346:
240:. An animal can be stimulated to move simply by skirting its flight zone, and the animal will move in the desired direction according to the point of balance. The point of balance is usually located at the animal's shoulder according to their wide angled vision. An overstimulated animal will have a larger flight zone, for example an excited or scared animal. A Cumulative Flight Zone is formed when animals move in a herd. In this situation the lead animal's and the following animals' Points of Balance, within the cumulative flight zone, must both be crossed to entice movement.
27:
167:) typically run to the nearest tree to escape from predators. As the risk of capture increases with distance from the refuge tree, squirrels feeding far from trees should have greater FID than those feeding closer by. Confirming this, FID in response to a motorized model predator (a cat) increased as distance to refuge increased. Burrowing Owls breeding in territories far from roads showed larger FIDs than individuals breeding closer to roads and mated owls showed similar FIDs. Individual owls showed high repeatability in their FID.
2514:
706:
212:
changes in stress physiology and anti predator behaviour. This may be due to a number of factors differing in rural vs urban areas, such as; difference in predator communities, length of exposure time to humans, relative abundance of humans, and the presence/abundance of food (bird-feeders in winter for example). Wildlife managers must adjust buffer zones depending on urban/rural environments.
283:
animals through a race by maintaining a steady flow of animals, not herding in groups, this allows new animals to follow the leader calmly. When yarded, animals should always have room to turn away from the handler to reduce stress. Minimal stress prevents injury to the animal and maintains good production, such as increased quality of meat and improved muscle and fat scores.
118:) is the distance, by definition greater, within which the animal changes its behaviour in a manner enabling it to better observe the stimulus, as by raising the head in an alert posture, but does not necessarily flee unless the stimulus is also within the escape distance. These measures are usually used to quantify the tolerance of wildlife to humans.
127:
defined as the first point in a predator's approach at which the benefit of flight exceeds the cost. The benefit of flight is equivalent to the cost of remaining in place or, in other words, to the risk of capture. The size of the flight zone can therefore vary according to circumstances. However, it has been shown in
252:
animal becomes more relaxed in a situation or with a person its flight zone will reduce. The cow's prior experiences with humans has also been shown to affect their flight zone. Cows with positive handling experiences were shown to have smaller flight zones than those with negative handling experiences.
258:
Handlers sometimes make the mistake of deeply invading the flight zone when animals are being driven down an alley or into an enclosed area such as a crowd pen. If the handler deeply penetrates the flight zone, the animals may turn back and run over them in an attempt to escape. Confining a livestock
223:
While escape distance has been generally used as a measure of tolerance, other changes in animal behavior in presence of humans, such as increased vigilance time at the cost of decreased feeding time, may have significant overall impact on wildlife. Therefore, it is suggested that a more conservative
215:
Some physical characteristics are very important to determine an animal's FID. Eye size and brain size have a role in determining the FID. FID in 107 species of birds was studied in relation to eye size and brain size and was shown that FID increases with larger eyes and decreases with larger brains.
275:
Animals have a tendency to move in the opposite direction when their handler walks deep into their flight zone. By crossing an animal's point of balance, within the flight zone, a handler can move the herd in a particular direction and control their speed of movement. For example, crossing the point
716:
Escape distance may differ significantly depending on many circumstances. Body size is the best known general factor influencing interspecies differences. Very frequently large species are more timid than small species, because size affects how rapidly a bird can take off. Surprisingly, an analysis
211:
The FID in multiple species differs from rural to urban areas. A study by Møller et al. examined 811 FIDs from 37 species of birds and determined that the FID of birds in urban areas is reduced, compared to the FID of birds in rural areas. Urbanization of birds has also been shown to correlate with
219:
FID can be highly variable, but it can also be viewed as a species-specific trait. A study conducted using eight species of shorebirds at six different sites in
Australia was conducted to determine if FID was species specific. It was demonstrated that while both the species and the site influenced
216:
Larger eyes mean that predators can be detected from further away and thus the FID would be larger compared to smaller eyes. Larger brains decrease the FID compared to smaller brains, since they can better process the intent of predators and can delay their flight response for as long as possible.
126:
Animals faced with approaching predators must decide at which distance to initiate their flight, and they are expected to do so in a way that maximizes their fitness. As flight has both costs (including lost opportunity) and benefits, there will be in general an optimal flight initiation distance,
293:
skills including over penetration of the flight zone results in the following behaviours: stress, panic, aggression, bolting, prey behaviour, charging, fainting, sickness and self-inflicted damage. Rough handling, such as constant flight zone pressure, can raise the heart rate of an animal. These
282:
It is important that a handler does not pursue any struggling animals as this will cause undue stress. Instead the animal should be allowed to return to the group as animals naturally have herd instincts, and will follow the group's leader. A good herding practice applying this is the movement of
251:
The flight zones in cattle vary depending on the situation they are experiencing. Novel situations increase their flight zone, while accustomed stimuli will decrease their flight zone. The flight zone is larger in the front than behind, due to the majority of their senses pointing forward. As the
98:
In a study comparing 56 bird species with long flight distances, it was found these had declining populations in Europe. This indicates that standardized measures of flight distance can provide reliable information about the population consequences of risk-taking behaviour by individuals and the
94:
Flight distance can be used as a measure of the willingness of an animal to take risks. Escape theory predicts that the probability of fleeing and flight distance increase as predation risk increases and decrease as escape cost increases. Flight initiation distance is one measure of animals' fear
146:
to approaching humans was investigated; the greatest FID was when the approaching person was not on paths and was looking at the birds, while the lowest FID occurred when the person was on a path and not looking at the robins. The authors suggested this indicated that they use gaze direction to
276:
of balance from front to back will move the animal forwards, while the opposite is also true. The handler's pace should always reflect the animal's speed when herding. Additionally, pressure should be alternated on the flight zone to reduce stress. Constant pressure should never be applied.
247:
have a larger flight zone than most
English breeds. The flight zone can be thought of as the animal's personal space. The size of the flight zone is determined by the tameness of the animal; the more domesticated an animal, the smaller the zone. Fully tame animals have no flight zone.
102:
When the flight zone of a group of bulls was invaded by a mechanical trolley, the bulls moved away and maintained a constant distance between themselves and the trolley. This indicates animals sometimes maintain a flight zone around inanimate objects.
220:
the FID, there was no significant interaction between them. This indicates that FID is species-specific, and while sites do influence the FID of a species, the average FID is a good reference for wildlife managers to use when creating buffer zones.
322:
from the medulla of the adrenal gland. Epinephrine is commonly known as adrenaline. Adrenaline increases the supply of oxygen to vital organs and decreases supply to others. Frequent subjection to fight or flight situations causes severe endocrine
153:: In lizards, FID was shorter during social encounters than when they were solitary. and FID was shorter in female lizards when they were interacting with males than when they were alone; it was also shorter in males interacting with either sex.
329:
The third phase is
Exhaustion. Strong, constant and over frequent stimulation of an animals flight zone may lead to death, decreases production and lower quality of life. According to the GAS, a full recovery from exhaustion is possible over
106:
The flight initiation distance is being used as a tool in wildlife management. By studying flight zones, wildlife managers are able to reduce the impact of humans by creating buffer zones between human populations and animal habitats.
99:
susceptibility of different species to increased levels of disturbance by humans. A further study analyzing 75 flight initiation distance studies of 212 species found that larger species are more tolerant of humans.
142:, FID decreased as the distance between a turning predator and prey increased, but was greater when the predator turned toward than away from the fleeing animal. The FID and alert response of
267:
or alley that feels threatened may panic and injure itself or other animals. If handlers lean over fences around animals they penetrate the "zone of safety" and may cause the animals to rear.
326:
The second phase is
Adaptation and Resistance. It is the idea that recurring subjection builds natural immunity, and common handler movement and herding minimises an animals flight zone.
224:
measure, namely, the alert distance, should be used in determining minimum approaching distance. The latter typically adds a certain buffer distance to the given tolerance measure.
1103:
Blumstein, D. T.; Anthony, L. L.; Harcourt, R.; Ross, G. (2003). "Testing a key assumption of wildlife buffer zones: is flight initiation distance a species-specific trait?".
197:
often use ED and FID to develop set-back distances to reduce human impacts on wildlife, both in wildlife refuges, and, e.g., in planning areas for outdoor recreation.
263:(chute) or alley can make it feel more secure and thus reduce the size of the flight zone; however, it does not eliminate the flight zone. An animal in a
1708:
1082:
Kilgour, R., (1971). Animal handling in works, pertinent behaviour studies. 13th Meat
Industry Research Conference, Hamilton, New Zealand. pp. 9–12
1953:
38:
of an animal is the area surrounding an animal that if encroached upon by a potential predator or threat, including humans, will cause alarm and
255:
Studies with sheep indicated that animals confined in a narrow alley had a smaller flight zone compared to animals confined in a wider alley.
2448:
1058:
243:
The flight distance during handling is usually 1.5 to 7.6 m for beef cattle raised in a feeding operation and up to 30 m on mountain ranges.
181:
of the animal. Completely tame animals have no flight zone for humans; that is, they will allow a person to approach and touch them. Wild,
990:
939:
789:
Origin of birds – sometimes wintering birds from the north, perhaps not knowing people, are less shy than native, for example nutcracker
1143:"A Review of Disturbance Distances in Selected Bird Species, A report from Natural Research (Projects) Ltd to Scottish Natural Heritage"
2453:
1142:
1300:"Individual consistency in flight initiation distances in burrowing owls: a new hypothesis on disturbance-induced habitat selection"
1929:
1374:
Eason, P.K.; Sherman, P.T; Rankin, O.; Coleman, B. (2006). "Factors affecting flight initiation distance in
American robin".
311:
1981:
314:
response – the animal flight zone is included in this. Over penetration of the animal flight zone causes stimulation of the
1592:
1482:
286:
Appropriate frequent penetration of the flight zone can train the animals to minimise their flight zone to the handler.
2099:
1611:
Møller, A. P.; Tryjanowski, P; Díaz, M; Kwieciński, Z; Indykiewicz, P; Mitrus, C; Golawski, A; Polakowski, M (2015).
1409:
Cooper, W.E. (2009). "Flight initiation distance decreases during social activity in lizards (Sceloporus virgatus)".
806:
status – quarry species have longer EDs than non-quarry, increasing during hunting season or after days with hunting.
1354:"Plesiomorphic escape decisions in cryptic horned lizards (Phrynosoma) having highly derived antipredatory defenses"
1542:
318:(SNS). The SNS produces localised adjustments and responses; this includes the excretion of large quantities of
2157:
1483:"Alert distance as an alternative measure of bird tolerance to human disturbance- implications for park design"
1446:"The influence of distance to refuge on flight initiation distance in the gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis)"
1387:
345:
1653:
Møller, A. P.; Erritzøe, J. (2013). "Predator-prey interactions, flight initiation distance and brain size".
1593:
Alert distance as an alternative measure of bird tolerance to human disturbance: implications for park design
1215:
2491:
2187:
1756:
Grandin, T (1978). "Observations of the spatial relationships between people and cattle during handling".
1729:
Grandin, T (1980). "Observations of cattle behavior applied to the design of cattle-handling facilities".
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2269:
303:
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If animals turn to face the handler he or she is considered to be no longer penetrating the flight zone.
74:
2470:
2219:
315:
2362:
1196:
2214:
994:
943:
1909:
Grandin, T. (1983). Handling and processing feedlot cattle. In: G.B. Thompson and C.C. O'Mary (Eds)
1891:. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations – Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
923:
Bentrup G. (2008). "Conservation buffers: design guidelines for buffers, corridors, and greenways".
2484:
2167:
875:
2026:. Nasze hobby (in Polish) (1st ed.). Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne (PWRiL).
1924:
2142:
1445:
1353:
791:
2301:
2264:
2254:
2199:
2147:
2092:
856:
where different colored males have differing FID values due to differences in hormonal levels.
549:
2538:
1613:"Urban habitats and feeders both contribute to flight initiation distance reduction in birds"
641:
54:) which extends horizontally from the animal and sometimes vertically. It may also be termed
1149:
824:
react at longer distances than those in single species flocks for either species. Or dunlin
2407:
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8:
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81:
26:
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1223:
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1844:
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Cow talk: understanding dairy cow behaviour to improve their welfare on Asian farms
1738:
1662:
1624:
1557:
1505:
1460:
1418:
1383:
1321:
1311:
1267:"Escape distances from human pedestrians by staging waterbirds in a Danish wetland"
1211:
1120:
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559:
427:
391:
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2327:
2296:
2249:
1985:
826:
756:
749:
143:
87:
39:
1543:"Flight-Initiation Distance in Birds Is Dependent on Intruder Starting Distance"
2397:
2352:
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2137:
2062:
890:
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tolerant of humans, despite substantial research that shows larger animals are
609:
579:
244:
1886:
1848:
1509:
1422:
85:(distance separating members of non-contact species, as a pair of swans), and
2548:
2532:
2402:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2311:
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2152:
710:
569:
451:
160:
139:
128:
66:
20:
2041:
Cooper, W.E.; Frederick, W.G. (2007). "Optimal flight initiation distance".
1629:
1612:
1037:
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2427:
2377:
2337:
2306:
2259:
2070:
1674:
1335:
1316:
1059:"Why are some wild animals more tolerant to human interaction than others?"
865:
519:
354:
260:
927:. SRS-109. Asheville, NC: USDA, Forest Service, Southern Research Station.
2367:
2332:
1480:
870:
820:
680:
589:
379:
358:
350:
319:
264:
178:
174:
1569:
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539:
403:
1889:"Guidelines for Humane Handling, Transport and Slaughter of Livestock"
1666:
290:
1561:
1464:
705:
30:
Flight initiation distance (FID) buffer from critical wildlife area.
19:"Flight distance" redirects here. For aircraft flight distance, see
2239:
2234:
2209:
2108:
487:
463:
1021:"Flight distance and population trends in European breeding birds"
2274:
880:
812:
Flock composition – for example birds in mixed flocks of mallard
803:
415:
233:
201:
1610:
700:
439:
294:
factors are all reflective of the
General Adaptation Syndrome.
361:
equipment, allowing them to take pictures from long distances.
2177:
1887:
Chambers, P.G.; Grandin, T.; Heinz, G.; Srisuvan, T. (2001).
1264:
967:
Genetics and
Behavior During Handling, Restraint, and Herding
831:
777:
near the feeder or in the park are less shy than in the wild.
770:
182:
1194:
1102:
2284:
2077:
1140:
1062:
1388:
10.2193/0022-541x(2006)70[1796:fafidi]2.0.co;2
1197:"Factors affecting escape distances of staging waterbirds"
2021:
1373:
131:
that individuals showed high repeatability in their FID.
1835:
Hutson, G.D. (1982). "Flight distance in Merino sheep".
1788:
Vision, Hearing, and
Handling methods in Cattle and Pigs
1705:
Vision, Hearing, and
Handling methods in Cattle and Pigs
1216:
10.2981/0909-6396(2005)11[13:faedos]2.0.co;2
800:
Color of clothes of an observer and observer's behaviour
185:, and unbroken animals can have very large flight zones.
1824:. Clayton South, Vic: CSIRO Publishing. pp. 48–49.
306:(GAS) is a three-phase response to stress in animals.
1481:
Fernandez-Juricic E.; Jimenez M. D.; Lucas E. (2001).
1790:. American Registry of Professional Animal Scientists
1709:
American Registry of Professional Animal Scientists
993:. USDA National Agroforestry Center. Archived from
942:. USDA National Agroforestry Center. Archived from
769:are less shy in a park than somewhere in the wild.
747:Age – young birds are less shy, for example dunlin
717:of hundreds of studies found that larger birds are
339:Sample escape distances (mostly mean) from humans:
173:: The size of the flight zone can depend upon the
1925:"Understanding Flight Zones and Point of Balance"
2530:
1260:
42:. The flight zone is determined by the animal's
2040:
1540:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1784:"Behavioural Principles of Livestock Handling"
1777:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1701:"Behavioural Principles of Livestock Handling"
1652:
1536:
1534:
1476:
1474:
1056:
964:
297:
232:The flight zone is an important principle for
62:, flush distance, and escape flight distance.
2449:Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour
2093:
1984:. Oracle Education Foundation. Archived from
1864:"Behavioral principles of livestock handling"
1190:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2003:
1913:Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia. pp. 213–235
1351:
1297:
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1188:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1045:
701:Factors affecting escape distances for birds
16:Range at which an animal flees from a threat
1768:
1531:
1471:
1443:
1195:Laursen K.; Kahlert J.; Frikke; J. (2005).
1136:
1134:
988:
984:
982:
980:
978:
976:
937:
918:
916:
780:Season. For example, wintering bullfinches
121:
2454:International Society for Applied Ethology
2100:
2086:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1882:
1880:
1861:
1819:
1694:
1692:
1293:
1291:
1265:Bregnballe T.; Aaen K.; Fox A. D. (2009).
922:
2000:
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1347:
1345:
1325:
1315:
1167:
1036:
847:
1588:
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1131:
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973:
913:
704:
344:
25:
1968:
1877:
1758:Proc. Western Sect., Am. Soc. Anim. Sci
1755:
1728:
1689:
1288:
965:Grandin, Temple; Deesing, Mark (2014).
837:Visibility of the stimulus to the birds
91:(intraspecies communication distance).
2531:
1834:
1408:
1342:
1018:
189:
2081:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1805:
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1646:
1644:
1642:
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1606:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1583:
1009:
349:Because many birds flee from humans,
200:These measures are also important in
2022:Gotzman J.; Desselberger J. (1979).
1141:Ruddock M., Whitfield D. P. (2007).
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1088:
991:"Flight Initiation Distance Buffers"
940:"Flight Initiation Distance Buffers"
786:have shorter EDs than breeding ones.
500:
1979:
1922:
1781:
1698:
1411:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1057:Stuart Wolpert (16 November 2015).
13:
2034:
1802:
1637:
1597:
1550:The Journal of Wildlife Management
1376:The Journal of Wildlife Management
227:
14:
2570:
1951:
1298:Carrete, M.; Tella, J.L. (2009).
1085:
2513:
2512:
1444:Dill, L.M.; Houtman, R. (1989).
334:
1945:
1916:
1903:
1855:
1828:
1749:
1722:
1655:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
1437:
1402:
1367:
2158:Bee learning and communication
2043:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1076:
958:
931:
732:Species – for example mallard
1:
1982:"General Adaptation Syndrome"
1125:10.1016/s0006-3207(02)00180-5
906:
757:Habituation to walking people
728:Among the affecting factors:
2107:
1933:. ProWay Livestock Equipment
1743:10.1016/0304-3762(80)90091-7
1541:Blumstein D. T. (Oct 2003).
969:. Elsevier Inc. p. 121.
852:It is shown that the Lizard
738:has shorter ED than pintail
685:
672:
659:
646:
613:
603:
593:
583:
573:
563:
553:
543:
533:
523:
270:
7:
1820:Moran, J; Doyle, R (2015).
1556:(4). Allen Press: 852–857.
1453:Canadian Journal of Zoology
859:
491:
479:
467:
455:
443:
431:
419:
407:
395:
383:
304:general adaptation syndrome
298:General adaptation syndrome
10:
2575:
2063:10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.07.011
1490:Environmental Conservation
1276:(Special Issue 2): 115–130
316:sympathetic nervous system
48:flight initiation distance
18:
2508:
2462:
2441:
2320:
2215:Evolutionary neuroscience
2115:
1849:10.1017/s0003356100027409
1510:10.1017/S0376892901000273
1423:10.1007/s00265-009-0799-1
625:Mammals of North America
2168:Behavioral endocrinology
2024:Z lornetką wśród ptaków
876:Fight-or-flight response
122:Factors influencing size
2363:Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt
2143:Animal sexual behaviour
1105:Biological Conservation
792:Nucifraga caryocatactes
505:Birds of North America
310:The first phase is the
136:Behaviour of the threat
2302:Tool use by non-humans
2255:Philosophical ethology
2200:Comparative psychology
2148:Animal welfare science
1954:"Human Nervous System"
1317:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0739
848:Flight Zone in Lizards
713:
550:American golden plover
362:
69:distinguished between
31:
1630:10.1093/beheco/arv024
1352:Cooper, W.E. (2000).
1038:10.1093/beheco/arn103
1019:Moller, A.P. (2008).
830:in flocks with other
797:Given bird individual
708:
642:Antilocapra americana
348:
171:Training and learning
95:responses to humans.
29:
2408:William Homan Thorpe
2173:Behavioural genetics
2133:Animal consciousness
2128:Animal communication
1155:on February 28, 2013
989:Bentrup, G. (2008).
938:Bentrup, G. (2008).
901:Wildlife photography
725:tolerant of humans.
165:Sciurus carolinensis
2163:Behavioural ecology
2055:2007JThBi.244...59C
1862:Grandin T. (1989).
1502:2001EnvCo..28..263F
1117:2003BCons.110...97B
997:on 12 December 2012
946:on 12 December 2012
896:Wildlife management
655:Odocoileus hemionus
238:mustering livestock
190:Wildlife management
79:(attack boundary),
46:, sometimes called
2559:Nature photography
2492:Behavioral Ecology
2413:Nikolaas Tinbergen
2205:Emotion in animals
2183:Cognitive ethology
1988:on 19 October 2013
1980:Unknown, Unknown.
1617:Behavioral Ecology
1025:Behavioral Ecology
886:Nature photography
815:Anas platyrhynchos
762:Anas platyrhynchos
735:Anas platyrhynchos
714:
600:Western Meadowlark
476:Eurasian blackbird
363:
206:nature photography
157:Distance to refuge
32:
2526:
2525:
2418:Jakob von Uexküll
2188:Comfort behaviour
1923:Grandin, Temple.
1837:Animal Production
1782:Grandin, Temple.
1731:Appl. Anim. Ethol
1699:Grandin, Temple.
1667:10.1111/jeb.12272
1417:(12): 1765–1771.
854:Urosaurus ornatus
843:Vegetation height
783:Pyrrhula pyrrhula
767:Branta canadensis
697:
696:
690:
689:
668:Cervus canadensis
618:
617:
530:Rough-legged hawk
498:
497:
265:livestock raceway
195:Wildlife managers
82:personal distance
76:critical distance
2566:
2516:
2515:
2478:Animal Cognition
2471:Animal Behaviour
2423:Wolfgang Wickler
2123:Animal cognition
2102:
2095:
2088:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2028:
2027:
2019:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1977:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1949:
1943:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1920:
1914:
1907:
1901:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1884:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1859:
1853:
1852:
1832:
1826:
1825:
1817:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1779:
1766:
1765:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1696:
1687:
1686:
1650:
1635:
1634:
1632:
1608:
1595:
1590:
1581:
1580:
1578:
1576:
1547:
1538:
1529:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1487:
1478:
1469:
1468:
1450:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1382:(6): 1796–1800.
1371:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1349:
1340:
1339:
1329:
1319:
1295:
1286:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1271:
1262:
1235:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1204:Wildlife Biology
1201:
1192:
1165:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1154:
1148:. Archived from
1147:
1138:
1129:
1128:
1100:
1083:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1054:
1043:
1042:
1040:
1031:(6): 1095–1102.
1016:
1007:
1006:
1004:
1002:
986:
971:
970:
962:
956:
955:
953:
951:
935:
929:
928:
920:
765:or Canada Geese
628:
627:
560:Great blue heron
508:
507:
501:
428:Northern lapwing
392:Northern pintail
365:
364:
342:Birds of Europe
73:(run boundary),
65:Swiss zoologist
2574:
2573:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2565:
2564:
2563:
2529:
2528:
2527:
2522:
2504:
2458:
2437:
2433:Solly Zuckerman
2373:Karl von Frisch
2358:Richard Dawkins
2343:John B. Calhoun
2328:Patrick Bateson
2316:
2250:Pain in animals
2111:
2106:
2037:
2035:Further reading
2032:
2031:
2020:
2001:
1991:
1989:
1978:
1969:
1959:
1957:
1952:Loewy, Arthur.
1950:
1946:
1936:
1934:
1921:
1917:
1908:
1904:
1894:
1892:
1885:
1878:
1868:
1866:
1860:
1856:
1833:
1829:
1818:
1803:
1793:
1791:
1780:
1769:
1754:
1750:
1727:
1723:
1713:
1711:
1697:
1690:
1651:
1638:
1609:
1598:
1591:
1584:
1574:
1572:
1562:10.2307/3802692
1545:
1539:
1532:
1522:
1520:
1485:
1479:
1472:
1465:10.1139/z89-033
1448:
1442:
1438:
1407:
1403:
1372:
1368:
1358:
1356:
1350:
1343:
1304:Biology Letters
1296:
1289:
1279:
1277:
1269:
1263:
1238:
1228:
1226:
1199:
1193:
1168:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1139:
1132:
1101:
1086:
1081:
1077:
1067:
1065:
1055:
1046:
1017:
1010:
1000:
998:
987:
974:
963:
959:
949:
947:
936:
932:
921:
914:
909:
862:
850:
827:Calidris alpina
750:Calidris alpina
703:
698:
620:
337:
312:fight or flight
300:
273:
236:, working, and
230:
228:Animal handling
192:
144:American robins
124:
88:social distance
71:flight distance
56:escape distance
44:flight distance
40:escape behavior
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2572:
2562:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2524:
2523:
2521:
2520:
2509:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2502:
2495:
2488:
2485:Animal Welfare
2481:
2474:
2466:
2464:
2460:
2459:
2457:
2456:
2451:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2438:
2436:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2398:Desmond Morris
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2353:Marian Dawkins
2350:
2348:Charles Darwin
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2230:Human ethology
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2138:Animal culture
2135:
2130:
2125:
2119:
2117:
2113:
2112:
2105:
2104:
2097:
2090:
2082:
2076:
2075:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2029:
1999:
1967:
1944:
1915:
1902:
1876:
1854:
1843:(2): 231–235.
1827:
1801:
1767:
1748:
1721:
1688:
1636:
1623:(3): 861–865.
1596:
1582:
1530:
1496:(3): 263–269.
1470:
1436:
1401:
1366:
1341:
1310:(2): 167–170.
1287:
1236:
1166:
1130:
1084:
1075:
1044:
1008:
972:
957:
930:
925:Gen. Tech. Rep
911:
910:
908:
905:
904:
903:
898:
893:
891:Personal space
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
861:
858:
849:
846:
845:
844:
841:
838:
835:
810:
807:
801:
798:
795:
787:
778:
754:
745:
702:
699:
695:
694:
688:
687:
684:
675:
674:
671:
662:
661:
658:
649:
648:
645:
636:
635:
632:
622:
616:
615:
612:
610:American robin
606:
605:
602:
596:
595:
592:
586:
585:
582:
580:Prairie falcon
576:
575:
572:
566:
565:
562:
556:
555:
552:
546:
545:
542:
536:
535:
532:
526:
525:
522:
516:
515:
512:
499:
496:
495:
493:
490:
484:
483:
481:
478:
472:
471:
469:
466:
460:
459:
457:
454:
448:
447:
445:
442:
436:
435:
433:
430:
424:
423:
421:
418:
412:
411:
409:
406:
400:
399:
397:
394:
388:
387:
385:
384:(130–1000) 319
382:
376:
375:
372:
369:
357:sometimes use
351:ornithologists
336:
333:
332:
331:
327:
324:
299:
296:
272:
269:
245:Brahman cattle
229:
226:
191:
188:
187:
186:
168:
161:Gray squirrels
154:
148:
140:horned lizards
129:burrowing owls
123:
120:
112:alert distance
60:alert distance
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2571:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2519:
2511:
2510:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2496:
2494:
2493:
2489:
2487:
2486:
2482:
2480:
2479:
2475:
2473:
2472:
2468:
2467:
2465:
2461:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2446:
2444:
2440:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2403:Thomas Sebeok
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2393:Konrad Lorenz
2391:
2389:
2388:Julian Huxley
2386:
2384:
2383:Heini Hediger
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2319:
2313:
2312:Zoomusicology
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2272:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2245:Neuroethology
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2153:Anthrozoology
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2098:
2096:
2091:
2089:
2084:
2083:
2080:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2039:
2038:
2025:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1974:
1972:
1955:
1948:
1932:
1931:
1926:
1919:
1912:
1906:
1890:
1883:
1881:
1865:
1858:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1823:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1763:
1759:
1752:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1725:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1695:
1693:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1631:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1594:
1589:
1587:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1544:
1537:
1535:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1484:
1477:
1475:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1447:
1440:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1405:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1370:
1355:
1348:
1346:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1294:
1292:
1275:
1268:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1198:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1151:
1144:
1137:
1135:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1111:(1): 97–100.
1110:
1106:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1091:
1089:
1079:
1064:
1060:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1039:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1015:
1013:
996:
992:
985:
983:
981:
979:
977:
968:
961:
945:
941:
934:
926:
919:
917:
912:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
884:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
863:
857:
855:
842:
839:
836:
833:
829:
828:
823:
822:
817:
816:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
796:
794:
793:
788:
785:
784:
779:
776:
772:
768:
764:
763:
758:
755:
752:
751:
746:
743:
742:
737:
736:
731:
730:
729:
726:
724:
720:
712:
707:
693:
683:
682:
677:
676:
670:
669:
664:
663:
657:
656:
651:
650:
644:
643:
638:
637:
633:
630:
629:
626:
623:
621:
611:
608:
607:
601:
598:
597:
591:
588:
587:
581:
578:
577:
571:
568:
567:
561:
558:
557:
551:
548:
547:
541:
538:
537:
531:
528:
527:
521:
518:
517:
513:
510:
509:
506:
503:
502:
494:
489:
486:
485:
482:
477:
474:
473:
470:
465:
462:
461:
458:
453:
452:Eurasian coot
450:
449:
446:
441:
438:
437:
434:
429:
426:
425:
422:
417:
414:
413:
410:
405:
402:
401:
398:
396:(100–500) 294
393:
390:
389:
386:
381:
378:
377:
373:
370:
367:
366:
360:
356:
352:
347:
343:
340:
335:Sample values
328:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
308:
307:
305:
295:
292:
287:
284:
280:
277:
268:
266:
262:
256:
253:
249:
246:
241:
239:
235:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
207:
203:
198:
196:
184:
180:
176:
172:
169:
166:
162:
158:
155:
152:
149:
145:
141:
137:
134:
133:
132:
130:
119:
117:
113:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
90:
89:
84:
83:
78:
77:
72:
68:
67:Heini Hediger
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
28:
22:
21:flight length
2539:Birdwatching
2497:
2490:
2483:
2476:
2469:
2428:E. O. Wilson
2378:Jane Goodall
2338:Donald Broom
2307:Zoosemiotics
2260:Sociobiology
2049:(1): 59–67.
2046:
2042:
2023:
1990:. Retrieved
1986:the original
1958:. Retrieved
1956:. Britannica
1947:
1937:30 September
1935:. Retrieved
1928:
1918:
1911:The Feedlot,
1910:
1905:
1893:. Retrieved
1867:. Retrieved
1857:
1840:
1836:
1830:
1821:
1792:. Retrieved
1787:
1761:
1757:
1751:
1734:
1730:
1724:
1712:. Retrieved
1704:
1661:(1): 23–42.
1658:
1654:
1620:
1616:
1573:. Retrieved
1553:
1549:
1521:. Retrieved
1493:
1489:
1456:
1452:
1439:
1414:
1410:
1404:
1379:
1375:
1369:
1357:. Retrieved
1307:
1303:
1278:. Retrieved
1273:
1227:. Retrieved
1210:(1): 13–19.
1207:
1203:
1159:September 4,
1157:. Retrieved
1150:the original
1108:
1104:
1078:
1066:. Retrieved
1028:
1024:
999:. Retrieved
995:the original
966:
960:
948:. Retrieved
944:the original
933:
924:
866:Birdwatching
851:
825:
819:
813:
790:
781:
760:
748:
739:
733:
727:
722:
718:
715:
691:
679:
666:
653:
640:
624:
619:
520:Golden eagle
504:
420:(60–400) 236
355:birdwatchers
341:
338:
301:
288:
285:
281:
278:
274:
259:animal in a
257:
254:
250:
242:
231:
222:
218:
214:
210:
199:
193:
177:or level of
170:
164:
156:
150:
147:assess risk.
135:
125:
115:
111:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
86:
80:
75:
70:
64:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
35:
33:
2368:Dian Fossey
2333:Marc Bekoff
2321:Ethologists
1575:4 September
1523:4 September
1459:: 233–235.
1280:4 September
1229:4 September
1068:30 December
1001:6 September
950:6 September
871:Digiscoping
821:Anas crecca
759:. Mallards
681:Bison bison
590:Great egret
444:(15–450) 70
380:Brent goose
359:digiscoping
320:epinephrine
179:habituation
36:flight zone
2533:Categories
2270:Structures
2265:Stereotypy
907:References
840:Wind force
809:Flock size
775:Nuthatches
741:Anas acuta
652:Mule deer
639:Pronghorn
540:Bald eagle
404:Grey heron
323:disorders.
2554:Livestock
2499:Behaviour
2442:Societies
2280:Honeycomb
1992:7 October
1960:7 October
1794:7 October
1737:: 19–31.
1714:7 October
818:and teal
711:blackbird
291:husbandry
271:Husbandry
2544:Ethology
2518:Category
2463:Journals
2290:Instinct
2240:Learning
2235:Instinct
2210:Ethogram
2193:Grooming
2116:Branches
2109:Ethology
2071:16949619
1895:22 April
1869:22 April
1764:: 76–79.
1683:41897304
1675:25990564
1518:44189097
1431:24549272
1396:85926285
1359:20 April
1336:19864278
1274:Wildfowl
1224:86208796
860:See also
709:Fleeing
660:149–250
524:105–390
488:Blue tit
464:Whinchat
175:tameness
2220:Feeding
2051:Bibcode
1570:3802692
1498:Bibcode
1327:2865052
1113:Bibcode
881:Herding
804:Hunting
673:85–201
631:Species
584:18–183
574:18–183
544:50–884
534:53–884
511:Species
416:Mallard
368:Species
234:herding
202:birding
2069:
1930:ProWay
1681:
1673:
1568:
1516:
1429:
1394:
1334:
1324:
1222:
832:waders
692:
678:Bison
570:Merlin
440:Dunlin
151:Social
138:: In
2297:Swarm
2225:Hover
2178:Breed
1679:S2CID
1566:JSTOR
1546:(PDF)
1514:S2CID
1486:(PDF)
1449:(PDF)
1427:S2CID
1392:S2CID
1270:(PDF)
1220:S2CID
1200:(PDF)
1153:(PDF)
1146:(PDF)
634:FID
514:FID
468:20–30
374:Ref.
330:time.
289:Poor
261:crush
183:feral
2549:Fear
2285:Nest
2275:Hive
2067:PMID
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