Escape response - Knowledge

190:. Habituation is an adaptation strategy that refers to the diminishing response of an animal to a stimulus following repetitive exposures of the animal to that same stimulus. In other words, the animal learns to distinguish between innately threatening situations and may choose to not go through with their escape response. This is a highly variable phenomenon, where the stimulus itself is highly specific, and the experience is highly context dependent. This suggests that there is no one mechanism by which a species will develop habituation to a stimulus, instead habituation may arise from the integration of experiences. A number of cognitive processes may operate during one single threatening experience, but the levels at which these processes are integrated will determine how the individual animal will potentially respond next. 37: 501: 409: 377:

movement (stage 2). This escape is also known as a "fast-start response". The majority of the fish respond to an external stimulus (pressure changes) within 5 to 15 milliseconds, while some will exhibit a slower response taking up to 80 milliseconds. While the escape response generally only propels the fish a small distance away, this distance is long enough to prevent predation. While many predators use water pressure to catch their prey, this short distance prevents them from feeding on the fish via suction.

39: 43: 42: 38: 44: 41: 243:, trained by humans who condition the elephant to believe it cannot escape punishment. As a young elephant, it would be chained down with a pick to keep it from leaving. As it grows, the elephant would have the ability to easily overpower the tiny pick. Development of learned helplessness keeps the elephant from doing so, believing that it is trapped and the effort is futile. 392:. When larvae are positioned lateral to a predator, they will escape in a likewise lateral direction. According to game theory, zebrafish who are positioned lateral and ventral to the predator are more likely to survive, rather than any alternate strategy. Finally, the faster (cm/s) the predator is moving, the faster downward the fish will move to escape predation. 317:. This response is usually beneficial, as it reduces risk of injury or death for animals, also because it is an adaptive response and can change as the species evolves. Individuals are able to recognize certain species or environments that need to be avoided, which can allow them to increase the flight distance to ensure safety. 345:) were exposed to a demonstration of traffic traveling at speeds between 60–360 km/h. When approached by a vehicle travelling at 120 km/h, the birds only allotted 0.8s to escape before a possible collision. This study showed that fast traffic speeds may not allow enough time for birds to initiate an escape response. 123:

seen today. Animals that are able to adapt their responses in ways different from their own species have displayed increased rates of survival. Because of this, it is common for the individual escape response of an animal to vary according to reaction time, environmental conditions, and/or past and present experience.

400:

conspecifics. The theory of limited attention states that the brain has a limited amount of information processing, and, as an individual is engaged in more tasks, the less resources it can provide to one given task. As a result, they have more attention that they can devote toward anti-predator behaviour.

483:

and other rodents, have defensive neural networks present in the midbrain that allow for quick adaptation of their defense strategy. If these animals are caught in an area without refuge, they can quickly change their strategy from fleeing to freezing. Freezing behavior allows for the animal to avoid

380:

Particularly in the case of fish, it has been hypothesized that the differences in escape response are due to the evolution of neural circuits over time. This can be witnessed by observing the difference in the extent of stage 1 behaviour, and the distinct muscle activity in stage 2 of the C-start or

206:

worms will move away from. If the tapping stimulus continues without any direct effects on the worms, they will gradually stop responding to the stimulus. This response is modulated by a series of mechanosensory neurons (AVM, ALM, PVD, and PLM) which synapse with interneurons (AVD, AVA, AVB, and PVC)

90:

or more coordinated cognitive processes. Escape execution refers to the movement or series of movements that will hide the animal from the threat or will allow for the animal to flee. Once the animal has effectively avoided the predator or threat, the escape response is terminated. Upon completion of

338:

One study by Michael A. Weston et al. in 2020 observed how flight initiation changed according to the distance of the drone from the birds. It was found that as the drone approached the tendency of birds to take flight to escape it increased dramatically. This was positively affected by the altitude

300:

An applicable analogy would be a reactive dog. When the flight zone is large, the dog will maintain an observant stance, but a startle response will not occur. As the threatening stimuli moves forward and decreases the flight zone, the dog will exhibit behaviors that fall into a startle or avoidance

296:

A flight zone can be circumstantial, because a threat can vary in size (individually or in group number). Overall, this distance is the measure of an animal's willingness to take on risks. This differentiates a flight zone from personal distance an animal prefers and social distance (how close other

231:

as a result of receiving or perceiving repeated threatening stimuli and believing the stimuli is unavoidable. The animal will submit and not react, even if the stimuli previously triggered instinctual responses or if the animal is provided an escape opportunity. In these situations, escape responses

376:

Generally, when faced with a dangerous stimuli, fish will contract their axial muscle, resulting a C-shaped contraction away from the stimulus. This response occurs in two separate stages: a muscle contraction that allows them to speed away from a stimulus (stage 1), and a sequential contralateral

258:

is an unconscious response to sudden or threatening stimuli. In the wild, common examples would be sharp noises or quick movements. Because these stimuli are so harsh they are connected to a negative effect. This reflex causes a change in body posture, emotional state, or a mental shift to prepare

161:

Complex escape responses often require a mixture of cognitive processes. This may stem from a difficult environment to escape from, or the animal having multiple potential escape methods. Initially, the animal must recognize the threat of predation, but following the initial recognition the animal

126:

Arjun Nair et al. found in 2017 that it is not necessarily the speed of the response itself, but the greater distance between the targeted individual and the predator when the response is executed. In addition, the escape response of an individual is directly related to the threat of the predator.

122:

The ability to perform an effective escape maneuver directly affects the fitness of the animal, because the ability to evade predation enhances an animal's chance of survival. Those animals that learn to or are simply able to avoid predators have contributed to the wide variety of escape responses

538:

are also well known for their escape responses. Unlike squids, who may engage more salient escape responses, the cuttlefish has few defences so it relies on more conspicuous means: jet-driven escape and freezing behaviour. However, it appears that the majority of cuttlefish use a freezing escape

515:

have developed a multitude of anti-predator escape responses, including: jet-driven escape, postural displays, inking and camouflage. Inking and jet-driven escape are arguably the most salient responses, in which the individual squirts ink at the predator as it speeds away. These blobs of ink can

475:

Higher-order mammals often display withdrawal reflexes. Exposure to danger, or a painful stimulus (in nociceptor-mediated loops), initiate a spinal reflex loop. Sensory receptors transmit the signal to the spine where it is rapidly integrated by interneurons and consequently an efferent signal is

246:

In a more natural setting, learned helplessness would most often be displayed by animals that live in group settings. If food were scarce and one individual was always overpowered when it came time to get food, it would soon believe that no matter what it did, getting food would be impossible. It

1949:

Mikula, Peter; Tomášek, Oldřich; Romportl, Dušan; Aikins, Timothy K.; Avendaño, Jorge E.; Braimoh-Azaki, Bukola D. A.; Chaskda, Adams; Cresswell, Will; Cunningham, Susan J.; Dale, Svein; Favoretto, Gabriela R.; Floyd, Kelvin S.; Glover, Hayley; Grim, Tomáš; Henry, Dominic A. W. (April 20, 2023).

1060:

918:

320:

When scared, octopus release ink to distract their predators enough that they can burrow into a safe area. Another example of avoidance is the fast-start response in fish. They are able to relegate musculoskeletal control which allows them to withdraw from the environment with the threatening

162:

might have to quickly determine the best route of escape, based on prior experience. This means rapid integration of incoming information with prior knowledge, and then coordination of motor movements deemed necessary. Complex escape responses generally require a more robust neural network.

399:

can affect the reaction time involved in the escape response. Guppies that were placed in familiar groups were more likely to respond than guppies who were assigned to unfamiliar groups. Wolcott et al. (2017) suggest that familiar groups may lead to reduced inspection and aggression among

334:

Avian species also display unique escape responses. Birds are uniquely vulnerable to human interference in the form of aircraft, drones, cars, and other technology. There has been a lot of interest in how these structures will and do affect the behaviors of terrestrial and aquatic birds.

235:

Helplessness is learned through habituation, because the brain is programmed to believe control is not present. In essence, animals operate under the assumption they have the free will to fight, flee or freeze as well as engage in other behaviors. When escape responses fail, they develop

158:'Simple' escape responses are commonly reflex movements that will quickly move the animal away from the potential threat. These neural circuits operate quickly and effectively, rapidly taking in sensory stimuli and initiating the escape behavior through well-defined neuron systems. 210:

The primary force driving escape habituation is suspected to be energy conservation. If an animal learns that a certain threat will not actively cause harm to it, then the animal can choose to minimize its energy costs by not performing its escape. For example,

110:, or some form of fleeing (jumping, flying, withdrawal, etc.). In fact, variation between individuals is linked to increased survival. In addition, it is not merely increased speed that contributes to the success of the escape response; other factors, including 81:

The classical escape response follows this generalized, conceptual timeline: threat detection, escape initiation, escape execution, and escape termination or conclusion. Threat detection notifies an animal to a potential predator or otherwise dangerous

491:

is the distance between prey and predator when the prey attempts an escape response. They found that the angle, distance, and speed that the deer escaped was related to the distance between the deer and its predator, a human male in this experiment.

40: 207:

transmitting the signal to motor neurons that cause the back-and-forth movements. Habituation to the tapping reduces activity of the initial mechanosensory neurons, seen as decrease in calcium channel activity and neurotransmitter release.

71:. It consists of a rapid sequence of movements, or lack of movement, that position the animal in such a way that allows it to hide, freeze, or flee from the supposed predator. Often, an animal's escape response is representative of an 282:, or Grey seals, respond to acoustic startle stimuli by fleeing from the noise. The acoustic startle reflex is only activated when the noise is over eighty decibels, which promotes stress and anxiety responses that encourage flight. 1407:

Lim LW, Blokland A, van Duinen M, Visser-Vandewalle V, Tan S, Vlamings R, et al. (April 2011). "Increased plasma corticosterone levels after periaqueductal gray stimulation-induced escape reaction or panic attacks in rats".

460:) at the rear of the animal send a message along the ventral nerve cord. Then, one of two responses are elicited: running (through the ventral giant interneurons) or flying/running (through the dorsal giant interneurons). 142:

to their ancestral form, the Paxton Lake stickleback, and found that the performance of the ancestral form was significantly lower. Therefore, one may conclude that this response has been ripened by evolution.

2918: 321:

stimuli. It is believed that the neural circuits have adapted over time to more quickly react to a stimulus. Interestingly, fish that keep to the same groups will be more reactive than those who are not.

155:, and how the movements are coordinated is dependent on the species. The behaviors alone vary widely, so, in a similar manner, the neurobiology of the response can be highly variable between species. 516:

vary in size and shape; larger blobs can distract the predator while smaller blobs can provide a cover under which the squid can disappear. Finally, the released ink also contains hormones such as

215:, who are habituated to predators, are more latent to flee than those who were not habituated to predators. However, habituation did not affect the fish's angle of escape from the predator. 293:, flight initiation distance and escape distance are interchangeable terms which refer to the distance needed to keep an animal under the threshold that would trigger a startle response. 134:

Law and Blake argued in 1996 that many morphological characteristics could contribute to an individual's efficient escape response, but the escape response has undoubtedly been molded by

2616:

Fouad K, Rathmayer W, Libersat F (January 1, 1996). "Neuromodulation of the escape behavior of the cockroach Periplaneta americana by the venom of the parasitic wasp Ampulex compressa".

165:

Researchers will often evoke an escape response to test the potency of hormones and/or medication and their relationship to stress. As such, the escape response is fundamental to

539:

response when avoiding predation. When the cuttlefish freeze, it minimizes the voltage of their bioelectric field, making them less susceptible to their predators, mainly sharks.

202:, have been used as a model species for studies observing their characteristic "tap-withdrawal response". The tapping on serves as the fear-provoking, mechanical stimulus which 114:

and the individual's context can play a role. The individual escape response of a particular animal can vary based on an animal's previous experiences and its current state.

127:

Predators that pose the biggest risk to the population will evoke the greatest escape response. Therefore, it may be an adaptive trait selected for by

487:

In 2007, Theodore Stankowich and Richard G. Coss studied the flight initiation distance of Columbian black-tailed deer. According to the authors, the

476:

sent down motor neurons. The effect of the motor neurons is to contract the muscles necessary to pull the body, or body part away from the stimulus.

2803:

Hennig CW (1976). "The effect of distance between predator and prey and the opportunity to escape on tonic immobility in Anolis carolinensis".

270:

contract, making the hair stand up and increase their apparent size. Another example would be excessive blinking due to the contraction of the

91:

the escape behavior or response, the animal may integrate the experience with its memory, allowing it to learn and adapt its escape response.

1843:"Repeated elicitation of the acoustic startle reflex leads to sensitisation in subsequent avoidance behaviour and induces fear conditioning" 452:

are also well known for their escape response. When individuals sense a wind puff, they will turn and escape in the opposite direction. The

442:. When one of the compound eyes was covered, the minimum threshold to elicit an escape response increased. In short, the escape reaction of 2271:"Fast-starting after a breath: air-breathing motions are kinematically similar to escape responses in the catfish Hoplosternum littorale" 186:

A series of initially threatening encounters that do not lead to any true adverse outcomes for the animal can drive the development of

1667:

Baglan H, Lazzari C, Guerrieri F (April 2017). "Learning in mosquito larvae (Aedes aegypti): Habituation to a visual danger signal".

1574:"Habituation of the C-start response in larval zebrafish exhibits several distinct phases and sensitivity to NMDA receptor blockade" 1218:"Comparison of the fast-start performances of closely related, morphologically distinct threespine sticklebacks (Gasterosteus spp.)" 339:

at which the birds were exposed to the drone. In another experiment by Travis L. DeVault et al. in 1989, brown-headed cowbirds (

788: 1364:

Ellard CG, Eller MC (March 2009). "Spatial cognition in the gerbil: computing optimal escape routes from visual threats".

1634:

Lin CH, Frame AK, Rankin CH (January 2017). "Nematode Learning and Memory: Neuroethology". In Hersen M, Sledge W (eds.).

1892:

Samia, Diogo S. M.; Nakagawa, Shinichi; Nomura, Fausto; Rangel, Thiago F.; Blumstein, Daniel T. (November 16, 2015).

1732:

Wagner HR, Hall TL, Cote IL (April 1977). "The applicability of inescapable shock as a source of animal depression".

1651: 1468: 1110:

Samia, Diogo S. M.; Nakagawa, Shinichi; Nomura, Fausto; Rangel, Thiago F.; Blumstein, Daniel T. (November 16, 2015).

804:

Samia, Diogo S. M.; Nakagawa, Shinichi; Nomura, Fausto; Rangel, Thiago F.; Blumstein, Daniel T. (November 16, 2015).

1537:

Guest BB, Gray JR (March 2006). "Responses of a looming-sensitive neuron to compound and paired object approaches".

2754:"Segregated anatomical input to sub-regions of the rodent superior colliculus associated with approach and defense" 1484:

Hemmi JM, Tomsic D (April 2012). "The neuroethology of escape in crabs: from sensory ecology to neurons and back".

2170:"Escape responses of terrestrial and aquatic birds to drones: Towards a code of practice to minimize disturbance" 17: 2959: 2843:"Effects of risk assessment, predator behavior, and habitat on escape behavior in Columbian black-tailed deer" 2653:"Quantitative assessment of the nociceptive withdrawal reflex in healthy, non-medicated experimental sheep" 1705:

Dill LM (1974). "The escape response of the zebra danio (Brachydanio rerio) II. The effect of experience".

430:, they jump rapidly and fly away from the stimulus. A recent research suggests that the escape response in 488: 468:

Mammals can display a wide range of escape responses. Some of the most common escape responses include

2919:"Behavioral Responses to Chemical Stimulation of the Olfactory Organ in the Squid Loligo Opalescens" 1777: 1451:

Van Hout WJ, Emmelkamp PM (January 2002). "Exposure in vivo therapy". In Hersen M, Sledge W (eds.).

1572:

Roberts AC, Reichl J, Song MY, Dearinger AD, Moridzadeh N, Lu ED, et al. (December 28, 2011).

271: 78:, though there is evidence that these escape responses may be learned or influenced by experience. 2269:

Domenici P, Norin T, Bushnell PG, Johansen JL, Skov PV, Svendsen MB, et al. (December 2014).

508:

avoid predation using a freezing behaviour. Some cuttlefish also use a jet-driven escape response.

2524:

Holmqvist MH, Srinivasan MV (October 1991). "A visually evoked escape response of the housefly".

1772: 1769:

10 Evolutionary consequences of predation: avoidance, escape, reproduction, and diversification

1256: 194: 95: 1255:

Wilson AM, Hubel TY, Wilshin SD, Lowe JC, Lorenc M, Dewhirst OP, et al. (February 2018).

472:, fleeing, and, in some instances where outright escape is too difficult, freezing behaviors. 83: 607:"Freezing behaviour facilitates bioelectric crypsis in cuttlefish faced with predation risk" 2652: 1585: 1271: 500: 341: 314: 267: 228: 8: 2481:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

1984: 1951: 1589: 1275: 953: 920: 102:

to species. The behaviors themselves differ depending upon the species, but may include

2899: 2820: 2780: 2753: 2729: 2702: 2683: 2633: 2593: 2568: 2549: 2501: 2476: 2402: 2377: 2353: 2322: 2295: 2270: 2248: 2199: 2142: 2117: 2095: 2082: 2065: 1926: 1893: 1869: 1842: 1818: 1793: 1643: 1608: 1573: 1519: 1433: 1389: 1341: 1314: 1295: 1193: 1168: 1144: 1111: 895: 862: 838: 805: 748: 723: 699: 674: 631: 606: 310: 2219:"The Mauthner cell half a century later: a neurobiological model for decision-making?" 1718: 2954: 2891: 2824: 2785: 2752:

Comoli E, Das Neves Favaro P, Vautrelle N, Leriche M, Overton PG, Redgrave P (2012).

2734: 2687: 2675: 2598: 2569:"Escaping away from and towards a threat: the cockroach's strategy for staying alive" 2541: 2506: 2457: 2407: 2358: 2300: 2240: 2203: 2191: 2147: 2087: 2043: 2038: 1989: 1971: 1931: 1913: 1874: 1823: 1749: 1684: 1647: 1613: 1554: 1511: 1464: 1460: 1425: 1381: 1346: 1287: 1237: 1198: 1149: 1131: 1092: 1062: 1042: 1021:"Feature Integration Drives Probabilistic Behavior in the Drosophila Escape Response" 999: 982: 958: 940: 900: 882: 843: 825: 784: 753: 704: 636: 469: 427: 128: 107: 75: 2903: 2637: 2553: 2116:

DeVault TL, Blackwell BF, Seamans TW, Lima SL, Fernández-Juricic E (February 2015).

2099: 1523: 1437: 1393: 232:

are not used because the animal has almost forgotten their innate response systems.

2930: 2883: 2854: 2812: 2775: 2765: 2724: 2714: 2703:"Facets and mechanisms of adaptive pain behavior: predictive regulation and action" 2667: 2625: 2588: 2580: 2533: 2496: 2488: 2447: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2348: 2338: 2290: 2282: 2252: 2230: 2181: 2137: 2129: 2077: 2033: 2023: 1979: 1963: 1921: 1905: 1864: 1854: 1813: 1805: 1741: 1714: 1680: 1676: 1639: 1603: 1593: 1546: 1501: 1493: 1456: 1417: 1373: 1336: 1326: 1299: 1279: 1229: 1188: 1180: 1139: 1123: 1082: 1074: 1032: 1019:

von Reyn CR, Nern A, Williamson WR, Breads P, Wu M, Namiki S, Card GM (June 2017).

994: 948: 932: 890: 874: 833: 817: 776: 743: 735: 694: 686: 626: 618: 576: 255: 224: 2671: 1745: 2874:

Bush SL, Robison BH (September 1, 2007). "Ink utilization by mesopelagic squid".

2235: 2218: 1598: 1037: 1020: 408: 274:

when an object is rapidly moving toward an animal; this is often seen in humans.

49: 1217: 581: 564: 2526:

Journal of Comparative Physiology A: Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology

1967: 1497: 1078: 936: 690: 453: 2887: 1421: 1377: 981:

Walker JA, Ghalambor CK, Griset OL, McKenney D, Reznick DN (October 1, 2005).

780: 739: 2948: 2895: 2770: 2719: 2195: 2047: 1975: 1917: 1331: 1135: 1096: 944: 886: 829: 435: 362: 111: 28: 2859: 2842: 2186: 2169: 2066:"Evolution of behavior and neural control of the fast-start escape response" 2028: 2011: 1859: 1257:"Biomechanics of predator-prey arms race in lion, zebra, cheetah and impala" 1233: 724:"Cockroaches keep predators guessing by using preferred escape trajectories" 2789: 2738: 2679: 2651:

Rohrbach H, Zeiter S, Andersen OK, Wieling R, Spadavecchia C (April 2014).

2602: 2510: 2492: 2461: 2411: 2362: 2304: 2244: 2151: 2133: 2091: 1993: 1935: 1878: 1827: 1688: 1617: 1558: 1515: 1429: 1385: 1350: 1291: 1202: 1184: 1153: 1046: 962: 904: 878: 847: 757: 708: 640: 622: 389: 170: 2934: 2545: 2323:"The effects of familiarity on escape responses in the Trinidadian guppy ( 1550: 1241: 247:

would have to find food on its own or submit to the idea it will not eat.

2584: 2286: 1753: 290: 187: 139: 1283: 2816: 2629: 2537: 2452: 2435: 2343: 1909: 1809: 1506: 1127: 1087: 821: 531: 366: 103: 2751: 2118:"Speed kills: ineffective avian escape responses to oncoming vehicles" 1406: 525: 449: 396: 370: 358: 277: 212: 152: 135: 68: 521: 480: 421: 240: 199: 72: 2167: 1315:"Decision Making and Behavioral Choice during Predator Avoidance" 983:"Do faster starts increase the probability of evading predators?" 166: 99: 863:"Fear in animals: a meta-analysis and review of risk assessment" 1169:"A faster escape does not enhance survival in zebrafish larvae" 861:

Stankowich, Theodore; Blumstein, Daniel T (December 22, 2005).

517: 457: 439: 87: 2477:"Behavioural and ecological consequences of limited attention" 2650: 2268: 980: 512: 313:

is a form of negative reinforcement which is learned through

2567:

Domenici P, Booth D, Blagburn JM, Bacon JP (November 2009).

1018: 722:

Domenici P, Booth D, Blagburn JM, Bacon JP (November 2008).

239:

A common, theoretical example of learned helplessness is an

2115: 1948: 1059: 917: 354: 2566: 1571: 721: 524:

that can warn other conspecifics of danger while blocking

2434:

Stewart WJ, Nair A, Jiang H, McHenry MJ (December 2014).

1891: 1109: 803: 263: 2436:"Prey fish escape by sensing the bow wave of a predator" 2321:

Wolcott HL, Ojanguren AF, Barbosa M (October 11, 2017).

2009: 1894:"Increased tolerance to humans among disturbed wildlife" 1112:"Increased tolerance to humans among disturbed wildlife" 806:"Increased tolerance to humans among disturbed wildlife" 2433: 2320: 2168:

Weston MA, O'Brien C, Kostoglou KN, Symonds MR (2020).

2063: 867:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

446:

is evoked by the combination of both motion and light.

2615: 2064:

Hale ME, Long JH, McHenry MJ, Westneat MW (May 2002).

1952:"Bird tolerance to humans in open tropical ecosystems" 1794:"Animal escapology II: escape trajectory case studies" 1666: 1254: 1063:"Bird tolerance to humans in open tropical ecosystems" 921:"Bird tolerance to humans in open tropical ecosystems" 672: 2070:

Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution

2012:"Challenges of Learning to Escape Evolutionary Traps" 1791: 673:

Evans DA, Stempel AV, Vale R, Branco T (April 2019).

565:"Anti-predator behavior of squid throughout ontogeny" 412:

Recent research suggests that the escape response in

2700: 773:

Neural Mechanisms of Startle Behavior | SpringerLink

604: 2523: 860: 86:, which provokes escape initiation, through neural 2836: 2834: 2010:Greggor AL, Trimmer PC, Barrett BJ, Sih A (2019). 1312: 605:Bedore CN, Kajiura SM, Johnsen S (December 2015). 569:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 1792:Domenici P, Blagburn JM, Bacon JP (August 2011). 1450: 1166: 2946: 2701:Morrison I, Perini I, Dunham J (November 2013). 2264: 2262: 1014: 1012: 1010: 361:, the escape response appears to be elicited by 67:is a mechanism by which animals avoid potential 2831: 2429: 2427: 2425: 2423: 2421: 2316: 2314: 2111: 2109: 2005: 2003: 2840: 2375: 2163: 2161: 1731: 1633: 2644: 2259: 1313:Herberholz J, Marquart GD (August 28, 2012). 1007: 976: 974: 972: 600: 598: 596: 594: 592: 2418: 2311: 2106: 2059: 2057: 2000: 1700: 1698: 668: 666: 664: 662: 660: 658: 656: 654: 652: 650: 138:. In their study, they compared more recent 2916: 2873: 2158: 1629: 1627: 1483: 1363: 1167:Nair A, Nguyen C, McHenry MJ (April 2017). 558: 556: 554: 552: 969: 589: 562: 395:Recent research in guppies has shown that 117: 2858: 2779: 2769: 2728: 2718: 2592: 2500: 2451: 2401: 2378:"Sensorimotor gating in larval zebrafish" 2352: 2342: 2294: 2234: 2216: 2185: 2141: 2081: 2054: 2037: 2027: 1983: 1925: 1868: 1858: 1840: 1817: 1776: 1695: 1607: 1597: 1536: 1505: 1340: 1330: 1192: 1143: 1086: 1036: 998: 952: 894: 837: 747: 698: 647: 630: 580: 227:or avoidance response, they will develop 1624: 1215: 549: 499: 407: 35: 2841:Stankowich T, Coss RG (March 1, 2007). 2573:Communicative & Integrative Biology 675:"Cognitive Control of Escape Behaviour" 416:may be controlled by the compound eyes. 218: 151:How the escape responses are initiated 14: 2947: 2802: 1766: 456:in the paired caudal cerci (singular: 2474: 770: 304: 1704: 528:receptors in the targeted predator. 388:), they sense predators using their 2618:Journal of Comparative Physiology A 2440:The Journal of Experimental Biology 1798:The Journal of Experimental Biology 1222:The Journal of Experimental Biology 365:, two giant neurons located in the 250: 176: 24: 2376:Burgess HA, Granato M (May 2007). 2083:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01411.x 2016:Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 1644:10.1016/B978-0-12-809633-8.01269-3 25: 2971: 1734:The Journal of General Psychology 771:Eaton RC (1984). Eaton RC (ed.). 495: 2122:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 1216:Law T, Blake R (December 1996). 1173:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 1000:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2005.01033.x 611:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 223:If an animal cannot react via a 2923:Journal of Experimental Biology 2910: 2867: 2796: 2745: 2707:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2694: 2609: 2560: 2517: 2468: 2369: 2210: 1942: 1885: 1841:Götz T, Janik VM (April 2011). 1834: 1785: 1760: 1725: 1660: 1565: 1530: 1486:Current Opinion in Neurobiology 1477: 1444: 1400: 1357: 1306: 1248: 1209: 1160: 1103: 1053: 146: 2394:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0615-07.2007 2217:Korn H, Faber DS (July 2005). 1681:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2017.01.001 1461:10.1016/B0-12-343010-0/00091-X 911: 854: 797: 764: 715: 285: 266:and how, when startled, their 181: 13: 1: 2672:10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.02.017 1746:10.1080/00221309.1977.9920828 1719:10.1016/s0003-3472(74)80023-0 1636:Encyclopedia of Psychotherapy 1453:Encyclopedia of Psychotherapy 542: 463: 403: 2236:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.05.019 1669:Journal of Insect Physiology 1599:10.1371/journal.pone.0029132 1038:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.05.036 679:Trends in Cognitive Sciences 297:species are willing to be). 7: 2382:The Journal of Neuroscience 582:10.1016/j.jembe.2016.03.011 563:York CA, Bartol IK (2016). 484:detection by the predator. 434:is controlled by a pair of 329: 324: 259:for a specific motor task. 10: 2976: 2917:Gilly W, Lucero M (1992). 2174:Journal of Applied Ecology 1968:10.1038/s41467-023-37936-5 1539:Journal of Neurophysiology 1498:10.1016/j.conb.2011.11.012 1410:Behavioural Brain Research 1079:10.1038/s41467-023-37936-5 937:10.1038/s41467-023-37936-5 691:10.1016/j.tics.2019.01.012 489:flight initiation distance 348: 262:A common example would be 26: 2888:10.1007/s00227-007-0684-2 2758:Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 2660:Physiology & Behavior 2475:Dukas R (November 2002). 2039:21.11116/0000-0005-518B-3 1422:10.1016/j.bbr.2010.12.026 1378:10.1007/s10071-008-0193-9 1319:Frontiers in Neuroscience 781:10.1007/978-1-4899-2286-1 740:10.1016/j.cub.2008.09.062 198:, commonly identified as 2805:The Psychological Record 2771:10.3389/fnana.2012.00009 2720:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00755 1332:10.3389/fnins.2012.00125 272:orbicularis oculi muscle 27:Not to be confused with 2187:10.1111/1365-2664.13575 2029:10.3389/fevo.2019.00408 1860:10.1186/1471-2202-12-30 1234:10.1242/jeb.199.12.2595 118:Evolutionary importance 96:anti-predator behaviour 2493:10.1098/rstb.2002.1063 2134:10.1098/rspb.2014.2188 1185:10.1098/rspb.2017.0359 879:10.1098/rspb.2005.3251 623:10.1098/rspb.2015.1886 509: 417: 195:Caenorhabditis elegans 53: 2960:Animals by adaptation 2935:10.1242/jeb.162.1.209 2860:10.1093/beheco/arl086 1956:Nature Communications 1898:Nature Communications 1551:10.1152/jn.01037.2005 1116:Nature Communications 1067:Nature Communications 925:Nature Communications 810:Nature Communications 503: 438:, rather than by the 411: 384:In larval zebrafish ( 381:fast-start response. 268:arrector pili muscles 94:Escape responses are 47: 2585:10.4161/cib.2.6.9408 2287:10.1242/bio.20149332 1638:. pp. 227–234. 315:operant conditioning 229:learned helplessness 219:Learned helplessness 2325:Poecilia reticulata 1590:2011PLoSO...629132R 1284:10.1038/nature25479 1276:2018Natur.554..183W 1228:(Pt 12): 2595–604. 1031:(6): 1190–1204.e6. 873:(1581): 2627–2634. 479:Some mammals, like 470:withdrawal reflexes 390:lateral line system 98:that can vary from 76:defensive mechanism 48:Escape response in 2847:Behavioral Ecology 2817:10.1007/BF03394393 2630:10.1007/bf00189593 2538:10.1007/bf00197657 2453:10.1242/jeb.111773 2446:(Pt 24): 4328–36. 2344:10.7717/peerj.3899 2128:(1801): 20142188. 1910:10.1038/ncomms9877 1810:10.1242/jeb.053801 1804:(Pt 15): 2474–94. 1740:(2d Half): 313–8. 1455:. pp. 761–8. 1179:(1852): 20170359. 1128:10.1038/ncomms9877 987:Functional Ecology 822:10.1038/ncomms9877 617:(1820): 20151886. 536:Sepia officinalis) 510: 506:Sepia officinalis) 420:When house flies ( 418: 311:avoidance response 305:Avoidance response 279:Halichoerus grypus 54: 2487:(1427): 1539–47. 1270:(7691): 183–188. 790:978-1-4899-2288-5 428:aversive stimulus 129:natural selection 45: 16:(Redirected from 2967: 2939: 2938: 2914: 2908: 2907: 2871: 2865: 2864: 2862: 2838: 2829: 2828: 2800: 2794: 2793: 2783: 2773: 2749: 2743: 2742: 2732: 2722: 2698: 2692: 2691: 2657: 2648: 2642: 2641: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2596: 2564: 2558: 2557: 2521: 2515: 2514: 2504: 2472: 2466: 2465: 2455: 2431: 2416: 2415: 2405: 2373: 2367: 2366: 2356: 2346: 2318: 2309: 2308: 2298: 2266: 2257: 2256: 2238: 2214: 2208: 2207: 2189: 2165: 2156: 2155: 2145: 2113: 2104: 2103: 2085: 2061: 2052: 2051: 2041: 2031: 2007: 1998: 1997: 1987: 1946: 1940: 1939: 1929: 1889: 1883: 1882: 1872: 1862: 1847:BMC Neuroscience 1838: 1832: 1831: 1821: 1789: 1783: 1782: 1780: 1764: 1758: 1757: 1729: 1723: 1722: 1707:Animal Behaviour 1702: 1693: 1692: 1664: 1658: 1657: 1631: 1622: 1621: 1611: 1601: 1569: 1563: 1562: 1534: 1528: 1527: 1509: 1481: 1475: 1474: 1448: 1442: 1441: 1404: 1398: 1397: 1366:Animal Cognition 1361: 1355: 1354: 1344: 1334: 1310: 1304: 1303: 1261: 1252: 1246: 1245: 1213: 1207: 1206: 1196: 1164: 1158: 1157: 1147: 1107: 1101: 1100: 1090: 1057: 1051: 1050: 1040: 1016: 1005: 1004: 1002: 978: 967: 966: 956: 915: 909: 908: 898: 858: 852: 851: 841: 801: 795: 794: 768: 762: 761: 751: 719: 713: 712: 702: 670: 645: 644: 634: 602: 587: 586: 584: 560: 256:Startle response 251:Startle response 177:Role of learning 46: 21: 2975: 2974: 2970: 2969: 2968: 2966: 2965: 2964: 2945: 2944: 2943: 2942: 2915: 2911: 2872: 2868: 2839: 2832: 2801: 2797: 2750: 2746: 2699: 2695: 2655: 2649: 2645: 2614: 2610: 2565: 2561: 2522: 2518: 2473: 2469: 2432: 2419: 2388:(18): 4984–94. 2374: 2370: 2319: 2312: 2267: 2260: 2215: 2211: 2166: 2159: 2114: 2107: 2076:(5): 993–1007. 2062: 2055: 2008: 2001: 1947: 1943: 1890: 1886: 1839: 1835: 1790: 1786: 1778:10.1.1.467.3651 1767:Langerhans RB. 1765: 1761: 1730: 1726: 1703: 1696: 1665: 1661: 1654: 1632: 1625: 1570: 1566: 1535: 1531: 1482: 1478: 1471: 1449: 1445: 1405: 1401: 1362: 1358: 1311: 1307: 1259: 1253: 1249: 1214: 1210: 1165: 1161: 1108: 1104: 1058: 1054: 1017: 1008: 979: 970: 916: 912: 859: 855: 802: 798: 791: 769: 765: 728:Current Biology 720: 716: 671: 648: 603: 590: 561: 550: 545: 498: 466: 454:sensory neurons 444:Musca domestica 432:Musca domestica 426:) encounter an 423:Musca domestica 414:Musca domestica 406: 351: 332: 327: 307: 288: 253: 221: 184: 179: 171:pharmacological 149: 120: 65:escape behavior 61:escape reaction 57:Escape response 50:Antarctic krill 36: 32: 23: 22: 18:Escape behavior 15: 12: 11: 5: 2973: 2963: 2962: 2957: 2941: 2940: 2909: 2882:(3): 485–494. 2876:Marine Biology 2866: 2853:(2): 358–367. 2830: 2811:(3): 313–320. 2795: 2744: 2693: 2643: 2608: 2579:(6): 497–500. 2559: 2516: 2467: 2417: 2368: 2310: 2258: 2209: 2180:(4): 777–785. 2157: 2105: 2053: 1999: 1941: 1884: 1833: 1784: 1759: 1724: 1713:(3): 723–730. 1694: 1659: 1652: 1623: 1584:(12): e29132. 1564: 1545:(3): 1428–41. 1529: 1492:(2): 194–200. 1476: 1469: 1443: 1399: 1356: 1305: 1247: 1208: 1159: 1102: 1052: 1006: 993:(5): 808–815. 968: 910: 853: 796: 789: 763: 734:(22): 1792–6. 714: 685:(4): 334–348. 646: 588: 547: 546: 544: 541: 497: 496:Other examples 494: 465: 462: 405: 402: 363:Mauthner cells 350: 347: 342:Molothrus ater 331: 328: 326: 323: 306: 303: 287: 284: 252: 249: 236:helplessness. 220: 217: 183: 180: 178: 175: 153:neurologically 148: 145: 119: 116: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2972: 2961: 2958: 2956: 2953: 2952: 2950: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2913: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2870: 2861: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2835: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2799: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2777: 2772: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2748: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2726: 2721: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2697: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2654: 2647: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2624:(1): 91–100. 2623: 2619: 2612: 2604: 2600: 2595: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2563: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2520: 2512: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2471: 2463: 2459: 2454: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2430: 2428: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2372: 2364: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2326: 2317: 2315: 2306: 2302: 2297: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2265: 2263: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2237: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2213: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2188: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2164: 2162: 2153: 2149: 2144: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2112: 2110: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2060: 2058: 2049: 2045: 2040: 2035: 2030: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2006: 2004: 1995: 1991: 1986: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1945: 1937: 1933: 1928: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1888: 1880: 1876: 1871: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1837: 1829: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1788: 1779: 1774: 1770: 1763: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1728: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1701: 1699: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1663: 1655: 1653:9780128132524 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1630: 1628: 1619: 1615: 1610: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1568: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1533: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1508: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1480: 1472: 1470:9780123430106 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1447: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1403: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1372:(2): 333–45. 1371: 1367: 1360: 1352: 1348: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1309: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1258: 1251: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1212: 1204: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1163: 1155: 1151: 1146: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1106: 1098: 1094: 1089: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1056: 1048: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1015: 1013: 1011: 1001: 996: 992: 988: 984: 977: 975: 973: 964: 960: 955: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 914: 906: 902: 897: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 857: 849: 845: 840: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 800: 792: 786: 782: 778: 774: 767: 759: 755: 750: 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 718: 710: 706: 701: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 676: 669: 667: 665: 663: 661: 659: 657: 655: 653: 651: 642: 638: 633: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 601: 599: 597: 595: 593: 583: 578: 574: 570: 566: 559: 557: 555: 553: 548: 540: 537: 533: 529: 527: 523: 519: 514: 507: 502: 493: 490: 485: 482: 477: 473: 471: 461: 459: 455: 451: 447: 445: 441: 437: 436:compound eyes 433: 429: 425: 424: 415: 410: 401: 398: 393: 391: 387: 382: 378: 374: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 346: 344: 343: 336: 322: 318: 316: 312: 302: 298: 294: 292: 283: 281: 280: 275: 273: 269: 265: 260: 257: 248: 244: 242: 237: 233: 230: 226: 216: 214: 208: 205: 201: 197: 196: 191: 189: 174: 172: 168: 163: 159: 156: 154: 144: 141: 137: 132: 130: 124: 115: 113: 112:reaction time 109: 105: 101: 97: 92: 89: 85: 79: 77: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 51: 34: 30: 29:escape reflex 19: 2926: 2922: 2912: 2879: 2875: 2869: 2850: 2846: 2808: 2804: 2798: 2761: 2757: 2747: 2710: 2706: 2696: 2663: 2659: 2646: 2621: 2617: 2611: 2576: 2572: 2562: 2532:(4): 451–9. 2529: 2525: 2519: 2484: 2480: 2470: 2443: 2439: 2385: 2381: 2371: 2334: 2330: 2324: 2281:(1): 79–85. 2278: 2275:Biology Open 2274: 2229:(1): 13–28. 2226: 2222: 2212: 2177: 2173: 2125: 2121: 2073: 2069: 2019: 2015: 1959: 1955: 1944: 1901: 1897: 1887: 1850: 1846: 1836: 1801: 1797: 1787: 1768: 1762: 1737: 1733: 1727: 1710: 1706: 1672: 1668: 1662: 1635: 1581: 1577: 1567: 1542: 1538: 1532: 1489: 1485: 1479: 1452: 1446: 1416:(2): 301–7. 1413: 1409: 1402: 1369: 1365: 1359: 1322: 1318: 1308: 1267: 1263: 1250: 1225: 1221: 1211: 1176: 1172: 1162: 1119: 1115: 1105: 1070: 1066: 1055: 1028: 1024: 990: 986: 928: 924: 913: 870: 866: 856: 813: 809: 799: 772: 766: 731: 727: 717: 682: 678: 614: 610: 572: 568: 535: 530: 511: 505: 504:Cuttlefish ( 486: 478: 474: 467: 448: 443: 431: 422: 419: 413: 394: 385: 383: 379: 375: 352: 340: 337: 333: 319: 308: 299: 295: 289: 278: 276: 261: 254: 245: 238: 234: 222: 209: 203: 193: 192: 185: 164: 160: 157: 150: 147:Neurobiology 140:sticklebacks 133: 125: 121: 106:techniques, 104:camouflaging 93: 80: 64: 60: 56: 55: 33: 2929:: 209–229. 1962:(1): 2146. 1904:(1): 8877. 1675:: 160–166. 1507:11336/20310 1122:(1): 8877. 1088:10023/27452 931:(1): 2146. 816:(1): 8877. 450:Cockroaches 397:familiarity 386:Danio rerio 291:Flight zone 286:Flight zone 188:habituation 182:Habituation 73:instinctual 2949:Categories 543:References 532:Cuttlefish 464:In mammals 404:In insects 367:rhombomere 359:amphibians 301:response. 204:C. elegans 173:research. 167:anatomical 2896:0025-3162 2825:148932657 2688:207375727 2666:: 181–5. 2337:: e3899. 2204:213279158 2196:1365-2664 2048:2296-701X 1976:2041-1723 1918:2041-1723 1853:(1): 30. 1773:CiteSeerX 1136:2041-1723 1097:2041-1723 945:2041-1723 887:0962-8452 830:2041-1723 575:: 26–35. 526:olfactory 481:squirrels 371:hindbrain 369:4 of the 213:zebrafish 200:nematodes 136:evolution 69:predation 2955:Ethology 2904:84629175 2790:22514521 2739:24348358 2680:24561088 2638:39090792 2603:20195455 2554:22459886 2511:12495511 2462:25520384 2412:17475807 2363:29038756 2305:25527644 2245:15996545 2152:25567648 2100:14582413 2092:12093034 1994:37081049 1985:10119130 1936:26568451 1879:21489285 1828:21753040 1689:28077263 1618:22216183 1578:PLOS ONE 1559:16319198 1524:13556069 1516:22176799 1438:34737502 1430:21185871 1394:22411881 1386:18956215 1351:22973187 1292:29364874 1203:28404783 1154:26568451 1047:28641115 963:37081049 954:10119130 905:16321785 848:26568451 758:19013065 709:30852123 641:26631562 522:dopamine 330:In birds 325:Examples 241:elephant 108:freezing 88:reflexes 84:stimulus 2781:3324116 2730:3842910 2713:: 755. 2594:2829824 2546:1779418 2502:1693070 2403:6672105 2354:5640977 2296:4295168 2253:2851487 2143:4308997 1927:4660219 1870:3101131 1819:3135389 1609:3247236 1586:Bibcode 1342:3428584 1325:: 125. 1300:4405091 1272:Bibcode 1242:9320526 1194:5394678 1145:4660219 896:1559976 839:4660219 749:2678410 700:6438863 632:4685776 349:In fish 225:startle 100:species 2902: 2894: 2823: 2788: 2778: 2737: 2727: 2686: 2678: 2636: 2601: 2591: 2552: 2544: 2509: 2499: 2460: 2410: 2400: 2361: 2351: 2303: 2293: 2251: 2243: 2223:Neuron 2202: 2194: 2150: 2140: 2098: 2090: 2046: 1992: 1982: 1974: 1934: 1924: 1916: 1877: 1867: 1826: 1816: 1775: 1754:559062 1752: 1687: 1650: 1616: 1606: 1557: 1522: 1514: 1467: 1436: 1428: 1392: 1384: 1349: 1339: 1298: 1290: 1264:Nature 1240: 1201: 1191: 1152: 1142: 1134: 1095: 1045: 1025:Neuron 961: 951: 943: 903: 893: 885: 846: 836: 828: 787: 756: 746: 707: 697: 639: 629: 518:L-dopa 513:Squids 458:cercus 440:ocelli 2900:S2CID 2821:S2CID 2764:: 9. 2684:S2CID 2656:(PDF) 2634:S2CID 2550:S2CID 2331:PeerJ 2249:S2CID 2200:S2CID 2096:S2CID 1520:S2CID 1434:S2CID 1390:S2CID 1296:S2CID 1260:(PDF) 1073:(1). 63:, or 2892:ISSN 2786:PMID 2735:PMID 2676:PMID 2599:PMID 2542:PMID 2507:PMID 2458:PMID 2408:PMID 2359:PMID 2301:PMID 2241:PMID 2192:ISSN 2148:PMID 2088:PMID 2044:ISSN 1990:PMID 1972:ISSN 1932:PMID 1914:ISSN 1875:PMID 1824:PMID 1750:PMID 1685:PMID 1648:ISBN 1614:PMID 1555:PMID 1512:PMID 1465:ISBN 1426:PMID 1382:PMID 1347:PMID 1288:PMID 1238:PMID 1199:PMID 1150:PMID 1132:ISSN 1093:ISSN 1043:PMID 959:PMID 941:ISSN 901:PMID 883:ISSN 844:PMID 826:ISSN 785:ISBN 754:PMID 705:PMID 637:PMID 520:and 357:and 355:fish 309:The 264:cats 169:and 2931:doi 2927:162 2884:doi 2880:152 2855:doi 2813:doi 2776:PMC 2766:doi 2725:PMC 2715:doi 2668:doi 2664:129 2626:doi 2622:178 2589:PMC 2581:doi 2534:doi 2530:169 2497:PMC 2489:doi 2485:357 2448:doi 2444:217 2398:PMC 2390:doi 2349:PMC 2339:doi 2291:PMC 2283:doi 2231:doi 2182:doi 2138:PMC 2130:doi 2126:282 2078:doi 2034:hdl 2024:doi 1980:PMC 1964:doi 1922:PMC 1906:doi 1865:PMC 1855:doi 1814:PMC 1806:doi 1802:214 1742:doi 1715:doi 1677:doi 1640:doi 1604:PMC 1594:doi 1547:doi 1502:hdl 1494:doi 1457:doi 1418:doi 1414:218 1374:doi 1337:PMC 1327:doi 1280:doi 1268:554 1230:doi 1226:199 1189:PMC 1181:doi 1177:284 1140:PMC 1124:doi 1083:hdl 1075:doi 1033:doi 995:doi 949:PMC 933:doi 891:PMC 875:doi 871:272 834:PMC 818:doi 777:doi 744:PMC 736:doi 695:PMC 687:doi 627:PMC 619:doi 615:282 577:doi 573:480 353:In 2951:: 2925:. 2921:. 2898:. 2890:. 2878:. 2851:18 2849:. 2845:. 2833:^ 2819:. 2809:26 2807:. 2784:. 2774:. 2760:. 2756:. 2733:. 2723:. 2709:. 2705:. 2682:. 2674:. 2662:. 2658:. 2632:. 2620:. 2597:. 2587:. 2575:. 2571:. 2548:. 2540:. 2528:. 2505:. 2495:. 2483:. 2479:. 2456:. 2442:. 2438:. 2420:^ 2406:. 2396:. 2386:27 2384:. 2380:. 2357:. 2347:. 2333:. 2329:. 2327:)" 2313:^ 2299:. 2289:. 2277:. 2273:. 2261:^ 2247:. 2239:. 2227:47 2225:. 2221:. 2198:. 2190:. 2178:57 2176:. 2172:. 2160:^ 2146:. 2136:. 2124:. 2120:. 2108:^ 2094:. 2086:. 2074:56 2072:. 2068:. 2056:^ 2042:. 2032:. 2022:. 2018:. 2014:. 2002:^ 1988:. 1978:. 1970:. 1960:14 1958:. 1954:. 1930:. 1920:. 1912:. 1900:. 1896:. 1873:. 1863:. 1851:12 1849:. 1845:. 1822:. 1812:. 1800:. 1796:. 1771:. 1748:. 1738:96 1736:. 1711:22 1709:. 1697:^ 1683:. 1673:98 1671:. 1646:. 1626:^ 1612:. 1602:. 1592:. 1580:. 1576:. 1553:. 1543:95 1541:. 1518:. 1510:. 1500:. 1490:22 1488:. 1463:. 1432:. 1424:. 1412:. 1388:. 1380:. 1370:12 1368:. 1345:. 1335:. 1321:. 1317:. 1294:. 1286:. 1278:. 1266:. 1262:. 1236:. 1224:. 1220:. 1197:. 1187:. 1175:. 1171:. 1148:. 1138:. 1130:. 1118:. 1114:. 1091:. 1081:. 1071:14 1069:. 1065:. 1041:. 1029:94 1027:. 1023:. 1009:^ 991:19 989:. 985:. 971:^ 957:. 947:. 939:. 929:14 927:. 923:. 899:. 889:. 881:. 869:. 865:. 842:. 832:. 824:. 812:. 808:. 783:. 775:. 752:. 742:. 732:18 730:. 726:. 703:. 693:. 683:23 681:. 677:. 649:^ 635:. 625:. 613:. 609:. 591:^ 571:. 567:. 551:^ 373:. 131:. 59:, 2937:. 2933:: 2906:. 2886:: 2863:. 2857:: 2827:. 2815:: 2792:. 2768:: 2762:6 2741:. 2717:: 2711:7 2690:. 2670:: 2640:. 2628:: 2605:. 2583:: 2577:2 2556:. 2536:: 2513:. 2491:: 2464:. 2450:: 2414:. 2392:: 2365:. 2341:: 2335:5 2307:. 2285:: 2279:4 2255:. 2233:: 2206:. 2184:: 2154:. 2132:: 2102:. 2080:: 2050:. 2036:: 2026:: 2020:7 1996:. 1966:: 1938:. 1908:: 1902:6 1881:. 1857:: 1830:. 1808:: 1781:. 1756:. 1744:: 1721:. 1717:: 1691:. 1679:: 1656:. 1642:: 1620:. 1596:: 1588:: 1582:6 1561:. 1549:: 1526:. 1504:: 1496:: 1473:. 1459:: 1440:. 1420:: 1396:. 1376:: 1353:. 1329:: 1323:6 1302:. 1282:: 1274:: 1244:. 1232:: 1205:. 1183:: 1156:. 1126:: 1120:6 1099:. 1085:: 1077:: 1049:. 1035:: 1003:. 997:: 965:. 935:: 907:. 877:: 850:. 820:: 814:6 793:. 779:: 760:. 738:: 711:. 689:: 643:. 621:: 585:. 579:: 534:( 52:. 31:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index