780:
80:
205:", and the hippocampus functions to form memories of the stimulus and the emotions associated with it. The role of the BNST in the acoustic startle reflex may be attributed to specific areas within the nucleus responsible for stress and anxiety responses. Activation of the BNST by certain hormones is thought to promote a startle response The auditory pathway for this
264:
following unexpected critical events. Analysing a number of recent aircraft accidents, the authors identified the negative impact of the startle response as causal or contributory in these accidents. The authors argued that fear resulting from threat, especially if life-threatening, prompted startle
197:
are all thought to play a role in modulating the reflex. The anterior cingulate cortex in the brain is largely thought to be the main area associated with emotional response and awareness, which can contribute to the way an individual reacts to startle-inducing stimuli. Along with the anterior
160:
was found to have a latency of about 20 to 40 milliseconds. Out of larger body parts, the head is quickest in a movement latency in a range from 60 to 120 milliseconds. The neck then moves almost simultaneously with a latency of 75 to 121 milliseconds. Next, the shoulder jerks at 100 to 121
161:
milliseconds along with the arms at 125 to 195 milliseconds. Lastly the legs respond with a latency of 145 to 395 milliseconds. This type of cascading response correlates to how the synapses travel from the brain and down the spinal cord to activate each motor neuron.
155:
which records the electrical activity during movement of the muscles. This also showed the response latency, or the delay between the stimulus and the response recorded, was found to be about 14 milliseconds. The blink of the eye which is the reflex of the
127:
in the facial motor nucleus or the spinal cord that will directly or indirectly control the movement of muscles. The activation of the facial motor nucleus causes a jerk of the head while an activation in the spinal cord causes the whole body to startle.
265:
effects which had a serious negative impact on pilots' performances. The study considered training strategies to address this, including exposing pilots to unexpected critical events more often, enabling them to improve their responses.
123:. A study done to disrupt this portion of the pathway by the injection of PnC inhibitory chemicals has shown a dramatic decrease in the amount of startle by about 80 to 90 percent. Third, a synapse occurs from the PnC axons to the
87:
A startle reflex can occur in the body through a combination of actions. A reflex from hearing a sudden loud noise will happen in the primary acoustic startle reflex pathway consisting of three main central
637:
Lee, Younglim. "Role of the
Hippocampus, the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis, and the Amygdala in the Excitatory Effect of Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone on the Acoustic Startle Reflex".
654:
799:
54:
from sudden stimuli. It is found across many different species, throughout all stages of life. A variety of responses may occur depending on the affected individual's
107:. Studies have shown a direct correlation to the amount of decrease of the startle to the number of CRNs that were killed. Second, there is a synapse from the CRN
50:
reflectory reaction (reflex) that serves to protect vulnerable parts, such as the back of the neck (whole-body startle) and the eyes (eyeblink) and
858:
147:
There are many various reflexes that can occur simultaneously during a startle response. The fastest reflex recorded in humans happens within the
856:
Martin, Wayne L.; Murray, Patrick S.; Bates, Paul R.; Lee, Paul S. Y. (2015). "Fear-Potentiated
Startle: A Review from an Aviation Perspective".
824:
169:
The acoustic startle reflex is thought to be caused by an auditory stimulus greater than 80 decibels. The reflex is typically measured by
798:. 30th EAAP Conference : Aviation Psychology & Applied Human Factors – working towards zero accidents. Discussion, p. 389.
727:
Castellote, Jm; Kumru, H; Queralt, A; Valls-Solé, J (Feb 2007). "A startle speeds up the execution of externally guided saccades".
786:
209:
was largely elucidated in rats in the 1980s. The basic pathway follows the auditory pathway from the ear up to the nucleus of the
326:
Rammirez-Moreno, David. "A computational model for the modulation of the prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle reflex".
586:
Pissiota, Anna. "Amygdala and
Anterior Cingulate Cortex Activation During Affective Startle Modulation:a PET Study of Fear".
139:
may significantly overlap, the notable distinction being the absence of arm abduction (spreading) during startle responses.
588:
112:
62:, preparation for execution of a motor task, or other activities. The startle response is implicated in the formation of
915:
558:
257:
135:
examinations of newborns, it is noted that, for a number of techniques, the patterns of the startle reaction and the
1012:
233:
962:
Jones, FP (1965). "Method for
Changing Stereotyped Response Patterns by the Inhibition of Certain Postural Sets".
601:
Phillips, R.G. "Differential
Contribution of Amygdala and Hippocampus to Cued and Contextual Fear Conditioning".
1176:
340:
Lang, Peter J.; Bradley, Margaret M.; Cuthbert, Bruce N. (1990). "Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex".
1328:
619:
Medford, Nick. "Conjoint
Activity of Anterior Insular and Anterior Cingulate Cortex:Awareness and Response".
533:
Davis, M. (2007). "Neural systems involved in fear and anxiety based on the fear-potentiated startle test."
639:
284:
496:
1268:
1223:
194:
779:
202:
157:
51:
20:
198:
cingulate cortex, the amygdala and the hippocampus are known to have implications in this reflex.
1321:
1061:
674:
603:
274:
1096:
1037:
104:
548:
1359:
206:
31:
830:(Report). European Aviation Safety Agency. 2.4.3 Fear-potentiated Startle or Surprise, p. 18
244:
in the reaction that "twitches" the hindlimbs, but these may be important for adjustment of
1306:
1065:
1042:
1005:
8:
1301:
1243:
1151:
1057:
294:
261:
241:
237:
214:
181:. There are many brain structures and pathways thought to be involved in the reflex. The
35:
1258:
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1146:
1133:
950:
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760:
704:
687:
669:
468:
443:
415:
388:
304:
256:
A study undertaken in 2005 by researchers at the
Department of Aviation and Logistics,
236:(PnC). The whole process has a less than 10ms latency. There is no involvement of the
1354:
1349:
1316:
1218:
1116:
1070:
979:
942:
911:
879:
752:
744:
709:
691:
652:
Grouen, Wouter. "Amygdala and
Hippocampus Enlargement During Adolescence in Autism".
554:
516:
473:
459:
420:
365:
357:
210:
954:
764:
729:
Experimental Brain
Research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation Cerebrale
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63:
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1166:
1111:
1047:
998:
893:
279:
245:
217:. This centre sends descending projections to lower motor neurones of the limbs.
148:
55:
925:
Jones, FP; Hanson, JA; Gray, FE (1964). "Startle as a
Paradigm for Malposture".
901:
1233:
1171:
1161:
1121:
1101:
1080:
1052:
1029:
353:
96:
788:
The Effects of Startle on Pilots During Critical Events: A Case Study Analysis
740:
667:
389:"The effect of posture on the normal and pathological auditory startle reflex"
1343:
1238:
1141:
1091:
938:
843:
Training Interventions for Managing Startle During Unexpected Critical Events
748:
695:
361:
225:
124:
100:
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983:
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891:
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477:
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132:
59:
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369:
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and gaze towards the direction of the sound, or for the associated blink.
34:, such as sudden noise or sharp movement, and is associated with negative
1156:
186:
136:
16:
Action or movement due to the application of a sudden unexpected stimulus
494:
444:"Patterned ballistic movements triggered by a startle in healthy humans"
1248:
573:
Davis, M. (1984). "The mammalian startle response". In R. Eaton (Ed.),
289:
495:
Nieuwenhuijzen, PH; Schillings, AM; Van Galen, GP; Duysens, J (2000).
975:
120:
47:
30:
is a largely unconscious defensive response to sudden or threatening
670:"A primary acoustic startle circuit: lesion and stimulation studies"
655:
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
442:
Valls-Sole, J; Rothwell, JC; Goulart, F; Cossu, G; Munoz, E (1999).
387:
Brown, P; Day, BL; Rothwell, JC; Thompson, PD; Marsden, CD (1991b).
1296:
823:
Field, JN; Boland, EJ; van Rooij, JM; Mohrmann, JFW; Smeltink, JW.
182:
178:
89:
79:
845:. 66th International Air Safety Summit. Flight Safety Foundation.
668:
Davis, M; Gendelman, Ds; Tischler, Md; Gendelman, Pm (Jun 1982).
221:
1021:
297:– attenuation of the startle response after a weaker preceding
39:
441:
115:(PnC) of the brain. These are neurons that are located in the
108:
990:
116:
103:
neurons (CRN). These are the first acoustic neurons of the
825:
Startle Effect Management (Report Number NLR-CR-2018-242)
793:
386:
174:
38:. Usually the onset of the startle response is a startle
892:
Carney Landis; William Alvin Hunt; Hans Strauss (1939).
822:
251:
497:"Modulation of the startle response during human gait"
855:
785:
Martin, Wayne; Murray, Patrick; Bates, Paul (2012).
213:(LLN) from where it activates a motor centre in the
339:
553:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 472.
784:
220:In slightly more detail this corresponds to ear (
1341:
859:The International Journal of Aviation Psychology
726:
490:
437:
382:
924:
905:
333:
19:"Startle" redirects here. For other uses, see
1006:
577:(pp. 287–351). Plenum Publishing Corporation.
201:The amygdala is known to have a role in the "
840:
92:, or signals that travel through the brain.
1013:
999:
615:
613:
164:
151:or jaw muscle. The reflex was measured by
703:
527:
467:
414:
404:
567:
546:
78:
610:
1342:
633:
631:
629:
994:
961:
908:Neural Mechanisms of Startle Behavior
537:(pp. 381–425). Elsevier Incorporated.
322:
320:
589:The European Journal of Neuroscience
252:Application in occupational settings
626:
535:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory
113:nucleus reticularis pontis caudalis
95:First, there is a synapse from the
13:
688:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.02-06-00791.1982
317:
74:
26:In animals, including humans, the
14:
1371:
550:Physical Diagnosis in Neonatology
258:University of Southern Queensland
69:
778:
460:10.1111/j.1469-7793.1999.0931u.x
234:caudal pontine reticular nucleus
849:
816:
805:from the original on 2019-09-16
771:
720:
661:
646:
595:
575:Neural stop of Startle Behavior
260:, looked at the performance of
580:
540:
484:
431:
376:
1:
1329:Symmetrical tonic neck reflex
872:10.1080/10508414.2015.1128293
841:Martin, W; Murray, P (2013).
393:J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry
310:
1020:
621:Brain Structure and Function
179:positron emission tomography
7:
927:Perceptual and Motor Skills
640:The Journal of Neuroscience
547:Fletcher, Mary Ann (1998).
268:
232:(ventral/inferior) → LLN →
142:
10:
1376:
354:10.1037/0033-295X.97.3.377
285:Jumping Frenchmen of Maine
242:inferior/caudal colliculus
18:
1279:
1211:
1190:
1132:
1079:
1028:
741:10.1007/s00221-006-0659-4
195:anterior cingulate cortex
99:fibers in the ear to the
939:10.2466/pms.1964.19.1.21
906:Robert C. Eaton (1984).
898:. Farrar & Rinehart.
203:fight-or-flight response
158:orbicularis oculi muscle
21:Startle (disambiguation)
1322:Crossed extensor reflex
1071:Pharyngeal (gag) reflex
1062:Vestibulo-ocular reflex
675:Journal of Neuroscience
604:Behavioral Neuroscience
513:10.1152/jn.2000.84.1.65
491:Castellote et al (2007)
438:Castellote et al (2007)
383:Castellote et al (2007)
275:Startle-evoked movement
165:Acoustic startle reflex
1097:Brachioradialis reflex
1038:Pupillary light reflex
406:10.1136/jnnp.54.10.892
328:Biological Cybernetics
105:central nervous system
84:
1269:Churchill–Cope reflex
1224:Bezold–Jarisch reflex
189:, bed nucleus of the
82:
1191:Superficial reflexes
1066:Oculocephalic reflex
1043:Accommodation reflex
964:Psychological Review
342:Psychological Review
111:to the cells in the
1302:Golgi tendon reflex
1244:Oculocardiac reflex
1058:Caloric reflex test
895:The startle pattern
295:Prepulse inhibition
215:reticular formation
83:Layout of the brain
1259:Reflex tachycardia
1254:Reflex bradycardia
1203:Cremasteric reflex
1134:Primitive reflexes
305:Surprise (emotion)
228:VIII (auditory) →
85:
52:facilitates escape
1337:
1336:
1317:Withdrawal reflex
1219:Bainbridge reflex
1117:Ankle jerk reflex
211:lateral lemniscus
1367:
1312:Startle response
1287:List of reflexes
1198:Abdominal reflex
1081:Stretch reflexes
1015:
1008:
1001:
992:
991:
987:
976:10.1037/h0021752
958:
921:
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531:
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488:
482:
481:
471:
435:
429:
428:
418:
408:
380:
374:
373:
337:
331:
324:
238:superior/rostral
230:cochlear nucleus
191:stria terminalis
171:electromyography
153:electromyography
64:specific phobias
28:startle response
1375:
1374:
1370:
1369:
1368:
1366:
1365:
1364:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1333:
1292:Acoustic reflex
1275:
1229:Coronary reflex
1207:
1186:
1128:
1112:Patellar reflex
1075:
1048:Jaw jerk reflex
1024:
1019:
918:
888:
887:
854:
850:
833:
831:
827:
821:
817:
808:
806:
802:
791:
777:
776:
772:
725:
721:
666:
662:
651:
647:
643:, 1997, p. 6434
636:
627:
618:
611:
600:
596:
592:, 2003, p. 1325
585:
581:
572:
568:
561:
545:
541:
532:
528:
489:
485:
436:
432:
381:
377:
338:
334:
325:
318:
313:
280:Escape response
271:
262:aircraft pilots
254:
167:
149:masseter muscle
145:
77:
75:Neurophysiology
72:
56:emotional state
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1373:
1363:
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1273:
1272:
1271:
1263:
1262:
1261:
1256:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1234:Cushing reflex
1231:
1226:
1221:
1215:
1213:
1212:Cardiovascular
1209:
1208:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1194:
1192:
1188:
1187:
1185:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1138:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1127:
1126:
1125:
1124:
1122:Plantar reflex
1119:
1114:
1106:
1105:
1104:
1102:Triceps reflex
1099:
1094:
1085:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1074:
1073:
1068:
1055:
1053:Corneal reflex
1050:
1045:
1040:
1034:
1032:
1026:
1025:
1018:
1017:
1010:
1003:
995:
989:
988:
970:(3): 196–214.
959:
922:
917:978-0306415562
916:
903:
886:
885:
848:
815:
770:
719:
682:(6): 791–805.
660:
658:, 2010, p. 552
645:
625:
623:, 2010, p. 535
609:
607:, 1992, p. 274
594:
579:
566:
560:978-0397513864
559:
539:
526:
501:J Neurophysiol
483:
430:
399:(10): 892–97.
375:
332:
330:, 2012, p. 169
315:
314:
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308:
307:
302:
292:
287:
282:
277:
270:
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253:
250:
166:
163:
144:
141:
97:auditory nerve
76:
73:
71:
70:Startle reflex
68:
44:startle reflex
42:reaction. The
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1372:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
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1348:
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1267:
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1264:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1251:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1239:Diving reflex
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
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1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1109:
1107:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1092:Biceps reflex
1090:
1089:
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1086:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1056:
1054:
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1049:
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1041:
1039:
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1033:
1031:
1030:Cranial nerve
1027:
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993:
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919:
913:
909:
904:
902:
897:
896:
890:
889:
881:
877:
873:
869:
866:(2): 97–107.
865:
861:
860:
852:
844:
826:
819:
801:
795:
790:
789:
781:
774:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
735:(1): 129–36.
734:
730:
723:
715:
711:
706:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
676:
671:
664:
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518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
492:
487:
479:
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461:
457:
454:(3): 931–38.
453:
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417:
412:
407:
402:
398:
394:
390:
384:
379:
371:
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359:
355:
351:
348:(3): 377–95.
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300:
296:
293:
291:
288:
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226:cranial nerve
223:
218:
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188:
184:
180:
177:or sometimes
176:
175:brain imaging
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138:
134:
129:
126:
125:motor neurons
122:
118:
114:
110:
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101:cochlear root
98:
93:
91:
81:
67:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
22:
1360:Self-defense
1311:
1265:Respiratory
967:
963:
930:
926:
910:. Springer.
907:
894:
863:
857:
851:
842:
832:. Retrieved
818:
807:. Retrieved
787:
773:
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648:
638:
620:
602:
597:
587:
582:
574:
569:
549:
542:
534:
529:
507:(1): 65–74.
504:
500:
486:
451:
447:
433:
396:
392:
378:
345:
341:
335:
327:
298:
255:
219:
200:
168:
146:
130:
94:
86:
60:body posture
43:
27:
25:
1307:Optokinetic
1147:Gastrocolic
193:(BNST) and
187:hippocampus
137:Moro reflex
1344:Categories
1249:Baroreflex
1177:Tonic neck
834:2019-09-12
809:2019-09-12
311:References
290:Jump scare
133:neuromotor
1182:Parachute
933:: 21–22.
900:, review
880:147250211
749:0014-4819
696:0270-6474
448:J Physiol
362:1939-1471
121:brainstem
48:brainstem
1355:Reflexes
1350:Ethology
1297:H-reflex
1167:Stepping
1022:Reflexes
984:14324557
955:10095410
947:14197451
800:Archived
765:19678962
757:16944110
521:10899184
478:10200438
301:stimulus
299:prepulse
269:See also
207:response
183:amygdala
143:Reflexes
90:synapses
1172:Sucking
1162:Rooting
714:7086484
705:6564345
469:2269293
425:1744643
416:1014574
370:2200076
222:cochlea
131:During
119:of the
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246:pinnae
40:reflex
36:affect
1280:Other
1152:Grasp
951:S2CID
876:S2CID
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761:S2CID
109:axons
46:is a
1157:Moro
1108:Leg
1088:Arm
980:PMID
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912:ISBN
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