562:
known for their strong connection to the land and nature and preserved botanical knowledge, with healers, known as "curandeiros" or "meigas," who relied on local plants for healing purposes The
Asturian landscape, characterized by lush forests and mountainous terrain, provided a rich source of medicinal herbs used in traditional healing practices, with "yerbatos," who possessed extensive knowledge of local plants and their medicinal properties Barcelona, located in the Catalonia region of northeastern Spain, was a hub of cultural exchange during the Middle Ages, fostering the preservation and dissemination of medical knowledge. Catalan herbalists, known as "herbolarios," compiled manuscripts detailing the properties and uses of medicinal plants found in the region. The University of Barcelona, founded in 1450, played a pivotal role in advancing herbal medicine through its botanical gardens and academic pursuits.
1084:
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509:
1933:
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products with supposed health benefits, is increasing in developed countries. This brings attendant risks of toxicity and other effects on human health, despite the safe image of herbal remedies. Herbal medicines have been in use since long before modern medicine existed; there was and often still is little or no knowledge of the pharmacological basis of their actions, if any, or of their safety. The World Health
Organization formulated a policy on traditional medicine in 1991, and since then has published guidelines for them, with a series of monographs on widely used herbal medicines.
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1394:
1535:
1803:
1031:
1753:
phylogenetic signal". Since many plants that yield pharmaceutical drugs belong to just these groups, and the groups were independently used in three different world regions, the results were taken to mean 1) that these plant groups do have potential for medicinal efficacy, 2) that undefined pharmacological activity is associated with use in traditional medicine, and 3) that the use of a phylogenetic groups for possible plant medicines in one region may predict their use in the other regions.
1251:
220:
1718:
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1515:
22:
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336:
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therapeutically sound usage. WHO notes in the strategy that countries are experiencing seven challenges to such implementation, namely in developing and enforcing policy; in integration; in safety and quality, especially in assessment of products and qualification of practitioners; in controlling advertising; in research and development; in education and training; and in the sharing of information.
1961:
that because a product comes from nature it must be safe: the existence of powerful natural poisons like atropine and nicotine shows this to be untrue. Further, the high standards applied to conventional medicines do not always apply to plant medicines, and dose can vary widely depending on the growth conditions of plants: older plants may be much more toxic than young ones, for instance.
558:
depict French herbal remedies and their uses. Monasteries and convents served as centers of learning, where monks and nuns cultivated medicinal gardens. Likewise, in Italy, herbalism flourished with contribution
Italian physicians like Matthaeus Platearius who compiled herbal manuscripts, such as the "Circa Instans," which served as practical guides for herbal remedies.
1598:, powdering, and extraction with alcohol, in each case yielding a mixture of substances. Decoction involves crushing and then boiling the plant material in water to produce a liquid extract that can be taken orally or applied topically. Powdering involves drying the plant material and then crushing it to yield a powder that can be compressed into
5015:"Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to various food(s)/food constituent(s) and protection of cells from premature aging, antioxidant activity, antioxidant content and antioxidant properties, and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/20061"
707:, in which livestock, crops and technologies were transferred between the Old World and the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries. Medicinal herbs arriving in the Americas included garlic, ginger, and turmeric; coffee, tobacco and coca travelled in the other direction. In Mexico, the sixteenth century
3661:
Biodiversity and the
Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Satellite event on the occasion of the Ninth Regular Session of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Rome, 12β13 October 2002. Inter-Departmental Working Group on Biological Diversity for Food and
1677:
is marketed aggressively using the claims of traditional medicine. As of 2015, most products made from medicinal plants had not been tested for their safety and efficacy, and products that were marketed in developed economies and provided in the undeveloped world by traditional healers were of uneven
5705:
There is no reliable evidence from human studies that herbal remedies can treat, prevent or cure any type of cancer. Some clinical trials seem to show that certain
Chinese herbs may help people to live longer, might reduce side effects, and help to prevent cancer from coming back. This is especially
1960:
Plant medicines can cause adverse effects and even death, whether by side-effects of their active substances, by adulteration or contamination, by overdose, or by inappropriate prescription. Many such effects are known, while others remain to be explored scientifically. There is no reason to presume
1740:
Plant medicines have often not been tested systematically, but have come into use informally over the centuries. By 2007, clinical trials had demonstrated potentially useful activity in nearly 16% of herbal extracts; there was limited in vitro or in vivo evidence for roughly half the extracts; there
819:
Medicinal plants may provide three main kinds of benefit: health benefits to the people who consume them as medicines; financial benefits to people who harvest, process, and distribute them for sale; and society-wide benefits, such as job opportunities, taxation income, and a healthier labour force.
561:
In the
Iberian Peninsula, the regions of the North remained independent during the period of Islamic occupation, and retained their traditional and indigenous medical practices. Galicia and Asturias, possessed a rich herbal heritage shaped by its Celtic and Roman influences. The Galician people were
411:
Among the Celtic peoples of ancient Europe, herbalism played a vital role in both medicine and spirituality. Druids, the religious leaders of the Celts, were reputed to possess deep knowledge of plants and their medicinal properties. Although written records are scarce, archaeological evidence, such
190:
Medicinal plants are widely used as folk medicine in non-industrialized societies, mainly because they are readily available and cheaper than modern medicines. The annual global export value of the thousands of types of plants with medicinal properties was estimated to be US$ 60 billion per year and
1999:
to development and agriculture. A specific threat is over-collection to meet rising demand for medicines. A case in point was the pressure on wild populations of the
Pacific yew soon after news of taxol's effectiveness became public. The threat from over-collection could be addressed by cultivation
1982:
products have been criticized as not having sufficient standards or scientific evidence to confirm their contents, safety, and presumed efficacy. Companies often make false claims about their herbal products promising health benefits that aren't backed by evidence to generate more sales. The market
815:
estimates, without reliable data, that some 80 percent of the world's population depends mainly on traditional medicine (including but not limited to plants); perhaps some two billion people are largely reliant on medicinal plants. The use of plant-based materials including herbal or natural health
565:
In
Scotland and England, herbalism was deeply rooted in folk traditions and influenced by Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse practices. Herbal knowledge was passed down through generations, often by wise women known as "cunning folk." The "Physicians of Myddfai," a Welsh herbal manuscript from the 13th
557:
In France, herbalism thrived alongside the practice of medieval medicine, which combined elements of
Ancient Greek and Roman traditions. Catholic monastic orders played a significant role in preserving and expanding herbal knowledge. Manuscripts like the "Tractatus de Herbis" from the 15th century
415:
In the Nordic regions, including
Scandinavia and parts of Germany, herbal medicine was also prevalent in ancient times. The Norse sagas and Eddic poetry often mention the use of herbs for healing purposes. Additionally, archaeological findings, such as the remains of medicinal plants in Viking-age
810:
In modern medicine, around a quarter of the drugs prescribed to patients are derived from medicinal plants, and they are rigorously tested. In other systems of medicine, medicinal plants may constitute the majority of what are often informal attempted treatments, not tested scientifically. The
407:
The Romans had a rich tradition of herbal medicine, drawing upon knowledge inherited from the Greeks and expanding upon it. Notable works include those of Pedanius Dioscorides, whose "De Materia Medica" served as a comprehensive guide to medicinal plants and remained influential for centuries.
1923:
The pharmaceutical industry has remained interested in mining traditional uses of medicinal plants in its drug discovery efforts. Of the 1073 small-molecule drugs approved in the period 1981 to 2010, over half were either directly derived from or inspired by natural substances. Among cancer
1793:
WHO has set out a strategy for traditional medicines with four objectives: to integrate them as policy into national healthcare systems; to provide knowledge and guidance on their safety, efficacy, and quality; to increase their availability and affordability; and to promote their rational,
1752:
level using 20,000 species to compare the medicinal plants of three regions, Nepal, New Zealand and the Cape of South Africa. It discovered that the species used traditionally to treat the same types of condition belonged to the same groups of plants in all three regions, giving a "strong
1781:
The World Health Organization (WHO) has been coordinating a network called the International Regulatory Cooperation for Herbal Medicines to try to improve the quality of medical products made from medicinal plants and the claims made for them. In 2015, only around 20% of countries had
774:
often modified the active ingredients when whole plants were dried, and alkaloids and glycosides purified from plant material started to be preferred. Drug discovery from plants continued to be important through the 20th century and into the 21st, with important anti-cancer drugs from
5579:
854:
in plant defenses. These phytochemicals have potential for use as drugs, and the content and known pharmacological activity of these substances in medicinal plants is the scientific basis for their use in modern medicine, if scientifically confirmed. For instance, daffodils
1741:
was only phytochemical evidence for around 20%; 0.5% were allergenic or toxic; and some 12% had basically never been studied scientifically. Cancer Research UK caution that there is no reliable evidence for the effectiveness of herbal remedies for cancer.
901:
are bitter-tasting chemicals, very widespread in nature, and often toxic, found in many medicinal plants. There are several classes with different modes of action as drugs, both recreational and pharmaceutical. Medicines of different classes include
2000:
of some medicinal plants, or by a system of certification to make wild harvesting sustainable. A report in 2020 by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew identifies 723 medicinal plants as being at risk of extinction, caused partly by over-collection.
1969:
system, making the drugs last longer in the body and have a cumulative effect. Plant medicines can be dangerous during pregnancy. Since plants may contain many different substances, plant extracts may have complex effects on the human body.
3456:
Atanasov AG, Waltenberger B, Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Linder T, Wawrosch C, Uhrin P, Temml V, Wang L, Schwaiger S, Heiss EH, Rollinger JM, Schuster D, Breuss JM, Bochkov V, Mihovilovic MD, Kopp B, Bauer R, Dirsch VM, Stuppner H (December 2015).
1964:
Plant extracts may interact with conventional drugs, both because they may provide an increased dose of similar compounds, and because some phytochemicals interfere with the body's systems that metabolise drugs in the liver including the
1593:
Medicinal plants are often tough and fibrous, requiring some form of preparation to make them convenient to administer. According to the Institute for Traditional Medicine, common methods for the preparation of herbal medicines include
5543:
1083:
304:
ingest medicinal plants when they are ill. Plant samples from prehistoric burial sites are among the lines of evidence that Paleolithic peoples had knowledge of herbal medicine. For instance, a 60,000-year-old Neanderthal burial site,
1222:
5692:
1197:
1059:
526:
During the Middle Ages, herbalism continued to flourish across Europe, with distinct traditions emerging in various regions, often influenced by cultural, religious, indigenous, and geographical factors.
757:
tree, and then many others. As chemistry progressed, additional classes of potentially active substances were discovered in plants. Commercial extraction of purified alkaloids including morphine began at
5233:
THYMOL is a phenol obtained from thyme oil or other volatile oils used as a stabilizer in pharmaceutical preparations, and as an antiseptic (antibacterial or antifungal) agent. It was formerly used as a
1983:
for dietary supplements and nutraceuticals grew by 5% during the COVID-19 pandemic, which led to the United States taking action to stop the deceptive marketing of herbal products to combat the virus.
1834:
shops of Europe in the 1800s, where pharmacists provided local traditional medicines to customers, which included extracts like morphine, quinine, and strychnine. Therapeutically important drugs like
6774:
4667:
Hietala, P., Marvola, M., Parviainen, T., Lainonen, H. (August 1987). "Laxative potency and acute toxicity of some anthraquinone derivatives, senna extracts and fractions of senna extracts".
4505:
Gremigni P, et al. (2003). "The interaction of phosphorus and potassium with seed alkaloid concentrations, yield and mineral content in narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.)".
4382:
6200:
1475:
404:
In antiquity, various cultures across Europe, including the Romans, Celts, and Nordic peoples, also practiced herbal medicine as a significant component of their healing traditions.
5684:
869:. The alkaloids are bitter-tasting and toxic, and concentrated in the parts of the plant such as the stem most likely to be eaten by herbivores; they may also protect against
5808:
Kala CP, Sajwan BS (2007). "Revitalizing Indian systems of herbal medicine by the National Medicinal Plants Board through institutional networking and capacity building".
1577:
systems. In many medicinal and aromatic plants, plant characteristics vary widely with soil type and cropping strategy, so care is required to obtain satisfactory yields.
5666:"Drug harms in the UK: a multi-criteria decision analysis", by David Nutt, Leslie King and Lawrence Phillips, on behalf of the Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs.
3559:"The Australian Phytochemical Survey: historical aspects of the CSIRO search for new drugs in Australian plants. Historical Records of Australian Science, 9(4), 335β356"
2069:
Tobacco has "probably been responsible for more deaths than any other herb", but it was used as a medicine in the societies encountered by Columbus and was considered a
2019:
4558:
3101:
Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science: Astronomy-Theoretical and applied, v.2 Mathematics and the physical sciences; v.3 Technology, alchemy and life sciences
1374:
1393:
876:
Modern knowledge of medicinal plants is being systematised in the Medicinal Plant Transcriptomics Database, which by 2011 provided a sequence reference for the
1030:
1250:
807:
more conservatively estimated in 2016 that 17,810 plant species have a medicinal use, out of some 30,000 plants for which a use of any kind is documented.
6766:
2339:
1991:
Where medicinal plants are harvested from the wild rather than cultivated, they are subject to both general and specific threats. General threats include
6890:
5860:
5520:
4025:
5653:
5384:
2995:
DΓaz-Puente, JosΓ© Manuel, et al. "Traditional Medicine in Asturias (Northern Spain)." Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 45, no. 2, 1995, pp. 67β74.
820:
However, development of plants or extracts having potential medicinal uses is blunted by weak scientific evidence, poor practices in the process of
195:
coordinates a network to encourage safe and rational use. The botanical herbal market has been criticized for being poorly regulated and containing
1294:
of several classes are widespread in plants, having diverse roles in defenses against plant diseases and predators. They include hormone-mimicking
5727:
5073:
Turner, J. V., Agatonovic-Kustrin, S., Glass, B. D. (August 2007). "Molecular aspects of phytoestrogen selective binding at estrogen receptors".
1904:
studies of their activity often provide unreliable data. As a result, phytochemicals have frequently proven unsuitable as the lead substances in
4767:"The High Polyphenol Content of Grapevine Cultivar Tannat Berries Is Conferred Primarily by Genes That Are Not Shared with the Reference Genome"
3075:
1613:
were made by boiling medicinal plants, wrapping them in a cloth, and applying the resulting parcel externally to the affected part of the body.
4711:
4375:
5605:
4214:
151:
to search for pharmacologically active substances, and this approach has yielded hundreds of useful compounds. These include the common drugs
6189:
6719:"Dietary supplements and nutraceuticals market growth during the coronavirus pandemic - implications for consumers and regulatory oversight"
4888:
6668:"Deep Sequencing of Plant and Animal DNA Contained within Traditional Chinese Medicines Reveals Legality Issues and Health Safety Concerns"
5892:
3687:
1924:
treatments, of 185 small-molecule drugs approved in the period from 1981 to 2019, 65% were derived from or inspired by natural substances.
5471:
4736:
309:", in northern Iraq has yielded large amounts of pollen from eight plant species, seven of which are used now as herbal remedies. Also, a
6499:
NekvindovΓ‘ J, Anzenbacher P (July 2007). "Interactions of food and dietary supplements with drug metabolising cytochrome P450 enzymes".
4304:
6570:
6851:
5782:
3658:"Impact of Cultivation and Gathering of Medicinal Plants on Biodiversity: Global Trends and Issues 2. Some Figures to start with ..."
791:
Medicinal plants are used with the intention of maintaining health, to be administered for a specific condition, or both, whether in
5246:
3766:
5493:
1955:
6259:
1620:
or extracted from plant material, yielding a pure chemical. Extraction can be practical when the compound in question is complex.
6883:
5441:
3245:
Brater, D. Craig, Daly, Walter J. (2000). "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century".
7190:
7139:
3665:
1561:
Medicinal plants demand intensive management. Different species each require their own distinct conditions of cultivation. The
5220:
2737:
1878:, investigating plants used by indigenous peoples for possible medical applications. Some important phytochemicals, including
6448:
6242:
5854:
5721:
Saslis-Lagoudakis CH, Savolainen V, Williamson EM, Forest F, Wagstaff SJ, Baral SR, Watson MF, Pendry CA, Hawkins JA (2012).
5125:
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4959:
4833:
4648:
4356:
4276:
4247:
4100:
4063:
3891:
3140:
3109:
3062:
3038:
2910:
2877:
2850:
2819:
2788:
2672:
2548:
2273:
4550:
268:, have been used as medicines, not necessarily effectively, from prehistoric times. Spices have been used partly to counter
6767:"United States Files Enforcement Action to Stop Deceptive Marketing of Herbal Tea Product Advertised as Covid-19 Treatment"
5272:
Carrubba, A., Scalenghe, R. (2012). "Scent of Mare Nostrum β Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) in Mediterranean soils".
1782:
well-functioning regulatory agencies, while 30% had none, and around half had limited regulatory capacity. In India, where
3578:
203:
products with no scientific research to support their medical claims. Medicinal plants face both general threats, such as
7200:
6435:. Novartis Foundation Symposia. Vol. 282. Novartis Foundation Symposium. pp. 154β67, discussion 167β72, 212β8.
5358:
4138:
3363:
6876:
2043:
Farnsworth states that this figure was based on prescriptions from American community pharmacies between 1959 and 1980.
2024:
508:
5330:
800:
484:
1661:
Plant medicines are in wide use around the world. In most of the developing world, especially in rural areas, local
408:
Additionally, Pliny the Elder's "Naturalis Historia" contains valuable insights into Roman medical plant practices
191:
growing at the rate of 6% per annum. In many countries, there is little regulation of traditional medicine, but the
7263:
5355:"The Methods of Preparation of Herb Formulas: Decoctions, Dried Decoctions, Powders, Pills, Tablets, and Tinctures"
3317:
1932:
1895:
1694:
of the Brazilian Amazon, assisted by researchers, have described 101 plant species used for traditional medicines.
1551:
1074:
306:
5914:
Heinrich M, Bremner P (March 2006). "Ethnobotany and ethnopharmacy--their role for anti-cancer drug development".
1514:
2926:
Ramos-e-Silva Marcia (1999). "Saint Hildegard Von Bingen (1098β1179) "The Light Of Her People And Of Her Time"".
2009:
1616:
When modern medicine has identified a drug in a medicinal plant, commercial quantities of the drug may either be
843:
69:
500:. The book remained the authoritative reference on herbalism for over 1500 years, into the seventeenth century.
5544:"Medicinal plants used in the traditional management of diabetes and its sequelae in Central America: A review"
3831:"The growing use of herbal medicines: issues relating to adverse reactions and challenges in monitoring safety"
2986:
FernΓ‘ndez, Marta. "The Herbalist in Galicia." Ethnobotany Research and Applications, vol. 8, 2010, pp. 263β277.
2293:
5841:
128:, who worked in the Roman army, documented over 1000 recipes for medicines using over 600 medicinal plants in
5516:
1286:
4021:
492:, working for the Roman army, documented over 1000 recipes for medicines using over 600 medicinal plants in
276:) were the original source of most plant medicines. Human settlements are often surrounded by weeds used as
5645:
2500:
2463:
1917:
1679:
6596:
Zhang J, Wider B, Shang H, Li X, Ernst E (2012). "Quality of herbal medicines: Challenges and solutions".
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bacteria, especially in hot climates, and especially in meat dishes that spoil more readily. Angiosperms (
5308:
3054:
2746:
2362:
2265:
3607:"People, plants and health: a conceptual framework for assessing changes in medicinal plant consumption"
6196:
4211:"Transcriptome Characterization, Sequencing, And Assembly Of Medicinal Plants Relevant To Human Health"
2842:
804:
2445:
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to minimise problems with pests and plant diseases. Cultivation may be traditional or may make use of
770:
in 1853. Around the end of the 19th century, the mood of pharmacy turned against medicinal plants, as
7283:
3071:
2726:
Wills, Tarrin. "Herbal Medicine in the Viking Age." Viking Magazine, vol. 80, no. 3, 2017, pp. 22-27.
1786:
has been practised for centuries, herbal remedies are the responsibility of a government department,
1562:
812:
371:
192:
4867:
4703:
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Below are several examples of active plant ingredients that provide medicinal plant uses for humans.
3331:
1602:. Alcohol extraction involves soaking the plant material in cold wine or distilled spirit to form a
412:
as the discovery of medicinal plants at Celtic sites, provides insight into their herbal practices
5601:
4210:
1883:
1570:
81:
6316:"The importance of using scientific principles in the development of medicinal agents from plants"
3364:"The role of New World biodiversity in the transformation of Mediterranean landscapes and culture"
2968:
Givens, Jean A. "The Tractatus de Herbis: A Thirteenth-Century Herbal." The British Library, 1982.
1589:
A Medieval physician preparing an extract from a medicinal plant, from an Arabic Dioscorides, 1224
6666:
Coghlan ML, Haile J, Houston J, Murray DC, White NE, Moolhuijzen P, Bellgard MI, Bunce M (2012).
4850:
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Givens, Jean A. "The Tractatus de Herbis: A Thirteenth-Century Herbal." The British Library, 1982
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1827:
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184:
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The place of plants in medicine was radically altered in the 19th century by the application of
522:, showing a physician talking to a female patient in a garden, while servants prepare medicines.
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4732:
3326:
3004:
VallΓ¨s, Joan. "Botany and Medicine in Medieval Barcelona." Dynamis, vol. 19, 1999, pp. 349β377.
2360:
Billing J, Sherman PW (March 1998). "Antimicrobial functions of spices: why some like it hot".
2138:"Plants protect themselves from herbivores by optimizing the distribution of chemical defenses"
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in Central America, of which seven had been identified in at least three separate studies. The
866:
602:
6392:"Which botanicals or other unconventional anticancer agents should we take to clinical trial?"
4237:
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1908:. In the United States over the period 1999 to 2012, despite several hundred applications for
1682:
makes use of a wide variety of plants, among other materials and techniques. Researchers from
7129:
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6936:
3459:"Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review"
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2836:
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1441:. They are strongly aromatic and serve to repel herbivores. Their scent makes them useful in
780:
742:
619:
518:
449:
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577:, adding their own commentaries. Herbalism flourished in the Islamic world, particularly in
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61:
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5247:"WHO Guidelines on Good Agricultural and Collection Practices (GACP) for Medicinal Plants"
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1865:, used as anti-cancer drugs, were discovered in the 1950s from the Madagascar periwinkle,
8:
7195:
7159:
7023:
5250:
2902:
2564:
Solecki RS (November 1975). "Shanidar IV, a Neanderthal Flower Burial in Northern Iraq".
2208:"The worldwide trend of using botanical drugs and strategies for developing global drugs"
1996:
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practices to maintain organic matter in the soil and to conserve water, for example with
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disorders, such as fertility, menstrual, and menopausal problems. Among these plants are
1260:
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250:
208:
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Lee, Y. S., Park J. S., Cho S. D., Son J. K., Cherdshewasart W., Kang K. S. (Dec 2002).
4582:"Evaluation of the content variation of anthraquinone glycosides in rhubarb by UPLC-PDA"
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3315:
Nunn N, Qian N (2010). "The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas".
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Drugs derived from plants including opiates, cocaine and cannabis have both medical and
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Jacquart D (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances".
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Ross, Anne. Pagan Celtic Britain: Studies in Iconography and Tradition. Constable, 1967
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The man credited with the introduction of digitalis into the practice of medicine was
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2815:
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2668:
2630:
2544:
2517:
2480:
2422:
2379:
2323:
2269:
2237:
2177:
1938:
1706:
1652:
1617:
1599:
1241:
1204:
1168:
1143:
1139:
1089:
857:
763:
692:
657:
624:
531:
495:
444:
297:
229:
131:
34:
6555:
5575:
5110:
Lead Compounds from Medicinal Plants for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Diseases
4536:
3947:
3657:
3431:
3274:
2955:
2642:
2593:
2391:
590:
566:
century, reflects the blending of Celtic and Christian beliefs in herbal medicine.
292:. Humans were not alone in using herbs as medicines: some animals such as non-human
219:
167:. The compounds found in plants are diverse, with most in four biochemical classes:
7149:
7144:
6946:
6828:
6808:
6738:
6730:
6689:
6679:
6640:
6605:
6535:
6436:
6403:
6364:
6327:
6274:
6230:
6227:
Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs
6158:
6150:
6109:
6101:
6060:
6011:
6003:
5962:
5923:
5754:
5744:
5555:
5415:
5316:
5281:
5216:
5183:
5113:
5082:
5026:
4984:
4922:
4872:
4796:
4780:
4676:
4636:
4603:
4593:
4516:
4477:
4469:
4428:
4420:
4181:
4173:
4106:
4088:
3984:
3974:
3925:
3852:
3842:
3786:
3778:
3737:
3628:
3618:
3570:
3529:
3519:
3478:
3470:
3411:
3336:
3254:
3219:
3165:
2935:
2750:
2620:
2581:
2509:
2498:
Stepp JR, Moerman DE (April 2001). "The importance of weeds in ethnopharmacology".
2472:
2414:
2371:
2335:
2313:
2305:
2227:
2219:
2167:
2157:
2116:
2108:
1850:
1812:
1209:
1097:
821:
803:
estimated in 2002 that over 50,000 medicinal plants are used across the world. The
636:
432:
5646:"Scoring drugs. A new study suggests alcohol is more harmful than heroin or crack"
4851:"Requirement of metabolic activation for estrogenic activity of Pueraria mirifica"
4424:
3979:
1665:, including herbalism, is the only source of health care for people, while in the
1244:. The plant was used on heart conditions long before the glycoside was identified.
7093:
6941:
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6684:
6234:
5047:
3099:
3013:
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4507:
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3558:
3291:
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1913:
1905:
1821:
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1264:
847:
833:
767:
204:
30:
6139:"Natural Products As Sources of New Drugs over the 30 Years from 1981 to 2010"
5559:
4927:
4910:
4520:
4177:
3169:
2476:
2112:
320:
7277:
7226:
7068:
6993:
6644:
5354:
5031:
5014:
4876:
4134:
3847:
3378:
2014:
1566:
1482:
1403:
1384:
1295:
1268:
1128:
881:
877:
851:
720:
675:
640:
597:, and Ibn al-Baitar (1197β1248) recorded hundreds of medicinal herbs such as
374:
351:
340:
281:
269:
261:
200:
144:
114:
110:
42:
6868:
6812:
5749:
5117:
4598:
3961:
Berida T, Adekunle Y, Dada-Adegbola H, Kdimy A, Roy S, Sarker S (May 2024).
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2162:
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candidates had sufficient evidence of medicinal value to be approved by the
1302:. Plants containing phytoestrogens have been administered for centuries for
573:, scholars translated many classical Greek texts including Dioscorides into
7073:
6820:
6752:
6703:
6652:
6617:
6547:
6512:
6485:
6472:
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6458:
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4120:
3998:
3939:
3866:
3800:
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1835:
1717:
1486:
1458:
1353:
1151:
666:
479:
466:
424:
68:
synthesize hundreds of chemical compounds for various functions, including
16:
Plants or derivatives used to treat medical conditions in humans or animals
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1015:
1010:
969:
911:
907:
862:
759:
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543:
470:
454:
386:
223:
148:
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5821:
5156:
4792:
4528:
3348:
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7246:
7236:
7113:
7103:
7043:
7008:
7003:
5668:
5197:
1845:
1831:
1807:
1501:
1430:
1399:
1341:
1333:
1303:
1291:
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1887:
1770:
1745:
1648:
1633:
1595:
1547:
1466:
1349:
1184:
1043:
1005:
991:
981:
955:
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2291:
211:, and the specific threat of over-collection to meet market demand.
7185:
7164:
7083:
7053:
6958:
6926:
5716:
5714:
4580:
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4348:
3223:
2375:
2057:
1943:
1900:
1879:
1783:
1766:
1726:
1722:
1691:
1687:
1610:
1603:
1454:
1438:
1426:
1421:
1407:
1357:
1318:
1308:
1229:
1213:
1188:
1172:
1147:
1101:
1066:
1046:
1000:
973:
965:
935:
924:
903:
870:
792:
754:
734:
733:
were isolated from a succession of medicinal plants, starting with
730:
628:
614:
606:
513:
440:
436:
428:
420:
382:
324:
168:
5783:"International Regulatory Cooperation for Herbal Medicines (IRCH)"
3914:"Phytotherapeutics: an evaluation of the potential of 1000 plants"
2052:
Berberine is the main active component of an ancient Chinese herb
323:
for more than 5,000 years. The mushroom was probably used against
7098:
7038:
6998:
6953:
6911:
5989:
3767:"Herbal medicine research and global health: an ethical analysis"
2070:
1733:
1729:
1521:
1446:
1433:
of many kinds are found in a variety of medicinal plants, and in
1256:
1237:
1180:
1155:
1135:
1070:
1050:
995:
977:
945:
930:
750:
578:
394:
293:
196:
180:
160:
156:
152:
38:
21:
5711:
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4262:
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are described below, with examples of plants that contain them.
766:
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335:
7231:
6988:
4952:
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3723:
3244:
1497:
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1368:, is used as a medicine, with no scientific proof of efficacy.
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1326:
1314:
738:
699:. Many new plant medicines arrived in Europe as products of
367:
363:
359:
301:
265:
164:
99:
95:
77:
46:
1769:
in India, such as the running of this Ayurvedic pharmacy in
94:
The earliest historical records of herbs are found from the
6983:
5472:"WHO Director-General addresses traditional medicine forum"
4265:"Introduction to the different classes of natural products"
3912:
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3911:
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1637:
1450:
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950:
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3656:
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124:, describes over 850 plant medicines. The Greek physician
6844:"Two-fifths of plants at risk of extinction, says report"
6665:
5839:
5271:
4633:
Treatments used in complementary and alternative medicine
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838:
All plants produce chemical compounds which give them an
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described medicinal plants available in Central America.
4908:
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5835:
5833:
5831:
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4162:"Cholinesterase inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease"
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3693:. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2016. Archived from
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1387:, has long been used for gynaecological disorders.
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1874:Hundreds of compounds have been identified using
1701:. Different countries have at various times made
354:describes the use of hundreds of plant medicines.
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6568:
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4974:
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3445:
3443:
3441:
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655:An early illustrated book of medicinal plants,
435:has used hundreds of herbs and spices, such as
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5983:
5434:
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5706:when combined with conventional treatment.
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4660:
2828:
2248:
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1854:) were derived from medicinal plants. The
714:
669:period saw the flourishing of illustrated
6794:
6792:
6742:
6693:
6683:
6430:
6407:
6331:
6179:
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5758:
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5030:
4926:
4866:
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4607:
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4481:
4432:
4406:
4185:
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3988:
3978:
3929:
3856:
3846:
3790:
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3741:
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3505:
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3124:
3022:
2687:
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2317:
2287:
2285:
2231:
2171:
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5163:
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4758:
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6841:
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5514:
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4458:"Medicinal uses of tobacco in history"
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5469:
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419:From ancient times to the present,
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2188:
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1816:(foliage and fruit shown) in 1971.
1748:study built a family tree down to
554:("Causes and Cures") on medicine.
187:or used in conventional medicine.
14:
7295:
5496:from the original on 4 April 2017
5223:from the original on 12 July 2018
4561:from the original on 29 June 2017
4087:. Vol. 63. pp. 87β179.
4083:Alkaloids". In Cordell GA (ed.).
4028:from the original on 12 July 2018
3668:from the original on 24 July 2017
2897:. In Johnston, William M. (ed.).
1797:
1075:Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
801:Food and Agriculture Organization
617:included many plants in his 1025
7264:List of plants used in herbalism
6835:
6759:
6710:
6659:
6624:
6589:
6540:10.1097/00005721-200505000-00009
6519:
6492:
6465:
6424:
6383:
6348:
6333:10.1097/00001888-200103000-00010
6307:
6267:The American Journal of Medicine
6251:
6218:
6130:
6081:
6032:
5877:
5801:
5775:
5695:from the original on 29 May 2019
5638:
5619:
5593:
5508:
5189:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2000.00626.x
4765:Da Silva C, et al. (2013).
4739:from the original on 2 July 2018
4407:Yin J, Xing H, Ye J (May 2008).
4303:Elumalai A, Eswariah MC (2012).
4160:Birks J (2006). Birks JS (ed.).
4054:Salicylic Acid β A Plant Hormone
3931:10.1111/j.1365-2710.2009.01096.x
3475:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.08.001
3318:Journal of Economic Perspectives
3089:
2940:10.1046/j.1365-4362.1999.00617.x
2899:Encyclopedia of Monasticism: M-Z
1896:pan-assay interference compounds
1712:
1552:List of plants used in herbalism
1513:
1474:
1392:
1373:
1364:, containing polyphenols called
1249:
1221:
1196:
1082:
1058:
1029:
453:records plant medicines such as
330:
5889:Chemical & Engineering News
5866:from the original on 2017-11-18
5608:from the original on 2017-10-03
5582:from the original on 2022-06-07
5482:
5399:
5361:from the original on 2017-10-04
5300:
5265:
5101:
5066:
5039:
4968:
4943:
4902:
4891:from the original on 2019-04-19
4842:
4826:Chemical Ecology of Vertebrates
4817:
4725:
4714:from the original on 2015-06-26
4624:
4573:
4543:
4400:
4267:. In Lanzotti, Virginia (ed.).
4256:
4153:
4127:
4072:
4043:
3873:
3581:from the original on 2022-01-21
3404:Journal of the History of Ideas
3395:
3355:
3308:
3238:
3212:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
3203:
3176:
3016:
3007:
2998:
2989:
2980:
2971:
2962:
2919:
2886:
2859:
2797:
2729:
2720:
2711:
2702:
2693:
2557:
2528:
2491:
2342:from the original on 2020-10-31
2063:
2046:
2037:
2010:Australian Phytochemical Survey
646:
538:preserved medical knowledge in
512:Illustration of a 1632 copy of
319:, whose body was frozen in the
6842:Briggs H (30 September 2020).
6433:Dietary Supplements and Health
6229:. Springer. pp. 217β218.
4702:Akolkar, Praful (2012-12-27).
2454:
2398:
2353:
2086:
1580:
1556:
1529:
1276:
1150:made from such plants include
824:, and insufficient financing.
741:in 1806, and soon followed by
697:The English Physician Enlarged
503:
1:
6369:10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00394-9
6279:10.1016/S0002-9343(97)00397-5
5849:. World Health Organization.
5420:10.1016/S0006-2952(96)00654-5
4989:10.1016/S0378-8741(80)81015-4
4915:Journal of AOAC International
4855:Journal of Veterinary Science
4669:Pharmacology & Toxicology
4641:10.1016/S0378-6080(09)03148-1
4425:10.1016/j.metabol.2008.01.013
4093:10.1016/S1099-4831(06)63003-4
4050:Hayat, S., Ahmad, A. (2007).
3980:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31145
3726:"Medicinal plants in therapy"
2736:Dwivedi G, Dwivedi S (2007).
2626:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)79939-6
2607:Capasso, L. (December 1998).
2514:10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00385-8
2419:10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00068-4
2080:
1756:
1360:, the astringent rind of the
1287:Health effects of polyphenols
1117:
1073:binds directly to the body's
344:
235:
137:
118:
103:
6685:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002657
6573:. Quackwatch. Archived from
6357:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
6235:10.1007/978-90-481-2448-0_34
5548:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
5381:"9 weird medieval medicines"
5108:Wiart C (2014). "Terpenes".
4977:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
4735:. Texas A&M University.
4343:Aniszewski, Tadeusz (2007).
4209:Soejarto DD (1 March 2011).
3098:Rashed R, Morelon R (1996).
2586:10.1126/science.190.4217.880
2501:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
2464:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
2407:Evolution and Human Behavior
2224:10.5483/BMBRep.2017.50.3.221
1918:Food and Drug Administration
1680:Traditional Chinese medicine
918:), the traditional medicine
887:
844:defending against herbivores
474:. In the fourth century BC,
102:are listed on clay tablets,
7:
6735:10.1016/j.phanu.2021.100282
6143:Journal of Natural Products
4950:Brown D, Walton NJ (1999).
4345:Alkaloids β secrets of life
4318:(2): 96β105. Archived from
3886:. CRC Press. pp. 4β5.
3072:"Pharmaceutics and Alchemy"
3055:University of Toronto Press
2747:National Informatics Centre
2363:Quarterly Review of Biology
2266:University of Toronto Press
2003:
1686:found 104 species used for
1415:
865:, licensed for use against
465:. This was expanded in the
143:; this formed the basis of
10:
7300:
6610:10.1016/j.ctim.2011.09.004
6528:MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs
6441:10.1002/9780470319444.ch11
6197:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
6094:Future Medicinal Chemistry
5928:10.2174/138945006776054988
5353:Dharmananda S (May 1997).
4824:Muller-Schwarze D (2006).
4704:"Pharmacognosy of Rhubarb"
4474:10.1177/014107680409700614
4242:. CRC Press. p. 123.
2843:Cambridge University Press
1986:
1953:
1819:
1732:, traditionally given for
1646:
1545:
1419:
1356:for medicinal effects. In
1280:
1121:
891:
831:
805:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
786:
718:
244:
214:
7260:
7209:
7173:
7122:
6904:
6899:Medicinal herbs and fungi
5560:10.1016/j.jep.2016.02.034
5470:Chan M (19 August 2015).
5379:Mount T (20 April 2015).
4586:Chemistry Central Journal
4178:10.1002/14651858.CD005593
3835:Frontiers in Pharmacology
3170:10.1017/S1062798708000215
2477:10.1016/j.jep.2004.03.002
2448:(volume 13, 15th edition)
2113:10.1136/bmj.329.7479.1408
1927:
1563:World Health Organization
813:World Health Organization
193:World Health Organization
6645:10.1001/jama.290.11.1505
5996:Environ. Health Perspect
5408:Biochemical Pharmacology
5032:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1489
4877:10.4142/jvs.2002.3.4.273
4456:Charlton A (June 2004).
4236:Meskin, Mark S. (2002).
3848:10.3389/fphar.2013.00177
2030:
1884:epigallocatechin gallate
1623:
1571:conservation agriculture
1210:anthraquinone glycosides
701:Early Modern exploration
6813:10.1038/nplants.2016.64
6390:Vickers, A. J. (2007).
5750:10.1073/pnas.1202242109
5315:. Elsevier Ltd.: 1β34.
5313:Chinese Herbal Formulas
5118:10.1016/C2011-0-09611-4
4928:10.1093/jaoac/89.4.1138
4599:10.1186/1752-153X-7-170
4521:10.1023/A:1024828131581
4271:. Springer. p. 3.
3525:10.4103/0973-7847.95849
3377:: 69β93. Archived from
3259:10.1067/mcp.2000.106465
2812:Oxford University Press
2535:Sumner, Judith (2000).
2446:Encyclopædia Britannica
2163:10.1073/pnas.2120277119
2100:British Medical Journal
1848:(from the Pacific yew,
1828:pharmaceutical industry
1352:without proof or legal
715:19th and 20th centuries
536:Benedictine monasteries
72:and protection against
7222:Doctrine of signatures
6571:"The herbal minefield"
4785:10.1105/tpc.113.118810
4631:Chan K, Lin T (2009).
4305:"Herbalism - A Review"
3624:10.1186/1746-4269-8-43
3463:Biotechnology Advances
3092:Botany and agriculture
2142:Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
2093:Lichterman BL (2004).
1951:
1817:
1778:
1737:
1644:
1590:
1565:recommends the use of
1543:
1520:Thymol is one of many
1469:(anti-worm medicine).
846:or, in the example of
662:
523:
494:
355:
242:
228:
130:
50:
6008:10.1289/ehp.01109s169
5474:. WHO. Archived from
3783:10.2471/BLT.07.042820
3512:Pharmacognosy Reviews
3506:Petrovska BB (2012).
3416:10.1353/jhi.2008.0017
3128:The New Healing Herbs
3026:The New Healing Herbs
1954:Further information:
1935:
1841:Camptotheca acuminata
1820:Further information:
1805:
1764:
1720:
1647:Further information:
1631:
1588:
1537:
1420:Further information:
1281:Further information:
1212:, has been used as a
1122:Further information:
1042:is the source of the
922:(from plants such as
892:Further information:
832:Further information:
781:Madagascar periwinkle
719:Further information:
654:
620:The Canon of Medicine
519:The Canon of Medicine
511:
450:Shennong Ben Cao Jing
445:Chinese pharmacopoeia
423:as documented in the
338:
245:Further information:
222:
24:
7217:Alternative medicine
5916:Current Drug Targets
5789:on September 1, 2013
5170:Singsaas EL (2000).
5052:. Indus Publishing.
3700:on 19 September 2017
3611:J Ethnobiol Ethnomed
3575:10.1071/hr9930940335
3341:10.1257/jep.24.2.163
3297:The Edinburgh Review
3125:Castleman M (2001).
3023:Castleman M (2001).
2903:Taylor & Francis
2450:. 1993. p. 609.
1978:Herbal medicine and
1806:The anticancer drug
1703:use of illegal drugs
1671:alternative medicine
1663:traditional medicine
987:Rauvolfia serpentina
797:traditional medicine
490:Pedanius Dioscorides
247:History of herbalism
62:traditional medicine
7140:Echigoshirayukidake
6057:2014Natur.513..481B
5741:2012PNAS..10915835S
5652:. 2 November 2010.
5600:Milliken W (2015).
5492:. NIH. April 2009.
5478:on August 22, 2015.
5253:on October 20, 2009
5217:"Thymol (CID=6989)"
4376:"Atropa Belladonna"
4137:. Drugs.com. 2017.
3807:on January 24, 2010
3362:Heywood VH (2012).
3294:(1923). "Herbals".
2866:Arsdall AV (2002).
2578:1975Sci...190..880S
2154:2022PNAS..11920277G
1868:Catharanthus roseus
1675:dietary supplements
1437:plants such as the
1346:dietary supplements
1261:atrial fibrillation
1021:Catharanthus roseus
867:Alzheimer's disease
842:advantage, such as
828:Phytochemical basis
709:Badianus Manuscript
595:The Book of Simples
548:Hildegard of Bingen
298:monarch butterflies
251:History of pharmacy
209:habitat destruction
183:. Few of these are
7196:Japanese herbology
7174:Regional practices
6474:Aust Fam Physician
6396:J Soc Integr Oncol
6314:Talalay P (2001).
6002:(Suppl 1): 69β75.
5689:Cancer Research UK
5144:American Scientist
4708:PharmaXChange.info
3131:. Rodale. p.
3047:Collins M (2000).
3029:. Rodale. p.
2756:on 10 October 2008
2304:(4 Suppl): S4β24.
2258:Collins M (2000).
1980:dietary supplement
1952:
1818:
1779:
1738:
1725:tree contains the
1707:psychoactive drugs
1645:
1642:Marrakesh, Morocco
1591:
1544:
1342:maritime pine bark
1234:Digitalis purpurea
1177:lily of the valley
1169:cardiac glycosides
1039:Papaver somniferum
705:Columbian Exchange
703:and the resulting
687:in 1597, based on
663:
571:Islamic Golden Age
524:
485:Historia plantarum
421:Ayurvedic medicine
356:
243:
51:
7271:
7270:
7191:Islamic herbology
7181:Chinese herbology
7049:Purple coneflower
6717:Lordan R (2021).
6577:on 18 August 2018
6450:978-0-470-31944-4
6320:Academic Medicine
6244:978-90-481-2447-3
6155:10.1021/np200906s
6106:10.4155/fmc.14.60
6051:(7519): 481β483.
5961:(11): 1231β1235.
5951:"Vinca Alkaloids"
5856:978-92-4-150609-0
5685:"Herbal medicine"
5286:10.1002/jsfa.5630
5127:978-0-12-398373-2
5087:10.1002/jps.20987
5059:978-81-7387-162-7
4961:978-981-02-2773-9
4835:978-0-521-36377-8
4779:(12): 4777β4788.
4751:William Withering
4650:978-0-444-53294-7
4358:978-0-444-52736-3
4278:978-0-387-85497-7
4249:978-1-58716-083-7
4102:978-0-12-469563-4
4065:978-1-4020-5183-8
3893:978-1-4987-5096-7
3662:Agriculture. Rome
3142:978-1-57954-304-4
3111:978-0-415-02063-3
3064:978-0-8020-8313-5
3040:978-1-57954-304-4
2912:978-1-57958-090-2
2893:Mills FA (2000).
2879:978-0-415-93849-5
2852:978-0-521-64380-1
2821:978-0-19-514017-0
2790:978-0-88192-483-1
2775:Sumner J (2000).
2674:978-0-88192-483-1
2659:Sumner J (2000).
2572:(4217): 880β881.
2550:978-0-88192-483-1
2275:978-0-8020-8313-5
1939:Datura stramonium
1830:has roots in the
1699:recreational uses
1673:including use of
1653:Psychoactive drug
1524:found in plants.
1259:is used to treat
1242:cardiac glycoside
1205:Senna alexandrina
1144:Alexandrian senna
1098:tropane alkaloids
1094:Atropa belladonna
1090:Deadly nightshade
727:chemical analysis
693:Nicholas Culpeper
683:wrote his famous
658:The Grete Herball
625:Abu-Rayhan Biruni
611:Corpus of Simples
532:Early Middle Ages
496:De materia medica
439:, which contains
256:Prehistoric times
234:, seen here in a
230:De materia medica
132:De materia medica
35:active metabolite
7291:
7284:Medicinal plants
7252:Medicinal plants
7210:Related subjects
7201:Korean herbology
7186:Indian herbology
7145:Lingzhi mushroom
6893:
6886:
6879:
6870:
6869:
6864:
6863:
6861:
6859:
6839:
6833:
6832:
6796:
6787:
6786:
6784:
6782:
6763:
6757:
6756:
6746:
6714:
6708:
6707:
6697:
6687:
6663:
6657:
6656:
6628:
6622:
6621:
6604:(1β2): 100β106.
6593:
6587:
6586:
6584:
6582:
6566:
6560:
6559:
6523:
6517:
6516:
6496:
6490:
6489:
6469:
6463:
6462:
6428:
6422:
6421:
6411:
6387:
6381:
6380:
6363:(2β3): 141β164.
6352:
6346:
6345:
6335:
6311:
6305:
6304:
6302:
6301:
6295:
6289:. Archived from
6264:
6258:Ernst E (1998).
6255:
6249:
6248:
6222:
6216:
6215:
6213:
6211:
6205:
6194:
6186:
6177:
6176:
6166:
6134:
6128:
6127:
6117:
6085:
6079:
6078:
6068:
6036:
6030:
6029:
6019:
5987:
5981:
5980:
5970:
5946:
5940:
5939:
5911:
5905:
5904:
5902:
5900:
5881:
5875:
5874:
5872:
5871:
5865:
5848:
5837:
5826:
5825:
5805:
5799:
5798:
5796:
5794:
5779:
5773:
5772:
5762:
5752:
5735:(39): 15835β40.
5718:
5709:
5708:
5702:
5700:
5681:
5675:
5674:
5663:
5661:
5642:
5636:
5635:
5623:
5617:
5616:
5614:
5613:
5597:
5591:
5590:
5588:
5587:
5539:
5533:
5532:
5530:
5528:
5512:
5506:
5505:
5503:
5501:
5486:
5480:
5479:
5467:
5458:
5457:
5455:
5453:
5438:
5432:
5431:
5403:
5397:
5396:
5394:
5392:
5376:
5370:
5369:
5367:
5366:
5350:
5344:
5343:
5341:
5339:
5324:
5304:
5298:
5297:
5280:(6): 1150β1170.
5269:
5263:
5262:
5260:
5258:
5243:
5237:
5236:
5230:
5228:
5213:
5202:
5201:
5191:
5167:
5161:
5160:
5151:(4): 499Aβ500A.
5138:
5132:
5131:
5105:
5099:
5098:
5070:
5064:
5063:
5043:
5037:
5036:
5034:
5010:
5001:
5000:
4972:
4966:
4965:
4947:
4941:
4940:
4930:
4906:
4900:
4899:
4897:
4896:
4870:
4846:
4840:
4839:
4821:
4815:
4814:
4804:
4762:
4756:
4755:
4746:
4744:
4729:
4723:
4722:
4720:
4719:
4699:
4693:
4692:
4664:
4655:
4654:
4628:
4622:
4621:
4611:
4601:
4577:
4571:
4570:
4568:
4566:
4547:
4541:
4540:
4502:
4496:
4495:
4485:
4453:
4447:
4446:
4436:
4404:
4398:
4397:
4395:
4393:
4387:
4380:
4372:
4363:
4362:
4340:
4334:
4333:
4331:
4330:
4324:
4309:
4300:
4283:
4282:
4260:
4254:
4253:
4233:
4227:
4226:
4224:
4222:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4189:
4157:
4151:
4150:
4148:
4146:
4131:
4125:
4124:
4114:
4076:
4070:
4069:
4057:
4047:
4041:
4040:
4035:
4033:
4018:
4003:
4002:
3992:
3982:
3958:
3952:
3951:
3933:
3909:
3898:
3897:
3880:Singh A (2016).
3877:
3871:
3870:
3860:
3850:
3826:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3812:
3803:. Archived from
3794:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3745:
3721:
3710:
3709:
3707:
3705:
3699:
3692:
3684:
3678:
3677:
3675:
3673:
3653:
3647:
3646:
3636:
3626:
3602:
3589:
3588:
3587:
3586:
3554:
3548:
3547:
3537:
3527:
3503:
3497:
3496:
3486:
3469:(8): 1582β1614.
3453:
3436:
3435:
3399:
3393:
3392:
3390:
3389:
3383:
3368:
3359:
3353:
3352:
3334:
3312:
3306:
3305:
3288:
3279:
3278:
3242:
3236:
3235:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3180:
3174:
3173:
3153:
3147:
3146:
3122:
3116:
3115:
3095:
3087:
3085:
3083:
3068:
3044:
3020:
3014:
3011:
3005:
3002:
2996:
2993:
2987:
2984:
2978:
2975:
2969:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2923:
2917:
2916:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2835:Grene M (2004).
2832:
2826:
2825:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2761:
2755:
2749:. Archived from
2744:
2733:
2727:
2724:
2718:
2715:
2709:
2706:
2700:
2697:
2691:
2685:
2679:
2678:
2656:
2647:
2646:
2628:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2561:
2555:
2554:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2471:(2β3): 163β166.
2458:
2452:
2451:
2440:
2431:
2430:
2402:
2396:
2395:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2347:
2321:
2289:
2280:
2279:
2255:
2246:
2245:
2235:
2203:
2186:
2185:
2175:
2165:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2090:
2074:
2067:
2061:
2054:Coptis chinensis
2050:
2044:
2041:
1851:Taxus brevifolia
1813:Taxus brevifolia
1765:The practice of
1721:The bark of the
1542:, Tasmania, 2010
1517:
1493:), contains the
1478:
1396:
1377:
1253:
1225:
1200:
1086:
1062:
1036:The opium poppy
1033:
822:drug development
637:John of St Amand
499:
433:Sushruta Samhita
372:ancient Egyptian
349:
346:
278:herbal medicines
274:flowering plants
240:
237:
233:
142:
139:
135:
123:
120:
108:
105:
54:Medicinal plants
7299:
7298:
7294:
7293:
7292:
7290:
7289:
7288:
7274:
7273:
7272:
7267:
7256:
7205:
7169:
7130:Almond mushroom
7118:
6900:
6897:
6867:
6857:
6855:
6840:
6836:
6797:
6790:
6780:
6778:
6765:
6764:
6760:
6723:Pharmanutrition
6715:
6711:
6678:(4): e1002657.
6664:
6660:
6629:
6625:
6594:
6590:
6580:
6578:
6567:
6563:
6524:
6520:
6501:Ceska Slov Farm
6497:
6493:
6470:
6466:
6451:
6429:
6425:
6388:
6384:
6353:
6349:
6312:
6308:
6299:
6297:
6293:
6262:
6256:
6252:
6245:
6223:
6219:
6209:
6207:
6203:
6192:
6188:
6187:
6180:
6135:
6131:
6100:(11): 1265β90.
6086:
6082:
6066:10.1038/513481a
6037:
6033:
5988:
5984:
5947:
5943:
5912:
5908:
5898:
5896:
5883:
5882:
5878:
5869:
5867:
5863:
5857:
5846:
5838:
5829:
5810:Current Science
5806:
5802:
5792:
5790:
5781:
5780:
5776:
5719:
5712:
5698:
5696:
5683:
5682:
5678:
5659:
5657:
5644:
5643:
5639:
5624:
5620:
5611:
5609:
5604:. Kew Gardens.
5598:
5594:
5585:
5583:
5540:
5536:
5526:
5524:
5519:. Kew Gardens.
5513:
5509:
5499:
5497:
5488:
5487:
5483:
5468:
5461:
5451:
5449:
5448:on 27 July 2008
5440:
5439:
5435:
5404:
5400:
5390:
5388:
5377:
5373:
5364:
5362:
5351:
5347:
5337:
5335:
5333:
5307:Yang Y (2010).
5305:
5301:
5270:
5266:
5256:
5254:
5245:
5244:
5240:
5226:
5224:
5215:
5214:
5205:
5176:New Phytologist
5168:
5164:
5139:
5135:
5128:
5106:
5102:
5071:
5067:
5060:
5044:
5040:
5011:
5004:
4973:
4969:
4962:
4948:
4944:
4907:
4903:
4894:
4892:
4868:10.1.1.617.1507
4847:
4843:
4836:
4822:
4818:
4763:
4759:
4742:
4740:
4731:
4730:
4726:
4717:
4715:
4700:
4696:
4665:
4658:
4651:
4629:
4625:
4578:
4574:
4564:
4562:
4555:IUPHAR Database
4549:
4548:
4544:
4503:
4499:
4454:
4450:
4405:
4401:
4391:
4389:
4385:
4378:
4374:
4373:
4366:
4359:
4351:. p. 182.
4341:
4337:
4328:
4326:
4322:
4307:
4301:
4286:
4279:
4261:
4257:
4250:
4234:
4230:
4220:
4218:
4207:
4203:
4172:(1): CD005593.
4158:
4154:
4144:
4142:
4133:
4132:
4128:
4103:
4077:
4073:
4066:
4048:
4044:
4031:
4029:
4020:
4019:
4006:
3959:
3955:
3910:
3901:
3894:
3878:
3874:
3829:Ekor M (2013).
3827:
3820:
3810:
3808:
3763:
3759:
3722:
3713:
3703:
3701:
3697:
3690:
3686:
3685:
3681:
3671:
3669:
3654:
3650:
3603:
3592:
3584:
3582:
3555:
3551:
3504:
3500:
3454:
3439:
3400:
3396:
3387:
3385:
3381:
3366:
3360:
3356:
3332:10.1.1.232.9242
3313:
3309:
3289:
3282:
3253:(5): 447β450 .
3243:
3239:
3208:
3204:
3187:(in Croatian).
3181:
3177:
3164:(2): 219β227 .
3158:European Review
3154:
3150:
3143:
3123:
3119:
3112:
3081:
3079:
3070:
3065:
3057:. p. 115.
3041:
3021:
3017:
3012:
3008:
3003:
2999:
2994:
2990:
2985:
2981:
2976:
2972:
2967:
2963:
2924:
2920:
2913:
2905:. p. 179.
2891:
2887:
2880:
2864:
2860:
2853:
2833:
2829:
2822:
2802:
2798:
2791:
2773:
2769:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2742:
2734:
2730:
2725:
2721:
2716:
2712:
2707:
2703:
2698:
2694:
2690:, pp. 1β5.
2686:
2682:
2675:
2657:
2650:
2605:
2601:
2562:
2558:
2551:
2533:
2529:
2496:
2492:
2459:
2455:
2442:
2441:
2434:
2403:
2399:
2358:
2354:
2345:
2343:
2290:
2283:
2276:
2256:
2249:
2204:
2189:
2134:
2130:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2078:
2077:
2068:
2064:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2038:
2033:
2006:
1989:
1976:
1967:cytochrome P450
1958:
1936:The Thornapple
1930:
1910:new drug status
1898:, meaning that
1856:Vinca alkaloids
1824:
1800:
1759:
1715:
1667:developed world
1659:
1636:'s shop in the
1626:
1583:
1575:no-till farming
1559:
1554:
1546:Main articles:
1532:
1525:
1518:
1509:
1491:Thymus vulgaris
1479:
1424:
1418:
1411:
1397:
1388:
1378:
1298:and astringent
1289:
1279:
1272:
1254:
1245:
1226:
1217:
1201:
1179:. They include
1126:
1120:
1113:
1087:
1078:
1063:
1054:
1034:
896:
890:
836:
830:
793:modern medicine
789:
723:
717:
689:Rembert Dodoens
649:
552:Causae et Curae
506:
347:
333:
316:Γtzi the Iceman
258:
253:
238:
226:'s 1st century
217:
140:
121:
106:
58:medicinal herbs
29:trees contains
17:
12:
11:
5:
7297:
7287:
7286:
7269:
7268:
7261:
7258:
7257:
7255:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7234:
7229:
7224:
7219:
7213:
7211:
7207:
7206:
7204:
7203:
7198:
7193:
7188:
7183:
7177:
7175:
7171:
7170:
7168:
7167:
7162:
7160:Morel mushroom
7157:
7152:
7147:
7142:
7137:
7135:Chaga mushroom
7132:
7126:
7124:
7120:
7119:
7117:
7116:
7111:
7106:
7101:
7096:
7091:
7086:
7081:
7076:
7071:
7066:
7061:
7056:
7051:
7046:
7041:
7036:
7031:
7026:
7021:
7016:
7011:
7006:
7001:
6996:
6991:
6986:
6981:
6976:
6971:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6951:
6950:
6949:
6939:
6934:
6929:
6924:
6919:
6914:
6908:
6906:
6902:
6901:
6896:
6895:
6888:
6881:
6873:
6866:
6865:
6834:
6788:
6758:
6709:
6658:
6639:(11): 1505β9.
6623:
6588:
6561:
6518:
6491:
6480:(11): 1070β5.
6464:
6449:
6423:
6382:
6347:
6306:
6273:(2): 170β178.
6250:
6243:
6217:
6178:
6129:
6080:
6031:
5982:
5941:
5922:(3): 239β245.
5906:
5876:
5855:
5827:
5816:(6): 797β806.
5800:
5774:
5710:
5676:
5637:
5618:
5592:
5534:
5515:Giovannini P.
5507:
5481:
5459:
5433:
5414:(2): 121β133.
5398:
5371:
5345:
5331:
5299:
5264:
5238:
5203:
5162:
5133:
5126:
5100:
5081:(8): 1879β85.
5065:
5058:
5038:
5002:
4967:
4960:
4942:
4921:(4): 1138β46.
4901:
4861:(4): 273β277.
4841:
4834:
4816:
4772:The Plant Cell
4757:
4724:
4694:
4656:
4649:
4623:
4572:
4542:
4515:(2): 413β427.
4508:Plant and Soil
4497:
4468:(6): 292β296.
4448:
4419:(5): 712β717.
4399:
4364:
4357:
4335:
4284:
4277:
4255:
4248:
4228:
4201:
4152:
4126:
4101:
4071:
4064:
4042:
4004:
3973:(10): e31145.
3953:
3899:
3892:
3872:
3818:
3777:(8): 577β656.
3757:
3736:(6): 965β981.
3711:
3679:
3648:
3590:
3549:
3498:
3437:
3410:(2): 169β192.
3394:
3354:
3325:(2): 163β188.
3307:
3280:
3237:
3224:10.1086/372742
3218:(3): 203β212.
3202:
3191:(2): 117β120.
3175:
3148:
3141:
3117:
3110:
3094:. p. 815.
3063:
3039:
3015:
3006:
2997:
2988:
2979:
2970:
2961:
2934:(4): 315β320.
2918:
2911:
2885:
2878:
2858:
2851:
2845:. p. 11.
2827:
2820:
2804:Wu JN (2005).
2796:
2789:
2783:. p. 18.
2767:
2728:
2719:
2710:
2701:
2692:
2688:Petrovska 2012
2680:
2673:
2667:. p. 17.
2648:
2619:(9143): 1864.
2599:
2556:
2549:
2543:. p. 16.
2527:
2490:
2453:
2432:
2413:(3): 147β163.
2397:
2376:10.1086/420058
2352:
2281:
2274:
2268:. p. 32.
2247:
2218:(3): 111β116.
2206:Ahn K (2017).
2187:
2128:
2107:(7479): 1408.
2084:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2075:
2062:
2045:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2005:
2002:
1993:climate change
1988:
1985:
1975:
1972:
1929:
1926:
1914:botanical drug
1906:drug discovery
1822:Drug discovery
1799:
1798:Drug discovery
1796:
1758:
1755:
1714:
1711:
1657:Drug discovery
1625:
1622:
1582:
1579:
1558:
1555:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1519:
1512:
1510:
1480:
1473:
1445:, whether for
1443:essential oils
1417:
1414:
1413:
1412:
1404:phytoestrogens
1398:
1391:
1389:
1385:phytoestrogens
1379:
1372:
1344:, are sold as
1296:phytoestrogens
1278:
1275:
1274:
1273:
1267:and sometimes
1265:atrial flutter
1255:
1248:
1246:
1227:
1220:
1218:
1216:for millennia.
1202:
1195:
1146:. Plant-based
1119:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1088:
1081:
1079:
1064:
1057:
1055:
1035:
1028:
889:
886:
882:phytochemicals
848:salicylic acid
834:Phytochemistry
829:
826:
788:
785:
768:salicylic acid
716:
713:
695:published his
648:
645:
641:pharmacopoeias
639:wrote further
633:Peter of Spain
589:(936β1013) of
505:
502:
348: 1550 BC
332:
329:
262:culinary herbs
257:
254:
216:
213:
205:climate change
145:pharmacopoeias
122: 1550 BC
107: 3000 BC
56:, also called
31:salicylic acid
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7296:
7285:
7282:
7281:
7279:
7266:
7265:
7259:
7253:
7250:
7248:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7238:
7235:
7233:
7230:
7228:
7225:
7223:
7220:
7218:
7215:
7214:
7212:
7208:
7202:
7199:
7197:
7194:
7192:
7189:
7187:
7184:
7182:
7179:
7178:
7176:
7172:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7156:
7153:
7151:
7148:
7146:
7143:
7141:
7138:
7136:
7133:
7131:
7128:
7127:
7125:
7121:
7115:
7112:
7110:
7107:
7105:
7102:
7100:
7097:
7095:
7092:
7090:
7087:
7085:
7082:
7080:
7077:
7075:
7072:
7070:
7069:Summer savory
7067:
7065:
7062:
7060:
7057:
7055:
7052:
7050:
7047:
7045:
7042:
7040:
7037:
7035:
7032:
7030:
7027:
7025:
7022:
7020:
7017:
7015:
7012:
7010:
7007:
7005:
7002:
7000:
6997:
6995:
6992:
6990:
6987:
6985:
6982:
6980:
6977:
6975:
6972:
6970:
6967:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6955:
6952:
6948:
6945:
6944:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6915:
6913:
6910:
6909:
6907:
6903:
6894:
6889:
6887:
6882:
6880:
6875:
6874:
6871:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6838:
6830:
6826:
6822:
6818:
6814:
6810:
6806:
6802:
6801:Nature Plants
6795:
6793:
6776:
6772:
6768:
6762:
6754:
6750:
6745:
6740:
6736:
6732:
6728:
6724:
6720:
6713:
6705:
6701:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6677:
6673:
6672:PLOS Genetics
6669:
6662:
6654:
6650:
6646:
6642:
6638:
6634:
6627:
6619:
6615:
6611:
6607:
6603:
6599:
6592:
6576:
6572:
6565:
6557:
6553:
6549:
6545:
6541:
6537:
6533:
6529:
6522:
6514:
6510:
6507:(4): 165β73.
6506:
6502:
6495:
6487:
6483:
6479:
6475:
6468:
6460:
6456:
6452:
6446:
6442:
6438:
6434:
6427:
6419:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6401:
6397:
6393:
6386:
6378:
6374:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6358:
6351:
6343:
6339:
6334:
6329:
6326:(3): 238β47.
6325:
6321:
6317:
6310:
6296:on 2019-11-05
6292:
6288:
6284:
6280:
6276:
6272:
6268:
6261:
6254:
6246:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6221:
6202:
6198:
6191:
6185:
6183:
6174:
6170:
6165:
6160:
6156:
6152:
6149:(3): 311β35.
6148:
6144:
6140:
6133:
6125:
6121:
6116:
6111:
6107:
6103:
6099:
6095:
6091:
6084:
6076:
6072:
6067:
6062:
6058:
6054:
6050:
6046:
6042:
6035:
6027:
6023:
6018:
6013:
6009:
6005:
6001:
5997:
5993:
5986:
5978:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5960:
5956:
5952:
5945:
5937:
5933:
5929:
5925:
5921:
5917:
5910:
5894:
5890:
5886:
5880:
5862:
5858:
5852:
5845:
5844:
5836:
5834:
5832:
5823:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5804:
5788:
5784:
5778:
5770:
5766:
5761:
5756:
5751:
5746:
5742:
5738:
5734:
5730:
5729:
5724:
5717:
5715:
5707:
5694:
5690:
5686:
5680:
5673:
5671:
5670:
5655:
5651:
5650:The Economist
5647:
5641:
5633:
5629:
5622:
5607:
5603:
5596:
5581:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5545:
5538:
5522:
5518:
5511:
5495:
5491:
5485:
5477:
5473:
5466:
5464:
5447:
5443:
5437:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5402:
5386:
5382:
5375:
5360:
5356:
5349:
5334:
5332:9780702031328
5328:
5323:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5303:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5268:
5252:
5248:
5242:
5235:
5222:
5218:
5212:
5210:
5208:
5199:
5195:
5190:
5185:
5181:
5177:
5173:
5166:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5145:
5137:
5129:
5123:
5119:
5115:
5111:
5104:
5096:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5069:
5061:
5055:
5051:
5050:
5042:
5033:
5028:
5024:
5020:
5016:
5009:
5007:
4998:
4994:
4990:
4986:
4983:(4): 337β44.
4982:
4978:
4971:
4963:
4957:
4953:
4946:
4938:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4905:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4845:
4837:
4831:
4827:
4820:
4812:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4778:
4774:
4773:
4768:
4761:
4754:
4752:
4738:
4734:
4728:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4698:
4690:
4686:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4663:
4661:
4652:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4634:
4627:
4619:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4591:
4587:
4583:
4576:
4560:
4556:
4552:
4546:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4509:
4501:
4493:
4489:
4484:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4452:
4444:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4410:
4403:
4384:
4377:
4371:
4369:
4360:
4354:
4350:
4347:. Amsterdam:
4346:
4339:
4325:on 2017-02-17
4321:
4317:
4313:
4306:
4299:
4297:
4295:
4293:
4291:
4289:
4280:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4259:
4251:
4245:
4241:
4240:
4232:
4216:
4212:
4205:
4197:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4156:
4140:
4136:
4135:"Galantamine"
4130:
4122:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4104:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4075:
4067:
4061:
4056:
4055:
4046:
4039:
4027:
4023:
4017:
4015:
4013:
4011:
4009:
4000:
3996:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3957:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3908:
3906:
3904:
3895:
3889:
3885:
3884:
3876:
3868:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3825:
3823:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3761:
3753:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3720:
3718:
3716:
3696:
3689:
3683:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3652:
3644:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3595:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3553:
3545:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3502:
3494:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3442:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3398:
3384:on 2017-02-27
3380:
3376:
3372:
3365:
3358:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3319:
3311:
3303:
3299:
3298:
3293:
3287:
3285:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3241:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3206:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3179:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3152:
3144:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3129:
3121:
3113:
3107:
3104:. Routledge.
3103:
3102:
3093:
3077:
3073:
3066:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3051:
3042:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3027:
3019:
3010:
3001:
2992:
2983:
2974:
2965:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2922:
2914:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2889:
2881:
2875:
2871:
2870:
2862:
2854:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2839:
2831:
2823:
2817:
2814:. p. 6.
2813:
2809:
2808:
2800:
2792:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2771:
2752:
2748:
2741:
2740:
2732:
2723:
2714:
2705:
2696:
2689:
2684:
2676:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2655:
2653:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2603:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2560:
2552:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2531:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2502:
2494:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2465:
2457:
2449:
2447:
2439:
2437:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2401:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2364:
2356:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2288:
2286:
2277:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2262:
2254:
2252:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2192:
2183:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2132:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2101:
2096:
2089:
2085:
2072:
2066:
2059:
2055:
2049:
2040:
2036:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2015:Ethnomedicine
2013:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2001:
1998:
1994:
1984:
1981:
1971:
1968:
1962:
1957:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1940:
1934:
1925:
1921:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1872:
1870:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1857:
1853:
1852:
1847:
1843:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1823:
1815:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1795:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1763:
1754:
1751:
1747:
1742:
1735:
1731:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1713:Effectiveness
1710:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1630:
1621:
1619:
1614:
1612:
1607:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1587:
1578:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1553:
1549:
1541:
1540:opium poppies
1536:
1523:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1483:essential oil
1477:
1472:
1471:
1470:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1395:
1390:
1386:
1383:, containing
1382:
1376:
1371:
1370:
1369:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1354:health claims
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1310:
1305:
1304:gynecological
1301:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1284:
1270:
1269:heart failure
1266:
1262:
1258:
1252:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1208:, containing
1207:
1206:
1199:
1194:
1193:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1165:
1163:
1162:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1130:
1129:Anthraquinone
1125:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1085:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1065:The alkaloid
1061:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1041:
1040:
1032:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1023:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1012:
1007:
1003:
1002:
997:
993:
989:
988:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
962:
957:
953:
952:
947:
943:
942:
937:
933:
932:
927:
926:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
900:
895:
885:
883:
879:
878:transcriptome
874:
872:
868:
864:
860:
859:
853:
849:
845:
841:
835:
825:
823:
817:
814:
808:
806:
802:
798:
794:
784:
782:
778:
773:
769:
765:
761:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
722:
721:Pharmacognosy
712:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
677:
676:Grete Herball
672:
668:
660:
659:
653:
644:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
621:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
567:
563:
559:
555:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
528:
521:
520:
515:
510:
501:
498:
497:
491:
487:
486:
481:
477:
473:
472:
468:
464:
460:
457:for leprosy,
456:
452:
451:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
417:
413:
409:
405:
402:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
375:Ebers Papyrus
373:
369:
365:
361:
353:
352:Ancient Egypt
342:
341:Ebers Papyrus
337:
331:Ancient times
328:
326:
322:
318:
317:
312:
308:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
270:food spoilage
267:
263:
252:
248:
232:
231:
225:
221:
212:
210:
206:
202:
201:pseudoscience
198:
194:
188:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
134:
133:
127:
116:
115:ancient Egypt
112:
111:Ebers Papyrus
101:
97:
92:
90:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
28:
23:
19:
7262:
7251:
7104:White willow
7074:Tea tree oil
7024:Marsh-mallow
6932:Asthma-plant
6858:30 September
6856:. Retrieved
6847:
6837:
6807:(5): 16064.
6804:
6800:
6779:. Retrieved
6770:
6761:
6726:
6722:
6712:
6675:
6671:
6661:
6636:
6632:
6626:
6601:
6597:
6591:
6579:. Retrieved
6575:the original
6564:
6534:(3): 201β6.
6531:
6527:
6521:
6504:
6500:
6494:
6477:
6473:
6467:
6432:
6426:
6402:(3): 125β9.
6399:
6395:
6385:
6360:
6356:
6350:
6323:
6319:
6309:
6298:. Retrieved
6291:the original
6270:
6266:
6253:
6226:
6220:
6210:30 September
6208:. Retrieved
6146:
6142:
6132:
6097:
6093:
6083:
6048:
6044:
6034:
5999:
5995:
5985:
5958:
5954:
5944:
5919:
5915:
5909:
5897:. Retrieved
5888:
5879:
5868:. Retrieved
5842:
5813:
5809:
5803:
5791:. Retrieved
5787:the original
5777:
5732:
5726:
5704:
5697:. Retrieved
5679:
5667:
5665:
5658:. Retrieved
5649:
5640:
5631:
5627:
5621:
5610:. Retrieved
5595:
5584:. Retrieved
5551:
5547:
5537:
5525:. Retrieved
5510:
5498:. Retrieved
5484:
5476:the original
5450:. Retrieved
5446:the original
5436:
5411:
5407:
5401:
5391:27 September
5389:. Retrieved
5374:
5363:. Retrieved
5348:
5336:. Retrieved
5312:
5302:
5277:
5273:
5267:
5255:. Retrieved
5251:the original
5241:
5232:
5225:. Retrieved
5179:
5175:
5165:
5148:
5142:
5136:
5109:
5103:
5078:
5074:
5068:
5048:
5041:
5022:
5019:EFSA Journal
5018:
4980:
4976:
4970:
4951:
4945:
4918:
4914:
4904:
4893:. Retrieved
4858:
4854:
4844:
4825:
4819:
4776:
4770:
4760:
4748:
4741:. Retrieved
4727:
4716:. Retrieved
4707:
4697:
4675:(2): 153β6.
4672:
4668:
4632:
4626:
4592:(1): 43β56.
4589:
4585:
4575:
4563:. Retrieved
4554:
4545:
4512:
4506:
4500:
4465:
4461:
4451:
4416:
4412:
4402:
4390:. Retrieved
4344:
4338:
4327:. Retrieved
4320:the original
4315:
4311:
4268:
4258:
4238:
4231:
4219:. Retrieved
4204:
4169:
4165:
4155:
4143:. Retrieved
4129:
4084:
4080:
4074:
4053:
4045:
4037:
4030:. Retrieved
3970:
3966:
3956:
3924:(1): 11β48.
3921:
3917:
3882:
3875:
3841:(3): 202β4.
3838:
3834:
3811:22 September
3809:. Retrieved
3805:the original
3774:
3770:
3760:
3733:
3729:
3704:25 September
3702:. Retrieved
3695:the original
3682:
3672:25 September
3670:. Retrieved
3660:
3651:
3614:
3610:
3583:, retrieved
3566:
3562:
3552:
3515:
3511:
3501:
3466:
3462:
3407:
3403:
3397:
3386:. Retrieved
3379:the original
3374:
3370:
3357:
3322:
3316:
3310:
3301:
3295:
3250:
3246:
3240:
3215:
3211:
3205:
3188:
3184:
3178:
3161:
3157:
3151:
3127:
3120:
3100:
3091:
3080:. Retrieved
3049:
3025:
3018:
3009:
3000:
2991:
2982:
2973:
2964:
2931:
2927:
2921:
2898:
2888:
2868:
2861:
2837:
2830:
2806:
2799:
2781:Timber Press
2776:
2770:
2758:. Retrieved
2751:the original
2738:
2731:
2722:
2713:
2704:
2695:
2683:
2665:Timber Press
2660:
2616:
2612:
2602:
2569:
2565:
2559:
2541:Timber Press
2536:
2530:
2508:(1): 19β23.
2505:
2499:
2493:
2468:
2462:
2456:
2444:
2410:
2406:
2400:
2367:
2361:
2355:
2344:. Retrieved
2301:
2298:Med. J. Aust
2297:
2260:
2215:
2211:
2145:
2141:
2131:
2104:
2098:
2088:
2065:
2053:
2048:
2039:
1997:habitat loss
1990:
1977:
1963:
1959:
1948:hallucinogen
1937:
1922:
1899:
1873:
1866:
1849:
1839:
1836:camptothecin
1825:
1811:
1792:
1780:
1746:phylogenetic
1743:
1739:
1696:
1660:
1615:
1609:Traditional
1608:
1592:
1560:
1490:
1487:common thyme
1459:aromatherapy
1425:
1366:punicalagins
1331:
1307:
1290:
1233:
1203:
1166:
1159:
1127:
1093:
1037:
1019:
1009:
999:
985:
959:
949:
939:
929:
923:
897:
875:
856:
840:evolutionary
837:
818:
809:
790:
724:
708:
696:
684:
674:
667:Early Modern
664:
656:
647:Early Modern
618:
610:
598:
594:
568:
564:
560:
556:
551:
544:herb gardens
529:
525:
517:
483:
480:Theophrastus
469:
467:Tang dynasty
448:
425:Atharva Veda
418:
414:
410:
406:
403:
357:
314:
259:
189:
141: 60 AD
93:
57:
53:
52:
43:relieve pain
25:The bark of
18:
7227:Herb garden
7034:Opium poppy
6947:medical use
6581:17 November
5660:26 February
5500:26 February
5452:26 February
5257:26 February
5227:26 February
5025:(2): 1489.
4743:26 February
4565:26 February
4392:26 February
4032:18 February
3518:(11): 1β5.
2370:(1): 3β49.
2212:BMB Reports
1912:, only two
1892:resveratrol
1876:ethnobotany
1863:vinblastine
1859:vincristine
1684:Kew Gardens
1618:synthesised
1581:Preparation
1557:Cultivation
1530:In practice
1495:monoterpene
1400:Polyphenols
1362:pomegranate
1334:grape seeds
1292:Polyphenols
1277:Polyphenols
1236:, contains
1110:hyoscyamine
1106:scopolamine
1016:vincristine
1011:Vinca minor
970:opium poppy
912:hyoscyamine
908:scopolamine
863:galantamine
743:ipecacuanha
681:John Gerard
504:Middle Ages
471:Yaoxing Lun
455:chaulmoogra
387:castor bean
358:In ancient
321:Γtztal Alps
307:Shanidar IV
239: 1334
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