currents, and by rain landing on a plant.

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with pollinators to be mutually dependent on services they provide to one another—in the plant's case, a means of reproduction; in the pollinator's case, a source of food.

3326: 2297:). This method of classification, despite being artificial, was used extensively for the following seven decades, before being replaced by the system of another botanist. 1235:

The extreme case of self-fertilization, when the ovule is fertilized by pollen from the same flower or plant, occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize, such as many

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First, the effect may be direct, as, for example, the loss of one of the interacting partners in species-specific interactions may lead to the extinction of the other.

4816:"Pollinator specificity, floral odour chemistry and the phylogeny of Australian sexually deceptive Chiloglottis orchids: implications for pollinator-driven speciation" 3304: 2698:

In modern times, people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or otherwise be around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of their agreeable appearance and

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The transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life cycle. The transition must take place at a time that is favorable for

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History shows that flowers have been used by humans for thousands of years, to serve a variety of purposes. An early example of this is from about 4,500 years ago in

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Flowers have long been appreciated for their beauty and pleasant scents, and also hold cultural significance as religious, ritual, or symbolic objects, or sources of

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to give their egg yolks a golden yellow color, which consumers find more desirable; dried and ground marigold flowers are also used as a spice and coloring agent in

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Most flowering plants depend on animals, such as bees, moths, and butterflies, to transfer their pollen between different flowers, and have evolved to attract these

8911: 1486:. All the other main floral parts die during this development, including: the style, stigma, sepals, stamens, and petals. The fruit contains three structures: the 1220:. This increases the reliability of producing seeds, the rate at which they can be produced, and lowers the amount energy needed. But, most importantly, it limits 6081: 5957:"In-Field Movement of Glyphosate-Resistant Palmer Amaranth (Amaranthus palmen) and Its Impact on Cotton Lint Yield: Evidence Supporting a Zero-Threshold Strategy" 1000:, as the flower and pollinator have developed together over a long period to match each other's needs. This close relationship compounds the negative effects of 2018:

to the rest of the flowering plants, and morphological studies suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants.

1672:. Typically their fruit are fleshy, have a high nutritional value, and may have chemical attractants as an additional "reward" for dispersers. This is reflected 431:, the petals are greatly reduced; in many species, the sepals are colorful and petal-like. Other flowers have modified petal-like stamens; the double flowers of 807:, which contributes to the survival of the species. Many flowers depend on external factors for pollination, such as the wind, water, animals, and especially 1865:, plants create their own vectors to transport the seeds away from them. Adaptations for this usually involve the fruits exploding and forcing the seeds away 611:

meaning the axis grows to a set size). It has compressed internodes, bearing structures that in classical plant morphology are interpreted as highly modified

7447: 226:; and the reproductive or sexual parts. A stereotypical flower is made up of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk or axis, called a 7295: 6785: 4324:

he honey possum, Tarsipes rostratus (Turner 1983). This marsupial is highly specialized for feeding at flowers and known to visit several species of Banksia

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of plant's flowers are used extensively – and have been for thousands of years. Although the history of plant taxonomy extends back to at least around 300

6983: 3277: 1984:, discovered in Spain) was claimed to be 130 million years old. In 2018, scientists reported that the earliest flowers began about 180 million years ago. 281:, collectively called the calyx, are modified leaves that occur on the outermost whorl of the flower. They are leaf-like, in that they have a broad base, 976:

that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant. Other flowers use mimicry or

9044: 3830: 7468: 1096:(to act as a "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is typically small-grained, very light, smooth, and of little nutritional value to 713:

responsible for the development of flowers. Three gene activities interact in a combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities of the

675:, including Constans, Flowering Locus C, and Flowering Locus T. Florigen is produced in the leaves in reproductively favorable conditions and acts in 480:

In the majority of species, individual flowers have both carpels and stamens. These flowers are described by botanists as being perfect, bisexual, or

6142: 5119: 4105:"The transcription factor FLC confers a flowering response to vernalization by repressing meristem competence and systemic signalling in Arabidopsis" 7259: 7225: 7187: 4402: 2092:

human crops, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.

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which runs down through the style and into the ovary. After penetrating the center-most part of the ovary it enters the egg apparatus and into one

969:, has flowers that are surrounded by an area of sound-absorbent and woolly hairs called the cephalium, which absorbs the bat's ultrasound instead. 4787: 6806: 5807: 1070:) species, the tiny pollen grains are carried, sometimes many thousands of kilometers, by the wind to other flowers. Common examples include the 6546: 6510: 3852: 2562:

mythology, flowers have a significant status. Vishnu, one of the three major gods in the Hindu system, is often depicted standing straight on a

1366:. At this point the end of the pollen tube bursts and releases the two sperm cells, one of which makes its way to an egg, while also losing its 1004:, however, since the extinction of either member in such a relationship would almost certainly mean the extinction of the other member as well. 6613: 3138: 841:

Though some fit between or outside of these groups, most flowers can be divided between the following two broad groups of pollination methods:

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of a flower, or its form and structure, can be considered in two parts: the vegetative part, consisting of non-reproductive structures such as

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Bowler DE, Benton TG (May 2005). "Causes and consequences of animal dispersal strategies: relating individual behaviour to spatial dynamics".

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Sofiev, M.; Siljamo, P.; Ranta, H.; Linkosalo, T.; Jaeger, S.; Rasmussen, A.; Rantio-Lehtimaki, A.; Severova, E.; Kukkonen, J. (2013-01-01).

3060:, placed a crown of flowers on the head of the deceased; they also covered tombs with wreaths and flower petals. Flowers were widely used in 1728: 1239:. Some flowers are self-pollinated and have flowers that never open or are self-pollinated before the flowers open; these flowers are called 6349: 3521: 129:, producing seed using pollen from a different flower of the same plant, but others have mechanisms to prevent self-pollination and rely on 8962: 6730: 2804: 7068: 2281:, the latter of which is still used around the world today. He identified 24 classes, based mainly on the number, length and union of the 550:—an inflorescence composed of numerous flowers (or florets). An inflorescence may include specialized stems and modified leaves known as 7386: 5038: 2445:

are used in burials as a symbol referring to "resurrection/life". It is also associated with stars (sun) and its petals blooming/shining.

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in three volumes between 1862 and 1883. It is the most highly regarded and deemed the "best system of classification," in some settings.

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Sattler, R. (1988). "A dynamic multidimensional approach to floral development". In Leins, P.; Tucker, S.C. & Endress, P.K. (eds.).

2025:, there is some circumstantial evidence of flowers as much as 250 million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers, 7318: 2307:

set out a new method for classifying plants; based instead on natural characteristics. Plants were divided by the number, if any, of

2180:. A red rose absorbs about 99.7% of light across a broad area below the red wavelengths of the spectrum, leading to an exceptionally 1883:

Because of the relatively small distances that these methods can disperse their seeds, they are often paired with an external vector.

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which combined affect between 10 and 50% of people worldwide. This number appears to be growing, as the temperature increases due to

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Darwin, C. R. 1876. The effects of cross and self-fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. London: John Murray". darwin-online.org.uk

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The great variety of delicate and beautiful flowers has inspired the works of numerous poets, especially from the 18th–19th century

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In abiotic dispersal plants use the vectors of the wind, water, or a mechanism of their own to transport their seeds away from them.

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Peakall, Rod; Ebert, Daniel; Poldy, Jacqueline; Barrow, Russell A.; Francke, Wittko; Bower, Colin C.; Schiestl, Florian P. (2010).

3202: 6954: 6645: 4554: 2510:, and in fact in Asian and western classical art. Many cultures around the world have a marked tendency to associate flowers with 2687: 2455: 2271:(1707–1778), was a Swedish botanist who spent most of his working life as a professor of natural history. His landmark 1757 book 6163:

Hämäläinen, Anni; Broadley, Kate; Droghini, Amanda; Haines, Jessica A.; Lamb, Clayton T.; Boutin, Stan; Gilbert, Sophie (2017).

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Plants were divided at the highest level by the number of cotyledons and the nature of the flowers, before falling into orders (

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of the pollinator the plant intends to attract. Flowers that reflect the full range of visible light are generally perceived as

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red. A yellow rose will reflect about 5% of blue light, producing an unsaturated yellow (a yellow with a degree of white in it).

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inside sporangia. As with all heterosporous plants, the gametophytes also develop inside the spores, i.e., they are endosporic.

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Vereecken, Nicolas J.; Wilson, Carol A.; Hötling, Susann; Schulz, Stefan; Banketov, Sergey A.; Mardulyn, Patrick (2012-12-07).

496:, which are glands that produce a sugary fluid used to attract pollinators. They are not considered as an organ on their own. 6470: 454:. When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves, the flower is said to be irregular or 7803: 7784: 7765: 7742: 7719: 7658: 7637: 7618: 7546: 7422: 7380: 7008: 6755: 6220: 5342: 3928: 3621: 3596: 3569: 3362: 3041:

Flowers have been used since prehistoric times in funeral rituals: traces of pollen have been found on a woman's tomb in the

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do today, could have eventually resulted in both the plant(s) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization.

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occurs in plants whose seeds are adapted to cling on to animals and be dispersed that way, such as many species in the genus

7664: 6928: 3653: 3300: 2483:'s water lilies. Flowers are also dried, freeze dried and pressed in order to create permanent, three-dimensional pieces of 643:

success. To meet these needs a plant can interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in levels of

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and later Greeks and Romans used flowers. In Egypt, burial objects from the time around 1540 BC were found, which depicted

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with regards to the water. Commonly seeds are adapted morphologically with hydrophobic surfaces, small size, hairs, slime,

3407: 4265:"Banksia Pollen as a Source of Protein in the Diet of Two Australian Marsupials Cercartetus nanus and Tarsipes rostratus" 1115:) is a much rarer method, occurring in only around 2% of abiotically pollinated flowers. Common examples of this include 9110: 7692: 7127: 6045: 2660:, where flowers would be used to decorate women's hair. Flowers have also inspired art time and time again, such as in 1894: 79:

that enclose and protect the developing flower. These petals attract pollinators, and reproductive organs that produce

2050: 8968: 6107:"Convergent evolution of seed dispersal by ants, and phylogeny and biogeography in flowering plants: A global survey" 5912: 5673: 4396: 3663: 2619: 2153: 862: 2135: 7863: 6418: 6289: 6000: 5599: 4449:"Gone with the wind: understanding evolutionary transitions between wind and animal pollination in the angiosperms" 3122: 2544:

Their symbolism in dreams has also been discussed, with possible interpretations including "blossoming potential".

2476: 747:

The principal purpose of a flower is the reproduction of the individual and the species. All flowering plants are

7439: 5731: 5480: 5410: 4912: 4308: 1259:, self-pollination is used strategically as an "insurance policy". When a pollinator, in this case a bird, visits 667:

to flower. The molecular interpretation of these signals is through the transmission of a complex signal known as

446:

is bisected through the central axis from any point and symmetrical halves are produced, the flower is said to be

8302: 7285: 6777: 4985:"A numerical model of birch pollen emission and dispersion in the atmosphere. Description of the emission module" 1622:

Many plants use biotic vectors to disperse their seeds away from them. This method falls under the umbrella term

1342:

occurs following pollination, which is the movement of pollen from the stamen to the carpel. It encompasses both

704: 402:, which contains the ovules. Carpels may occur in one to several whorls, and when fused are often described as a 6093:

Many studies show that germination is more successful after seeds pass through the digestive tract of frugivores

297:, but will more commonly grow on to assist in fruit dispersal. If the calyx is fused it is called gamosepalous. 110:

by various strategies, including brightly colored, conspicuous petals, attractive scents, and the production of

8783: 6977: 4625:"Pre-adaptations and the evolution of pollination by sexual deception: Cope's rule of specialization revisited" 3269: 3161:. The practice of giving a flower flourished in the Middle Ages when couples showed affection through flowers. 2601: 2464: 2131: 1836:

plants are adapted to disperse their seeds through bodies of water and so typically are buoyant and have a low

1452:. The next stage is called the Torpedo stage and involves the growth of several key structures, including: the 4776: 1617: 8233: 3207: 2563: 742: 318: 7476: 3826: 473:. If a peduncle supports more than one flower, the stems connecting each flower to the main axis are called 8952: 8539: 8054: 7831: 5955:

Norsworthy, Jason K.; Griffith, Griff; Griffin, Terry; Bagavathiannan, Muthukumar; Gbur, Edward E. (2014).

2676: 2527: 2323: 1971:

from China, is dated about 125 million years old. Even earlier from China is the 125–130 million years old

1819: 530:

In those species that have more than one flower on an axis, the collective cluster of flowers is called an

7559:

Handbook of flower pollination: based upon Hermann Müller's work 'The fertilization of flowers by insects'

6106: 5075: 465:—the supporting stalk or stem is highly reduced or absent). The stem or stalk subtending a flower, or an 9125: 9034: 8788: 7179: 7043: 6532: 6447: 6105:

Lengyel, Szabolcs; Gove, Aaron D.; Latimer, Andrew M.; Majer, Jonathan D.; Dunn, Robert R. (2010-02-20).

4376: 2661: 1717:, or imitation, to trick animals into dispersing the seeds and these often have specially adapted colors. 615:. Detailed developmental studies, however, have shown that stamens are often initiated more or less like 234:. The four main whorls (starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards) are the 5170: 2431:

are a symbol of consolation in time of death. In the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia and Canada,

2049:

from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be

1306:; the allergens in pollen are proteins which are thought to be necessary in the process of pollination. 8768: 7610: 4937: 4082: 3967:

Sattler, R. & Jeune, B. (1992). "Multivariate analysis confirms the continuum view of plant form".

2347: 2300: 2203:

about the pollinator it seeks to attract. The color model used by human color reproduction technology (

5753: 4697: 293:. Sepals are often waxy and tough, and grow quickly to protect the flower as it develops. They may be 9105: 8918: 6536: 5513:

Chen, Miaolin; Xu, Jie; Devis, Deborah; Shi, Jianxin; Ren, Kang; Searle, Iain; Zhang, Dabing (2016).

5074:

Höcherl, Nicole; Siede, Reinhold; Illies, Ingrid; Gätschenberger, Heike; Tautz, Jürgen (2012-02-01).

3860: 3408:"Morphology | Definition of Morphology by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico.com also meaning of Morphology" 2213: 1533: 6609: 4433: 1104:

which moves in the wind. Rarer forms of this involve individual flowers being moveable by the wind (

9115: 9056: 8901: 7951: 7497: 7343: 7097: 2976: 2503: 2356: 2116: 1424:

Following the formation of zygote it begins to grow through nuclear and cellular divisions, called

920:; literally "insect-loving" in Greek. To attract these insects flowers commonly have glands called 616: 477:. The apex of a flowering stem forms a terminal swelling which is called the torus or receptacle. 17: 5696:"Intraspecific Variation in Samara Morphology and Flight Behavior in Acer saccharinum (Aceraceae)" 3730: 2053:(in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the 6726: 6318: 5324: 4413: 3354: 2842: 2597: 2590: 2127: 2120: 1543: 1324: 515: 40: 33: 6391:"A review of hydrochory (seed dispersal by water) with implications for riparian rehabilitation" 6046:"Passage through bird guts causes interspecific differences in seed germination characteristics" 8886: 8810: 7414: 7408: 7072: 5323:

Bernstein, H.; Hopf, F.A.; Michod, R.E. (1987), "The Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex",

2956: 2838: 2084: 1642:

of animals or even to germinate better after passing through them. They can be eaten by birds (

1570: 254:, and in some cases may not be differentiated. If this is the case, then they are described as 8615: 7370: 2314:

The next most major system of classification came in the late 19th century from the botanists

9051: 7684: 6673: 6495: 4052: 3197: 2815: 2278: 2005: 1987: 1225: 831: 522:

of tiny flowers pressed together on a central stalk that is surrounded by a large petal-like

7211: 5754:"Testing the capacity of clothing to act as a vector for non-native seed in protected areas" 4164:

Beekman, Madeleine; Nieuwenhuis, Bart; Ortiz-Barrientos, Daniel; Evans, Jonathan P. (2016).

3303:. Center for Agriculture, Food, and the Environment at University of Massachusetts Amherst. 1444:, which is used as an energy store. Plants which grow out one of these primordia are called 250:. Together the calyx and corolla make up the non-reproductive part of the flower called the 9120: 8773: 8670: 8625: 8297: 7856: 7207: 6682: 6176: 6118: 6057: 5765: 5448: 5087: 4996: 4522: 4276: 3348: 3056: 2992: 2823: 2377: 2315: 2254: 2245:'s method for classifying plants focused solely on the structure and nature of the flowers. 1673: 1511: 1319: 1253:

which have chemical barriers to their own pollen, are referred to as self-incompatible. In

1217: 1121: 990: 803:, but many plants can self-pollinate. Cross-pollination is preferred because it allows for 723: 390:, is the female part of the flower found on the innermost whorl. Each carpel consists of a 346:, or stamens, is the whorl of pollen-producing male parts. Stamens consist typically of an 219: 8273: 4061: 2810:

People therefore grow flowers around their homes, dedicate parts of their living space to

355: 8: 8943: 8488: 7324: 7265: 3187: 3182: 2495: 2404: 2265:, the foundation of the modern science is based on works in the 18th and 19th centuries. 1374:. The sperm's nucleus then fuses with the egg's nucleus, resulting in the formation of a 1282: 1205: 1182: 227: 6686: 6635: 6239: 6180: 6122: 6061: 5769: 5452: 5186: 5091: 5000: 4892: 4526: 4280: 2941:

consists of bee-processed flower nectar and is often named for the type of flower, e.g.

8881: 8746: 8524: 8216: 8002: 7898: 7754: 6950: 6703: 6668: 6410: 6341: 6281: 5992: 5984: 5865: 5723: 5591: 5547: 5514: 5472: 5402: 5394: 5025: 4904: 4720: 4649: 4624: 4546: 4511:"Abiotic pollen and pollination: Ecological, functional, and evolutionary perspectives" 4478: 4421: 4388: 4300: 4206: 4193: 4165: 4129: 4104: 4074: 3980: 3900: 2668: 2522: 2413:

meanings in Western culture. The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is known as

1980: 1255: 791:

Grains of pollen sticking to this bee will be transferred to the next flower it visits.

462: 329: 7712:

The Reason for Flowers: Their History, Culture, Biology, and How They Change Our Lives

5334: 1432:, while the other becomes the suspensor; a structure which forces the embryo into the 1108:), or even less commonly; the anthers exploding to release the pollen into the wind. 9039: 7888: 7883: 7799: 7780: 7761: 7738: 7715: 7688: 7654: 7633: 7614: 7571: 7542: 7418: 7376: 7150: 7123: 7014: 7004: 6800: 6708: 6591: 6402: 6273: 6194: 6134: 6073: 6069: 5976: 5918: 5908: 5857: 5799: 5791: 5715: 5583: 5552: 5534: 5464: 5386: 5348: 5338: 5305: 5297: 5190: 5111: 5103: 5030: 5012: 4965: 4957: 4953: 4896: 4845: 4837: 4832: 4815: 4654: 4538: 4486: 4470: 4465: 4448: 4392: 4292: 4211: 4185: 4134: 4066: 4017: 3934: 3924: 3659: 3617: 3592: 3565: 3378: 3358: 3035: 2691: 2672: 2633: 2499: 2432: 2273: 2229: 1877: 1805: 1221: 1186: 804: 800: 729: 679:

and growing tips to induce several different physiological and morphological changes.

470: 411: 211: 183: 143: 6462: 5996: 5869: 5406: 4724: 4550: 4166:"Sexual selection in hermaphrodites, sperm and broadcast spawners, plants and fungi" 4078: 1390:

and fuses with the two polar nuclei of the central cell. Since all three nuclei are

481: 9130: 9100: 8825: 8731: 8726: 8680: 8573: 8558: 8519: 8444: 8285: 8209: 8106: 8048: 7731: 7563: 7534: 6698: 6690: 6581: 6345: 6333: 6235: 6184: 6126: 6065: 5968: 5849: 5781: 5773: 5707: 5663: 5542: 5526: 5456: 5378: 5330: 5289: 5182: 5099: 5095: 5020: 5004: 4949: 4888: 4827: 4712: 4644: 4636: 4530: 4460: 4384: 4284: 4201: 4177: 4124: 4116: 4056: 4048: 4007: 3976: 3791: 3239: 3142: 2922: 2491: 2472: 2334: 2204: 1837: 1788:

disperses its seeds ballistically and is hence commonly called the "dynamite tree".

1525: 1411: 1169: 977: 867: 488:. However, if an individual plant is either female or male, the species is called 474: 239: 162: 130: 126: 8620: 6243: 5777: 1920:, though it had not yet evolved the flower. Early seed-bearing plants include the 1041: 861:, or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. Often they are 333:). 1. Stigma, 2. Style, 3. Stamens, 4. Filament, 5. Petal 9079: 9061: 8923: 8752: 8702: 8690: 8652: 8588: 8415: 8383: 8344: 8317: 8146: 8141: 8032: 7968: 7849: 7648: 6920: 5652:"Quantifying seed dispersal by birds and possums in a lowland New Zealand forest" 3586: 3233: 3165: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3069: 2758: 2642: 2548: 2518: 2066: 1904: 1822:, and are produced in a large number — sometimes up to a million. Plants such as 1465: 940:, that show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible only under 936:, enabling them to seek out colorful flowers. Some flowers have patterns, called 884: 785: 656: 451: 391: 122: 68: 7000:

Your dreams & what they mean: how to understand the secret language of sleep

6319:"Seed dispersal distances: a typology based on dispersal modes and plant traits" 6130: 3780:"Floral formulae updated for routine inclusion in formal taxonomic descriptions" 3164:

The tradition of flower-giving exists in many forms. It is an important part of

3113: 2702:. Around the world, people use flowers to mark important events in their lives: 2238: 8973: 8938: 8891: 8873: 8837: 8593: 8420: 8398: 8364: 8339: 8322: 8312: 8307: 8189: 8007: 7992: 7946: 7941: 7183: 3415: 3170: 3047: 2968: 2964: 2942: 2707: 2537: 2365: 2319: 2250: 2233: 2172: 2054: 2034: 1954: 1898: 1871: 1784: 1550: 1515: 1286: 1272: 952: 905: 660: 644: 588: 567: 563: 458:. If, in rare cases, they have no symmetry at all they are called asymmetric. 399: 395: 235: 231: 174: 100: 7825: 7595: 7528: 6751: 6337: 5853: 5367:"Reproduction of Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) in a Higher CO2 Environment" 5057: 5055: 5008: 4716: 1931: 909:, a bee orchid, which has evolved over many generations to mimic a female bee. 9094: 9009: 8757: 8675: 8647: 8610: 8578: 8514: 8483: 8434: 8334: 8136: 8119: 8042: 8022: 7963: 7958: 7906: 7538: 7154: 6406: 6277: 6198: 6138: 6077: 5980: 5795: 5719: 5587: 5538: 5468: 5390: 5301: 5194: 5107: 5016: 4961: 4938:"Wind pollination over mesoscale distances: an investigation with Scots pine" 4900: 4841: 4542: 4474: 4296: 4189: 3938: 3616:. London: Polytechnic of Central London Press Pembridge Press. p. 41. 3130: 3100: 3061: 3042: 3020: 3004: 2980: 2972: 2950: 2811: 2727: 2657: 2532: 2484: 2381: 2361: 2268: 2253:, which is the study of the classification and identification of plants, the 2242: 2030: 1973: 1966: 1936: 1445: 1367: 1335: 1315: 1244: 664: 632: 547: 531: 519: 505: 466: 447: 147: 88: 7567: 7018: 5972: 5922: 4984: 4698:"A day in the life of an oil bee: phenology, nesting, and foraging behavior" 2650: 2392: 1428:, eventually becoming a small group of cells. One section of it becomes the 1129:. One characteristic which most species in this group share is a lack of an 1051:, which is pollinated through a combination of hyphydrogamy and ephydrogamy. 9004: 8994: 8896: 8605: 8114: 8081: 7575: 7290: 7230: 6712: 6595: 5861: 5803: 5556: 5309: 5145: 5115: 5052: 5034: 4969: 4849: 4658: 4640: 4604: 4490: 4215: 4181: 4138: 4070: 4037:"Regulation and Identity of Florigen: Flowering Locus T Moves Centre Stage" 4021: 2754: 2638: 2507: 2480: 2438: 2414: 2262: 2167: 2015: 2014:, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, is the only species in the 1903:

While land plants have existed for about 425 million years, the first ones

1677: 1656: 1628: 1598:, or carrier, to transport their seeds away from them. These can be either 1355: 1067: 948: 937: 933: 878: 812: 640: 427:

or look like what is typically another part. In some families, such as the

115: 72: 7557: 7144: 6610:"South Pacific plant may be missing link in evolution of flowering plants" 5668: 5352: 5277: 4012: 3995: 3918: 2937:, pollen collected from bees, is considered a health food by some people. 2772: 2293:

stamen grows; and if the flower is concealed or exists at all (such as in

1749: 1603: 1563: 1185:. Since each new plant is genetically distinct, the different plants show 510: 8820: 8805: 8800: 8736: 8598: 8378: 8349: 8248: 8243: 8091: 7931: 7926: 7911: 6998: 6586: 6569: 6541: 5902: 5651: 2882: 2792: 2717: 2682: 2208: 1777: 1766: 1694: 1482:

The ovary, inside which the seed is forming from the ovule, grows into a

1477: 1449: 1359: 1295: 1240: 1151: 1075: 1033:

A grass flower with its long, thin filaments and a large feathery stigma.

997: 941: 916: 900: 872: 823: 775: 763: 749: 682: 652: 648: 455: 363: 286: 114:, a food source for pollinators. In this way, many flowering plants have 80: 6694: 6414: 6390: 6285: 6261: 5988: 5956: 5595: 5572:"Ah-choo! Increased Risk of Pollen Allergies in the Northern Hemisphere" 5571: 5530: 4482: 4197: 3026:

Flowers such as chrysanthemum, rose, jasmine, Japanese honeysuckle, and

1709:

surface to easier grip to animals, which include birds and animals with

1599: 1595: 230:. Each of these parts or floral organs is arranged in a spiral called a 202: 8849: 8842: 8832: 8815: 8498: 8493: 8429: 8221: 8068: 8027: 7921: 6466: 6165:"The ecological significance of secondary seed dispersal by carnivores" 5954: 5786: 5727: 5695: 5476: 5436: 5398: 5366: 4908: 4876: 4534: 4304: 4264: 4163: 4120: 3920:

Flower and fruit: morphology, ontogeny, phylogeny, function and ecology

3795: 3012: 3000: 2862: 2827: 2604: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2511: 2460: 2448: 2373: 2258: 2193: 2070: 2045: 2022: 1946: 1866: 1832: 1823: 1814: 1801: 1554: 1437: 1383: 1371: 1347: 1343: 1190: 1142: 1138: 1112: 1089: 1017: 1013: 1001: 962: 929: 714: 539: 535: 343: 243: 191: 107: 6189: 6164: 5382: 8957: 8854: 8583: 8388: 8369: 8280: 8204: 8124: 8076: 8017: 7997: 7936: 7149:. Place of publication not identified: Barrows & Co. p. 26. 6537:"Flowers originated 50 million years earlier than previously thought" 4510: 3319:"Self-Pollination and Cross-Pollination | Biology for Majors II" 3134: 3096: 3051: 3027: 3008: 2984: 2926: 2914: 2886: 2870: 2327: 2308: 2009: 1991: 1950: 1911:. In the sea, plants—and some animals—can simply scatter out genetic 1862: 1856: 1706: 1685: 1461: 1441: 1433: 1416: 1395: 1358:. When pollen lands on the stigma of the flower it begins creating a 1351: 1236: 1146: 1105: 972:

Flowers are also specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the

957: 620: 543: 493: 383: 294: 247: 5711: 5460: 5293: 4288: 2959:, but only few are widely marketed as food. They are often added to 2579: 2105: 8999: 8989: 8933: 8928: 8695: 8568: 8544: 8461: 8131: 7916: 7607:

Pollination: The Enduring Relationship Between Plant and Pollinator

6669:"The ancestral flower of angiosperms and its early diversification" 6640: 3779: 3030:, chosen for their fragrance and medicinal properties, are used as 2930: 2878: 2781: 2747: 2686:

Brazilian sailors pay floral tribute to British naval flag officer

2547:

The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is

2369: 2062: 2026: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1457: 1399: 1363: 1229: 1126: 817: 718: 668: 604: 443: 290: 267: 251: 5329:, Advances in Genetics, vol. 24, Elsevier, pp. 323–370, 323: 87:. The male gametophytes, which produce sperm, are enclosed within 48: 8184: 8179: 8096: 8086: 7820: 7226:"Blooming tasty – edible flowers are summer's hottest food trend" 6511:"Fossilised remains of world's oldest flower discovered in Spain" 5904:

Seed fate : predation, dispersal, and seedling establishment

3118: 2996: 2988: 2918: 2890: 2819: 2800: 2743: 2726:

For wedding flowers for the bridal party, and as decorations for

2713: 2552: 2342: 1996:

may have characteristic features of the earliest flowering plants

1925: 1912: 1714: 1639: 1487: 1453: 1425: 1391: 1379: 1303: 1291: 1165: 1134: 1093: 1085: 1080: 1071: 1066:, to move pollen from one flower to the next. In wind-dispersed ( 758: 485: 428: 367: 84: 6162: 6027: 6025: 5633: 5631: 5515:"Origin and Functional Prediction of Pollen Allergens in Plants" 5073: 4381:

An Outline of the History of Anthecology, or Pollination Biology

4034: 2833: 2326:

and devised a system which is still used in many of the world's

2277:

lays out his system of classification as well as the concept of

587:

The structure of a flower can also be expressed by the means of

8637: 8529: 8449: 8403: 8393: 8354: 8268: 8263: 8258: 8253: 7872: 7836: 7594:

Fritsch, Felix Eugene; Salisbury, E. J. (Edward James) (1920).

3212: 3192: 3146: 3065: 3031: 2946: 2934: 2894: 2777: 2766: 2435:

are worn to commemorate soldiers who have died in times of war.

2410: 2354:

Following the development in scientific thought after Darwin's

2322:(1800–1884). They built on the earlier works of de Jussieu and 2282: 1921: 1700: 1651: 1429: 1375: 1278: 1101: 1097: 973: 925: 850: 835: 808: 692: 489: 432: 403: 387: 359: 347: 255: 138: 134: 111: 92: 76: 4788:

Ecuadorian Cactus Absorbs Ultrasound, Enticing Bats to Flowers

2791:

Flowers collected for worship of Hindu deities in morning, in

1027: 150:). After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into 8861: 8795: 8717: 8685: 8642: 8534: 8476: 8471: 8466: 8454: 8439: 8408: 8329: 7987: 7978: 7556:

Knuth, Paul; Müller, Hermann; Ainsworth Davis, J. R. (1906).

6300: 6022: 6011: 5628: 5421: 4580: 4319: 4145: 3073: 2960: 2938: 2902: 2898: 2874: 2854: 2762: 2646: 2559: 2428: 2338: 2288:

The first ten classes follow the number of stamens directly (

2198: 2189: 2077: 1908: 1483: 1189:

in their physiological and structural adaptations and so the

1130: 1063: 932:, which produce oils rather than nectar. Birds and bees have 924:

on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious

754: 636: 577: 551: 523: 461:

Flowers may be directly attached to the plant at their base (

407: 358:, or stalk. The anther contains microsporocytes which become 351: 306: 282: 278: 223: 151: 96: 5618: 5616: 4797: 4795: 4736: 4734: 4622: 4246: 4244: 4242: 4240: 4036: 3759: 3701: 3699: 3490: 3488: 3475: 3473: 2176:

Reflectance spectra for the flowers of several varieties of

121:

When pollen from the anther of a flower is deposited on the

8712: 8707: 8359: 8199: 8174: 8169: 8153: 8012: 7600:. Cornell University Library. London: G. Bell and Sons Ltd. 7597:

An introduction to the structure and reproduction of plants

6531: 5076:"Evaluation of the nutritive value of maize for honey bees" 4982: 3611: 3505: 3503: 3016: 2910: 2906: 2866: 2858: 2850: 2699: 2442: 2422: 2396: 2294: 2177: 2041: 2021:

Besides the hard proof of flowers in or shortly before the

1917: 1734: 1681: 1669: 1059: 858: 710: 672: 612: 436: 155: 75:). Flowers consist of a combination of vegetative organs – 7555: 5570:

Constible, Juanita; Sandro, Luke; Lee, Richard E. (2008).

5151: 5061: 4610: 4346: 4344: 3684: 3460: 3458: 3456: 2739:

parties, welcome-home parties, and "thinking of you" gifts

8632: 8194: 7841: 5842:

Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society

5821: 5613: 5224: 4856: 4792: 4731: 4677: 4237: 3879: 3867: 3806: 3747: 3711: 3696: 3672: 3630: 3538: 3526: 3485: 3470: 3441: 3301:"Pollinators in the Landscape II: Plants and Pollinators" 2029:, has been detected in fossil plants that old, including 2001: 1841: 1710: 1498:, or innermost layer, while the fruit wall is called the 1299: 1228:, due largely to the expression of recessive deleterious 1058:

Flowers that use abiotic, or non-living, vectors use the

854: 676: 6891: 6889: 6874: 6864: 6862: 6849: 6847: 6822: 6820: 6818: 6816: 6727:"Oily Fossils Provide Clues To The Evolution Of Flowers" 6111:

Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics

5276:

Charlesworth, Deborah; Willis, John H. (November 2009).

4877:"Plant-Pollinator Interactions in Tropical Rain Forests" 3500: 2849:

Flowers provide less food than other major plant parts (

1688:(primarily for ants), which are other fleshy structures. 944:

light, which is visible to bees and some other insects.

753:, that is, every individual plant produces two types of 6218: 6104: 5259: 5257: 5212: 4813: 4629:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

4341: 3824: 3453: 3429: 2765:

culture, adherents commonly bring flowers as a gift to

2345:. This system of classification was published in their 6367: 5907:. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: CABI Pub. p. 21. 5752:

Mount, Ann; Pickering, Catherine Marina (2009-10-01).

3588:

Diversity and Evolutionary Biology of Tropical Flowers

2305:

Genera plantarum: secundum ordines naturales disposita

1907:

by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts:

1741:), which is what is used for many birds and all ants. 7469:"The Cross-Cultural Rhetoric Blog: Flowers in Russia" 6901: 6886: 6859: 6844: 6813: 6384: 6382: 5881: 5879: 5437:"Cleistogamy in Tillandsia capillaris (Bromeliaceae)" 4758: 4746: 4356: 2551:. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is 2380:

characteristics such as the nature of the flower and

7653:(2nf ed.). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. 6832: 5494: 5254: 5133: 4665: 4592: 4568: 4329: 1618:

Seed dispersal § Animals: epi- and endozoochory

1537:, is an important disperser of seeds in New Zealand. 811:. Larger animals such as birds, bats, and even some 177: 7796:

Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atlas

6752:"Age-Old Question On Evolution Of Flowers Answered" 6262:"Diversity in Acaena (Rosaceae) in South Australia" 5322: 4225: 3562:

Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atlas

2425:

are given as a symbol of love, beauty, and passion.

1420:

The fruit of a peach with the seed or stone inside.

821:, hence the study of pollination biology is called 709:The ABC model is a simple model that describes the 95:. The female gametophytes are contained within the 7753: 7730: 7498:"Folk Art in Russia and Ukraine | News & Info" 7317: 7258: 6379: 6214: 6212: 6210: 6208: 5950: 5948: 5946: 5876: 5569: 5275: 3899: 2490:Flowers within art are also representative of the 2303:(1748–1836) was a French botanist whose 1787 work 7737:(2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. 6570:"Amborella not a "basal angiosperm"? Not so fast" 6437: 6435: 6317:Vittoz, Pascal; Engler, Robin (7 February 2008). 6259: 4777:Holy Talking Plant! Flower Communicates with Bats 3647: 3645: 9092: 7593: 7260:"How to crystallise flowers like the Victorians" 6260:Symon, D.E.; Whalen, M.A.; Mackay, D.A. (2000). 6043: 4935: 4695: 4504: 4502: 4500: 849:Flowers that use biotic vectors attract and use 619:(caulomes) that in some cases may even resemble 7779:. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart Science Publishers. 7632:(6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. 7319:"Stone Age mourners 'placed flowers on graves'" 6388: 6205: 5943: 4170:Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 3225: 1960:Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as 1464:, (the root/shoot junction). In the final step 1328:A floral diagram, with the pollen tube labeled 557: 125:, this is called pollination. Some flowers may 6778:"Human Affection Altered Evolution of Flowers" 6666: 6568:Soltis, Douglas E.; Soltis, Pamela S. (2004). 6432: 5896: 5894: 5751: 5693: 5512: 5434: 3956:. Berlin: J. Cramer/Borntraeger. pp. 1–6. 3658:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 17–19. 3642: 2376:has become increasingly common. Despite this, 1705:Typically these plants seed's have hooks or a 1440:also form at this time, that later become the 350:, made up of four pollen sacs arranged in two 7857: 7440:"The Fascinating Tradition of Giving Flowers" 7180:"VISITING A HINDU TEMPLE; A BEGINNER'S GUIDE" 7122:. Texas A&M University Press. p. 1. 6667:Sauquet, Hervé; et al. (1 August 2017). 6627: 5694:Sipe, Timothy W.; Linnerooth, Amy R. (1995). 4497: 4035:Turck, F.; Fornara, F.; Coupland, G. (2008). 3068:to this day use flowers prominently in their 2399:are often used to denote life or resurrection 2384:still make up the bedrock of plant taxonomy. 1078:, along with many other species in the order 39:"Floral" redirects here. For other uses, see 8963:International Association for Plant Taxonomy 7372:Death in the Iron Age II and in First Isaiah 7117: 6776:May 2005, Robert Roy Britt 26 (2005-05-26). 6660: 6567: 6525: 6316: 6044:Traveset, A.; Riera, N.; Mas, R. E. (2001). 5839: 5435:Gilmartin, A. J.; Brown, Gregory K. (1985). 4696:Schäffler, Irmgard; Dötterl, Stefan (2011). 3966: 3555: 3553: 2417:. Some of the more common examples include: 1941:, one of the earliest known flowering plants 1844:, and sometimes air spaces within the seeds. 546:, for example, is not a flower but a flower 7526: 7400: 7136: 6805:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 5891: 5365:McPeek, Tamara M.; Wang, Xianzhong (2007). 5164: 5162: 5160: 3923:. Claudia Erbar. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart. 3885: 3812: 3765: 3717: 3690: 3636: 3544: 3509: 3464: 3447: 3435: 2134:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1606:(non-living), such as by the wind or water. 984: 870:. Flowers use animals including: insects ( 186:. The early word for flower in English was 7864: 7850: 7774: 7685:Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited 7627: 7118:Fogden, Michael; Fogden, Patricia (2018). 6979:Flower Symbolism as Female Sexual Metaphor 6031: 5827: 5649: 5637: 5622: 5364: 5230: 4936:Robledo-Arnuncio, Juan José (April 2011). 4862: 4801: 4586: 4250: 4151: 4102: 4096: 3753: 3705: 3678: 3591:. Cambridge University Press. p. 11. 3532: 3494: 3479: 3243:(1737) were also influential in the field. 3153:and Egyptian hieroglyphics, as well as in 2971:are dipped in breadcrumbs and fried. Some 2732:As brightening decorations within the home 2494:, as seen in the works of artists such as 190:, though it now refers to flowers only of 29:Reproductive structure in flowering plants 7533:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6702: 6585: 6188: 5785: 5667: 5546: 5024: 4831: 4689: 4648: 4464: 4205: 4128: 4060: 4028: 4011: 3993: 3987: 3651: 3550: 3346: 2620:Learn how and when to remove this message 2154:Learn how and when to remove this message 1876:or sometimes in the creation of creeping 599:A flower develops on a modified shoot or 67:, is the reproductive structure found in 8907:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN) 7709: 7650:Principles of Dispersal in Higher Plants 7630:Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology 6775: 6441: 6228:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5175:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5157: 5152:Knuth, Müller & Ainsworth Davis 1906 5062:Knuth, Müller & Ainsworth Davis 1906 4881:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4611:Knuth, Müller & Ainsworth Davis 1906 4508: 4446: 4053:10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092755 3655:Morphology of Flowers and Inflorescences 3203:Plant evolutionary developmental biology 3112: 3072:celebrations in the same way that their 2832: 2786: 2771: 2720:worn at social functions or for holidays 2681: 2637: 2454: 2391: 2237: 2192:as possible within the range of visible 2171: 1986: 1978:. In 2015 a plant (130 million-year-old 1930: 1602:(living), such as by birds and ants, or 1415: 1323: 1204: 899: 681: 509: 322: 201: 47: 7793: 7751: 7256: 6982:(Thesis). Eastern Michigan University. 6975: 6633: 6508: 6312: 6310: 6219:Howe, H. F. & Smallwood J. (1982). 5278:"The genetics of inbreeding depression" 4989:International Journal of Biometeorology 3996:"Environmental regulation of flowering" 3951: 3777: 3771: 3584: 3559: 2869:), but still provide several important 2822:. Flower production and trade supports 1224:. In addition, self-pollination causes 888:), lizards, and even snails and slugs ( 14: 9093: 7678: 7604: 7410:Latina and Latino Voices in Literature 7142: 6907: 6895: 6880: 6868: 6853: 6838: 6826: 6636:"Did the first flower look like this?" 6473:from the original on September 7, 2009 6266:Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Garden 5900: 5833: 5500: 5263: 5218: 5139: 4764: 4752: 4740: 4683: 4671: 4598: 4574: 4362: 4350: 4335: 4262: 4231: 3873: 3735:New Zealand Plant Conservation Network 3612:Reynolds, Joan; Tampion, John (1983). 2188:Many flowering plants reflect as much 1007: 7845: 7350:from the original on 29 November 2018 7298:from the original on 27 November 2018 7238:from the original on 27 November 2018 6549:from the original on 18 December 2018 6460: 6389:Hyslop, Jade; Trowsdale, Sam (2012). 4374: 3916: 3897: 3298: 3149:. Records of flower giving appear in 2223: 2069:is believed to be a common source of 1594:In allochory, plants use an external 1436:and is later undetectable. Two small 895: 844: 442:Many flowers have symmetry. When the 7728: 7646: 7527:De Craene, Ronse; P., Louis (2010). 7368: 7283: 7223: 6373: 6307: 5885: 4874: 2957:Hundreds of fresh flowers are edible 2602:adding citations to reliable sources 2573: 2132:adding citations to reliable sources 2099: 1471: 1448:, while those that grow out two are 1175: 947:Flowers also attract pollinators by 698: 83:, which in flowering plants produce 7406: 6996: 6957:from the original on 26 August 2014 6240:10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.001221 5758:Journal of Environmental Management 5650:Wyman, Tarryn; Kelly, Dave (2017). 5576:Journal of College Science Teaching 5187:10.1146/annurev.es.19.110188.001401 5168: 4893:10.1146/annurev.es.21.110190.002151 4220:The sole purpose of flowers is sex. 2311:, and the location of the stamens. 1405: 1200: 686:The ABC model of flower development 327:Reproductive parts of easter lily ( 24: 7775:Leins, P. & Erbar, C. (2010). 7703: 7683:(2nd ed.). New Delhi, India: 7437: 7003:. London: Thornsons. p. 142. 6648:from the original on 1 August 2017 6461:Lewis, Susan K. (April 17, 2007). 6395:Journal of Hydrology (New Zealand) 4389:10.1016/B978-0-12-583980-8.50009-0 3981:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a088338 3827:"Digital Flowers: Floral Formulas" 3778:Prenner, Gernard (February 2010). 3614:Double flowers: a scientific study 1795: 928:. Some flowers have glands called 834:to optimize the transfer of their 450:or regular. This is an example of 25: 9142: 8912:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP) 7813: 7096:. Theosociety.org. Archived from 6948: 6355:from the original on 27 June 2021 5326:Molecular Genetics of Development 3833:from the original on 4 March 2016 3350:Oxford dictionary of word origins 3307:from the original on Jan 7, 2024. 3299:Bayer, Mandy (9 September 2015). 3280:from the original on Feb 16, 2023 2893:, consists of dried stigmas of a 2776:A woman spreading flowers over a 1611: 1505: 1277:Pollen is a large contributor to 518:is not a single flower. It is an 9075: 9074: 7832:Native Plant Information Network 7819: 7562:. Vol. 1. Clarendon Press. 7490: 7461: 7431: 7362: 7336: 7332:from the original on 2022-01-11. 7310: 7277: 7273:from the original on 2022-01-11. 7250: 7217: 7201: 7172: 7111: 7086: 7071:. Hinduism Today. Archived from 7061: 7036: 6990: 6986:from the original on 2014-08-10. 6969: 6942: 6913: 6769: 6744: 6729:. Sciencedaily.com. 2001-04-05. 6719: 6634:Gabbott, Sarah (1 August 2017). 6602: 6561: 6521:from the original on 2017-03-03. 6502: 6484: 6454: 6253: 6156: 6098: 6070:10.1046/j.0269-8463.2001.00561.x 4954:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03588.x 4833:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03308.x 4466:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03845.x 4375:Baker, Herbert G. (1983-01-01). 4103:Searle, I.; et al. (2006). 3906:. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. 3802:from the original on 2018-03-29. 3585:Endress, Peter K. (1996-07-25). 3081: 2826:through their availability as a 2578: 2360:, many botanists have used more 2104: 1776: 1748: 1562: 1542: 1524: 1309: 1040: 1026: 955:, including plants in the genus 784: 499: 398:, which acts as a stalk, and an 7798:. University of Toronto Press. 7667:from the original on 2021-07-09 7582:from the original on 2022-02-21 7504:from the original on 2019-03-24 7450:from the original on 2019-03-16 7389:from the original on 2019-12-28 7190:from the original on 2021-04-16 7161:from the original on 2021-06-28 7050:from the original on 2010-10-28 7025:from the original on 2022-02-21 6931:from the original on 2020-07-31 6788:from the original on 2021-09-06 6758:from the original on 2010-06-10 6733:from the original on 2010-08-19 6616:from the original on 2011-05-14 6509:Thomson, Helen (Aug 17, 2015). 6421:from the original on 2021-07-09 6292:from the original on 2021-06-28 6145:from the original on 2021-07-02 6084:from the original on 2021-07-09 6037: 6003:from the original on 2021-07-09 5929:from the original on 2022-02-21 5810:from the original on 2021-06-29 5745: 5734:from the original on 2021-07-09 5687: 5676:from the original on 2021-06-30 5643: 5602:from the original on 2021-06-25 5563: 5506: 5483:from the original on 2021-06-25 5428: 5413:from the original on 2021-06-25 5358: 5316: 5269: 5245: 5236: 5201:from the original on 2021-06-24 5122:from the original on 2021-06-24 5067: 5041:from the original on 2022-02-21 4976: 4929: 4915:from the original on 2021-06-25 4868: 4807: 4781: 4770: 4616: 4557:from the original on 2022-02-21 4515:Plant Systematics and Evolution 4440: 4405:from the original on 2021-06-24 4368: 4311:from the original on 2021-06-24 4256: 4157: 4085:from the original on 2019-12-15 3994:Ausín, I.; et al. (2005). 3960: 3945: 3910: 3891: 3845: 3825:Stephen Downie; Ken Robertson. 3818: 3723: 3605: 3578: 3564:. University of Toronto Press. 3515: 3389:from the original on 2021-06-24 3329:from the original on 2020-07-21 2589:needs additional citations for 2463:paintings, such as this one by 2459:Flowers are common subjects of 705:ABC model of flower development 312: 7444:Flowers of the Field Las Vegas 7120:The Natural History of Flowers 6612:. Eurekalert.org. 2006-05-17. 6463:"Flowers Modern & Ancient" 5901:Forget, Pierre-Michel (2005). 5656:New Zealand Journal of Ecology 5100:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2011.12.001 4509:Ackerman, J. D. (2000-03-01). 4062:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-374F-8 4041:Annual Review of Plant Biology 3853:"Plant Taxonomy - Biology 308" 3400: 3371: 3340: 3311: 3292: 3270:"Plant Pollination Strategies" 3262: 2933:are often made into wine. Bee 2465:Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder 1494:, or the fleshy part, and the 830:Flowering plants usually face 769: 757:. Microspores are produced by 671:, which involves a variety of 594: 13: 1: 7375:. Mohr Siebeck. p. 302. 7369:Hays, Christopher B. (2011). 5778:10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.08.002 5335:10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7 5169:Cox, Paul Alan (1988-11-01). 3954:Aspects of Floral Development 3902:Morphology of the Angiosperms 3412:Lexico Dictionaries | English 3250: 3208:Plant reproductive morphology 2735:As a gift of remembrance for 2521:era. Famous examples include 1557:with its distinctive "wings." 1158: 743:Plant reproductive morphology 626: 439:are mostly petaloid stamens. 337: 319:Plant reproductive morphology 197: 8953:History of plant systematics 8540:Thorns, spines, and prickles 5080:Journal of Insect Physiology 3255: 2889:. The most expensive spice, 2877:. Flower vegetables include 2677:I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud 2649:of St. Arsatius's Church in 2569: 2528:I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud 2409:Many flowers have important 2387: 2324:Augustin Pyramus de Candolle 1888: 1850: 1820:surface-area-to-volume ratio 1589: 1266: 1243:; many species in the genus 558:Floral diagrams and formulae 421: 377: 168: 7: 7760:. Oxford University Press. 7286:"Grow your own herbal teas" 7257:Bradley, Sue (8 May 2015). 7143:Wilson, Adelaide B (1967). 6533:Chinese Academy of Sciences 6448:Holt, Rinehart, and Winston 6221:"Ecology of Seed Dispersal" 6131:10.1016/j.ppees.2009.08.001 3176: 2909:flowers are used to flavor 2814:, pick wildflowers, or buy 2746:flowers and expressions of 2723:As tokens of love or esteem 1806:Seed dispersal § Water 1249:exhibit this, for example. 1111:Pollination through water ( 736: 394:, which receives pollen, a 261: 10: 9147: 8769:Alternation of generations 7871: 7756:The Development of Flowers 7710:Buchmann, Stephen (2016). 7628:D. Mauseth, James (2016). 7611:Princeton University Press 7519: 7284:Wong, James (7 May 2017). 7224:Wood, Zoe (30 June 2017). 7212:Flower farmers and workers 6754:. Unisci.com. 2001-06-15. 6574:American Journal of Botany 5700:American Journal of Botany 5171:"Hydrophilous pollination" 4447:Friedman, Jannice (2011). 3829:. University of Illinois. 3357:. pp. 165 & 172. 2897:. Other flower spices are 2631: 2451:are a symbol of innocence. 2402: 2301:Antoine Laurent de Jussieu 2227: 2165: 1945:Several groups of extinct 1892: 1854: 1799: 1615: 1509: 1475: 1468:develops around the seed. 1460:(embryotic stem), and the 1409: 1313: 1270: 1011: 988: 773: 740: 702: 603:from a determinate apical 561: 503: 316: 300: 265: 209: 38: 31: 9111:Plant reproductive system 9070: 9018: 8982: 8919:Cultivated plant taxonomy 8882:Biological classification 8872: 8745: 8661: 8557: 8507: 8232: 8162: 8105: 8067: 8041: 7977: 7897: 7879: 7647:Pijl, L. van der (1972). 7407:Day, Frances Ann (2003). 7046:. Bbc.co.uk. 2009-08-24. 6951:"Roses and Their Meaning" 6921:"The Meanings of Flowers" 6494:. 2007-04-17. PBS. WGBH. 6338:10.1007/s00035-007-0797-8 5854:10.1017/S1464793104006645 5009:10.1007/s00484-012-0532-z 4717:10.1007/s13592-011-0010-3 4263:Turner, Vivienne (1984). 3731:"Zantedeschia aethiopica" 3652:Weberling, Focko (1992). 3347:Cresswell, Julia (2010). 3108: 3011:. Edible flowers such as 2761:often adorn churches. In 2095: 1534:Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae 1394:, they result in a large 639:, hence ensuring maximal 8779:Evolutionary development 7729:Esau, Katherine (1965). 7605:Walker, Timothy (2020). 7539:10.1017/cbo9780511806711 7214:, accessed 23 March 2023 6442:Feldkamp, Susan (2006). 3218: 2504:Veronica Ruiz de Velasco 2357:On the Origin of Species 1676:in the presence of more 1660:), non-bird sauropsids ( 1478:Fruit § Development 1062:or, much less commonly, 985:Pollinator relationships 717:organ within the floral 469:of flowers, is called a 406:. Inside the ovary, the 272: 206:Diagram of flower parts. 71:(plants of the division 8430:Hypanthium (Floral cup) 7568:10.5962/bhl.title.54973 7146:Flowers for your church 7069:"God's Favorite Flower" 5973:10.1614/WS-D-13-00145.1 5282:Nature Reviews Genetics 4414:Elsevier Science Direct 3886:De Craene & P. 2010 3813:De Craene & P. 2010 3766:De Craene & P. 2010 3718:De Craene & P. 2010 3691:De Craene & P. 2010 3637:De Craene & P. 2010 3545:De Craene & P. 2010 3510:De Craene & P. 2010 3465:De Craene & P. 2010 3448:De Craene & P. 2010 3436:De Craene & P. 2010 3383:www.merriam-webster.com 3379:"Definition of BLOSSOM" 3355:Oxford University Press 3095:, a painting by artist 3023:are sometimes candied. 2843:Tampere Floral Festival 2364:methods and the use of 2085:symbiotic relationships 178: 146:without fertilization ( 41:Floral (disambiguation) 34:Flower (disambiguation) 9045:by author abbreviation 8969:Plant taxonomy systems 8887:Botanical nomenclature 7824:Quotations related to 7752:Greyson, R.I. (1994). 7679:Sharma, O. P. (2009). 4641:10.1098/rspb.2012.1804 4182:10.1098/rstb.2015.0541 3125: 2846: 2839:Tampere Central Square 2796: 2784: 2695: 2653: 2467: 2400: 2246: 2185: 1997: 1942: 1737:of the animal (called 1578:to disperse its seeds. 1571:Acaena novae-zelandiae 1490:, or outer layer, the 1456:(embryotic root), the 1421: 1332: 1213: 910: 687: 527: 334: 207: 52: 9052:Botanical expeditions 7413:. Greenwood. p. 6976:Frownfelter, Andrea. 6674:Nature Communications 5669:10.20417/nzjecol.41.4 4013:10.1387/ijdb.052022ia 3917:Leins, Peter (2010). 3198:List of garden plants 3116: 2836: 2790: 2775: 2685: 2641: 2632:Further information: 2458: 2395: 2279:binomial nomenclature 2261:with the writings of 2241: 2175: 2006:molecular systematics 1990: 1934: 1893:Further information: 1664:, mammals in general 1419: 1327: 1283:respiratory allergies 1226:inbreeding depression 1208: 1117:Calitriche autumnalis 1047:The female flower of 989:Further information: 903: 832:evolutionary pressure 685: 635:and the formation of 513: 414:by structures called 326: 205: 51: 8784:Evolutionary history 8774:Double fertilization 8626:Cellular respiration 7794:Sattler, R. (1973). 7208:Fairtrade Foundation 6587:10.3732/ajb.91.6.997 6535:(18 December 2018). 4875:Bawa, K. S. (1990). 3898:Eames, A.J. (1961). 3857:employees.csbsju.edu 3560:Sattler, R. (1973). 3522:Insect-Plant Biology 3353:. Internet Archive. 3276:. 12 December 2022. 3057:The Phoenician Women 3034:, either mixed with 2993:Japanese honeysuckle 2824:developing economies 2669:William Wordsworth's 2598:improve this article 2316:Joseph Dalton Hooker 2128:improve this section 2011:Amborella trichopoda 1993:Amborella trichopoda 1895:Evolution of flowers 1512:Biological dispersal 1382:(two copies of each 1354:, the fusion of the 1346:, the fusion of the 1320:Double fertilization 1218:asexual reproduction 1122:Vallisneria spiralis 991:Pollination syndrome 727:and the snapdragon, 724:Arabidopsis thaliana 492:. Many flowers have 410:are attached to the 32:For other uses, see 8003:Non-vascular plants 7346:. Hellenica World. 6997:Dee, Nerys (1995). 6695:10.1038/ncomms16047 6687:2017NatCo...816047S 6181:2017Ecosp...8E1685H 6123:2010PPEES..12...43L 6062:2001FuEco..15..669T 6034:, pp. 244–247. 5770:2009JEnvM..91..168M 5640:, pp. 235–237. 5531:10.1104/pp.16.00625 5453:1985Biotr..17..256G 5092:2012JInsP..58..278H 5001:2013IJBm...57...45S 4922:– via JSTOR. 4743:, pp. 107–108. 4686:, pp. 112–113. 4635:(1748): 4786–4794. 4589:, pp. 239–240. 4527:2000PSyEv.222..167A 4453:The New Phytologist 4281:1984Oikos..43...53T 4154:, pp. 392–395. 3876:, pp. 165–166. 3231:His earlier works: 3188:Flower preservation 3183:Floral color change 2917:flowers are fed to 2405:Language of flowers 1684:, and sometimes an 1183:sexual reproduction 1008:Abiotic pollination 967:Espostoa frutescens 366:, after undergoing 173:Flower is from the 9126:Periodic phenomena 8508:Surface structures 8303:Flower development 6326:Botanica Helvetica 6050:Functional Ecology 4535:10.1007/BF00984101 4121:10.1101/gad.373506 3796:10.1002/tax.591022 3126: 2847: 2816:commercially-grown 2797: 2785: 2706:For new births or 2696: 2654: 2645:, placed upon the 2523:William Wordsworth 2468: 2401: 2366:genetic sequencing 2247: 2224:Classical taxonomy 2186: 2040:The similarity in 1998: 1981:Montsechia vidalii 1943: 1722:The final type of 1713:. Some plants use 1654:, primates, ants ( 1422: 1333: 1256:Clianthus puniceus 1214: 1210:Clianthus puniceus 911: 896:Attraction methods 845:Biotic pollination 688: 538:) group. A single 528: 335: 330:Lilium longiflorum 208: 59:, also known as a 53: 9088: 9087: 8727:Herbaceous plants 8553: 8552: 7805:978-0-8020-1864-9 7786:978-3-510-65261-7 7767:978-0-19-506688-3 7744:978-0-471-24455-4 7721:978-1-4767-5553-3 7660:978-3-642-96108-3 7639:978-1-284-07753-7 7620:978-0-691-20375-1 7548:978-0-511-80671-1 7438:By (2015-08-11). 7424:978-0-313-32394-2 7382:978-3-16-150785-4 7010:978-0-7225-3218-8 6883:, pp. 24–27. 6446:. United States: 6376:, pp. 24–25. 6190:10.1002/ecs2.1685 5706:(11): 1412–1419. 5383:10.1614/WS-07-021 5344:978-0-12-017624-3 5154:, pp. 68–69. 5064:, pp. 68–72. 4613:, pp. 72–80. 4353:, pp. 69–83. 3930:978-3-510-65261-7 3768:, pp. 22–24. 3623:978-0-86206-004-6 3598:978-0-521-56510-3 3571:978-0-8020-1864-9 3364:978-0-19-954793-7 3274:US Forest Service 3131:Ancient Egyptians 3064:burials, and the 3050:, as recorded in 3038:or on their own. 2925:. Flowers of the 2692:Westminster Abbey 2634:Plants in culture 2630: 2629: 2622: 2500:Imogen Cunningham 2274:Species Plantarum 2230:Linnaean taxonomy 2164: 2163: 2156: 1472:Fruit development 1398:nucleus which is 1222:genetic variation 1176:Cross-pollination 1049:Enhalus acoroides 805:genetic variation 801:cross-pollination 730:Antirrhinum majus 699:Organ development 354:, connected to a 212:Floral morphology 131:cross-pollination 16:(Redirected from 9138: 9106:Plant morphology 9078: 9077: 9057:Individual trees 8732:Secondary growth 8703:Succulent plants 8691:Prostrate shrubs 8574:Apical dominance 8559:Plant physiology 8520:Epicuticular wax 8065: 8064: 8058: 8049:Plant morphology 7866: 7859: 7852: 7843: 7842: 7823: 7809: 7790: 7777:Flower and Fruit 7771: 7759: 7748: 7736: 7725: 7698: 7675: 7673: 7672: 7643: 7624: 7601: 7590: 7588: 7587: 7552: 7513: 7512: 7510: 7509: 7494: 7488: 7487: 7485: 7484: 7475:. Archived from 7473:web.stanford.edu 7465: 7459: 7458: 7456: 7455: 7435: 7429: 7428: 7404: 7398: 7397: 7395: 7394: 7366: 7360: 7359: 7357: 7355: 7340: 7334: 7333: 7321: 7314: 7308: 7307: 7305: 7303: 7281: 7275: 7274: 7262: 7254: 7248: 7247: 7245: 7243: 7221: 7215: 7205: 7199: 7198: 7196: 7195: 7176: 7170: 7169: 7167: 7166: 7140: 7134: 7133: 7115: 7109: 7108: 7106: 7105: 7090: 7084: 7083: 7081: 7080: 7065: 7059: 7058: 7056: 7055: 7040: 7034: 7033: 7031: 7030: 6994: 6988: 6987: 6973: 6967: 6966: 6964: 6962: 6946: 6940: 6939: 6937: 6936: 6917: 6911: 6905: 6899: 6893: 6884: 6878: 6872: 6866: 6857: 6851: 6842: 6836: 6830: 6824: 6811: 6810: 6804: 6796: 6794: 6793: 6773: 6767: 6766: 6764: 6763: 6748: 6742: 6741: 6739: 6738: 6723: 6717: 6716: 6706: 6664: 6658: 6657: 6655: 6653: 6631: 6625: 6624: 6622: 6621: 6606: 6600: 6599: 6589: 6565: 6559: 6558: 6556: 6554: 6529: 6523: 6522: 6506: 6500: 6499: 6488: 6482: 6481: 6479: 6478: 6458: 6452: 6451: 6439: 6430: 6429: 6427: 6426: 6386: 6377: 6371: 6365: 6364: 6362: 6360: 6354: 6323: 6314: 6305: 6304: 6298: 6297: 6257: 6251: 6250: 6248: 6242:. Archived from 6225: 6216: 6203: 6202: 6192: 6160: 6154: 6153: 6151: 6150: 6102: 6096: 6095: 6090: 6089: 6041: 6035: 6029: 6020: 6019: 6017:(anthropochory). 6009: 6008: 5952: 5941: 5940: 5935: 5934: 5898: 5889: 5883: 5874: 5873: 5837: 5831: 5825: 5819: 5818: 5816: 5815: 5789: 5749: 5743: 5742: 5740: 5739: 5691: 5685: 5684: 5682: 5681: 5671: 5647: 5641: 5635: 5626: 5620: 5611: 5610: 5608: 5607: 5567: 5561: 5560: 5550: 5519:Plant Physiology 5510: 5504: 5498: 5492: 5491: 5489: 5488: 5432: 5426: 5425: 5419: 5418: 5362: 5356: 5355: 5320: 5314: 5313: 5273: 5267: 5261: 5252: 5249: 5243: 5240: 5234: 5228: 5222: 5221:, p. 36–37. 5216: 5210: 5209: 5207: 5206: 5166: 5155: 5149: 5143: 5137: 5131: 5130: 5128: 5127: 5071: 5065: 5059: 5050: 5049: 5047: 5046: 5028: 4980: 4974: 4973: 4933: 4927: 4926: 4921: 4920: 4872: 4866: 4860: 4854: 4853: 4835: 4811: 4805: 4799: 4790: 4785: 4779: 4774: 4768: 4762: 4756: 4750: 4744: 4738: 4729: 4728: 4702: 4693: 4687: 4681: 4675: 4669: 4663: 4662: 4652: 4620: 4614: 4608: 4602: 4596: 4590: 4584: 4578: 4572: 4566: 4565: 4563: 4562: 4506: 4495: 4494: 4468: 4444: 4438: 4437: 4431: 4427: 4425: 4417: 4411: 4410: 4372: 4366: 4360: 4354: 4348: 4339: 4333: 4327: 4326: 4317: 4316: 4260: 4254: 4248: 4235: 4229: 4223: 4222: 4209: 4161: 4155: 4149: 4143: 4142: 4132: 4100: 4094: 4093: 4091: 4090: 4064: 4032: 4026: 4025: 4015: 4006:(5–6): 689–705. 3991: 3985: 3984: 3969:Annals of Botany 3964: 3958: 3957: 3949: 3943: 3942: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3905: 3895: 3889: 3883: 3877: 3871: 3865: 3864: 3863:on Jun 24, 2014. 3859:. Archived from 3849: 3843: 3842: 3840: 3838: 3822: 3816: 3810: 3804: 3803: 3775: 3769: 3763: 3757: 3751: 3745: 3744: 3742: 3741: 3727: 3721: 3715: 3709: 3703: 3694: 3688: 3682: 3676: 3670: 3669: 3649: 3640: 3634: 3628: 3627: 3609: 3603: 3602: 3582: 3576: 3575: 3557: 3548: 3542: 3536: 3530: 3524: 3519: 3513: 3507: 3498: 3492: 3483: 3477: 3468: 3462: 3451: 3445: 3439: 3433: 3427: 3426: 3424: 3423: 3418:on March 5, 2020 3414:. Archived from 3404: 3398: 3397: 3395: 3394: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3344: 3338: 3337: 3335: 3334: 3315: 3309: 3308: 3296: 3290: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3266: 3244: 3240:Genera plantarum 3229: 3151:Chinese writings 3117:Flower market – 3099:, 13th century, 3085: 3062:ancient Egyptian 2923:Georgian cuisine 2753:For worship. In 2750:for the grieving 2625: 2618: 2614: 2611: 2605: 2582: 2574: 2496:Georgia O'Keeffe 2492:female genitalia 2348:Genera plantarum 2318:(1817–1911) and 2159: 2152: 2148: 2145: 2139: 2108: 2100: 2083:While many such 1838:relative density 1780: 1752: 1648:chiropterochory) 1566: 1546: 1528: 1412:Seed development 1406:Seed development 1370:and much of its 1201:Self-pollination 1170:ecological niche 1044: 1030: 978:pseudocopulation 868:self-pollination 788: 181: 99:produced in the 91:produced in the 69:flowering plants 21: 9146: 9145: 9141: 9140: 9139: 9137: 9136: 9135: 9116:Plant sexuality 9091: 9090: 9089: 9084: 9066: 9035:Botanical terms 9028: 9014: 8978: 8924:Citrus taxonomy 8902:Author citation 8868: 8762: 8741: 8663: 8657: 8653:Turgor pressure 8561: 8549: 8503: 8318:Floral symmetry 8236: 8228: 8158: 8147:Vascular bundle 8142:Vascular tissue 8101: 8061: 8052: 8051: 8037: 8008:Vascular plants 7973: 7969:Plant pathology 7893: 7875: 7870: 7837:Flower Database 7816: 7806: 7787: 7768: 7745: 7722: 7706: 7704:Further reading 7701: 7695: 7670: 7668: 7661: 7640: 7621: 7585: 7583: 7549: 7530:Floral Diagrams 7522: 7517: 7516: 7507: 7505: 7496: 7495: 7491: 7482: 7480: 7467: 7466: 7462: 7453: 7451: 7436: 7432: 7425: 7405: 7401: 7392: 7390: 7383: 7367: 7363: 7353: 7351: 7342: 7341: 7337: 7328:. 10 May 2015. 7316: 7315: 7311: 7301: 7299: 7282: 7278: 7255: 7251: 7241: 7239: 7222: 7218: 7206: 7202: 7193: 7191: 7178: 7177: 7173: 7164: 7162: 7141: 7137: 7130: 7116: 7112: 7103: 7101: 7092: 7091: 7087: 7078: 7076: 7067: 7066: 7062: 7053: 7051: 7042: 7041: 7037: 7028: 7026: 7011: 6995: 6991: 6974: 6970: 6960: 6958: 6947: 6943: 6934: 6932: 6925:Flower Magazine 6919: 6918: 6914: 6906: 6902: 6894: 6887: 6879: 6875: 6867: 6860: 6852: 6845: 6837: 6833: 6825: 6814: 6798: 6797: 6791: 6789: 6782:livescience.com 6774: 6770: 6761: 6759: 6750: 6749: 6745: 6736: 6734: 6725: 6724: 6720: 6665: 6661: 6651: 6649: 6632: 6628: 6619: 6617: 6608: 6607: 6603: 6580:(6): 997–1001. 6566: 6562: 6552: 6550: 6530: 6526: 6507: 6503: 6490: 6489: 6485: 6476: 6474: 6459: 6455: 6440: 6433: 6424: 6422: 6387: 6380: 6372: 6368: 6358: 6356: 6352: 6321: 6315: 6308: 6295: 6293: 6258: 6254: 6246: 6223: 6217: 6206: 6161: 6157: 6148: 6146: 6103: 6099: 6087: 6085: 6042: 6038: 6032:D. Mauseth 2016 6030: 6023: 6006: 6004: 5953: 5944: 5932: 5930: 5915: 5899: 5892: 5884: 5877: 5838: 5834: 5828:D. Mauseth 2016 5826: 5822: 5813: 5811: 5750: 5746: 5737: 5735: 5712:10.2307/2445868 5692: 5688: 5679: 5677: 5648: 5644: 5638:D. Mauseth 2016 5636: 5629: 5623:D. Mauseth 2016 5621: 5614: 5605: 5603: 5568: 5564: 5511: 5507: 5499: 5495: 5486: 5484: 5461:10.2307/2388227 5433: 5429: 5416: 5414: 5363: 5359: 5345: 5321: 5317: 5294:10.1038/nrg2664 5288:(11): 783–796. 5274: 5270: 5262: 5255: 5250: 5246: 5241: 5237: 5231:D. Mauseth 2016 5229: 5225: 5217: 5213: 5204: 5202: 5167: 5158: 5150: 5146: 5138: 5134: 5125: 5123: 5072: 5068: 5060: 5053: 5044: 5042: 4981: 4977: 4942:New Phytologist 4934: 4930: 4918: 4916: 4873: 4869: 4865:, pp. 240. 4863:D. Mauseth 2016 4861: 4857: 4820:New Phytologist 4812: 4808: 4802:D. Mauseth 2016 4800: 4793: 4786: 4782: 4775: 4771: 4763: 4759: 4751: 4747: 4739: 4732: 4700: 4694: 4690: 4682: 4678: 4670: 4666: 4621: 4617: 4609: 4605: 4597: 4593: 4587:D. Mauseth 2016 4585: 4581: 4573: 4569: 4560: 4558: 4507: 4498: 4445: 4441: 4429: 4428: 4419: 4418: 4408: 4406: 4399: 4373: 4369: 4361: 4357: 4349: 4342: 4334: 4330: 4314: 4312: 4289:10.2307/3544245 4261: 4257: 4251:D. Mauseth 2016 4249: 4238: 4230: 4226: 4162: 4158: 4152:D. Mauseth 2016 4150: 4146: 4101: 4097: 4088: 4086: 4033: 4029: 3992: 3988: 3965: 3961: 3950: 3946: 3931: 3915: 3911: 3896: 3892: 3884: 3880: 3872: 3868: 3851: 3850: 3846: 3836: 3834: 3823: 3819: 3811: 3807: 3776: 3772: 3764: 3760: 3754:D. Mauseth 2016 3752: 3748: 3739: 3737: 3729: 3728: 3724: 3716: 3712: 3706:D. Mauseth 2016 3704: 3697: 3689: 3685: 3679:D. Mauseth 2016 3677: 3673: 3666: 3650: 3643: 3635: 3631: 3624: 3610: 3606: 3599: 3583: 3579: 3572: 3558: 3551: 3543: 3539: 3533:D. Mauseth 2016 3531: 3527: 3520: 3516: 3508: 3501: 3495:D. Mauseth 2016 3493: 3486: 3480:D. Mauseth 2016 3478: 3471: 3463: 3454: 3450:, pp. 5–6. 3446: 3442: 3434: 3430: 3421: 3419: 3406: 3405: 3401: 3392: 3390: 3377: 3376: 3372: 3365: 3345: 3341: 3332: 3330: 3317: 3316: 3312: 3297: 3293: 3283: 3281: 3268: 3267: 3263: 3258: 3253: 3248: 3247: 3234:Systema Naturae 3230: 3226: 3221: 3179: 3166:Russian culture 3159:Roman mythology 3111: 3106: 3105: 3104: 3091: 3086: 3076:ancestors did. 3070:Day of the Dead 2969:Squash blossoms 2945:blossom honey, 2780:in a temple in 2759:chancel flowers 2688:Thomas Cochrane 2643:Chancel flowers 2636: 2626: 2615: 2609: 2606: 2595: 2583: 2572: 2407: 2390: 2236: 2228:Main articles: 2226: 2220:in the color). 2216:(the amount of 2170: 2160: 2149: 2143: 2140: 2125: 2109: 2098: 2076:Likewise, most 2067:Island genetics 1949:, particularly 1901: 1891: 1859: 1853: 1808: 1800:Main articles: 1798: 1796:Abiotic vectors 1793: 1792: 1791: 1790: 1789: 1781: 1772: 1771: 1770: 1765:, is a weed in 1753: 1674:morphologically 1666:(mammaliochory) 1620: 1614: 1592: 1583: 1582: 1581: 1580: 1579: 1567: 1559: 1558: 1547: 1539: 1538: 1529: 1518: 1510:Main articles: 1508: 1480: 1474: 1466:vascular tissue 1414: 1408: 1322: 1314:Main articles: 1312: 1275: 1269: 1212:, the kakabeak. 1203: 1178: 1161: 1056: 1055: 1054: 1053: 1052: 1045: 1036: 1035: 1034: 1031: 1020: 1012:Main articles: 1010: 993: 987: 953:carrion flowers 898: 885:chiropterophily 847: 796: 795: 794: 793: 792: 789: 778: 772: 745: 739: 719:apical meristem 707: 701: 663:plants require 647:and seasonable 629: 597: 589:floral diagrams 570: 562:Main articles: 560: 508: 502: 452:radial symmetry 424: 380: 340: 321: 315: 303: 275: 270: 264: 214: 200: 171: 44: 37: 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9144: 9134: 9133: 9128: 9123: 9118: 9113: 9108: 9103: 9086: 9085: 9083: 9082: 9071: 9068: 9067: 9065: 9064: 9059: 9054: 9049: 9048: 9047: 9037: 9031: 9029: 9027: 9026: 9025:Related topics 9023: 9019: 9016: 9015: 9013: 9012: 9007: 9002: 8997: 8992: 8986: 8984: 8980: 8979: 8977: 8976: 8974:Taxonomic rank 8971: 8966: 8960: 8955: 8950: 8949: 8948: 8947: 8946: 8941: 8936: 8926: 8916: 8915: 8914: 8909: 8904: 8899: 8894: 8892:Botanical name 8884: 8878: 8876: 8874:Plant taxonomy 8870: 8869: 8867: 8866: 8865: 8864: 8859: 8858: 8857: 8850:Megasporangium 8847: 8846: 8845: 8838:Microsporangia 8830: 8829: 8828: 8823: 8818: 8813: 8803: 8798: 8793: 8792: 8791: 8781: 8776: 8771: 8765: 8763: 8761: 8760: 8755: 8749: 8743: 8742: 8740: 8739: 8734: 8729: 8724: 8723: 8722: 8721: 8720: 8710: 8705: 8700: 8699: 8698: 8693: 8683: 8678: 8676:Cushion plants 8667: 8665: 8659: 8658: 8656: 8655: 8650: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8630: 8629: 8628: 8623: 8613: 8611:Plant hormones 8608: 8603: 8602: 8601: 8594:Photosynthesis 8591: 8586: 8581: 8576: 8571: 8565: 8563: 8555: 8554: 8551: 8550: 8548: 8547: 8542: 8537: 8532: 8527: 8522: 8517: 8511: 8509: 8505: 8504: 8502: 8501: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8481: 8480: 8479: 8474: 8469: 8459: 8458: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8442: 8432: 8427: 8426: 8425: 8424: 8423: 8418: 8413: 8412: 8411: 8406: 8386: 8381: 8376: 8375: 8374: 8373: 8372: 8367: 8357: 8352: 8347: 8342: 8337: 8327: 8326: 8325: 8320: 8315: 8313:Floral formula 8310: 8308:Floral diagram 8305: 8300: 8290: 8289: 8288: 8283: 8278: 8277: 8276: 8271: 8261: 8251: 8246: 8240: 8238: 8237:(incl. Flower) 8230: 8229: 8227: 8226: 8225: 8224: 8219: 8214: 8213: 8212: 8207: 8197: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8166: 8164: 8160: 8159: 8157: 8156: 8151: 8150: 8149: 8139: 8137:Storage organs 8134: 8129: 8128: 8127: 8117: 8111: 8109: 8103: 8102: 8100: 8099: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8079: 8073: 8071: 8062: 8060: 8059: 8045: 8039: 8038: 8036: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8023:Spermatophytes 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7995: 7993:Archaeplastida 7990: 7984: 7982: 7975: 7974: 7972: 7971: 7966: 7961: 7956: 7955: 7954: 7947:Phytogeography 7944: 7942:Phytochemistry 7939: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7909: 7903: 7901: 7899:Subdisciplines 7895: 7894: 7892: 7891: 7886: 7880: 7877: 7876: 7869: 7868: 7861: 7854: 7846: 7840: 7839: 7834: 7829: 7815: 7814:External links 7812: 7811: 7810: 7804: 7791: 7785: 7772: 7766: 7749: 7743: 7726: 7720: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7699: 7694:978-0070141599 7693: 7681:Plant Taxonomy 7676: 7659: 7644: 7638: 7625: 7619: 7602: 7591: 7553: 7547: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7515: 7514: 7489: 7460: 7430: 7423: 7399: 7381: 7361: 7344:"Burial Rites" 7335: 7309: 7276: 7249: 7216: 7200: 7186:. April 1991. 7184:Hinduism Today 7171: 7135: 7129:978-1623496449 7128: 7110: 7085: 7060: 7035: 7009: 6989: 6968: 6949:Audet, Marye. 6941: 6927:. 2018-05-28. 6912: 6900: 6885: 6873: 6858: 6843: 6831: 6812: 6768: 6743: 6718: 6659: 6626: 6601: 6560: 6524: 6501: 6483: 6453: 6450:. p. 618. 6444:Modern Biology 6431: 6401:(2): 137–152. 6378: 6366: 6332:(2): 109–124. 6306: 6252: 6249:on 2006-05-13. 6204: 6155: 6097: 6056:(5): 669–675. 6036: 6021: 5967:(2): 237–249. 5942: 5913: 5890: 5875: 5832: 5830:, p. 248. 5820: 5764:(1): 168–179. 5744: 5686: 5642: 5627: 5625:, p. 234. 5612: 5562: 5525:(1): 341–357. 5505: 5493: 5427: 5357: 5343: 5315: 5268: 5253: 5244: 5235: 5233:, p. 222. 5223: 5211: 5181:(1): 261–279. 5156: 5144: 5132: 5086:(2): 278–285. 5066: 5051: 4975: 4948:(1): 222–233. 4928: 4867: 4855: 4826:(2): 437–450. 4806: 4804:, p. 241. 4791: 4780: 4769: 4767:, p. 173. 4757: 4755:, p. 121. 4745: 4730: 4711:(3): 409–424. 4688: 4676: 4664: 4615: 4603: 4591: 4579: 4567: 4521:(1): 167–185. 4496: 4459:(4): 911–913. 4439: 4430:|journal= 4397: 4367: 4365:, p. 120. 4355: 4340: 4328: 4255: 4253:, p. 238. 4236: 4224: 4156: 4144: 4115:(7): 898–912. 4095: 4027: 4000:Int J Dev Biol 3986: 3975:(3): 249–262. 3959: 3944: 3929: 3909: 3890: 3878: 3866: 3844: 3817: 3805: 3790:(1): 241–250. 3770: 3758: 3756:, p. 228. 3746: 3722: 3710: 3708:, p. 239. 3695: 3693:, p. 410. 3683: 3681:, p. 243. 3671: 3664: 3641: 3629: 3622: 3604: 3597: 3577: 3570: 3549: 3537: 3535:, p. 229. 3525: 3514: 3499: 3497:, p. 226. 3484: 3482:, p. 225. 3469: 3452: 3440: 3428: 3399: 3370: 3363: 3339: 3323:Lumen Learning 3310: 3291: 3260: 3259: 3257: 3254: 3252: 3249: 3246: 3245: 3223: 3222: 3220: 3217: 3216: 3215: 3210: 3205: 3200: 3195: 3190: 3185: 3178: 3175: 3171:flower bouquet 3123:Eastern Market 3110: 3107: 3088: 3087: 3080: 3079: 3078: 3048:ancient Greeks 2973:edible flowers 2812:flower gardens 2770: 2769: 2751: 2740: 2733: 2730: 2728:wedding venues 2724: 2721: 2710: 2628: 2627: 2586: 2584: 2577: 2571: 2568: 2538:Ah! Sun-Flower 2453: 2452: 2446: 2436: 2426: 2403:Main article: 2389: 2386: 2320:George Bentham 2251:plant taxonomy 2234:Plant taxonomy 2225: 2222: 2162: 2161: 2112: 2110: 2103: 2097: 2094: 2031:gigantopterids 1955:Charles Darwin 1899:Floral biology 1890: 1887: 1872:Hura crepitans 1855:Main article: 1852: 1849: 1797: 1794: 1785:Hura crepitans 1782: 1775: 1774: 1773: 1758:Usnea angulata 1754: 1747: 1746: 1745: 1744: 1743: 1633:also known as 1616:Main article: 1613: 1612:Biotic vectors 1610: 1591: 1588: 1568: 1561: 1560: 1548: 1541: 1540: 1530: 1523: 1522: 1521: 1520: 1519: 1516:Seed dispersal 1507: 1506:Seed dispersal 1504: 1476:Main article: 1473: 1470: 1446:monocotyledons 1410:Main article: 1407: 1404: 1338:, also called 1311: 1308: 1287:climate change 1273:Pollen allergy 1271:Main article: 1268: 1265: 1202: 1199: 1177: 1174: 1160: 1157: 1046: 1039: 1038: 1037: 1032: 1025: 1024: 1023: 1022: 1021: 1009: 1006: 986: 983: 906:Ophrys apifera 897: 894: 846: 843: 790: 783: 782: 781: 780: 779: 774:Main article: 771: 768: 738: 735: 703:Main article: 700: 697: 655:changes. Many 645:plant hormones 628: 625: 617:modified stems 596: 593: 574:floral formula 568:Floral diagram 564:Floral formula 559: 556: 504:Main article: 501: 498: 423: 420: 379: 376: 339: 336: 317:Main article: 314: 311: 302: 299: 274: 271: 266:Main article: 263: 260: 210:Main article: 199: 196: 175:Middle English 170: 167: 127:self-pollinate 28: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9143: 9132: 9129: 9127: 9124: 9122: 9119: 9117: 9114: 9112: 9109: 9107: 9104: 9102: 9099: 9098: 9096: 9081: 9073: 9072: 9069: 9063: 9060: 9058: 9055: 9053: 9050: 9046: 9043: 9042: 9041: 9038: 9036: 9033: 9032: 9030: 9024: 9021: 9020: 9017: 9011: 9010:Phytochemical 9008: 9006: 9003: 9001: 8998: 8996: 8993: 8991: 8988: 8987: 8985: 8981: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8967: 8964: 8961: 8959: 8956: 8954: 8951: 8945: 8942: 8940: 8937: 8935: 8932: 8931: 8930: 8927: 8925: 8922: 8921: 8920: 8917: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8903: 8900: 8898: 8895: 8893: 8890: 8889: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8879: 8877: 8875: 8871: 8863: 8860: 8856: 8853: 8852: 8851: 8848: 8844: 8841: 8840: 8839: 8836: 8835: 8834: 8831: 8827: 8824: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8814: 8812: 8809: 8808: 8807: 8804: 8802: 8799: 8797: 8794: 8790: 8787: 8786: 8785: 8782: 8780: 8777: 8775: 8772: 8770: 8767: 8766: 8764: 8759: 8756: 8754: 8751: 8750: 8748: 8744: 8738: 8735: 8733: 8730: 8728: 8725: 8719: 8716: 8715: 8714: 8711: 8709: 8706: 8704: 8701: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8688: 8687: 8684: 8682: 8679: 8677: 8674: 8673: 8672: 8669: 8668: 8666: 8660: 8654: 8651: 8649: 8648:Transpiration 8646: 8644: 8641: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8631: 8627: 8624: 8622: 8619: 8618: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8600: 8597: 8596: 8595: 8592: 8590: 8587: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8577: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8566: 8564: 8560: 8556: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8538: 8536: 8533: 8531: 8528: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8518: 8516: 8513: 8512: 8510: 8506: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8478: 8475: 8473: 8470: 8468: 8465: 8464: 8463: 8460: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8441: 8438: 8437: 8436: 8435:Inflorescence 8433: 8431: 8428: 8422: 8419: 8417: 8414: 8410: 8407: 8405: 8402: 8401: 8400: 8397: 8396: 8395: 8392: 8391: 8390: 8387: 8385: 8382: 8380: 8377: 8371: 8368: 8366: 8363: 8362: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8351: 8348: 8346: 8343: 8341: 8338: 8336: 8333: 8332: 8331: 8328: 8324: 8321: 8319: 8316: 8314: 8311: 8309: 8306: 8304: 8301: 8299: 8296: 8295: 8294: 8291: 8287: 8284: 8282: 8279: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8266: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8257: 8256: 8255: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8241: 8239: 8235: 8231: 8223: 8220: 8218: 8215: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8202: 8201: 8198: 8196: 8193: 8192: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8167: 8165: 8161: 8155: 8152: 8148: 8145: 8144: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8135: 8133: 8130: 8126: 8123: 8122: 8121: 8120:Ground tissue 8118: 8116: 8113: 8112: 8110: 8108: 8104: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8075: 8074: 8072: 8070: 8066: 8063: 8056: 8050: 8047: 8046: 8044: 8043:Plant anatomy 8040: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7976: 7970: 7967: 7965: 7964:Plant ecology 7962: 7960: 7959:Plant anatomy 7957: 7953: 7950: 7949: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7907:Archaeobotany 7905: 7904: 7902: 7900: 7896: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7882: 7881: 7878: 7874: 7867: 7862: 7860: 7855: 7853: 7848: 7847: 7844: 7838: 7835: 7833: 7830: 7827: 7822: 7818: 7817: 7807: 7801: 7797: 7792: 7788: 7782: 7778: 7773: 7769: 7763: 7758: 7757: 7750: 7746: 7740: 7735: 7734: 7733:Plant Anatomy 7727: 7723: 7717: 7713: 7708: 7707: 7696: 7690: 7686: 7682: 7677: 7666: 7662: 7656: 7652: 7651: 7645: 7641: 7635: 7631: 7626: 7622: 7616: 7612: 7608: 7603: 7599: 7598: 7592: 7581: 7577: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7561: 7560: 7554: 7550: 7544: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7531: 7525: 7524: 7503: 7499: 7493: 7479:on 2019-04-13 7478: 7474: 7470: 7464: 7449: 7445: 7441: 7434: 7426: 7420: 7416: 7412: 7411: 7403: 7388: 7384: 7378: 7374: 7373: 7365: 7349: 7345: 7339: 7331: 7327: 7326: 7325:The Telegraph 7320: 7313: 7297: 7293: 7292: 7287: 7280: 7272: 7268: 7267: 7266:The Telegraph 7261: 7253: 7237: 7233: 7232: 7227: 7220: 7213: 7209: 7204: 7189: 7185: 7181: 7175: 7160: 7156: 7152: 7148: 7147: 7139: 7131: 7125: 7121: 7114: 7100:on 2017-09-10 7099: 7095: 7089: 7075:on 2009-04-13 7074: 7070: 7064: 7049: 7045: 7039: 7024: 7020: 7016: 7012: 7006: 7002: 7001: 6993: 6985: 6981: 6980: 6972: 6956: 6952: 6945: 6930: 6926: 6922: 6916: 6910:, p. 96. 6909: 6904: 6898:, p. 11. 6897: 6892: 6890: 6882: 6877: 6871:, p. 22. 6870: 6865: 6863: 6856:, p. 10. 6855: 6850: 6848: 6840: 6835: 6829:, p. 21. 6828: 6823: 6821: 6819: 6817: 6808: 6802: 6787: 6783: 6779: 6772: 6757: 6753: 6747: 6732: 6728: 6722: 6714: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6696: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6675: 6670: 6663: 6647: 6643: 6642: 6637: 6630: 6615: 6611: 6605: 6597: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6564: 6548: 6544: 6543: 6538: 6534: 6528: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6505: 6497: 6493: 6487: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6457: 6449: 6445: 6438: 6436: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6385: 6383: 6375: 6370: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6320: 6313: 6311: 6302: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6256: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6222: 6215: 6213: 6211: 6209: 6200: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6175:(2): e01685. 6174: 6170: 6166: 6159: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6101: 6094: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6040: 6033: 6028: 6026: 6018: 6013: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5951: 5949: 5947: 5939: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5914:0-85199-806-2 5910: 5906: 5905: 5897: 5895: 5888:, p. 71. 5887: 5882: 5880: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5848:(2): 205–25. 5847: 5843: 5836: 5829: 5824: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5748: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5690: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5646: 5639: 5634: 5632: 5624: 5619: 5617: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5566: 5558: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5509: 5503:, p. 34. 5502: 5497: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5431: 5423: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5361: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5327: 5319: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5272: 5266:, p. 42. 5265: 5260: 5258: 5248: 5239: 5232: 5227: 5220: 5215: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5165: 5163: 5161: 5153: 5148: 5142:, p. 51. 5141: 5136: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5070: 5063: 5058: 5056: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4979: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4932: 4925: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4871: 4864: 4859: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4810: 4803: 4798: 4796: 4789: 4784: 4778: 4773: 4766: 4761: 4754: 4749: 4742: 4737: 4735: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4699: 4692: 4685: 4680: 4674:, p. 81. 4673: 4668: 4660: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4619: 4612: 4607: 4601:, p. 68. 4600: 4595: 4588: 4583: 4577:, p. 46. 4576: 4571: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4505: 4503: 4501: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4443: 4435: 4423: 4415: 4404: 4400: 4398:9780125839808 4394: 4390: 4386: 4383:. p. 8. 4382: 4378: 4371: 4364: 4359: 4352: 4347: 4345: 4338:, p. 65. 4337: 4332: 4325: 4321: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4259: 4252: 4247: 4245: 4243: 4241: 4233: 4228: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4160: 4153: 4148: 4140: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4099: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4031: 4023: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3990: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3963: 3955: 3948: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3926: 3922: 3921: 3913: 3904: 3903: 3894: 3888:, p. 36. 3887: 3882: 3875: 3870: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3848: 3832: 3828: 3821: 3815:, p. 38. 3814: 3809: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3774: 3767: 3762: 3755: 3750: 3736: 3732: 3726: 3720:, p. 21. 3719: 3714: 3707: 3702: 3700: 3692: 3687: 3680: 3675: 3667: 3665:0-521-25134-6 3661: 3657: 3656: 3648: 3646: 3639:, p. 25. 3638: 3633: 3625: 3619: 3615: 3608: 3600: 3594: 3590: 3589: 3581: 3573: 3567: 3563: 3556: 3554: 3547:, p. 14. 3546: 3541: 3534: 3529: 3523: 3518: 3511: 3506: 3504: 3496: 3491: 3489: 3481: 3476: 3474: 3466: 3461: 3459: 3457: 3449: 3444: 3437: 3432: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3403: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3374: 3366: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3351: 3343: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3314: 3306: 3302: 3295: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3265: 3261: 3242: 3241: 3236: 3235: 3228: 3224: 3214: 3211: 3209: 3206: 3204: 3201: 3199: 3196: 3194: 3191: 3189: 3186: 3184: 3181: 3180: 3174: 3172: 3167: 3162: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3124: 3120: 3115: 3102: 3101:Palace Museum 3098: 3094: 3093:Eight Flowers 3090: 3084: 3077: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3058: 3053: 3049: 3044: 3043:El Miron Cave 3039: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3024: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2981:chrysanthemum 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2845:in July 2007. 2844: 2840: 2835: 2831: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2818:flowers from 2817: 2813: 2808: 2806: 2802: 2799:Flowers like 2794: 2789: 2783: 2779: 2774: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2738: 2734: 2731: 2729: 2725: 2722: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2709: 2705: 2704: 2703: 2701: 2693: 2689: 2684: 2680: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2665: 2659: 2658:Ancient Egypt 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2635: 2624: 2621: 2613: 2610:November 2018 2603: 2599: 2593: 2592: 2587:This section 2585: 2581: 2576: 2575: 2567: 2565: 2561: 2556: 2554: 2550: 2545: 2542: 2540: 2539: 2534: 2533:William Blake 2530: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2515: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2466: 2462: 2457: 2450: 2447: 2444: 2440: 2437: 2434: 2430: 2427: 2424: 2420: 2419: 2418: 2416: 2412: 2406: 2398: 2394: 2385: 2383: 2382:inflorescence 2379: 2378:morphological 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2358: 2352: 2350: 2349: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2331: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2312: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2275: 2270: 2269:Carl Linnaeus 2266: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2244: 2243:Carl Linnaeus 2240: 2235: 2231: 2221: 2219: 2215: 2210: 2206: 2201: 2200: 2195: 2191: 2183: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2158: 2155: 2147: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2123: 2122: 2118: 2113:This section 2111: 2107: 2102: 2101: 2093: 2089: 2086: 2081: 2079: 2074: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2058: 2056: 2052: 2047: 2043: 2038: 2036: 2035:petrification 2032: 2028: 2024: 2019: 2017: 2013: 2012: 2008:) shows that 2007: 2003: 1995: 1994: 1989: 1985: 1983: 1982: 1977: 1975: 1974:Archaefructus 1970: 1969:liaoningensis 1968: 1967:Archaefructus 1963: 1962:Archaefructus 1958: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1940: 1939:liaoningensis 1938: 1937:Archaefructus 1933: 1929: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1900: 1896: 1886: 1885: 1882: 1879: 1875: 1873: 1869:, such as in 1868: 1867:ballistically 1864: 1858: 1848: 1846: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1834: 1828: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1816: 1812: 1807: 1803: 1787: 1786: 1779: 1768: 1764: 1761:, which uses 1760: 1759: 1751: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1719: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1702: 1697: 1696: 1691: 1690: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1658: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1644:ornithochory) 1641: 1636: 1632: 1630: 1625: 1619: 1609: 1608: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1587: 1577: 1573: 1572: 1565: 1556: 1552: 1545: 1536: 1535: 1527: 1517: 1513: 1503: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1479: 1469: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1418: 1413: 1403: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1387: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1368:cell membrane 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1336:Fertilization 1331: 1326: 1321: 1317: 1316:Fertilization 1310:Fertilization 1307: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1274: 1264: 1262: 1258: 1257: 1250: 1248: 1247: 1242: 1241:cleistogamous 1238: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1211: 1207: 1198: 1194: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1173: 1171: 1167: 1156: 1154: 1153: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1123: 1118: 1114: 1109: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1082: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1050: 1043: 1029: 1019: 1015: 1005: 1003: 999: 992: 982: 979: 975: 970: 968: 964: 960: 959: 954: 950: 945: 943: 939: 938:nectar guides 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 918: 917:entomophilous 908: 907: 902: 893: 891: 887: 886: 881: 880: 875: 874: 869: 864: 860: 856: 852: 842: 839: 837: 833: 828: 826: 825: 820: 819: 814: 813:pygmy possums 810: 806: 802: 787: 777: 767: 765: 760: 756: 752: 751: 750:heterosporous 744: 734: 732: 731: 726: 725: 720: 716: 712: 706: 696: 694: 684: 680: 678: 674: 670: 666: 665:vernalization 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 633:fertilization 624: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 592: 590: 585: 583: 579: 575: 569: 565: 555: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 532:inflorescence 525: 521: 520:inflorescence 517: 512: 507: 506:Inflorescence 500:Inflorescence 497: 495: 491: 487: 483: 482:hermaphrodite 478: 476: 472: 468: 467:inflorescence 464: 459: 457: 453: 449: 448:actinomorphic 445: 440: 438: 434: 430: 419: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 375: 371: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 332: 331: 325: 320: 310: 308: 298: 296: 292: 289:and may have 288: 284: 280: 269: 259: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 216: 213: 204: 195: 193: 189: 185: 180: 176: 166: 164: 159: 157: 153: 149: 148:parthenocarpy 145: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 119: 117: 113: 109: 104: 102: 98: 94: 90: 89:pollen grains 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 50: 46: 42: 35: 27: 19: 9005:Horticulture 8995:Floriculture 8897:Correct name 8747:Reproduction 8737:Woody plants 8662:Plant growth 8621:Gas Exchange 8606:Phytomelanin 8484:Plant embryo 8292: 8234:Reproductive 8082:Phragmoplast 7828:at Wikiquote 7795: 7776: 7755: 7732: 7714:. Scribner. 7711: 7680: 7669:. Retrieved 7649: 7629: 7606: 7596: 7584:. Retrieved 7558: 7529: 7506:. Retrieved 7492: 7481:. Retrieved 7477:the original 7472: 7463: 7452:. Retrieved 7443: 7433: 7409: 7402: 7391:. Retrieved 7371: 7364: 7352:. Retrieved 7338: 7323: 7312: 7300:. Retrieved 7291:The Guardian 7289: 7279: 7264: 7252: 7240:. Retrieved 7231:The Guardian 7229: 7219: 7203: 7192:. Retrieved 7174: 7163:. Retrieved 7145: 7138: 7119: 7113: 7102:. Retrieved 7098:the original 7088: 7077:. Retrieved 7073:the original 7063: 7052:. Retrieved 7038: 7027:. Retrieved 6999: 6992: 6978: 6971: 6959:. Retrieved 6944: 6933:. Retrieved 6924: 6915: 6903: 6876: 6841:, p. 8. 6834: 6790:. Retrieved 6781: 6771: 6760:. Retrieved 6746: 6735:. Retrieved 6721: 6678: 6672: 6662: 6650:. Retrieved 6639: 6629: 6618:. Retrieved 6604: 6577: 6573: 6563: 6551:. Retrieved 6540: 6527: 6515:The Guardian 6514: 6504: 6496:First Flower 6491: 6486: 6475:. Retrieved 6456: 6443: 6423:. Retrieved 6398: 6394: 6369: 6357:. Retrieved 6329: 6325: 6299:– via 6294:. Retrieved 6269: 6265: 6255: 6244:the original 6231: 6227: 6172: 6168: 6158: 6147:. Retrieved 6117:(1): 43–55. 6114: 6110: 6100: 6092: 6086:. Retrieved 6053: 6049: 6039: 6015: 6010:– via 6005:. Retrieved 5964: 5961:Weed Science 5960: 5937: 5931:. Retrieved 5903: 5845: 5841: 5835: 5823: 5812:. Retrieved 5761: 5757: 5747: 5736:. Retrieved 5703: 5699: 5689: 5678:. Retrieved 5659: 5655: 5645: 5604:. Retrieved 5582:(4): 82–89. 5579: 5575: 5565: 5522: 5518: 5508: 5496: 5485:. Retrieved 5444: 5440: 5430: 5420:– via 5415:. Retrieved 5374: 5371:Weed Science 5370: 5360: 5325: 5318: 5285: 5281: 5271: 5247: 5238: 5226: 5214: 5203:. Retrieved 5178: 5174: 5147: 5135: 5124:. Retrieved 5083: 5079: 5069: 5043:. Retrieved 4995:(1): 45–58. 4992: 4988: 4978: 4945: 4941: 4931: 4923: 4917:. Retrieved 4884: 4880: 4870: 4858: 4823: 4819: 4809: 4783: 4772: 4760: 4748: 4708: 4704: 4691: 4679: 4667: 4632: 4628: 4618: 4606: 4594: 4582: 4570: 4559:. 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