Predation - Knowledge

2241: 518: 2639: 2561: 1370: 2667: 2614: 2182: 1421: 2692: 1597: 1394: 2293: 717: 1620: 33: 1443: 2807: 978: 49: 1532: 1507: 1835: 862: 959: 2590: 1474: 1957: 1458: 1920: 1854: 1178: 10027: 255: 1980:, where predators are adapting to competitors, their own predators or dangerous prey. Apparent adaptations to predation may also have arisen for other reasons and then been co-opted for attack or defence. In some of the insects preyed on by bats, hearing evolved before bats appeared and was used to hear signals used for territorial defence and mating. Their hearing evolved in response to bat predation, but the only clear example of reciprocal adaptation in bats is stealth echolocation. 356: 840: 1104: 375: 641: 1758: 915: 9809: 224: 2728: 927:

Ballistic interception involves a brief period for planning, giving the prey an opportunity to escape. Some frogs wait until snakes have begun their strike before jumping, reducing the time available to the snake to recalibrate its attack, and maximising the angular adjustment that the snake would need to make to intercept the frog in real time. Ballistic predators include insects such as dragonflies, and vertebrates such as

766: 9821: 1081: 2794:, predators (and parasitoids) from a pest's natural range are introduced to control populations, at the risk of causing unforeseen problems. Natural predators, provided they do no harm to non-pest species, are an environmentally friendly and sustainable way of reducing damage to crops and an alternative to the use of chemical agents such as 2638: 681:. The sit-and-wait method is most suitable if the prey are dense and mobile, and the predator has low energy requirements. Wide foraging expends more energy, and is used when prey is sedentary or sparsely distributed. There is a continuum of search modes with intervals between periods of movement ranging from seconds to months. Sharks, 1972:

dinner is unpredictable, as the predator may quickly find better prey. In addition, most predators are generalists, which reduces the impact of a given prey adaption on a predator. Since specialization is caused by predator-prey coevolution, the rarity of specialists may imply that predator-prey arms races are rare.

7078:

Lapointe, Stephen L.; Capinera, John L.; Capinera, John L.; Nayar, Jai K.; Goettel, Mark S.; Nation, James L.; Heppner, John B.; Negron, Jose F.; Heppner, John B.; Kondratieff, Boris C.; Schöning, Caspar; Stewart, Kenneth W.; Aldryhim, Yousif; Heppner, John B.; Hangay, George (2008). "Deimatic Behavior".

7077:

Cumming, Jeffrey M.; Sinclair, Bradley J.; Triplehorn, Charles A.; Aldryhim, Yousif; Galante, Eduardo; Marcos-Garcia, Ma Angeles; Edmunds, Malcolm; Edmunds, Malcolm; Lounibos, L. Phillip; Frank, J. Howard; Showler, Allan T.; Yu, Simon J.; Capinera, John L.; Heppner, John B.; Philogène, Bernard J. R.;

2337:

Many factors can stabilize predator and prey populations. One example is the presence of multiple predators, particularly generalists that are attracted to a given prey species if it is abundant and look elsewhere if it is not. As a result, population cycles tend to be found in northern temperate and

2004:

Predators affect their ecosystems not only directly by eating their own prey, but by indirect means such as reducing predation by other species, or altering the foraging behaviour of a herbivore, as with the biodiversity effect of wolves on riverside vegetation or sea otters on kelp forests. This may

1983:

A more symmetric arms race may occur when the prey are dangerous, having spines, quills, toxins or venom that can harm the predator. The predator can respond with avoidance, which in turn drives the evolution of mimicry. Avoidance is not necessarily an evolutionary response as it is generally learned

1568:

In size-selective predation, predators select prey of a certain size. Large prey may prove troublesome for a predator, while small prey might prove hard to find and in any case provide less of a reward. This has led to a correlation between the size of predators and their prey. Size may also act as a

878:

Ambush or sit-and-wait predators are carnivorous animals that capture prey by stealth or surprise. In animals, ambush predation is characterized by the predator's scanning the environment from a concealed position until a prey is spotted, and then rapidly executing a fixed surprise attack. Vertebrate

780:

Having found prey, a predator must decide whether to pursue it or keep searching. The decision depends on the costs and benefits involved. A bird foraging for insects spends a lot of time searching but capturing and eating them is quick and easy, so the efficient strategy for the bird is to eat every

3677:

Ainsworth, Gillian B.; Calladine, John; Martay, Blaise; Park, Kirsty; Redpath, Steve; Wernham, Chris; Wilson, Mark; Young, Juliette (2016). "UNDERSTANDING PREDATION - A review bringing together natural science and local knowledge of recent wild bird population changes and their drivers in Scotland".

737:

regularly makes foraging flights to a range of around 700 kilometres (430 miles), up to a maximum foraging range of 3,000 kilometres (1,860 miles) for breeding birds gathering food for their young. With static prey, some predators can learn suitable patch locations and return to them at intervals to

238:

At the most basic level, predators kill and eat other organisms. However, the concept of predation is broad, defined differently in different contexts, and includes a wide variety of feeding methods; moreover, some relationships that result in the prey's death are not necessarily called predation. A

1564:

are more opportunistic generalists, preying on at least 100 species. The specialists may be highly adapted to capturing their preferred prey, whereas generalists may be better able to switch to other prey when a preferred target is scarce. When prey have a clumped (uneven) distribution, the optimal

1343:

swallow their prey whole; some snakes can unhinge their jaws to allow them to swallow large prey, while fish-eating birds have long spear-like beaks that they use to stab and grip fast-moving and slippery prey. Fish and other predators have developed the ability to crush or open the armoured shells

1157:

collaborate to catch and kill herbivores as large as buffalo, and lions even hunt elephants. It can also make prey more readily available through strategies like flushing of prey and herding it into a smaller area. For example, when mixed flocks of birds forage, the birds in front flush out insects

7526:

Peckarsky, Barbara L.; Abrams, Peter A.; Bolnick, Daniel I.; Dill, Lawrence M.; Grabowski, Jonathan H.; Luttbeg, Barney; Orrock, John L.; Peacor, Scott D.; Preisser, Evan L.; Schmitz, Oswald J.; Trussell, Geoffrey C. (September 2008). "Revisiting the classics: considering nonconsumptive effects in

2400:

cells at around 2.7 Gya, the rise of multicellular organisms at about 2 Gya, and the rise of mobile predators (around 600 Mya - 2 Gya, probably around 1 Gya) have all been attributed to early predatory behavior, and many very early remains show evidence of boreholes or other markings attributed to

1971:

The "life-dinner" principle has been criticized on multiple grounds. The extent of the asymmetry in natural selection depends in part on the heritability of the adaptive traits. Also, if a predator loses enough dinners, it too will lose its life. On the other hand, the fitness cost of a given lost

1935:

systems to detect insects and other prey, and insects have developed a variety of defences including the ability to hear the echolocation calls. Many pursuit predators that run on land, such as wolves, have evolved long limbs in response to the increased speed of their prey. Their adaptations have

903:

in the sea. Ambush predators often construct a burrow in which to hide, improving concealment at the cost of reducing their field of vision. Some ambush predators also use lures to attract prey within striking range. The capturing movement has to be rapid to trap the prey, given that the attack is

732:

where prey is dense and then searching within patches. Where food is found in patches, such as rare shoals of fish in a nearly empty ocean, the search stage requires the predator to travel for a substantial time, and to expend a significant amount of energy, to locate each food patch. For example,

1001:

In pursuit predation, predators chase fleeing prey. If the prey flees in a straight line, capture depends only on the predator's being faster than the prey. If the prey manoeuvres by turning as it flees, the predator must react in real time to calculate and follow a new intercept path, such as by

2333:

to prey: the rate of kills increases in proportion to the rate of encounters. If this rate is limited by time spent handling each catch, then prey populations can reach densities above which predators cannot control them. Another assumption is that all prey individuals are identical. In reality,

1967:

The metaphor of an arms race implies ever-escalating advances in attack and defence. However, these adaptations come with a cost; for instance, longer legs have an increased risk of breaking, while the specialized tongue of the chameleon, with its ability to act like a projectile, is useless for

656:

cycle. The predator must decide where to look for prey based on its geographical distribution; and once it has located prey, it must assess whether to pursue it or to wait for a better choice. If it chooses pursuit, its physical capabilities determine the mode of pursuit (e.g., ambush or chase).

9523:

Hughes's earliest books contained a bewildering profusion of poems between their covers: ... fish and fowl, beasts of the field and forest, vigorous embodiments of predators and prey. Hughes as a student had taken up anthropology, not literature, and he chose to meditate his way into trancelike

2887:

In mythology and folk fable, predators such as the fox and wolf have mixed reputations. The fox was a symbol of fertility in ancient Greece, but a weather demon in northern Europe, and a creature of the devil in early Christianity; the fox is presented as sly, greedy, and cunning in fables from

1231:

Social hunting allows predators to tackle a wider range of prey, but at the risk of competition for the captured food. Solitary predators have more chance of eating what they catch, at the price of increased expenditure of energy to catch it, and increased risk that the prey will escape. Ambush

4887:

Cursorial hunting strategies range from one extreme of transient acceleration, power and speed to the other extreme of persistence and endurance with prey being fatigued to facilitate capture.Dogs and humans are considered to rely on endurance rather than outright speed and manoeuvrability for

784:

One of the factors to consider is size. Prey that is too small may not be worth the trouble for the amount of energy it provides. Too large, and it may be too difficult to capture. For example, a mantid captures prey with its forelegs and they are optimized for grabbing prey of a certain size.

926:

Ballistic interception is the strategy where a predator observes the movement of a prey, predicts its motion, works out an interception path, and then attacks the prey on that path. This differs from ambush predation in that the predator adjusts its attack according to how the prey is moving.

251:, though conventionally parasites are thought not to kill their hosts. A predator can be defined to differ from a parasitoid in that it has many prey, captured over its lifetime, where a parasitoid's larva has just one, or at least has its food supply provisioned for it on just one occasion. 2264:

of the environment. Predators limit the growth of prey both by consuming them and by changing their behavior. Increases or decreases in the prey population can also lead to increases or decreases in the number of predators, for example, through an increase in the number of young they bear.

2151:

that occur as predators consume their prey. The result is that only about 10% of the energy at any trophic level is transferred to the next level. This is often referred to as "the 10% rule" which limits the number of trophic levels that an individual ecosystem is capable of supporting.

1010:) before starting the pursuit. Pursuit predators include terrestrial mammals such as humans, African wild dogs, spotted hyenas and wolves; marine predators such as dolphins, orcas and many predatory fishes, such as tuna; predatory birds (raptors) such as falcons; and insects such as 2178:. Introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the ecosystem. For example, grazers of a grassland may prevent a single dominant species from taking over. 2424:

The earliest predators were microbial organisms, which engulfed or grazed on others. Because the fossil record is poor, these first predators could date back anywhere between 1 and over 2.7 Gya (billion years ago). Predation visibly became important shortly before the

2589: 2209:. In that area, wolves are both keystone species and apex predators. Without predation, herbivores began to over-graze many woody browse species, affecting the area's plant populations. In addition, wolves often kept animals from grazing near streams, protecting the 1312:

over a relatively narrow field of view, whereas prey animals often have less acute all-round vision. Animals such as foxes can smell their prey even when it is concealed under 2 feet (60 cm) of snow or earth. Many predators have acute hearing, and some such as

2221:

along Blacktail Creek due to a lack of predation caused channel incision because the reduced beaver population was no longer able to slow the water down and keep the soil in place. The predators were thus demonstrated to be of vital importance in the ecosystem.

1369: 517: 1975:

It is difficult to determine whether given adaptations are truly the result of coevolution, where a prey adaptation gives rise to a predator adaptation that is countered by further adaptation in the prey. An alternative explanation is

2560: 5513: 1952:

for the prey's body. However, the "life-dinner" principle of Dawkins and Krebs predicts that this arms race is asymmetric: if a predator fails to catch its prey, it loses its dinner, while if it succeeds, the prey loses its life.

2100:. There are generally up to six trophic levels in the open ocean, four over continental shelves, and around three in upwelling zones. For example, a marine habitat with five trophic levels could be represented as follows: 1565:

strategy for the predator is predicted to be more specialized as the prey are more conspicuous and can be found more quickly; this appears to be correct for predators of immobile prey, but is doubtful with mobile prey.

8790:

Loron, Corentin C.; Rainbird, Robert H.; Turner, Elizabeth C.; Wilder Greenman, J.; Javaux, Emmanuelle J. (2018). "Implications of selective predation on the macroevolution of eukaryotes: Evidence from Arctic Canada".

2280:

in Alaska and Canada, the hare populations fluctuate in near synchrony with a 10-year period, and the lynx populations fluctuate in response. This was first seen in historical records of animals caught by

5266: 2691: 2395:

Predation dates from before the rise of commonly recognized carnivores by hundreds of millions (perhaps billions) of years. Predation has evolved repeatedly in different groups of organisms. The rise of

286:

or mats of microbes are predators, as they consume and kill their food organisms, while herbivores that browse leaves are not, as their food plants usually survive the assault. When animals eat seeds (

1420: 9042:

Sampson, Scott D.; Loewen, Mark A. (27 June 2005). "Tyrannosaurus rex from the Upper Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) North Horn Formation of Utah: biogeographic and paleoecologic implications".

1988:

with its venom), there is no opportunity for learning and avoidance must be inherited. Predators can also respond to dangerous prey with counter-adaptations. In western North America, the

1119:

Once the predator has captured the prey, it has to handle it: very carefully if the prey is dangerous to eat, such as if it possesses sharp or poisonous spines, as in many prey fish. Some

394:

While examples of predators among mammals and birds are well known, predators can be found in a broad range of taxa including arthropods. They are common among insects, including mantids,

781:

palatable insect it finds. By contrast, a predator such as a lion or falcon finds its prey easily but capturing it requires a lot of effort. In that case, the predator is more selective.

1393: 2666: 2613: 2478:

demonstrates a long history of interactions between predators and their prey from the Cambrian period onwards, showing for example that some predators drilled through the shells of

1703:, a bait on the end of a rod-like appendage on the head, which they wave gently to mimic a small animal, gulping the prey in an extremely rapid movement when it is within range. 9524:

states of preconsciousness before committing poems to paper. His poems, early or late, enter into the relations of living creatures; they move in close to animal consciousness:

2047:. Many predators however eat from multiple levels of the food chain; a carnivore may eat both secondary and tertiary consumers. This means that many predators must contend with 537:

Seed predation is restricted to mammals, birds, and insects but is found in almost all terrestrial ecosystems. Egg predation includes both specialist egg predators such as some

1807:

of the bacteria that they prey upon. Carnivorous vertebrates of all five major classes (fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) have lower relative rates of sugar to

563:. Methods of predation by plants varies greatly but often involves a food trap, mechanical stimulation, and electrical impulses to eventually catch and consume its prey. Some 8637:

Grant, S. W. F.; Knoll, A. H.; Germs, G. J. B. (1991). "Probable Calcified Metaphytes in the Latest Proterozoic Nama Group, Namibia: Origin, Diagenesis, and Implications".

6318:

Li, Min; Fry, B.G.; Kini, R. Manjunatha (2005). "Eggs-Only Diet: Its Implications for the Toxin Profile Changes and Ecology of the Marbled Sea Snake (Aipysurus eydouxii)".

5727: 3312:

Kane, Adam; Healy, Kevin; Guillerme, Thomas; Ruxton, Graeme D.; Jackson, Andrew L. (2017). "A recipe for scavenging in vertebrates – the natural history of a behaviour".

2660:, could fly to escape terrestrial predators. Its large size, with a wingspan of 65 cm (30 in), may reflect the lack of vertebrate aerial predators at that time. 1131:

which lock in the erect position; as the catfish thrashes about when captured, these could pierce the predator's mouth, possibly fatally. Some fish-eating birds like the

1149:

In social predation, a group of predators cooperates to kill prey. This makes it possible to kill creatures larger than those they could overpower singly; for example,

2268:

Cyclical fluctuations have been seen in populations of predator and prey, often with offsets between the predator and prey cycles. A well-known example is that of the

788:

A predator may assess a patch and decide whether to spend time searching for prey in it. This may involve some knowledge of the preferences of the prey; for example,

125:

Predators may actively search for or pursue prey or wait for it, often concealed. When prey is detected, the predator assesses whether to attack it. This may involve

1893:, by signalling that a chase would be unprofitable, or by forming groups. If they become a target, they can try to fend off the attack with defences such as armour, 2932:

and cougar, have shifted from hostility or ambivalence, accompanied by active persecution, towards positive and protective in the second half of the 20th century.

1442: 1033:

and domestic hounds. The African wild dog is an extreme persistence predator, tiring out individual prey by following them for many miles at relatively low speed.

1281:

for detecting, catching, killing, and digesting prey. These include speed, agility, stealth, sharp senses, claws, teeth, filters, and suitable digestive systems.

10405: 7707:

Fedriani, Jose M.; Fuller, Todd K.; Sauvajot, Raymond M.; York, Eric C. (October 2000). "Competition and intraguild predation among three sympatric carnivores".

133:, sometimes after stalking the prey. If the attack is successful, the predator kills the prey, removes any inedible parts like the shell or spines, and eats it. 7480:

Preisser, Evan L.; Bolnick, Daniel I.; Benard, Michael F. (2005). "Scared to Death? The Effects of Intimidation and Consumption in Predator–Prey Interactions".

5274: 4439:

Scharf, Inon; Nulman, Einat; Ovadia, Ofer; Bouskila, Amos (September 2006). "Efficiency evaluation of two competing foraging modes under different conditions".

3169: 2310:, predicts population cycles. However, attempts to reproduce the predictions of this model in the laboratory have often failed; for example, when the protozoan 9585: 9468: 8115:

Levin, Simon A.; Carpenter, Stephen R.; Godfray, H. Charles J.; Kinzig, Ann P.; Loreau, Michel; Losos, Jonathan B.; Walker, Brian; Wilcove, David S. (2009).

2914:, men transformed into wolves. In ancient Rome, and in ancient Egypt, the wolf was worshipped, the she-wolf appearing in the founding myth of Rome, suckling 4505:"Outrun or Outmaneuver: Predator–Prey Interactions as a Model System for Integrating Biomechanical Studies in a Broader Ecological and Evolutionary Context" 2213:' food sources. The removal of wolves had a direct effect on the beaver population, as their habitat became territory for grazing. Increased browsing on 2353:

A range of mathematical models have been developed by relaxing the assumptions made in the Lotka–Volterra model; these variously allow animals to have

9616:

Kellert, Stephen R.; Black, Matthew; Rush, Colleen Reid; Bath, Alistair J. (1996). "Human Culture and Large Carnivore Conservation in North America".

8058: 2342:

ecosystems because the food webs are simpler. The snowshoe hare-lynx system is subarctic, but even this involves other predators, including coyotes,

278:

that consume sap from living plants. However, since they typically do not kill their hosts, they are now often thought of as parasites. Animals that

1473: 247:, lays its eggs in or on its host; the eggs hatch into larvae, which eat the host, and it inevitably dies. Zoologists generally call this a form of 6248: 2329:, meaning that any change in the equations can stabilize or destabilize the dynamics. For example, one assumption is that predators have a linear 1889:. They can detect predators and warn others of their presence. If detected, they can try to avoid being the target of an attack, for example, by 3233:

Nilsson, Sven G.; Björkman, Christer; Forslund, Pär; Höglund, Jacob (1985). "Egg predation in forest bird communities on islands and mainland".

1931:

Predators and prey are natural enemies, and many of their adaptations seem designed to counter each other. For example, bats have sophisticated

11336: 10589: 1963:, itself a predator, is venomous enough to kill predators that attack it, so when they avoid it, this behaviour must be inherited, not learnt. 785:

Mantids are reluctant to attack prey that is far from that size. There is a positive correlation between the size of a predator and its prey.

5850:

Analysis of vertebrate predator-prey community: Studies within the European Forest zone in terrains with transitional mixed forest in Belarus

4153:

Eastman, Lucas B.; Thiel, Martin (2015). "Foraging behavior of crustacean predators and scavengers". In Thiel, Martin; Watling, Les (eds.).

1021:, in which the predator tires out the prey by following it over a long distance, sometimes for hours at a time. The method is used by human 9438: 8976:

Anderson, P. S. L.; Westneat, M. (2009). "A biomechanical model of feeding kinematics for Dunkleosteus terrelli (Arthrodira, Placodermi)".

6170: 1347:

Many predators are powerfully built and can catch and kill animals larger than themselves; this applies as much to small predators such as

5433: 590:) prey on other microorganisms; the feeding mode is evidently ancient, and evolved many times in both groups. Among freshwater and marine 11480: 10398: 5297: 11550: 9354: 8489:

Berryman, Alan A.; Hawkins, Bradford A.; Hawkins, Bradford A. (2006). "The refuge as an integrating concept in ecology and evolution".

2528:

or Late Devonian, enabling them among other things to escape from predators. Among the largest predators that have ever lived were the

1881:

To counter predation, prey have evolved defences for use at each stage of an attack. They can try to avoid detection, such as by using

11122: 6371:"Waveform generation in the weakly electric fish Gymnotus coropinae (Hoedeman): the electric organ and the electric organ discharge" 2143:

Trophic transfer efficiency measures how effectively energy is transferred or passed up through higher trophic levels of the marine

11087: 4949:

Sanders, Jon G.; Beichman, Annabel C.; Roman, Joe; Scott, Jarrod J.; Emerson, David; McCarthy, James J.; Girguis, Peter R. (2015).

4652: 2787:

antelope over short distances, but follows it in the midday heat until it is exhausted, a pursuit that can take up to five hours.

1457: 410:, only the larvae are predatory (the adults do not eat). Spiders are predatory, as well as other terrestrial invertebrates such as 5734: 4588: 1240:

are solitary, including the cougar and cheetah. However, the solitary cougar does allow other cougars to share in a kill, and the

4732:"A division of labour with role specialization in group-hunting bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) off Cedar Key, Florida" 3435: 11560: 11288: 10391: 7939: 6002:

Sprules, W. Gary (1972). "Effects of Size-Selective Predation and Food Competition on High Altitude Zooplankton Communities".

4847:

Hubel, Tatjana Y.; Myatt, Julia P.; Jordan, Neil R.; Dewhirst, Oliver P.; McNutt, J. Weldon; Wilson, Alan M. (29 March 2016).

2486:

molluscs, while others ate these organisms by breaking their shells. Among the Cambrian predators were invertebrates like the

9705: 9488: 9390: 9290: 9189: 9137: 8903: 8621: 8352: 7861: 7785: 7095: 6673:

Bergstrom, C. T.; Lachmann, M. (2001). "Alarm calls as costly signals of antipredator vigilance: the watchful babbler game".

6533: 6302: 6275: 6232: 6180: 5885: 5858: 5774: 5154:

Power, R. John; Shem Compion, R.X. (April 2009). "Lion Predation on Elephants in the Savuti, Chobe National Park, Botswana".

4790: 4071: 3992: 3906: 3407: 3296: 3131: 3012: 5901:

Hayward, M. W.; Henschel, P.; O'Brien, J.; Hofmeyr, M.; Balme, G.; Kerley, G.I.H. (2006). "Prey preferences of the leopard (

2381:, where prey are safe from predators, may enable prey to maintain larger populations but may also destabilize the dynamics. 11565: 1331:, and ants share powerful jaws, sharp teeth, or claws which they use to seize and kill their prey. Some predators such as 11753: 7180:

Janis, C. M.; Wilhelm, P. B. (1993). "Were there mammalian pursuit predators in the Tertiary? Dances with wolf avatars".

5303: 1788: 1774: 6197: 5700: 5378:"Cooperative foraging expands dietary niche but does not offset intra-group competition for resources in social spiders" 5052:

Lang, Stephen D. J.; Farine, Damien R. (2017). "A multidimensional framework for studying social predation strategies".

1573:

for large prey. For example, adult elephants are relatively safe from predation by lions, but juveniles are vulnerable.

1006:, as it closes on the prey. Many pursuit predators use camouflage to approach the prey as close as possible unobserved ( 11506: 11329: 11170: 10582: 10253: 9557: 9214: 9162: 8096: 7836: 5547: 3374: 2373:; and analysing the interactions of more than just two species at once. Such models predict widely differing and often 2140:(feeding on other plants and animals for energy and nutrients—herbivores, omnivores and carnivores, and detritivores). 1687:, for example, copy the light signals of other species, thereby attracting male fireflies, which they capture and eat. 1162:

form a circle around a school of fish and move inwards, concentrating the fish by a factor of 200. By hunting socially

9077:

Darimont, C. T.; Fox, C. H.; Bryan, H. M.; Reimchen, T. E. (20 August 2015). "The unique ecology of human predators".

754: 10842: 10243: 10238: 9853: 9791: 9765: 9746: 9683: 9664: 9421: 8696:

Awramik, S. M. (19 November 1971). "Precambrian columnar stromatolite diversity: Reflection of metazoan appearance".

8524:

Cressman, Ross; Garay, József (2009). "A predator–prey refuge system: Evolutionary stability in ecological systems".

8182: 8157: 8132: 7922: 7164: 6908: 5661: 4162: 4118: 3520: 3495: 3178: 1811:

transport than either herbivores or omnivores, presumably because they acquire plenty of amino acids from the animal

1496: 7380:

Vermeij, G J (November 1994). "The Evolutionary Interaction Among Species: Selection, Escalation, and Coevolution".

5095:

MacNulty, Daniel R.; Tallian, Aimee; Stahler, Daniel R.; Smith, Douglas W. (12 November 2014). Sueur, Cédric (ed.).

12153: 10248: 9367: 11303: 9589: 3620:

Pike, David A.; Clark, Rulon W.; Manica, Andrea; Tseng, Hui-Yun; Hsu, Jung-Ya; Huang, Wen-San (26 February 2016).

2490:

with appendages suitable for grabbing prey, large compound eyes and jaws made of a hard material like that in the

11585: 11298: 11165: 10877: 8368:

Kozlov, Vladimir; Vakulenko, Sergey (3 July 2013). "On chaos in Lotka–Volterra systems: an analytical approach".

5967:

Sih, Andrew; Christensen, Bent (2001). "Optimal diet theory: when does it work, and when and why does it fail?".

3622:"Surf and turf: predation by egg-eating snakes has led to the evolution of parental care in a terrestrial lizard" 2771:

to catch prey for food or for sport. Two mid-sized predators, dogs and cats, are the animals most often kept as

1945: 1741:

that has adapted to egg predation has atrophied venom glands, and the gene for its three finger toxin contains a

9813: 9055: 8006: 7989: 7898: 7881: 7801: 6403: 5622: 1678:, certain predators, including insects and fishes, make use of coloration and behaviour to attract prey. Female 203:

of well-defended species, and defensive spines and chemicals. Sometimes predator and prey find themselves in an

11970: 11843: 9719: 4900:

Goldbogen, J. A.; Calambokidis, J.; Shadwick, R. E.; Oleson, E. M.; McDonald, M. A.; Hildebrand, J. A. (2006).

3487: 1232:

predators are often solitary to reduce the risk of becoming prey themselves. Of 245 terrestrial members of the

4404:

Williams, Amanda C.; Flaxman, Samuel M. (2012). "Can predators assess the quality of their prey's resource?".

3881:

Jurkevitch, Edouard; Davidov, Yaacov (2006). "Phylogenetic Diversity and Evolution of Predatory Prokaryotes".

12016: 11615: 11570: 11322: 10575: 10492: 8597: 2596: 11102: 9232:"A first estimate of the structure and density of the populations of pet cats and dogs across Great Britain" 2240: 11448: 10472: 4708: 4600: 2307: 2300: 2235: 1545:, over twice her weight. Lions can attack much larger prey, including elephants, but do so much less often. 10467: 10432: 8837:

Dunn, F. S.; Kenchington, C. G.; Parry, L. A.; Clark, J. W.; Kendall, R. S.; Wilby, P. R. (25 July 2022).

3168:

Bengtson, S. (2002). "Origins and early evolution of predation". In Kowalewski, M.; Kelley, P. H. (eds.).

308:, organisms that only eat organisms found already dead, are not predators, but many predators such as the 11805: 10696: 6369:

Castello, M. E.; A. Rodriguez-Cattaneo; P. A. Aguilera; L. Iribarne; A. C. Pereira; A. A. Caputi (2009).

5006:

Forbes, L. Scott (1989). "Prey Defences and Predator Handling Behaviour: The Dangerous Prey Hypothesis".

4178:

Perry, Gad (January 1999). "The Evolution of Search Modes: Ecological versus Phylogenetic Perspectives".

3538:"Cephalopods as Predators: A Short Journey among Behavioral Flexibilities, Adaptions, and Feeding Habits" 2567: 2455: 1052:, diving and actively swimming into concentrations of plankton, and then taking a huge gulp of water and 6549:

Karasov, William H.; Diamond, Jared M. (1988). "Interplay between Physiology and Ecology in Digestion".

4320:

Reynolds, Andy (September 2015). "Liberating Lévy walk research from the shackles of optimal foraging".

2260:

In the absence of predators, the population of a species can grow exponentially until it approaches the

1749:) that inactives it. These changes are explained by the fact that its prey does not need to be subdued. 571:

using either active traps in the form of constricting rings, or passive traps with adhesive structures.

11870: 11590: 11077: 10794: 10691: 10482: 10233: 9862: 9825: 5766: 2951: 2181: 1799:

Physiological adaptations to predation include the ability of predatory bacteria to digest the complex

83: 5563:

Stow, Adam; Nyqvist, Marina J.; Gozlan, Rodolphe E.; Cucherousset, Julien; Britton, J. Robert (2012).

3457: 12051: 11663: 11555: 11413: 11398: 11393: 11072: 10784: 10372: 7283:"Adaptive responses of predators to prey and prey to predators: The failure of the arms-race analogy" 6294:

Medical Toxicology of Natural Substances: Foods, Fungi, Medicinal Herbs, Plants, and Venomous Animals

4596: 3482:

Watanabe, James M. (2007). "Invertebrates, overview". In Denny, Mark W.; Gaines, Steven Dean (eds.).

3062: 2941: 2202: 2186: 716: 20: 10567: 3704: 2401:

small predator species. It likely triggered major evolutionary transitions including the arrival of

2334:

predators tend to select young, weak, and ill individuals, leaving prey populations able to regrow.

1984:

from bad experiences with prey. However, when the prey is capable of killing the predator (as can a

12041: 12036: 12006: 11810: 11273: 11155: 10383: 9505: 8613: 8446:

McNair, James N (1986). "The effects of refuges on predator-prey interactions: A reconsideration".

7431:

Sheriff, Michael J.; Peacor, Scott D.; Hawlena, Dror; Thaker, Maria; Gaillard, Jean-Michel (2020).

2467:, England. It is thought to be one of the earliest predatory animals, catching small prey with its 2369:, so that only some individuals reproduce; to live in a varying environment, such as with changing 1716: 820:, where a predator observes and predicts a prey's motion and then launches its attack accordingly. 11314: 10945: 2928:, Mowgli is raised by the wolf pack. Attitudes to large predators in North America, such as wolf, 2170:

of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. Such predators are known as

2136:(using light energy to grow without intake of any additional organic compounds or nutrients) with 2035:

are secondary consumers; their predators are tertiary consumers, and so forth. At the top of this

1596: 11885: 11748: 11658: 11526: 11408: 11378: 11235: 11200: 10920: 10887: 10862: 10352: 7224: 2868:

Among poetry on the theme of predation, a predator's consciousness might be explored, such as in

2791: 2603:

change from minimal burrowing (left) to a diverse burrowing fauna (right), probably to avoid new

2286: 2253: 1824: 757:

of a wide variety of organisms including bacteria, honeybees, sharks and human hunter-gatherers.

739: 693:

are almost always moving while web-building spiders, aquatic invertebrates, praying mantises and

180: 7827:

Bond, W. J. (2012). "11. Keystone species". In Schulze, Ernst-Detlef; Mooney, Harold A. (eds.).

4951:"Baleen whales host a unique gut microbiome with similarities to both carnivores and herbivores" 2093:'s body. Within each transfer, while there are uses of energy, there are also losses of energy. 544:

and generalists such as foxes and badgers that opportunistically take eggs when they find them.

12031: 11975: 11910: 11773: 11708: 11643: 11205: 10993: 10701: 10681: 10417: 8124: 6292: 6263: 5441: 2894: 1937: 743: 734: 721: 204: 71: 7156: 7046:"Number of eyespots and their intimidating effect on naïve predators in the peacock butterfly" 5875: 5848: 4780: 3890: 3002: 2806: 1619: 11935: 11880: 11743: 11728: 11511: 11468: 11458: 11453: 11210: 11190: 11046: 11036: 10978: 10973: 10809: 10661: 10442: 9997: 9846: 9407: 6368: 5760: 5307: 4704: 3691: 2877: 2722: 2072: 1949: 1783:

Several groups of predatory fish have the ability to detect, track, and sometimes, as in the

1778: 1552:

Predators are often highly specialized in their diet and hunting behaviour; for example, the

987: 724:

regularly flies hundreds of kilometres across the nearly empty ocean to find patches of food.

32: 24: 9179: 8605: 8116: 8032: 7148: 6936:

Dominey, Wallace J. (1983). "Mobbing in Colonially Nesting Fishes, Especially the Bluegill,

3882: 3720:"On the Origin of Carnivory: Molecular Physiology and Evolution of Plants on an Animal Diet" 3035:

Lafferty, K. D.; Kuris, A. M. (2002). "Trophic strategies, animal diversity and body size".

2980:

A range of 3000 kilometres means a flight distance of at least 6000 kilometres out and back.

2292: 2005:

explain population dynamics effects such as the cycles observed in lynx and snowshoe hares.

12061: 12026: 12021: 11945: 11940: 11895: 11793: 11763: 11758: 11610: 11473: 11463: 11008: 10847: 10636: 10532: 10507: 10447: 10280: 9625: 9320: 9243: 9086: 8985: 8940: 8850: 8756: 8705: 8646: 8533: 8498: 8455: 8420: 8377: 8211: 7954: 7716: 7673: 7626: 7579: 7536: 7489: 7444: 7236: 6988: 6817: 6472: 6327: 6127: 6058: 6011: 5803: 5576: 5389: 5229: 5108: 5061: 5015: 4962: 4329: 4286: 4249: 3935: 3784: 3633: 3321: 3242: 2845: 2354: 2326: 2048: 1513: 896: 845: 564: 337: 8567:

Abrams, P. A. (2000). "The evolution of predator-prey interactions: theory and evidence".

3736: 3719: 2147:. As energy moves up the trophic levels, it decreases due to heat, waste, and the natural 136:

Predators are adapted and often highly specialized for hunting, with acute senses such as

8: 12111: 12086: 11950: 11920: 11865: 11778: 11668: 11653: 11600: 11433: 11368: 11250: 11180: 11112: 10711: 10462: 10367: 10221: 9362: 8606: 5565:"Behavioural Syndrome in a Solitary Predator Is Independent of Body Size and Growth Rate" 3984: 2780: 2410: 2330: 2318: 2231: 1989: 1932: 1924: 1314: 1144: 1018: 1003: 804:

To capture prey, predators have a spectrum of pursuit modes that range from overt chase (

769: 384: 302:), they are consuming entire living organisms, which by definition makes them predators. 9637: 9629: 9324: 9247: 9090: 8989: 8944: 8854: 8760: 8709: 8650: 8537: 8502: 8459: 8424: 8381: 8215: 7958: 7720: 7677: 7630: 7583: 7540: 7493: 7448: 7393: 7240: 6992: 6821: 6476: 6331: 6131: 6062: 6015: 5807: 5580: 5393: 5233: 5112: 5065: 5019: 4966: 4660: 4333: 4290: 4253: 3939: 3788: 3637: 3325: 3246: 3219: 1236:(the group that includes the cats, dogs, and bears), 177 are solitary; and 35 of the 37 977: 12148: 12122: 12071: 12066: 11875: 11838: 11580: 11536: 11501: 11358: 11283: 11185: 11117: 11107: 11041: 10988: 10799: 10744: 10706: 10631: 10546: 10362: 10012: 9779: 9510: 9266: 9231: 9110: 9059: 9001: 8871: 8838: 8816: 8772: 8729: 8678: 8662: 8393: 8234: 8199: 7970: 7777: 7750: 7689: 7595: 7362: 7312: 7299: 7282: 7260: 7197: 7014: 6957: 6786: 6773: 6756: 6725: 6690: 6638: 6613: 6566: 6493: 6460: 6436: 6411: 6351: 6242: 6151: 6027: 5984: 5949: 5824: 5792:"Biomass transformation webs provide a unified approach to consumer-resource modelling" 5791: 5653: 5599: 5564: 5489: 5464: 5410: 5377: 5353: 5326: 5131: 5096: 5031: 4983: 4950: 4931: 4873: 4848: 4756: 4731: 4604: 4464: 4421: 4203: 4036: 4028: 3860: 3800: 3757: 3654: 3621: 3564: 3537: 3399: 3347: 3287:

Hulme, P. E.; Benkman, C. W. (2002). "Granivory". In C. M. Herrera; O. Pellmyr (eds.).

3266: 3123: 3091: 3066: 2881: 2097: 1993: 1898: 1675: 1668: 1629: 1586: 1506: 266:

are small animals that, like predators, feed entirely on other organisms; they include

207:, a cycle of adaptations and counter-adaptations. Predation has been a major driver of 184: 176: 169: 48: 8389: 7043: 6412:"Electrifying love: electric fish use species-specific discharge for mate recognition" 3048: 1244:

can be either solitary or social. Other solitary predators include the northern pike,

12011: 11980: 11768: 11595: 11403: 11268: 11245: 10983: 10759: 10671: 10656: 10641: 10621: 10357: 10002: 9787: 9761: 9742: 9725: 9701: 9679: 9660: 9553: 9545: 9484: 9417: 9386: 9336: 9311:

Liebenberg, Louis (2008). "The relevance of persistence hunting to human evolution".

9271: 9210: 9185: 9158: 9133: 9102: 9063: 8958: 8909: 8899: 8876: 8808: 8721: 8670: 8617: 8549: 8510: 8471: 8467: 8432: 8397: 8348: 8239: 8178: 8153: 8128: 8117: 8092: 7918: 7857: 7832: 7781: 7742: 7552: 7505: 7462: 7304: 7252: 7160: 7149: 7091: 7044:

Merilaita, Sami; Vallin, Adrian; Kodandaramaiah, Ullasa; et al. (26 July 2011).

7006: 6904: 6845: 6840: 6805: 6778: 6643: 6529: 6498: 6441: 6392: 6343: 6298: 6271: 6268:

Critical care toxicology: diagnosis and management of the critically poisoned patient

6228: 6176: 6143: 6118: 6086: 6071: 6046: 5918: 5881: 5854: 5829: 5815: 5770: 5657: 5604: 5543: 5494: 5415: 5358: 5247: 5136: 5077: 4988: 4923: 4878: 4829: 4786: 4761: 4626: 4570: 4526: 4456: 4386: 4345: 4302: 4298: 4195: 4158: 4114: 4067: 3988: 3902: 3883: 3852: 3808: 3761: 3749: 3741: 3659: 3569: 3516: 3491: 3403: 3370: 3292: 3258: 3137: 3127: 3096: 3008: 2946: 2915: 2889: 2852: 2815: 2678: 2529: 2261: 1738: 1625: 1434: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1274: 1163: 991: 948: 806: 560: 447: 361: 333: 192: 130: 9005: 8820: 8776: 8682: 8580: 8024: 7754: 7316: 7201: 6790: 6729: 6355: 6155: 5988: 4935: 4468: 4425: 4040: 3351: 2312: 1531: 753:, that tends to involve clusters of short steps with occasional long steps. It is a 652:

To feed, a predator must search for, pursue and kill its prey. These actions form a

12143: 11965: 11828: 11820: 11738: 11620: 11605: 11541: 11521: 11438: 11428: 11423: 11388: 11220: 11160: 11031: 10832: 10774: 10686: 10646: 10502: 10487: 10226: 10007: 9839: 9633: 9328: 9261: 9251: 9230:

Aegerter, James; Fouracre, David; Smith, Graham C. (2017). Olsson, I Anna S (ed.).

9114: 9094: 9051: 8993: 8948: 8866: 8858: 8800: 8764: 8733: 8713: 8654: 8601: 8576: 8541: 8506: 8463: 8428: 8385: 8321: 8229: 8219: 8011: 8001: 7962: 7893: 7773: 7732: 7724: 7693: 7681: 7644: 7634: 7587: 7544: 7497: 7452: 7389: 7352: 7294: 7264: 7244: 7189: 7083: 7057: 7018: 6996: 6949: 6835: 6825: 6768: 6717: 6694: 6682: 6633: 6625: 6558: 6521: 6488: 6480: 6431: 6423: 6382: 6335: 6135: 6076: 6066: 6019: 5976: 5953: 5941: 5914: 5819: 5811: 5649: 5594: 5584: 5484: 5476: 5405: 5397: 5348: 5338: 5237: 5198: 5163: 5126: 5116: 5069: 5023: 4978: 4970: 4913: 4868: 4860: 4819: 4751: 4743: 4560: 4516: 4448: 4413: 4376: 4337: 4294: 4257: 4207: 4187: 4059: 4020: 3980: 3943: 3894: 3864: 3842: 3792: 3731: 3679: 3649: 3641: 3600: 3559: 3549: 3395: 3337: 3329: 3270: 3250: 3215: 3119: 3086: 3078: 3044: 2856: 2464: 2414: 2378: 2358: 2347: 2325:

The Lotka–Volterra equations rely on several simplifying assumptions, and they are

2190: 2171: 2161: 1960: 1840: 1834: 1680: 1570: 1464: 1309: 1030: 888: 861: 829: 126: 9784:

Avoiding attack: the evolutionary ecology of crypsis, warning signals, and mimicry

8326: 8309: 7087: 4417: 2783:, a form of pursuit predation where the pursuer may be slower than prey such as a 1956: 1699:

are extremely well camouflaged, and actively lure their prey to approach using an

958: 12101: 11960: 11930: 11925: 11915: 11848: 11833: 11713: 11693: 11575: 11443: 11349: 11240: 11150: 11092: 10676: 10602: 10334: 10206: 10185: 9413: 9332: 9256: 8717: 8342: 8224: 8198:

Genovart, M.; Negre, N.; Tavecchia, G.; Bistuer, A.; Parpal, L.; Oro, D. (2010).

7639: 7614: 7220: 6139: 5589: 5121: 4063: 3796: 2924: 2919: 2839: 2830: 2811: 2756: 2645: 2451:, with evidence of selective (rather than random) predation from a similar time. 2390: 2206: 1897:, unpalatability, or mobbing; and they can often escape an attack in progress by 1894: 1766: 1448: 1430: 1213: 1185: 1159: 1064: 1022: 892: 868: 848: 812: 52: 7768:

Lalli, Carol M.; Parsons, Timothy R. (1997). "Energy Flow and Mineral Cycling".

7664:

Pimm, S. L.; Lawton, J. H. (1978). "On feeding on more than one trophic level".

7433:"Non-Consumptive Predator Effects on Prey Population Size: A Dearth of Evidence" 4808:"Capture Success and Efficiency of Dragonflies Pursuing Different Types of Prey" 4341: 2884:" has been interpreted as referring to the struggle between predators and prey. 2350:, and the cycle is reinforced by variations in the food available to the hares. 2252:) (yellow background) and Canada lynx (black line, foreground) furs sold to the 1919: 12081: 11905: 11858: 11788: 11783: 11678: 11545: 11418: 11225: 11215: 11195: 10998: 10963: 10902: 10779: 10734: 10626: 10309: 10285: 10268: 10063: 9604:

Die Bedeutung der Raubtiere in der Mythologie: Ergebnisse einer Literaturstudie

8862: 6810:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

6409: 5401: 5327:"Energetics and evasion dynamics of large predators and prey: pumas vs. hounds" 4682: 2708: 2620: 2487: 2402: 2086: 1479: 1305: 1285: 1167: 964: 603: 599: 552: 380: 341: 288: 244: 95: 91: 8953: 8928: 8658: 8545: 8200:"The young, the weak and the sick: evidence of natural selection by predation" 7940:"Predators Reduce Prey Population Growth by Inducing Changes in Prey Behavior" 7001: 6976: 6339: 6116:

Lloyd J. E. (1965). "Aggressive Mimicry in Photuris: Firefly Femmes Fatales".

5073: 3948: 3923: 3847: 3830: 3683: 3082: 2174:

and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular

1853: 1729:

to subdue their prey, and venom can also aid in digestion (as is the case for

1177: 750: 12137: 12106: 11082: 11056: 11013: 11003: 10958: 10925: 10817: 10651: 10606: 10497: 10319: 10314: 10273: 10263: 10211: 10026: 9976: 9971: 9890: 9775: 9729: 8913: 7509: 6609: 3745: 3554: 3536:

Villanueva, Roger; Perricone, Valentina; Fiorito, Graziano (17 August 2017).

2673: 2650: 2534: 2525: 2475: 2437: 2418: 2366: 2277: 2269: 2245: 2194: 2105: 2082: 2040: 2024: 2018: 2014: 1800: 1722: 1688: 1553: 1253: 1249: 1053: 900: 884: 710: 686: 595: 548: 345: 298: 283: 263: 115: 9098: 8747:

Stanley, Steven M. (2008). "Predation defeats competition on the seafloor".

7457: 7432: 7062: 7045: 6708:

Getty, T. (2002). "The discriminating babbler meets the optimal diet hawk".

6410:

Feulner, P. G.; M. Plath; J. Engelmann; F. Kirschbaum; R. Tiedemann (2009).

4238:"Black-browed albatrosses, international fisheries and the Patagonian Shelf" 3924:"Zooplankton grazing and growth: Scaling within the 2-2,-μm body size range" 3605: 3588: 1220:. These predators are able to access small crevices and flush out the prey. 168:

to grip, kill, and cut up their prey. Other adaptations include stealth and

12091: 12076: 11733: 11703: 11648: 11531: 11496: 11373: 10872: 10437: 10339: 10216: 10104: 9925: 9915: 9715: 9340: 9275: 9106: 8962: 8880: 8812: 8725: 8674: 8553: 8243: 7746: 7556: 7466: 7308: 7248: 7010: 6782: 6721: 6686: 6647: 6629: 6502: 6445: 6427: 6396: 6347: 6147: 6090: 5980: 5833: 5677: 5644:

Weseloh, Ronald M.; Hare, J. Daniel (2009). "Predation/Predatory Insects".

5608: 5498: 5419: 5362: 5251: 5140: 5081: 4992: 4927: 4882: 4833: 4765: 4747: 4574: 4530: 4460: 4390: 4349: 4199: 4011:

Griffiths, David (November 1980). "Foraging costs and relative prey size".

3856: 3812: 3753: 3663: 3573: 3262: 3141: 3100: 2929: 2819: 2697: 2512: 2374: 2306:

A simple model of a system with one species each of predator and prey, the

2167: 2077:

Trophic transfer within an ecosystem refers to the transport of energy and

1784: 1762: 1648: 1607: 1542: 1400: 1380: 1328: 1225: 1221: 1041: 728:

Prey distributions are often clumped, and predators respond by looking for

615: 471: 321: 254: 157: 41: 9739:

Predator-prey interactions : co-evolution between bats and their prey

9383:

Natural Enemies Handbook: The Illustrated Guide to Biological Pest Control

8636: 8475: 7988:

Krebs, Charles J.; Boonstra, Rudy; Boutin, Stan; Sinclair, A.R.E. (2001).

7938:

Nelson, Erik H.; Matthews, Christopher E.; Rosenheim, Jay A. (July 2004).

7882:"Wolves and the Ecology of Fear: Can Predation Risk Structure Ecosystems?" 7728: 6849: 4306: 3067:"Evolution of parasitism along convergent lines: from ecology to genomics" 11383: 10930: 10892: 10867: 10857: 10822: 10769: 10749: 10452: 10160: 10145: 10140: 10130: 10125: 10109: 10068: 10058: 9905: 9900: 9895: 8804: 7649: 6601: 5167: 4824: 4807: 4546: 4521: 4504: 4277:

Charnov, Eric L. (1976). "Optimal foraging, the marginal value theorem".

4054:

Wetzel, Robert G.; Likens, Gene E. (2000). "Predator-Prey Interactions".

3922:

Hansen, Per Juel; Bjørnsen, Peter Koefoed; Hansen, Benni Winding (1997).

2961: 2861: 2836: 2833: 2760: 2491: 2137: 2117: 2113: 1985: 1941: 1914: 1890: 1730: 1660: 1426: 1257: 1245: 1209: 1205: 1197: 1171: 1124: 880: 852: 591: 467: 317: 8175:

Virus Dynamics : Mathematical Principles of Immunology and Virology

8051: 7256: 6830: 5480: 5202: 4864: 2463:(557–562 mya, some 20 million years before the Cambrian explosion) from 2444:. However, predators had been grazing on micro-organisms since at least 355: 12096: 11673: 11638: 11278: 11230: 11175: 11145: 11051: 10968: 10912: 10789: 10739: 10553: 10512: 10477: 10324: 10180: 10175: 10165: 10088: 10078: 9966: 9940: 9930: 9676:

Searching Behaviour : the behavioural ecology of finding resources

9020: 8666: 7974: 7737: 7599: 7366: 7193: 6961: 6570: 6484: 6387: 6370: 6031: 5343: 5242: 5217: 5035: 4974: 4565: 4548: 4262: 4237: 4032: 3804: 3333: 3254: 2869: 2776: 2731: 2682: 2580: 2551: 2547: 2539: 2517: 2499: 2495: 2468: 2446: 2397: 2148: 2036: 1902: 1882: 1844: 1808: 1769:) showing location of electric organ and electrocytes stacked within it 1746: 1603: 1582: 1522: 1384: 1376: 1340: 1278: 1103: 1037: 936: 928: 839: 702: 661:

it (e.g., killing it, removing any shell or spines, and ingesting it).

587: 522: 511: 499: 479: 463: 455: 451: 399: 248: 240: 231: 227: 196: 188: 153: 99: 87: 37: 8089:

On the Volterra and Other Non-Linear Models of Interacting Populations

7570:

Lindeman, Raymond L. (1942). "The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of Ecology".

7548: 6618:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

6525: 6047:"Predator-prey size relationships in an African large-mammal food web" 5325:

Bryce, Caleb M.; Wilmers, Christopher C.; Williams, Terrie M. (2017).

4918: 4901: 3645: 3342: 1791:. The electric organ is derived from modified nerve or muscle tissue. 1135:

avoid the danger of spines by tearing up their prey before eating it.

12001: 11955: 11683: 11127: 11097: 10852: 10827: 10764: 10754: 10729: 10721: 10666: 10597: 10540: 10525: 10329: 10258: 10170: 10150: 10135: 10083: 10073: 10053: 10048: 10035: 9945: 9935: 9920: 9910: 9870: 9831: 9480: 8832: 8830: 7685: 6081: 5216:

Vail, Alexander L.; Manica, Andrea; Bshary, Redouan (23 April 2013).

4806:

Combes, S. A.; Salcedo, M. K.; Pandit, M. M.; Iwasaki, J. M. (2013).

3898: 2849: 2795: 2764: 2704: 2657: 2600: 2576: 2572: 2543: 2483: 2431: 2406: 2339: 2282: 2175: 2133: 2129: 2109: 2101: 2096:

Marine trophic levels vary depending on locality and the size of the

2032: 2028: 1859: 1804: 1757: 1293: 1233: 1196:

Predators of different species sometimes cooperate to catch prey. In

1011: 983: 932: 919: 713:, alternate between actively searching and scanning the environment. 623: 579: 459: 443: 435: 415: 403: 395: 374: 305: 208: 145: 119: 111: 107: 103: 10413: 9657:

Social predation : how group living benefits predators and prey

8997: 8839:"A crown-group cnidarian from the Ediacaran of Charnwood Forest, UK" 8768: 8016: 7966: 7591: 7501: 7357: 7340: 6953: 6562: 6023: 5027: 4549:"Strike mechanics of an ambush predator: the spearing mantis shrimp" 4381: 4364: 3171:

The fossil record of predation. The Paleontological Society Papers 8

3004:

Biodiversity and Insect Pests: Key Issues for Sustainable Management

914: 640: 12056: 11985: 11516: 11344: 11023: 10935: 10882: 10837: 10155: 10043: 9693: 9288: 9223: 5945: 4899: 4452: 4191: 4111:

Geographical ecology : patterns in the distribution of species

4024: 2911: 2907: 2826: 2744: 2701: 2629: 2604: 2507: 2503: 2460: 2426: 2296: 2144: 2128:(feed on a mixed diet of phyto- and zooplankton and detritus); and 2125: 2121: 2090: 2078: 2056: 1742: 1696: 1557: 1518: 1128: 1090: 1045: 789: 653: 645: 635: 583: 575: 568: 538: 531: 498:

are predators, and in turn crustaceans are preyed on by nearly all

495: 475: 439: 431: 411: 407: 271: 223: 212: 56: 8827: 8789: 5376:

Majer, Marija; Holm, Christina; Lubin, Yael; Bilde, Trine (2018).

2727: 1170:

that would readily escape an individual hunter, while cooperating

12046: 11853: 11723: 11718: 11345: 11293: 10953: 10598: 10457: 10421: 10414: 10295: 9981: 9961: 9885: 9808: 8148:

Murdoch, William W.; Briggs, Cheryl J.; Nisbet, Roger M. (2013).

7076: 5900: 4109:

MacArthur, Robert H. (1984). "The economics of consumer choice".

2752: 2748: 2624: 2479: 2343: 2218: 1886: 1871: 1863: 1812: 1700: 1684: 1644: 1633: 1561: 1324: 1297: 1237: 1217: 1201: 1120: 1112:

tears its fish prey apart, avoiding dangers such as sharp spines.

1086: 1026: 765: 706: 694: 682: 619: 611: 607: 527: 503: 483: 279: 200: 141: 9021:"Paleoecology of Dunkleosteus Terrelli (Placodermi: Arthrodira)" 8411:

Sih, Andrew (1987). "Prey refuges and predator-prey stability".

6223:

Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004).

5097:"Influence of Group Size on the Success of Wolves Hunting Bison" 4365:"Ecological modelling: The mathematical mirror to animal nature" 3001:

Gurr, Geoff M.; Wratten, Stephen D.; Snyder, William E. (2012).

2892:

onwards. The big bad wolf is known to children in tales such as

598:

and smaller zooplankton is common, and found in many species of

594:, whether single-celled or multi-cellular, predatory grazing on 10300: 10290: 9820: 6757:"Bird Predation as a Selective Agent in a Butterfly Population" 3177:. The Paleontological Society. pp. 289–317. Archived from 2956: 2903: 2768: 2653: 2521: 2441: 2370: 2214: 2210: 2060: 2052: 1968:

lapping water, so the chameleon must drink dew off vegetation.

1734: 1692: 1656: 1611: 1483: 1356: 1336: 1241: 1132: 1109: 1057: 698: 556: 491: 365: 309: 149: 60: 9588:. WaldWissen Information for Forest Management. Archived from 9506:"Predators and Prey | Selected Poems, 1957–1994 by Ted Hughes" 5267:"Groupers Use Gestures to Recruit Morays For Hunting Team-Ups" 5195:

The cooperative breeding system of the Harris' Hawk in Arizona

4902:"Kinematics of foraging dives and lunge-feeding in fin whales" 4236:

Gremillet, D.; Wilson, R. P.; Wanless, S.; Chater, T. (2000).

3232: 9070: 8197: 5932:

Pulliam, H. Ronald (1974). "On the Theory of Optimal Diets".

5562: 1726: 1712: 1652: 1451:

uses sharp hooked claws and beak to kill and tear up its prey

1352: 1332: 1189: 1150: 1094: 1049: 968: 793: 773: 690: 541: 507: 423: 313: 275: 230:

paralyse and eventually kill their hosts, but are considered

7219: 6607: 4840: 4235: 3676: 3367:

The Spotted Hyena: A Study of Predation and Social Behaviour

2155: 1080: 657:

Having captured the prey, it may also need to expend energy

9056:

10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0469:TRFTUC]2.0.CO;2

8114: 8007:

10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0025:WDTYCO]2.0.CO;2

7987: 7899:

10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0755:WATEOF]2.0.CO;2

5094: 4730:

Gazda, S. K.; Connor, R. C.; Edgar, R. K.; Cox, F. (2005).

3824: 3822: 2899: 2784: 2747:, are to some extent predatory, using weapons and tools to 2273: 2044: 1992:

has developed a resistance to the toxin in the skin of the

1867: 1664: 1538: 1360: 1181: 1154: 1067:, like the lion and wolf that hunt in groups, or solitary. 487: 427: 419: 316:

scavenge when the opportunity arises. Among invertebrates,

267: 161: 8969: 8087:

Goel, Narendra S.; Maitra, S. C.; Montroll, E. W. (1971).

7706: 7525: 7430: 6461:"Electric eels use high-voltage to track fast-moving prey" 6311: 4805: 4438: 3613: 3535: 1695:, they attract prey and seize it when it is close enough. 1387:

teeth at rear for cutting flesh with a scissor-like action

9609: 9127: 8836: 8066: 7613:

Ordiz, Andrés; Bischof, Richard; Swenson, Jon E. (2013).

4948: 4849:"Energy cost and return for hunting in African wild dogs" 2772: 2362: 1348: 1317: 1301: 1289: 165: 137: 19:"Predator" and "Prey" redirect here. For other uses, see 9076: 7615:"Saving large carnivores, but losing the apex predator?" 7606: 6917: 5540:

Coyote America : a natural and supernatural history

5514:"Solitary Pumas Turn Out to Be Mountain Lions Who Lunch" 4846: 3915: 3876: 3874: 3819: 3515:(Student ed.). W.H. Freeman & Co. p. 432. 3311: 2436:—as evidenced by the almost simultaneous development of 2051:, where other predators kill and eat them. For example, 1905:, shedding body parts such as tails, or simply fleeing. 7937: 7229:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

5762:

Evolution and Escalation: An Ecological History of Life

4098:(7th (eBook) ed.). Eric R. Pianka. pp. 78–83. 3114:

Poulin, Robert (2011). "The Many Roads to Parasitism".

2759:

animals. They also use other predatory species such as

2542:

period. They preyed upon herbivorous dinosaurs such as

1433:

with forward-facing eyes, catching another predator, a

1208:

spot prey that is inaccessible to them, they signal to

8488: 7473: 6755:

Bowers, M. D.; Brown, Irene L.; Wheye, Darryl (1985).

4547:

deVries, M. S.; Murphy, E. A. K.; Patek S. N. (2012).

1948:, the genes of predator and prey can be thought of as 1691:

are ambush predators; camouflaged as flowers, such as

9229: 8592: 8590: 8033:"The Snowshoe Hare 10-year Cycle – A Cautionary Tale" 7479: 4498: 3871: 3433: 1093:

which it holds erect to discourage predators such as

816:). Another strategy in between ambush and pursuit is 749:

Search patterns often appear random. One such is the

669:

Predators have a choice of search modes ranging from

618:

animal larvae, and two groups of crustaceans, namely

102:(which always does, eventually). It is distinct from 9615: 8975: 8482: 8361: 7851: 5625:. American Museum of Natural History. 25 August 2014 5324: 5218:"Referential gestures in fish collaborative hunting" 4496: 4494: 4492: 4490: 4488: 4486: 4484: 4482: 4480: 4478: 3921: 3828: 3619: 3369:. University of California Press. pp. 107–108. 2825:

In film, the idea of the predator as a dangerous if

1320:

hunt exclusively by active or passive use of sound.

792:

can choose a patch of vegetation suitable for their

648:

cycle for a predator, with some variations indicated

9774: 9606:. – Inf.bl. Forsch.bereiches Landsch.ökol. 39: 4–5. 8147: 7612: 6923: 6899:Krause, Jens; Ruxton, Graeme D. (10 October 2002). 6862: 6583: 6038: 5877:

Problematic Wildlife: A Cross-Disciplinary Approach

5375: 5320: 5318: 4729: 4397: 3829:Velicer, Gregory J.; Mendes-Soares, Helena (2007). 3587:Hanssen, Sveinn Are; Erikstad, Kjell Einar (2012). 3580: 3289:

Plant animal Interactions: An Evolutionary Approach

3206:Janzen, D. H. (1971). "Seed Predation by Animals". 3030: 3028: 3026: 3024: 2775:in western societies. Human hunters, including the 2377:predator-prey population dynamics. The presence of 2361:; to have differences between individuals, such as 1355:as to big and visibly muscular carnivores like the 1138: 891:. Among the many invertebrate ambush predators are 8898:. Springer. pp. 113–139, 141–176 and passim. 8746: 8587: 8086: 7990:"What Drives the 10-year Cycle of Snowshoe Hares?" 7527:textbook examples of predator–prey interactions". 7146: 6542: 6261: 5960: 5463:Elbroch, L. Mark; Quigley, Howard (10 July 2016). 3282: 3280: 3226: 2876:. The phrase "Nature, red in tooth and claw" from 1667:(open plains) are camouflaged with coloration and 324:are both hunters and scavengers of other insects. 7227:(1979). "Arms races between and within species". 6672: 5733:. Royal Saskatchewan Museum. 2012. Archived from 5153: 5047: 5045: 4475: 3880: 3718:Hedrich, Rainer; Fukushima, Kenji (20 May 2021). 3055: 3000: 2510:periods, one of which, the 6 m (20 ft) 2081:as a result of predation. Energy passes from one 1847:makes it less visible to both predators and prey. 1482:unhinges its jaw to swallow large prey like this 879:ambush predators include frogs, fish such as the 258:Relation of predation to other feeding strategies 12135: 9439:"Is 'Predator' Finally Getting a Worthy Sequel?" 9381:Flint, Mary Louise; Dreistadt, Steve H. (1998). 9304: 9184:. University of New Hampshire Press. p. 9. 9177: 8310:"Book Review: Mathematics in population biology" 6754: 6222: 5315: 5215: 4047: 3717: 3021: 1129:spines on the back (dorsal) and belly (pectoral) 742:strategy for search has been modelled using the 262:There are other difficult and borderline cases. 9579: 9577: 9575: 9573: 9571: 9569: 8896:Predator—Prey Interactions in the Fossil Record 8367: 8303: 8301: 7880:Ripple, William J.; Beschta, Robert L. (2004). 7854:Environmental Science: Earth as a living planet 6806:"The chemistry of defense: theory and practice" 6044: 5637: 5556: 4403: 3975:Kramer, Donald L. (2001). "Foraging Behavior". 3586: 3277: 2520:"superpredator", preying upon other predators. 1277:, predators have evolved a variety of physical 1036:A specialised form of pursuit predation is the 9380: 8695: 7917:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 68–69. 7875: 7873: 7037: 6797: 6548: 5966: 5840: 5680:. MarineBio Conservation Society. 17 June 2018 5462: 5042: 4113:. Princeton University Press. pp. 59–76. 3775:Pramer, D. (1964). "Nematode-trapping fungi". 3429: 3427: 3425: 3423: 3421: 3419: 3163: 3161: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3061: 11330: 10583: 10399: 9847: 9736: 9409:Science Fiction Film: A Critical Introduction 9041: 8596: 8566: 8523: 8314:Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 8191: 8110: 8108: 7879: 7563: 7418: 7406: 7147:Barbosa, Pedro; Castellanos, Ignacio (2005). 7134: 6880: 6284: 5465:"Social interactions in a solitary carnivore" 5369: 5174: 4503:Moore, Talia Y.; Biewener, Andrew A. (2015). 4502: 4229: 4157:. Oxford University Press. pp. 535–556. 3970: 3968: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3589:"The long-term consequences of egg predation" 3034: 2440:in animals and algae, and predation-avoiding 2185:Riparian willow recovery at Blacktail Creek, 1891:signalling that they are toxic or unpalatable 1308:have forward-facing eyes, providing accurate 9566: 8740: 8689: 8298: 8031:Krebs, Charley; Myers, Judy (12 July 2014). 7767: 7521: 7519: 7215: 7213: 7211: 7179: 6898: 6608:Merilaita, Sami; Scott-Samuel, Nicholas E.; 6518:Electroreception and communication in fishes 6247:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6172:Dazzled and Deceived: Mimicry and Camouflage 6045:Owen-Smith, Norman; Mills, M. G. L. (2008). 5867: 5088: 4152: 4053: 4006: 4004: 3286: 3167: 2322:, the latter is often driven to extinction. 2189:, after reintroduction of wolves, the local 1044:. These very large marine predators feed on 274:that consume blood from living animals, and 9737:Jacobs, David Steve; Bastian, Anna (2017). 9538: 7870: 6968: 6903:. Oxford University Press. pp. 13–15. 6748: 6452: 6115: 5925: 5894: 5643: 4270: 4219: 4217: 3416: 3383: 3148: 2898:, but is a demonic figure in the Icelandic 2575:predator (c. 560 mya). It was a stem-group 2316:is added to a culture containing its prey, 1818: 11551:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity 11337: 11323: 10590: 10576: 10406: 10392: 9854: 9840: 9698:Antipredator Defenses in Birds and Mammals 9310: 9155:Blood Sport: Hunting in Britain Since 1066 9128:Gabriel, Otto; von Brandt, Andres (2005). 8630: 8152:. Princeton University Press. p. 39. 8105: 8030: 7663: 7334: 7332: 7330: 7328: 7326: 7276: 7274: 6509: 6270:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 1075. 5846: 5722: 5720: 5718: 5186: 5051: 4999: 4542: 4540: 3957: 3774: 3484:Encyclopedia of tidepools and rocky shores 2524:developed the ability to fly in the Early 967:are lunge feeders, filtering thousands of 9654: 9548:(1995). "The Tooth and Claw Centennial". 9289:The Humane Society of the United States. 9265: 9255: 9012: 8952: 8870: 8325: 8233: 8223: 8080: 8015: 8005: 7897: 7820: 7736: 7648: 7638: 7516: 7456: 7356: 7298: 7208: 7116: 7070: 7061: 7000: 6886: 6868: 6856: 6839: 6829: 6803: 6772: 6637: 6492: 6435: 6386: 6317: 6290: 6080: 6070: 5823: 5598: 5588: 5488: 5409: 5352: 5342: 5241: 5180: 5130: 5120: 4982: 4917: 4872: 4823: 4755: 4564: 4520: 4380: 4261: 4108: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4010: 4001: 3947: 3846: 3735: 3653: 3604: 3563: 3553: 3341: 3090: 2156:Biodiversity maintained by apex predation 1576: 935:(attacking with their tongues), and some 909: 106:on dead prey, though many predators also 11449:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations 11088:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense 9755: 9474: 9405: 9181:The Devil's Cormorant: A Natural History 8569:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 8292: 8280: 8268: 8256: 8172: 8141: 7770:Biological Oceanography: An Introduction 7569: 7382:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 6929: 6520:. Vol. 42. Universität Regensburg. 5873: 5783: 5209: 4653:"Eastern Frogfish, Batrachomoeus dubius" 4362: 4319: 4214: 4136: 4134: 4132: 4130: 3481: 3208:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 3201: 3199: 3107: 2805: 2726: 2421:) and armoured shells and exoskeletons. 2291: 2239: 2180: 1955: 1918: 1756: 1176: 971:from seawater and swallowing them alive. 922:attacks prey by shooting out its tongue. 913: 871:waiting in its burrow to ambush its prey 772:select plants of good quality for their 764: 715: 639: 516: 253: 222: 47: 31: 11481:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model 9583: 9503: 9204: 9152: 8887: 8612:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 8307: 8123:. Princeton University Press. pp. 7379: 7323: 7271: 6935: 6654: 6589: 6458: 6001: 5931: 5758: 5715: 5703:. New England Complex Systems Institute 5511: 4632:. Indiana Division of Fish and Wildlife 4581: 4537: 4276: 3513:What Is life? : a guide to biology 3389: 3065:; Randhawa, Haseeb S. (February 2015). 2910:. In the Middle Ages, belief spread in 2707:, perhaps the world's first vertebrate 2632:invertebrate, probably an apex predator 2498:were the armoured and mainly predatory 2384: 2120:(feed primarily on dead organic matter/ 2023:One way of classifying predators is by 1268: 78:, kills and eats another organism, its 12136: 11289:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense 9861: 9760:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 281. 8893: 8445: 8340: 8177:. Oxford University Press. p. 8. 8173:Nowak, Martin; May, Robert M. (2000). 7981: 7338: 7280: 7173: 6974: 6515: 6227:. Cengage Learning. pp. 153–154. 6195: 6175:. Yale University Press. p. 134. 6168: 6097: 5537: 5192: 5005: 4799: 4644: 4093: 4080: 3974: 3954:summarizes findings from many authors. 3510: 3458:"Predators, parasites and parasitoids" 3436:"Predation, Herbivory, and Parasitism" 3205: 3113: 3007:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 105. 2417:, increased size, mobility (including 2225: 1789:sensing and generating electric fields 1383:for killing prey, and self-sharpening 11318: 10571: 10387: 9835: 9544: 9463:Schatz, Thomas. "The New Hollywood". 9436: 8926: 7151:Ecology of predator-prey interactions 6975:Brodie, Edmund D. (3 November 2009). 6707: 5648:(Second ed.). pp. 837–839. 4177: 4127: 3737:10.1146/annurev-arplant-080620-010429 3364: 3196: 1999: 1490: 1224:have been known to help whalers hunt 1158:that are caught by the birds behind. 990:with captured prey, are invertebrate 810:) to a sudden strike on nearby prey ( 11304:Predator avoidance in schooling fish 9714: 9692: 9673: 9586:"The role of predators in Mythology" 9018: 7912: 7856:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 2. 7826: 7122: 7110: 7031: 6874: 6742: 6660: 6595: 6103: 5789: 5512:Quenqua, Douglas (11 October 2017). 5289: 5264: 4778: 4223: 4140: 3730:(1). annurev–arplant–080620-010429. 3390:Schmidt, Justin O. (2009). "Wasps". 2848:. A terrifying predator, a gigantic 1248:and all the thousands of species of 11754:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis 9638:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10040977.x 9602:translated from Wallner, A. (1998) 9178:King, Richard J. (1 October 2013). 8410: 7829:Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function 7394:10.1146/annurev.es.25.110194.001251 7155:. Oxford University Press. p. 6804:Berenbaum, M. R. (3 January 1995). 5698: 5304:Australian Broadcasting Corporation 4812:Integrative and Comparative Biology 4509:Integrative and Comparative Biology 3220:10.1146/annurev.es.02.110171.002341 2716: 2066: 1775:Electroreception and electrogenesis 1721:Many smaller predators such as the 13: 11507:Ecological effects of biodiversity 9758:Introduction to population ecology 9504:Davison, Peter (1 December 2002). 9462: 9385:. University of California Press. 9130:Fish catching methods of the world 9044:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 7915:Introduction to population biology 7300:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1986.tb05747.x 7281:Abrams, Peter A. (November 1986). 6774:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1985.tb04082.x 6264:"Rattlesnakes and Other Crotalids" 5728:"Predator & Prey: Adaptations" 5654:10.1016/B978-0-12-374144-8.00219-8 4782:Ecology and Conservation of Fishes 3985:10.1093/oso/9780195131543.003.0024 3400:10.1016/B978-0-12-374144-8.00275-7 3124:10.1016/B978-0-12-385897-9.00001-X 3116:Advances in Parasitology Volume 74 2516:, is considered the world's first 1752: 1632:in the form of a fishing rod-like 327: 82:. It is one of a family of common 14: 12165: 10843:Generalist and specialist species 9801: 9552:. Harmony Books. pp. 63–75. 8344:Mathematics in Population Biology 6924:Ruxton, Sherratt & Speed 2004 6863:Ruxton, Sherratt & Speed 2004 6584:Ruxton, Sherratt & Speed 2004 6225:Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition 5299:Killers in Eden (DVD documentary) 4888:success when hunting cursorially. 2738: 2085:to the next as predators consume 1497:Generalist and specialist species 1263: 931:(attacking with a jet of water), 172:that improve hunting efficiency. 11566:Occupancy–abundance relationship 10025: 9819: 9807: 9584:Wallner, Astrid (18 July 2005). 9497: 9456: 9430: 9399: 9374: 9368:British Broadcasting Corporation 9347: 9282: 9198: 9171: 9146: 9121: 9035: 8920: 8793:Emerging Topics in Life Sciences 8783: 8560: 8517: 8511:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2006.15188.x 8439: 8404: 8334: 8308:Cushing, J. M. (30 March 2005). 8286: 8274: 8262: 8250: 8166: 8039:. University of British Columbia 7931: 7906: 7845: 7794: 7778:10.1016/B978-075063384-0/50061-X 7761: 7700: 7657: 7424: 7412: 7400: 7373: 7140: 7128: 7104: 7025: 6892: 6736: 6701: 6666: 6072:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2007.01314.x 5919:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00139.x 5816:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01566.x 4736:Proceedings of the Royal Society 4650: 2801: 2690: 2665: 2637: 2612: 2588: 2559: 2494:of an insect. Some of the first 2055:compete with and sometimes kill 2008: 1852: 1833: 1787:, to incapacitate their prey by 1618: 1595: 1530: 1505: 1472: 1456: 1441: 1419: 1392: 1368: 1288:, predators have well-developed 1139:Solitary versus social predation 1102: 1079: 1019:endurance or persistence hunting 976: 957: 860: 838: 373: 354: 11586:Relative abundance distribution 11299:Plant defense against herbivory 11166:Competitive exclusion principle 10878:Mesopredator release hypothesis 9700:. University of Chicago Press. 9291:"U.S. Pet Ownership Statistics" 8581:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.79 7852:Botkin, D.; Keller, E. (2003). 7802:"Energy transfer in ecosystems" 7339:Brodie, Edmund D. (July 1999). 6577: 6375:Journal of Experimental Biology 6362: 6255: 6216: 6196:Bester, Cathleen (5 May 2017). 6189: 6162: 6109: 5995: 5874:Angelici, Francesco M. (2015). 5752: 5692: 5670: 5615: 5531: 5505: 5456: 5426: 5296:Toft, Klaus (Producer) (2007). 5258: 5147: 4942: 4906:Journal of Experimental Biology 4893: 4772: 4723: 4697: 4675: 4619: 4553:Journal of Experimental Biology 4432: 4356: 4313: 4171: 4146: 4102: 3768: 3711: 3670: 3529: 3504: 3475: 3450: 3358: 3291:. Blackwell. pp. 132–154. 3118:. Vol. 74. pp. 1–40. 2974: 2201:The elimination of wolves from 2197:. Left, in 2002; right, in 2015 1946:gene centered view of evolution 711:coccinellid beetles (ladybirds) 561:carnivorous and consume insects 438:. In marine environments, most 94:(which usually do not kill the 11171:Consumer–resource interactions 9721:Adaptive Coloration in Animals 9437:Newby, Richard (13 May 2018). 8843:Nature Ecology & Evolution 8526:Theoretical Population Biology 8448:Theoretical Population Biology 8413:Theoretical Population Biology 8347:. Princeton University Press. 8119:The Princeton guide to ecology 7182:Journal of Mammalian Evolution 6320:Journal of Molecular Evolution 5054:Nature Ecology & Evolution 4363:Buchanan, Mark (5 June 2008). 4279:Theoretical Population Biology 4242:Marine Ecology Progress Series 4155:Lifestyles and feeding biology 3724:Annual Review of Plant Biology 3488:University of California Press 3434:Stevens, Alison N. P. (2010). 3305: 2994: 1908: 1655:(grassy plains, reed swamps), 1017:An extreme form of pursuit is 904:not modifiable once launched. 406:. In some species such as the 179:on prey, and the prey develop 1: 12017:Biological data visualization 11844:Environmental niche modelling 11571:Population viability analysis 8327:10.1090/S0273-0979-05-01055-4 7088:10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_863 6291:Barceloux, Donald G. (2008). 5701:"Predator-Prey Relationships" 4418:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.01.008 3049:10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02615-0 2987: 2597:Cambrian substrate revolution 2299:-prey population cycles in a 1794: 1188:, cooperate to hunt and kill 760: 218: 11502:Density-dependent inhibition 9782:; Speed, Michael P. (2004). 9333:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.07.004 9257:10.1371/journal.pone.0174709 8718:10.1126/science.174.4011.825 8468:10.1016/0040-5809(86)90004-3 8433:10.1016/0040-5809(87)90019-0 8225:10.1371/journal.pone.0009774 7640:10.1016/j.biocon.2013.09.024 6459:Catania, Kenneth C. (2015). 6140:10.1126/science.149.3684.653 5590:10.1371/journal.pone.0031619 5122:10.1371/journal.pone.0112884 4709:Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum 4601:Canadian Wildlife Federation 4299:10.1016/0040-5809(76)90040-x 4064:10.1007/978-1-4757-3250-4_17 3797:10.1126/science.144.3617.382 2459:is an Ediacaran crown-group 2205:had profound impacts on the 1636:on its head to attract prey. 1537:Size-selective predation: a 705:, freshwater fish including 7: 11971:Liebig's law of the minimum 11806:Resource selection function 10697:Metabolic theory of ecology 9786:. Oxford University Press. 9756:Rockwood, Larry L. (2009). 9406:Johnston, Keith M. (2013). 8390:10.1088/0951-7715/26/8/2299 6266:. In Brent, Jeffrey (ed.). 6262:Cetaruk, Edward W. (2005). 5759:Vermeij, Geerat J. (1993). 4342:10.1016/j.plrev.2015.03.002 2935: 2906:appears in the apocalyptic 2818:, the mythical founders of 2568:Auroralumina attenboroughii 2456:Auroralumina attenboroughii 2166:Predators may increase the 1335:and fish-eating birds like 1252:among arthropods, and many 1070: 629: 63:far larger than themselves. 10: 12172: 11871:Niche apportionment models 11591:Relative species abundance 10795:Primary nutritional groups 10692:List of feeding behaviours 10483:Behavior-altering parasite 9648: 9313:Journal of Human Evolution 8927:Daley, Allison C. (2013). 8863:10.1038/s41559-022-01807-x 8150:Consumer-resource dynamics 8059:"Predators and their prey" 7341:"Predator-Prey Arms Races" 7080:Encyclopedia of Entomology 5847:Sidorovich, Vadim (2011). 5769:. pp. 11 and passim. 5767:Princeton University Press 5402:10.1038/s41598-018-30199-x 5265:Yong, Ed (24 April 2013). 4785:. CRC Press. p. 233. 3928:Limnology and Oceanography 3440:Nature Education Knowledge 2829:enemy is used in the 1987 2720: 2388: 2289:over more than a century. 2229: 2159: 2070: 2012: 1912: 1822: 1772: 1710: 1663:(waterside thickets), and 1580: 1494: 1300:. Predators as diverse as 1142: 1091:dorsal and pectoral spines 1056:it through their feathery 946: 942: 827: 799: 633: 331: 18: 12120: 12052:Ecosystem based fisheries 11994: 11894: 11819: 11692: 11664:Interspecific competition 11629: 11556:Minimum viable population 11489: 11414:Maximum sustainable yield 11399:Intraspecific competition 11394:Effective population size 11357: 11274:Anti-predator adaptations 11259: 11138: 11065: 11022: 10944: 10911: 10808: 10785:Photosynthetic efficiency 10720: 10614: 10493:Host–parasite coevolution 10428: 10373:Category:Eating behaviors 10348: 10194: 10118: 10097: 10034: 10023: 9990: 9954: 9878: 9869: 9475:Stringer, Julian (2003). 9205:Glasier, Phillip (1998). 9157:. Yale University Press. 8954:10.1016/j.cub.2013.07.008 8894:Kelley, Patricia (2003). 8659:10.1017/S002233600002014X 8546:10.1016/j.tpb.2009.08.005 8341:Thieme, Horst R. (2003). 7831:. Springer. p. 237. 7437:Journal of Animal Ecology 7419:Jacobs & Bastian 2017 7407:Jacobs & Bastian 2017 7135:Jacobs & Bastian 2017 7002:10.1016/j.cub.2009.08.011 6340:10.1007/s00239-004-0138-0 6051:Journal of Animal Ecology 5880:. Springer. p. 160. 5193:Dawson, James W. (1988). 5074:10.1038/s41559-017-0245-0 4597:Canadian Wildlife Service 3949:10.4319/lo.1997.42.4.0687 3848:10.1016/j.cub.2008.10.043 3684:10.13140/RG.2.1.1014.6960 3083:10.1017/S0031182013001674 2579:, catching prey with its 2471:as modern cnidarians do. 2203:Yellowstone National Park 2187:Yellowstone National Park 2112:(feed primarily on other 1936:been characterized as an 1097:which swallow prey whole. 1063:Pursuit predators may be 823: 755:good fit to the behaviour 697:rarely move. In between, 664: 175:Predation has a powerful 21:Predator (disambiguation) 12042:Ecological stoichiometry 12007:Alternative stable state 9678:. Springer Netherlands. 9019:Carr, Robert K. (2010). 8608:Evolution of the Insects 4779:Tyus, Harold M. (2011). 4094:Pianka, Eric R. (2011). 3555:10.3389/fphys.2017.00598 2967: 2779:of southern Africa, use 2355:geographic distributions 2308:Lotka–Volterra equations 2236:Lotka–Volterra equations 1862:misdirects predators by 1819:Antipredator adaptations 1717:Evolution of snake venom 1706: 1671:suiting their habitats. 1200:, when fish such as the 181:antipredator adaptations 74:where one organism, the 12154:Biological pest control 11886:Ontogenetic niche shift 11749:Ideal free distribution 11659:Ecological facilitation 11409:Malthusian growth model 11379:Consumer-resource model 11236:Paradox of the plankton 11201:Energy systems language 10921:Chemoorganoheterotrophy 10888:Optimal foraging theory 10863:Heterotrophic nutrition 10418:biological interactions 10353:Antipredator adaptation 9655:Beauchamp, Guy (2012). 9099:10.1126/science.aac4249 8639:Journal of Paleontology 7619:Biological Conservation 7458:10.1111/1365-2656.13213 6297:. Wiley. p. 1028. 6204:. University of Florida 5934:The American Naturalist 5646:Encyclopedia of Insects 4441:The American Naturalist 4322:Physics of Life Reviews 4180:The American Naturalist 4013:The American Naturalist 3542:Frontiers in Physiology 3392:Encyclopedia of Insects 2792:biological pest control 2449: million years ago 2434: million years ago 2276:. Over a broad span of 1927:to hunt moths at night. 1825:Antipredator adaptation 897:Australian Crab spiders 59:cooperate to feed on a 12032:Ecological forecasting 11976:Marginal value theorem 11774:Landscape epidemiology 11709:Cross-boundary subsidy 11644:Biological interaction 10994:Microbial intelligence 10682:Green world hypothesis 9812:Quotations related to 9550:Dinosaur in a Haystack 9153:Griffin, Emma (2008). 7249:10.1098/rspb.1979.0081 7082:. pp. 1173–1174. 6722:10.1006/anbe.2001.1890 6687:10.1006/anbe.2000.1636 6630:10.1098/rstb.2016.0341 6614:"How camouflage works" 6516:Kramer, Bernd (1996). 6428:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0566 6198:"Antennarius striatus" 6169:Forbes, Peter (2009). 5981:10.1006/anbe.2000.1592 5853:. Tesey. p. 426. 5623:"How do Spiders Hunt?" 4748:10.1098/rspb.2004.2937 3699:Cite journal requires 3394:. pp. 1049–1052. 2952:Predator–prey reversal 2902:sagas, where the wolf 2895:Little Red Riding Hood 2855:, is central, too, to 2822: 2735: 2303: 2257: 2198: 1964: 1938:evolutionary arms race 1928: 1770: 1651:(treeless highlands), 1577:Camouflage and mimicry 1273:Under the pressure of 1193: 923: 910:Ballistic interception 818:ballistic interception 777: 744:marginal value theorem 735:black-browed albatross 725: 722:black-browed albatross 649: 547:Some plants, like the 534: 259: 235: 205:evolutionary arms race 72:biological interaction 64: 45: 16:Biological interaction 12037:Ecological humanities 11936:Ecological energetics 11881:Niche differentiation 11744:Habitat fragmentation 11512:Ecological extinction 11459:Small population size 11211:Feed conversion ratio 11191:Ecological succession 11123:San Francisco Estuary 11037:Ecological efficiency 10979:Microbial cooperation 7729:10.1007/s004420000448 7063:10.1093/beheco/arr135 6465:Nature Communications 5222:Nature Communications 4955:Nature Communications 4853:Nature Communications 4056:Limnological Analyses 3889:. Springer. pp. 3885:Predatory Prokaryotes 3831:"Bacterial predators" 3606:10.1093/beheco/ars198 2878:Alfred, Lord Tennyson 2809: 2730: 2723:Human uses of animals 2721:Further information: 2698:Dunkleosteus terrelli 2389:Further information: 2327:structurally unstable 2295: 2243: 2230:Further information: 2184: 2160:Further information: 2073:Energy flow (ecology) 2071:Further information: 2013:Further information: 1959: 1944:of two species. In a 1922: 1913:Further information: 1779:Electric organ (fish) 1773:Further information: 1760: 1745:(the deletion of two 1711:Further information: 1581:Further information: 1495:Further information: 1407:, and powerful jaws ( 1180: 917: 768: 719: 643: 614:, a diverse range of 520: 478:are predatory. Among 332:Further information: 257: 226: 51: 36:Solitary predator: a 35: 25:Prey (disambiguation) 12062:Evolutionary ecology 12027:Ecological footprint 12022:Ecological economics 11946:Ecological threshold 11941:Ecological indicator 11811:Source–sink dynamics 11764:Land change modeling 11759:Insular biogeography 11611:Species distribution 11350:Modelling ecosystems 11009:Microbial metabolism 10848:Intraguild predation 10637:Biogeochemical cycle 10603:Modelling ecosystems 10508:Parasitic castration 10448:Deception in animals 9828:at Wikimedia Commons 9674:Bell, W. J. (2012). 9618:Conservation Biology 9207:Falconry and Hawking 8805:10.1042/ETLS20170153 7772:. pp. 112–146. 7113:, pp. v–xi, 4–5 5790:Getz, W. M. (2011). 5538:Flores, Dan (2016). 5438:Sibley Nature Center 5277:on 17 September 2018 5168:10.3377/004.044.0104 4663:on 14 September 2014 4593:Hinterland Who's Who 4559:(Pt 24): 4374–4384. 4096:Evolutionary ecology 4058:. pp. 257–262. 3977:Evolutionary Ecology 3511:Phelan, Jay (2009). 3365:Kruuk, Hans (1972). 3184:on 10 September 2008 2918:. More recently, in 2385:Evolutionary history 2301:Lotka–Volterra model 2287:Hudson's Bay Company 2254:Hudson's Bay Company 2049:intraguild predation 1940:, an example of the 1628:uses camouflage and 1514:Platydemus manokwari 1323:Predators including 1269:Physical adaptations 846:Western green lizard 770:Seven-spot ladybirds 709:, and the larvae of 338:Nematophagous fungus 12112:Theoretical ecology 12087:Natural environment 11951:Ecosystem diversity 11921:Ecological collapse 11911:Bateman's principle 11866:Limiting similarity 11779:Landscape limnology 11601:Species homogeneity 11439:Population modeling 11434:Population dynamics 11251:Trophic state index 10368:Carnivorous protist 10222:Intraguild predator 9630:1996ConBi..10..977K 9363:The Life of Mammals 9325:2008JHumE..55.1156L 9248:2017PLoSO..1274709A 9091:2015Sci...349..858D 8990:2009Pbio...35..251A 8945:2013CBio...23.R860D 8855:2022NatEE...6.1095D 8761:2008Pbio...34....1S 8710:1971Sci...174..825A 8651:1991JPal...65....1G 8538:2009TPBio..76..248C 8503:2006Oikos.115..192B 8460:1986TPBio..29...38M 8425:1987TPBio..31....1S 8382:2013Nonli..26.2299K 8216:2010PLoSO...5.9774G 7959:2004Ecol...85.1853N 7913:Neal, Dick (2004). 7806:National Geographic 7721:2000Oecol.125..258F 7678:1978Natur.275..542P 7631:2013BCons.168..128O 7584:1942Ecol...23..399L 7541:2008Ecol...89.2416P 7494:2005Ecol...86..501P 7449:2020JAnEc..89.1302S 7241:1979RSPSB.205..489D 6993:2009CBio...19.R931B 6977:"Toxins and venoms" 6938:Lepomis macrochirus 6831:10.1073/pnas.92.1.2 6822:1995PNAS...92....2B 6477:2015NatCo...6.8638C 6332:2005JMolE..60...81L 6132:1965Sci...149..653L 6063:2008JAnEc..77..173O 6016:1972Ecol...53..375S 5808:2011EcolL..14..113G 5581:2012PLoSO...731619N 5394:2018NatSR...811828M 5271:National Geographic 5234:2013NatCo...4.1765V 5113:2014PLoSO...9k2884M 5066:2017NatEE...1.1230L 5020:1989Oikos..55..155F 4967:2015NatCo...6.8285S 4865:10.1038/ncomms11034 4657:Fishes of Australia 4334:2015PhLRv..14...59R 4291:1976TPBio...9..129C 4254:2000MEPS..195..269G 3940:1997LimOc..42..687H 3789:1964Sci...144..382P 3638:2016NatSR...622207P 3326:2017Ecogr..40..324K 3247:1985Oecol..66..511N 3077:(Suppl 1): S6–S15. 2908:ending of the world 2781:persistence hunting 2411:sexual reproduction 2331:functional response 2319:Paramecium caudatum 2232:Population dynamics 2226:Population dynamics 2149:metabolic processes 2104:(feed primarily on 1990:common garter snake 1961:Eastern coral snake 1669:disruptive patterns 1525:, attacking a snail 1467:with a speared fish 1145:Cooperative hunting 1004:parallel navigation 368:engulfing an insect 211:since at least the 110:; it overlaps with 12123:Outline of ecology 12072:Industrial ecology 12067:Functional ecology 11931:Ecological deficit 11876:Niche construction 11839:Ecosystem engineer 11616:Species–area curve 11537:Introduced species 11352:: Other components 11284:Deimatic behaviour 11186:Ecological network 11118:North Pacific Gyre 11103:hydrothermal vents 11042:Ecological pyramid 10989:Microbial food web 10800:Primary production 10745:Foundation species 10547:Cleaning symbiosis 10363:Carnivorous fungus 10013:Sexual cannibalism 9998:Animal cannibalism 9863:Feeding behaviours 9546:Gould, Stephen Jay 9511:The New York Times 9483:. pp. 15–44. 9477:Movie Blockbusters 9465:Movie Blockbusters 9443:Hollywood Reporter 9370:. 31 October 2002. 9355:"Food For Thought" 8283:, pp. 271–272 8091:. Academic Press. 7808:. 18 February 2023 7194:10.1007/bf01041590 7050:Behavioral Ecology 7034:, pp. 368–389 6877:, pp. 663–684 6745:, pp. 241–307 6586:, pp. vii–xii 6485:10.1038/ncomms9638 6388:10.1242/jeb.022566 5907:Journal of Zoology 5518:The New York Times 5434:"Ambush Predators" 5382:Scientific Reports 5344:10.7717/peerj.3701 5310:on 12 August 2009. 5243:10.1038/ncomms2781 5197:(Masters thesis). 4975:10.1038/ncomms9285 4825:10.1093/icb/ict072 4683:"Trapdoor spiders" 4627:"Pikes (Esocidae)" 4566:10.1242/jeb.075317 4522:10.1093/icb/icv074 4263:10.3354/meps195269 3626:Scientific Reports 3593:Behavioral Ecology 3334:10.1111/ecog.02817 3255:10.1007/BF00379342 2882:In Memoriam A.H.H. 2823: 2736: 2530:theropod dinosaurs 2304: 2258: 2199: 2000:Role in ecosystems 1994:rough-skinned newt 1965: 1929: 1771: 1676:aggressive mimicry 1630:aggressive mimicry 1587:Aggressive mimicry 1491:Diet and behaviour 1379:has large pointed 1194: 1174:can trap rabbits. 924: 778: 726: 650: 535: 260: 236: 185:warning coloration 170:aggressive mimicry 84:feeding behaviours 65: 46: 12129: 12128: 12012:Balance of nature 11769:Landscape ecology 11654:Community ecology 11596:Species diversity 11532:Indicator species 11527:Gradient analysis 11404:Logistic function 11312: 11311: 11269:Animal coloration 11246:Trophic mutualism 10984:Microbial ecology 10775:Photoheterotrophs 10760:Myco-heterotrophy 10672:Ecosystem ecology 10657:Carrying capacity 10622:Abiotic component 10565: 10564: 10381: 10380: 10358:Carnivorous plant 10234:Aquatic predation 10021: 10020: 10003:Human cannibalism 9824:Media related to 9776:Ruxton, Graeme D. 9707:978-0-226-09436-6 9592:on 5 October 2018 9490:978-0-415-25608-7 9392:978-0-520-21801-7 9191:978-1-61168-225-0 9139:978-0-85238-280-6 9085:(6250): 858–860. 8939:(19): R860–R861. 8929:"Anomalocaridids" 8905:978-1-4615-0161-9 8704:(4011): 825–827. 8623:978-0-521-82149-0 8602:Engel, Michael S. 8354:978-0-691-09291-1 8295:, p. 272–273 7863:978-0-471-38914-9 7787:978-0-7506-3384-0 7672:(5680): 542–544. 7549:10.1890/07-1131.1 7235:(1161): 489–511. 7125:, p. 413–414 7097:978-1-4020-6242-1 6987:(20): R931–R935. 6610:Cuthill, Innes C. 6598:, pp. 67–114 6535:978-3-437-25038-5 6526:10.5283/epub.2108 6304:978-0-470-33557-4 6277:978-0-8151-4387-1 6234:978-81-315-0104-7 6182:978-0-300-17896-8 6126:(3684): 653–654. 5887:978-3-319-22246-2 5860:978-985-463-456-2 5776:978-0-691-00080-0 5481:10.1093/cz/zow080 4919:10.1242/jeb.02135 4792:978-1-4398-9759-1 4742:(1559): 135–140. 4705:"Trapdoor spider" 4375:(7196): 714–716. 4226:, pp. 69–188 4073:978-1-4419-3186-3 3994:978-0-19-513154-3 3908:978-3-540-38577-6 3783:(3617): 382–388. 3646:10.1038/srep22207 3462:Australian Museum 3409:978-0-12-374144-8 3298:978-0-632-05267-7 3133:978-0-12-385897-9 3037:Trends Ecol. Evol 3014:978-1-118-23185-2 2947:Predation problem 2916:Romulus and Remus 2859:'s 1974 thriller 2853:great white shark 2846:its three sequels 2816:Romulus and Remus 2679:theropod dinosaur 2496:fish to have jaws 2348:great horned owls 2262:carrying capacity 2256:from 1845 to 1935 2098:primary producers 1803:polymer from the 1739:marbled sea snake 1626:Striated frogfish 1560:. Others such as 1556:only hunts small 1435:field digger wasp 1275:natural selection 1031:African wild dogs 992:pursuit predators 949:Pursuit predation 807:pursuit predation 565:carnivorous fungi 362:Carnivorous plant 334:Carnivorous plant 148:. Many predatory 131:pursuit predation 12161: 11829:Ecological niche 11801:selection theory 11621:Umbrella species 11606:Species richness 11542:Invasive species 11522:Flagship species 11429:Population cycle 11424:Overexploitation 11389:Ecological yield 11339: 11332: 11325: 11316: 11315: 11221:Mesotrophic soil 11161:Climax community 11093:Marine food webs 11032:Biomagnification 10833:Chemoorganotroph 10687:Keystone species 10647:Biotic component 10592: 10585: 10578: 10569: 10568: 10556: 10549: 10535: 10528: 10503:Kleptoparasitism 10488:Brood parasitism 10408: 10401: 10394: 10385: 10384: 10227:Pursuit predator 10029: 10008:Self-cannibalism 9876: 9875: 9856: 9849: 9842: 9833: 9832: 9823: 9811: 9797: 9780:Sherratt, Tom N. 9771: 9752: 9733: 9711: 9689: 9670: 9642: 9641: 9613: 9607: 9601: 9599: 9597: 9581: 9564: 9563: 9542: 9536: 9535: 9529:Esther's Tomcat, 9526:The Thought-Fox, 9520: 9518: 9501: 9495: 9494: 9472: 9460: 9454: 9453: 9451: 9449: 9434: 9428: 9427: 9403: 9397: 9396: 9378: 9372: 9371: 9359: 9351: 9345: 9344: 9319:(6): 1156–1159. 9308: 9302: 9301: 9299: 9297: 9286: 9280: 9279: 9269: 9259: 9227: 9221: 9220: 9202: 9196: 9195: 9175: 9169: 9168: 9150: 9144: 9143: 9125: 9119: 9118: 9074: 9068: 9067: 9039: 9033: 9032: 9016: 9010: 9009: 8973: 8967: 8966: 8956: 8924: 8918: 8917: 8891: 8885: 8884: 8874: 8849:(8): 1095–1104. 8834: 8825: 8824: 8787: 8781: 8780: 8744: 8738: 8737: 8693: 8687: 8686: 8634: 8628: 8627: 8611: 8594: 8585: 8584: 8564: 8558: 8557: 8521: 8515: 8514: 8486: 8480: 8479: 8443: 8437: 8436: 8408: 8402: 8401: 8376:(8): 2299–2314. 8365: 8359: 8358: 8338: 8332: 8331: 8329: 8305: 8296: 8290: 8284: 8278: 8272: 8266: 8260: 8254: 8248: 8247: 8237: 8227: 8195: 8189: 8188: 8170: 8164: 8163: 8145: 8139: 8138: 8122: 8112: 8103: 8102: 8084: 8078: 8077: 8075: 8073: 8055: 8049: 8048: 8046: 8044: 8037:Ecological rants 8028: 8022: 8021: 8019: 8009: 7985: 7979: 7978: 7953:(7): 1853–1858. 7944: 7935: 7929: 7928: 7910: 7904: 7903: 7901: 7877: 7868: 7867: 7849: 7843: 7842: 7824: 7818: 7817: 7815: 7813: 7798: 7792: 7791: 7765: 7759: 7758: 7740: 7704: 7698: 7697: 7686:10.1038/275542a0 7661: 7655: 7654: 7652: 7642: 7610: 7604: 7603: 7567: 7561: 7560: 7535:(9): 2416–2425. 7523: 7514: 7513: 7477: 7471: 7470: 7460: 7443:(6): 1302–1316. 7428: 7422: 7416: 7410: 7404: 7398: 7397: 7377: 7371: 7370: 7360: 7336: 7321: 7320: 7302: 7293:(6): 1229–1247. 7278: 7269: 7268: 7221:Dawkins, Richard 7217: 7206: 7205: 7177: 7171: 7170: 7154: 7144: 7138: 7132: 7126: 7120: 7114: 7108: 7102: 7101: 7074: 7068: 7067: 7065: 7056:(6): 1326–1331. 7041: 7035: 7029: 7023: 7022: 7004: 6972: 6966: 6965: 6948:(4): 1086–1088. 6933: 6927: 6926:, pp. 54–55 6921: 6915: 6914: 6901:Living in groups 6896: 6890: 6889:, pp. 83–88 6884: 6878: 6872: 6866: 6865:, pp. 70–81 6860: 6854: 6853: 6843: 6833: 6801: 6795: 6794: 6776: 6752: 6746: 6740: 6734: 6733: 6710:Animal Behaviour 6705: 6699: 6698: 6675:Animal Behaviour 6670: 6664: 6663:, pp. 13–15 6658: 6652: 6651: 6641: 6605: 6599: 6593: 6587: 6581: 6575: 6574: 6546: 6540: 6539: 6513: 6507: 6506: 6496: 6456: 6450: 6449: 6439: 6407: 6401: 6400: 6390: 6381:(9): 1351–1364. 6366: 6360: 6359: 6315: 6309: 6308: 6288: 6282: 6281: 6259: 6253: 6252: 6246: 6238: 6220: 6214: 6213: 6211: 6209: 6193: 6187: 6186: 6166: 6160: 6159: 6113: 6107: 6106:, pp. 12–13 6101: 6095: 6094: 6084: 6074: 6042: 6036: 6035: 5999: 5993: 5992: 5969:Animal Behaviour 5964: 5958: 5957: 5929: 5923: 5922: 5898: 5892: 5891: 5871: 5865: 5864: 5844: 5838: 5837: 5827: 5787: 5781: 5780: 5756: 5750: 5749: 5747: 5745: 5739: 5732: 5724: 5713: 5712: 5710: 5708: 5696: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5685: 5674: 5668: 5667: 5641: 5635: 5634: 5632: 5630: 5619: 5613: 5612: 5602: 5592: 5560: 5554: 5553: 5535: 5529: 5528: 5526: 5524: 5509: 5503: 5502: 5492: 5460: 5454: 5453: 5451: 5449: 5444:on 2 August 2021 5440:. Archived from 5430: 5424: 5423: 5413: 5373: 5367: 5366: 5356: 5346: 5322: 5313: 5312:ISBN R-105732-9. 5311: 5306:. Archived from 5293: 5287: 5286: 5284: 5282: 5273:. Archived from 5262: 5256: 5255: 5245: 5213: 5207: 5206: 5190: 5184: 5178: 5172: 5171: 5151: 5145: 5144: 5134: 5124: 5092: 5086: 5085: 5060:(9): 1230–1239. 5049: 5040: 5039: 5003: 4997: 4996: 4986: 4946: 4940: 4939: 4921: 4912:(7): 1231–1244. 4897: 4891: 4890: 4876: 4844: 4838: 4837: 4827: 4803: 4797: 4796: 4776: 4770: 4769: 4759: 4727: 4721: 4720: 4718: 4716: 4701: 4695: 4694: 4692: 4690: 4679: 4673: 4672: 4670: 4668: 4659:. Archived from 4648: 4642: 4641: 4639: 4637: 4631: 4623: 4617: 4616: 4614: 4612: 4603:. Archived from 4585: 4579: 4578: 4568: 4544: 4535: 4534: 4524: 4500: 4473: 4472: 4436: 4430: 4429: 4406:Animal Behaviour 4401: 4395: 4394: 4384: 4360: 4354: 4353: 4317: 4311: 4310: 4274: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4233: 4227: 4221: 4212: 4211: 4175: 4169: 4168: 4150: 4144: 4138: 4125: 4124: 4106: 4100: 4099: 4091: 4078: 4077: 4051: 4045: 4044: 4008: 3999: 3998: 3972: 3955: 3953: 3951: 3919: 3913: 3912: 3899:10.1007/7171_052 3888: 3878: 3869: 3868: 3850: 3826: 3817: 3816: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3739: 3715: 3709: 3708: 3702: 3697: 3695: 3687: 3674: 3668: 3667: 3657: 3617: 3611: 3610: 3608: 3584: 3578: 3577: 3567: 3557: 3533: 3527: 3526: 3508: 3502: 3501: 3479: 3473: 3472: 3470: 3468: 3454: 3448: 3447: 3431: 3414: 3413: 3387: 3381: 3380: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3345: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3284: 3275: 3274: 3230: 3224: 3223: 3203: 3194: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3183: 3176: 3165: 3146: 3145: 3111: 3105: 3104: 3094: 3059: 3053: 3052: 3032: 3019: 3018: 2998: 2981: 2978: 2857:Steven Spielberg 2734:hunter, Botswana 2717:In human society 2711:, reconstruction 2694: 2685:, reconstruction 2669: 2641: 2616: 2599:saw life on the 2592: 2563: 2465:Charnwood Forest 2450: 2435: 2415:multicellularity 2313:Didinium nasutum 2250:Lepus americanus 2191:keystone species 2172:keystone species 2162:Keystone species 2067:Trophic transfer 1860:Syrphid hoverfly 1856: 1841:Dead leaf mantis 1837: 1622: 1599: 1534: 1509: 1476: 1465:great blue heron 1460: 1445: 1423: 1396: 1372: 1310:binocular vision 1214:Napoleon wrasses 1210:giant moray eels 1186:social predators 1160:Spinner dolphins 1106: 1083: 1023:hunter-gatherers 980: 961: 893:trapdoor spiders 889:eastern frogfish 864: 842: 830:Ambush predation 813:ambush predation 740:optimal foraging 574:Many species of 454:(comb jellies), 377: 358: 234:, not predators. 177:selective effect 118:and destructive 53:Social predators 12171: 12170: 12164: 12163: 12162: 12160: 12159: 12158: 12134: 12133: 12130: 12125: 12116: 12102:Systems ecology 11990: 11961:Extinction debt 11926:Ecological debt 11916:Bioluminescence 11897: 11890: 11859:marine habitats 11834:Ecological trap 11815: 11695: 11688: 11631: 11625: 11581:Rapoport's rule 11576:Priority effect 11517:Endemic species 11485: 11444:Population size 11360: 11353: 11343: 11313: 11308: 11261: 11255: 11241:Trophic cascade 11151:Bioaccumulation 11134: 11061: 11018: 10940: 10907: 10804: 10716: 10677:Ecosystem model 10610: 10596: 10566: 10561: 10552: 10545: 10531: 10524: 10424: 10412: 10382: 10377: 10344: 10335:Surplus killing 10207:Ambush predator 10190: 10114: 10093: 10030: 10017: 9986: 9950: 9865: 9860: 9804: 9794: 9768: 9749: 9708: 9686: 9667: 9651: 9646: 9645: 9614: 9610: 9595: 9593: 9582: 9567: 9560: 9543: 9539: 9516: 9514: 9502: 9498: 9491: 9461: 9457: 9447: 9445: 9435: 9431: 9424: 9414:Berg Publishers 9404: 9400: 9393: 9379: 9375: 9357: 9353: 9352: 9348: 9309: 9305: 9295: 9293: 9287: 9283: 9242:(4): e0174709. 9228: 9224: 9217: 9203: 9199: 9192: 9176: 9172: 9165: 9151: 9147: 9140: 9126: 9122: 9075: 9071: 9040: 9036: 9017: 9013: 8998:10.1666/08011.1 8974: 8970: 8933:Current Biology 8925: 8921: 8906: 8892: 8888: 8835: 8828: 8788: 8784: 8769:10.1666/07026.1 8745: 8741: 8694: 8690: 8635: 8631: 8624: 8598:Grimaldi, David 8595: 8588: 8565: 8561: 8522: 8518: 8487: 8483: 8444: 8440: 8409: 8405: 8366: 8362: 8355: 8339: 8335: 8306: 8299: 8291: 8287: 8279: 8275: 8267: 8263: 8255: 8251: 8196: 8192: 8185: 8171: 8167: 8160: 8146: 8142: 8135: 8113: 8106: 8099: 8085: 8081: 8071: 8069: 8057: 8056: 8052: 8042: 8040: 8029: 8025: 7986: 7982: 7967:10.1890/03-3109 7942: 7936: 7932: 7925: 7911: 7907: 7878: 7871: 7864: 7850: 7846: 7839: 7825: 7821: 7811: 7809: 7800: 7799: 7795: 7788: 7766: 7762: 7705: 7701: 7662: 7658: 7611: 7607: 7592:10.2307/1930126 7568: 7564: 7524: 7517: 7502:10.1890/04-0719 7478: 7474: 7429: 7425: 7417: 7413: 7405: 7401: 7378: 7374: 7358:10.2307/1313476 7337: 7324: 7279: 7272: 7218: 7209: 7178: 7174: 7167: 7145: 7141: 7133: 7129: 7121: 7117: 7109: 7105: 7098: 7075: 7071: 7042: 7038: 7030: 7026: 6981:Current Biology 6973: 6969: 6954:10.2307/1445113 6934: 6930: 6922: 6918: 6911: 6897: 6893: 6885: 6881: 6873: 6869: 6861: 6857: 6802: 6798: 6753: 6749: 6741: 6737: 6706: 6702: 6671: 6667: 6659: 6655: 6612:(22 May 2017). 6606: 6602: 6594: 6590: 6582: 6578: 6563:10.2307/1310825 6547: 6543: 6536: 6514: 6510: 6457: 6453: 6416:Biology Letters 6408: 6404: 6367: 6363: 6316: 6312: 6305: 6289: 6285: 6278: 6260: 6256: 6240: 6239: 6235: 6221: 6217: 6207: 6205: 6194: 6190: 6183: 6167: 6163: 6114: 6110: 6102: 6098: 6043: 6039: 6024:10.2307/1934223 6000: 5996: 5965: 5961: 5930: 5926: 5903:Panthera pardus 5899: 5895: 5888: 5872: 5868: 5861: 5845: 5841: 5796:Ecology Letters 5788: 5784: 5777: 5757: 5753: 5743: 5741: 5740:on 3 April 2018 5737: 5730: 5726: 5725: 5716: 5706: 5704: 5697: 5693: 5683: 5681: 5676: 5675: 5671: 5664: 5642: 5638: 5628: 5626: 5621: 5620: 5616: 5561: 5557: 5550: 5542:. Basic Books. 5536: 5532: 5522: 5520: 5510: 5506: 5469:Current Zoology 5461: 5457: 5447: 5445: 5432: 5431: 5427: 5374: 5370: 5323: 5316: 5295: 5294: 5290: 5280: 5278: 5263: 5259: 5214: 5210: 5191: 5187: 5183:, pp. 7–12 5179: 5175: 5156:African Zoology 5152: 5148: 5107:(11): e112884. 5093: 5089: 5050: 5043: 5028:10.2307/3565418 5004: 5000: 4947: 4943: 4898: 4894: 4845: 4841: 4804: 4800: 4793: 4777: 4773: 4728: 4724: 4714: 4712: 4703: 4702: 4698: 4688: 4686: 4681: 4680: 4676: 4666: 4664: 4649: 4645: 4635: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4624: 4620: 4610: 4608: 4587: 4586: 4582: 4545: 4538: 4501: 4476: 4437: 4433: 4402: 4398: 4382:10.1038/453714a 4361: 4357: 4318: 4314: 4275: 4271: 4234: 4230: 4222: 4215: 4176: 4172: 4165: 4151: 4147: 4139: 4128: 4121: 4107: 4103: 4092: 4081: 4074: 4052: 4048: 4009: 4002: 3995: 3973: 3958: 3920: 3916: 3909: 3879: 3872: 3827: 3820: 3773: 3769: 3716: 3712: 3700: 3698: 3689: 3688: 3675: 3671: 3618: 3614: 3585: 3581: 3534: 3530: 3523: 3509: 3505: 3498: 3480: 3476: 3466: 3464: 3456: 3455: 3451: 3432: 3417: 3410: 3388: 3384: 3377: 3363: 3359: 3310: 3306: 3299: 3285: 3278: 3231: 3227: 3204: 3197: 3187: 3185: 3181: 3174: 3166: 3149: 3134: 3112: 3108: 3060: 3056: 3043:(11): 507–513. 3033: 3022: 3015: 2999: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2984: 2979: 2975: 2970: 2942:Ecology of fear 2938: 2925:The Jungle Book 2920:Rudyard Kipling 2831:science fiction 2812:Capitoline Wolf 2804: 2741: 2725: 2719: 2712: 2695: 2686: 2670: 2661: 2646:Meganeura monyi 2642: 2633: 2617: 2608: 2593: 2584: 2564: 2488:anomalocaridids 2445: 2430: 2393: 2391:History of life 2387: 2238: 2228: 2207:trophic pyramid 2164: 2158: 2075: 2069: 2021: 2011: 2002: 1917: 1911: 1879: 1878: 1877: 1876: 1875: 1857: 1849: 1848: 1838: 1827: 1821: 1815:in their diet. 1797: 1781: 1767:Torpediniformes 1755: 1753:Electric fields 1719: 1709: 1689:Flower mantises 1643:Members of the 1641: 1640: 1639: 1638: 1637: 1623: 1615: 1614: 1600: 1589: 1579: 1550: 1549: 1548: 1547: 1546: 1535: 1527: 1526: 1517:, a specialist 1510: 1499: 1493: 1486: 1477: 1468: 1461: 1452: 1449:Red-tailed hawk 1446: 1437: 1431:ambush predator 1424: 1415: 1413:jack jumper ant 1397: 1388: 1373: 1306:jumping spiders 1271: 1266: 1168:colobus monkeys 1147: 1141: 1117: 1116: 1115: 1114: 1113: 1107: 1099: 1098: 1084: 1073: 999: 998: 997: 996: 995: 988:common clubtail 981: 973: 972: 965:Humpback whales 962: 951: 945: 937:colubrid snakes 912: 876: 875: 874: 873: 872: 869:trapdoor spider 865: 857: 856: 843: 832: 826: 802: 763: 679:widely foraging 667: 638: 632: 604:dinoflagellates 600:nanoflagellates 436:planarian worms 392: 391: 390: 389: 388: 378: 370: 369: 359: 348: 330: 328:Taxonomic range 221: 122:are predators. 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 12169: 12168: 12157: 12156: 12151: 12146: 12127: 12126: 12121: 12118: 12117: 12115: 12114: 12109: 12104: 12099: 12094: 12089: 12084: 12082:Microecosystem 12079: 12074: 12069: 12064: 12059: 12054: 12049: 12044: 12039: 12034: 12029: 12024: 12019: 12014: 12009: 12004: 11998: 11996: 11992: 11991: 11989: 11988: 11983: 11981:Thorson's rule 11978: 11973: 11968: 11963: 11958: 11953: 11948: 11943: 11938: 11933: 11928: 11923: 11918: 11913: 11908: 11906:Assembly rules 11902: 11900: 11892: 11891: 11889: 11888: 11883: 11878: 11873: 11868: 11863: 11862: 11861: 11851: 11846: 11841: 11836: 11831: 11825: 11823: 11817: 11816: 11814: 11813: 11808: 11803: 11791: 11789:Patch dynamics 11786: 11784:Metapopulation 11781: 11776: 11771: 11766: 11761: 11756: 11751: 11746: 11741: 11736: 11731: 11726: 11721: 11716: 11711: 11706: 11700: 11698: 11690: 11689: 11687: 11686: 11681: 11679:Storage effect 11676: 11671: 11666: 11661: 11656: 11651: 11646: 11641: 11635: 11633: 11627: 11626: 11624: 11623: 11618: 11613: 11608: 11603: 11598: 11593: 11588: 11583: 11578: 11573: 11568: 11563: 11561:Neutral theory 11558: 11553: 11548: 11546:Native species 11539: 11534: 11529: 11524: 11519: 11514: 11509: 11504: 11499: 11493: 11491: 11487: 11486: 11484: 11483: 11478: 11477: 11476: 11471: 11461: 11456: 11451: 11446: 11441: 11436: 11431: 11426: 11421: 11419:Overpopulation 11416: 11411: 11406: 11401: 11396: 11391: 11386: 11381: 11376: 11371: 11365: 11363: 11355: 11354: 11342: 11341: 11334: 11327: 11319: 11310: 11309: 11307: 11306: 11301: 11296: 11291: 11286: 11281: 11276: 11271: 11265: 11263: 11257: 11256: 11254: 11253: 11248: 11243: 11238: 11233: 11228: 11226:Nutrient cycle 11223: 11218: 11216:Feeding frenzy 11213: 11208: 11203: 11198: 11196:Energy quality 11193: 11188: 11183: 11178: 11173: 11168: 11163: 11158: 11156:Cascade effect 11153: 11148: 11142: 11140: 11136: 11135: 11133: 11132: 11131: 11130: 11125: 11120: 11115: 11110: 11105: 11100: 11090: 11085: 11080: 11075: 11069: 11067: 11063: 11062: 11060: 11059: 11054: 11049: 11044: 11039: 11034: 11028: 11026: 11020: 11019: 11017: 11016: 11011: 11006: 11001: 10999:Microbial loop 10996: 10991: 10986: 10981: 10976: 10971: 10966: 10964:Lithoautotroph 10961: 10956: 10950: 10948: 10946:Microorganisms 10942: 10941: 10939: 10938: 10933: 10928: 10923: 10917: 10915: 10909: 10908: 10906: 10905: 10903:Prey switching 10900: 10895: 10890: 10885: 10880: 10875: 10870: 10865: 10860: 10855: 10850: 10845: 10840: 10835: 10830: 10825: 10820: 10814: 10812: 10806: 10805: 10803: 10802: 10797: 10792: 10787: 10782: 10780:Photosynthesis 10777: 10772: 10767: 10762: 10757: 10752: 10747: 10742: 10737: 10735:Chemosynthesis 10732: 10726: 10724: 10718: 10717: 10715: 10714: 10709: 10704: 10699: 10694: 10689: 10684: 10679: 10674: 10669: 10664: 10659: 10654: 10649: 10644: 10639: 10634: 10629: 10627:Abiotic stress 10624: 10618: 10616: 10612: 10611: 10595: 10594: 10587: 10580: 10572: 10563: 10562: 10560: 10559: 10558: 10557: 10550: 10538: 10537: 10536: 10529: 10517: 10516: 10515: 10510: 10505: 10500: 10495: 10490: 10485: 10475: 10470: 10465: 10460: 10455: 10450: 10445: 10440: 10435: 10429: 10426: 10425: 10411: 10410: 10403: 10396: 10388: 10379: 10378: 10376: 10375: 10370: 10365: 10360: 10355: 10349: 10346: 10345: 10343: 10342: 10337: 10332: 10327: 10322: 10317: 10312: 10310:Hypercarnivore 10307: 10306: 10305: 10304: 10303: 10293: 10286:Cattle feeding 10283: 10278: 10277: 10276: 10271: 10269:Feeding frenzy 10266: 10261: 10256: 10254:Suction feeder 10251: 10246: 10241: 10231: 10230: 10229: 10224: 10219: 10214: 10209: 10198: 10196: 10192: 10191: 10189: 10188: 10183: 10178: 10173: 10168: 10163: 10158: 10153: 10148: 10143: 10138: 10133: 10128: 10122: 10120: 10116: 10115: 10113: 10112: 10107: 10101: 10099: 10095: 10094: 10092: 10091: 10086: 10081: 10076: 10071: 10066: 10064:Seed predation 10061: 10056: 10051: 10046: 10040: 10038: 10032: 10031: 10024: 10022: 10019: 10018: 10016: 10015: 10010: 10005: 10000: 9994: 9992: 9988: 9987: 9985: 9984: 9979: 9974: 9969: 9964: 9958: 9956: 9952: 9951: 9949: 9948: 9943: 9938: 9933: 9928: 9923: 9918: 9913: 9908: 9903: 9898: 9893: 9888: 9882: 9880: 9873: 9867: 9866: 9859: 9858: 9851: 9844: 9836: 9830: 9829: 9817: 9803: 9802:External links 9800: 9799: 9798: 9792: 9772: 9766: 9753: 9747: 9734: 9712: 9706: 9690: 9684: 9671: 9665: 9650: 9647: 9644: 9643: 9624:(4): 977–990. 9608: 9565: 9559:978-0517703939 9558: 9537: 9496: 9489: 9455: 9429: 9422: 9416:. p. 98. 9398: 9391: 9373: 9346: 9303: 9281: 9222: 9216:978-0713484076 9215: 9197: 9190: 9170: 9164:978-0300145458 9163: 9145: 9138: 9120: 9069: 9050:(2): 469–472. 9034: 9011: 8984:(2): 251–269. 8968: 8919: 8904: 8886: 8826: 8799:(2): 247–255. 8782: 8739: 8688: 8629: 8622: 8586: 8559: 8516: 8497:(1): 192–196. 8481: 8438: 8403: 8360: 8353: 8333: 8320:(4): 501–506. 8297: 8285: 8273: 8261: 8249: 8190: 8183: 8165: 8158: 8140: 8133: 8104: 8098:978-0122874505 8097: 8079: 8050: 8023: 7980: 7930: 7923: 7905: 7869: 7862: 7844: 7838:978-3642580017 7837: 7819: 7793: 7786: 7760: 7715:(2): 258–270. 7699: 7656: 7605: 7578:(4): 399–417. 7562: 7515: 7488:(2): 501–509. 7472: 7423: 7411: 7399: 7388:(1): 219–236. 7372: 7351:(7): 557–568. 7322: 7270: 7207: 7188:(2): 103–125. 7172: 7165: 7139: 7127: 7115: 7103: 7096: 7069: 7036: 7024: 6967: 6928: 6916: 6909: 6891: 6887:Beauchamp 2012 6879: 6867: 6855: 6796: 6747: 6735: 6716:(2): 397–402. 6700: 6681:(3): 535–543. 6665: 6653: 6600: 6588: 6576: 6557:(9): 602–611. 6541: 6534: 6508: 6451: 6422:(2): 225–228. 6402: 6361: 6310: 6303: 6283: 6276: 6254: 6233: 6215: 6202:Florida Museum 6188: 6181: 6161: 6108: 6096: 6057:(1): 173–183. 6037: 6010:(3): 375–386. 5994: 5975:(2): 379–390. 5959: 5946:10.1086/282885 5940:(959): 59–74. 5924: 5913:(2): 298–313. 5893: 5886: 5866: 5859: 5839: 5782: 5775: 5751: 5714: 5691: 5669: 5662: 5636: 5614: 5555: 5549:978-0465052998 5548: 5530: 5504: 5475:(4): 357–362. 5455: 5425: 5368: 5314: 5288: 5257: 5208: 5185: 5181:Beauchamp 2012 5173: 5146: 5087: 5041: 5014:(2): 155–158. 4998: 4941: 4892: 4839: 4818:(5): 787–798. 4798: 4791: 4771: 4722: 4696: 4674: 4651:Bray, Dianne. 4643: 4618: 4607:on 18 May 2007 4580: 4536: 4515:(6): 1188–97. 4474: 4453:10.1086/506921 4447:(3): 350–357. 4431: 4412:(4): 883–890. 4396: 4355: 4312: 4285:(2): 129–136. 4269: 4228: 4213: 4192:10.1086/303145 4170: 4163: 4145: 4143:, pp. 4–5 4126: 4119: 4101: 4079: 4072: 4046: 4025:10.1086/283666 4019:(5): 743–752. 4000: 3993: 3956: 3934:(4): 687–704. 3914: 3907: 3870: 3841:(2): R55–R56. 3818: 3767: 3710: 3701:|journal= 3669: 3612: 3599:(2): 564–569. 3579: 3528: 3521: 3503: 3496: 3474: 3449: 3415: 3408: 3382: 3376:978-0226455082 3375: 3357: 3320:(2): 324–334. 3304: 3297: 3276: 3241:(4): 511–515. 3225: 3195: 3147: 3132: 3106: 3063:Poulin, Robert 3054: 3020: 3013: 2992: 2991: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2982: 2972: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2965: 2964: 2959: 2954: 2949: 2944: 2937: 2934: 2880:'s 1849 poem " 2803: 2800: 2740: 2739:Practical uses 2737: 2718: 2715: 2714: 2713: 2696: 2689: 2687: 2671: 2664: 2662: 2649:, a predatory 2643: 2636: 2634: 2621:anomalocaridid 2618: 2611: 2609: 2594: 2587: 2585: 2565: 2558: 2429:period—around 2386: 2383: 2278:boreal forests 2227: 2224: 2157: 2154: 2132:which combine 2087:organic matter 2068: 2065: 2041:apex predators 2010: 2007: 2001: 1998: 1910: 1907: 1901:the predator, 1858: 1851: 1850: 1839: 1832: 1831: 1830: 1829: 1828: 1823:Main article: 1820: 1817: 1796: 1793: 1754: 1751: 1708: 1705: 1624: 1617: 1616: 1601: 1594: 1593: 1592: 1591: 1590: 1578: 1575: 1536: 1529: 1528: 1511: 1504: 1503: 1502: 1501: 1500: 1492: 1489: 1488: 1487: 1478: 1471: 1469: 1463:Specialist: a 1462: 1455: 1453: 1447: 1440: 1438: 1425: 1418: 1416: 1398: 1391: 1389: 1374: 1367: 1286:detecting prey 1270: 1267: 1265: 1264:Specialization 1262: 1254:microorganisms 1250:solitary wasps 1140: 1137: 1108: 1101: 1100: 1085: 1078: 1077: 1076: 1075: 1074: 1072: 1069: 982: 975: 974: 963: 956: 955: 954: 953: 952: 947:Main article: 944: 941: 911: 908: 901:mantis shrimps 866: 859: 858: 844: 837: 836: 835: 834: 833: 828:Main article: 825: 822: 801: 798: 762: 759: 666: 663: 631: 628: 553:Venus fly trap 526:, a predatory 381:Seed predation 379: 372: 371: 360: 353: 352: 351: 350: 349: 342:Seed predation 329: 326: 289:seed predation 264:Micropredators 245:ichneumon wasp 220: 217: 116:seed predators 92:micropredation 86:that includes 44:it has killed. 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12167: 12166: 12155: 12152: 12150: 12147: 12145: 12142: 12141: 12139: 12132: 12124: 12119: 12113: 12110: 12108: 12107:Urban ecology 12105: 12103: 12100: 12098: 12095: 12093: 12090: 12088: 12085: 12083: 12080: 12078: 12075: 12073: 12070: 12068: 12065: 12063: 12060: 12058: 12055: 12053: 12050: 12048: 12045: 12043: 12040: 12038: 12035: 12033: 12030: 12028: 12025: 12023: 12020: 12018: 12015: 12013: 12010: 12008: 12005: 12003: 12000: 11999: 11997: 11993: 11987: 11984: 11982: 11979: 11977: 11974: 11972: 11969: 11967: 11966:Kleiber's law 11964: 11962: 11959: 11957: 11954: 11952: 11949: 11947: 11944: 11942: 11939: 11937: 11934: 11932: 11929: 11927: 11924: 11922: 11919: 11917: 11914: 11912: 11909: 11907: 11904: 11903: 11901: 11899: 11893: 11887: 11884: 11882: 11879: 11877: 11874: 11872: 11869: 11867: 11864: 11860: 11857: 11856: 11855: 11852: 11850: 11847: 11845: 11842: 11840: 11837: 11835: 11832: 11830: 11827: 11826: 11824: 11822: 11818: 11812: 11809: 11807: 11804: 11802: 11800: 11796: 11792: 11790: 11787: 11785: 11782: 11780: 11777: 11775: 11772: 11770: 11767: 11765: 11762: 11760: 11757: 11755: 11752: 11750: 11747: 11745: 11742: 11740: 11739:Foster's rule 11737: 11735: 11732: 11730: 11727: 11725: 11722: 11720: 11717: 11715: 11712: 11710: 11707: 11705: 11702: 11701: 11699: 11697: 11691: 11685: 11682: 11680: 11677: 11675: 11672: 11670: 11667: 11665: 11662: 11660: 11657: 11655: 11652: 11650: 11647: 11645: 11642: 11640: 11637: 11636: 11634: 11628: 11622: 11619: 11617: 11614: 11612: 11609: 11607: 11604: 11602: 11599: 11597: 11594: 11592: 11589: 11587: 11584: 11582: 11579: 11577: 11574: 11572: 11569: 11567: 11564: 11562: 11559: 11557: 11554: 11552: 11549: 11547: 11543: 11540: 11538: 11535: 11533: 11530: 11528: 11525: 11523: 11520: 11518: 11515: 11513: 11510: 11508: 11505: 11503: 11500: 11498: 11495: 11494: 11492: 11488: 11482: 11479: 11475: 11472: 11470: 11467: 11466: 11465: 11462: 11460: 11457: 11455: 11452: 11450: 11447: 11445: 11442: 11440: 11437: 11435: 11432: 11430: 11427: 11425: 11422: 11420: 11417: 11415: 11412: 11410: 11407: 11405: 11402: 11400: 11397: 11395: 11392: 11390: 11387: 11385: 11382: 11380: 11377: 11375: 11372: 11370: 11367: 11366: 11364: 11362: 11356: 11351: 11347: 11340: 11335: 11333: 11328: 11326: 11321: 11320: 11317: 11305: 11302: 11300: 11297: 11295: 11292: 11290: 11287: 11285: 11282: 11280: 11277: 11275: 11272: 11270: 11267: 11266: 11264: 11258: 11252: 11249: 11247: 11244: 11242: 11239: 11237: 11234: 11232: 11229: 11227: 11224: 11222: 11219: 11217: 11214: 11212: 11209: 11207: 11204: 11202: 11199: 11197: 11194: 11192: 11189: 11187: 11184: 11182: 11179: 11177: 11174: 11172: 11169: 11167: 11164: 11162: 11159: 11157: 11154: 11152: 11149: 11147: 11144: 11143: 11141: 11137: 11129: 11126: 11124: 11121: 11119: 11116: 11114: 11111: 11109: 11106: 11104: 11101: 11099: 11096: 11095: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11084: 11081: 11079: 11076: 11074: 11071: 11070: 11068: 11064: 11058: 11057:Trophic level 11055: 11053: 11050: 11048: 11045: 11043: 11040: 11038: 11035: 11033: 11030: 11029: 11027: 11025: 11021: 11015: 11014:Phage ecology 11012: 11010: 11007: 11005: 11004:Microbial mat 11002: 11000: 10997: 10995: 10992: 10990: 10987: 10985: 10982: 10980: 10977: 10975: 10972: 10970: 10967: 10965: 10962: 10960: 10959:Bacteriophage 10957: 10955: 10952: 10951: 10949: 10947: 10943: 10937: 10934: 10932: 10929: 10927: 10926:Decomposition 10924: 10922: 10919: 10918: 10916: 10914: 10910: 10904: 10901: 10899: 10896: 10894: 10891: 10889: 10886: 10884: 10881: 10879: 10876: 10874: 10873:Mesopredators 10871: 10869: 10866: 10864: 10861: 10859: 10856: 10854: 10851: 10849: 10846: 10844: 10841: 10839: 10836: 10834: 10831: 10829: 10826: 10824: 10821: 10819: 10818:Apex predator 10816: 10815: 10813: 10811: 10807: 10801: 10798: 10796: 10793: 10791: 10788: 10786: 10783: 10781: 10778: 10776: 10773: 10771: 10768: 10766: 10763: 10761: 10758: 10756: 10753: 10751: 10748: 10746: 10743: 10741: 10738: 10736: 10733: 10731: 10728: 10727: 10725: 10723: 10719: 10713: 10710: 10708: 10705: 10703: 10700: 10698: 10695: 10693: 10690: 10688: 10685: 10683: 10680: 10678: 10675: 10673: 10670: 10668: 10665: 10663: 10660: 10658: 10655: 10653: 10652:Biotic stress 10650: 10648: 10645: 10643: 10640: 10638: 10635: 10633: 10630: 10628: 10625: 10623: 10620: 10619: 10617: 10613: 10608: 10604: 10600: 10593: 10588: 10586: 10581: 10579: 10574: 10573: 10570: 10555: 10551: 10548: 10544: 10543: 10542: 10539: 10534: 10530: 10527: 10523: 10522: 10521: 10518: 10514: 10511: 10509: 10506: 10504: 10501: 10499: 10498:Hyperparasite 10496: 10494: 10491: 10489: 10486: 10484: 10481: 10480: 10479: 10476: 10474: 10471: 10469: 10466: 10464: 10461: 10459: 10456: 10454: 10451: 10449: 10446: 10444: 10441: 10439: 10436: 10434: 10431: 10430: 10427: 10423: 10419: 10416: 10415:Inter-species 10409: 10404: 10402: 10397: 10395: 10390: 10389: 10386: 10374: 10371: 10369: 10366: 10364: 10361: 10359: 10356: 10354: 10351: 10350: 10347: 10341: 10338: 10336: 10333: 10331: 10328: 10326: 10323: 10321: 10320:Mesocarnivore 10318: 10316: 10315:Hypocarnivore 10313: 10311: 10308: 10302: 10299: 10298: 10297: 10294: 10292: 10289: 10288: 10287: 10284: 10282: 10279: 10275: 10274:Filter feeder 10272: 10270: 10267: 10265: 10264:Bottom feeder 10262: 10260: 10257: 10255: 10252: 10250: 10247: 10245: 10242: 10240: 10237: 10236: 10235: 10232: 10228: 10225: 10223: 10220: 10218: 10215: 10213: 10212:Apex predator 10210: 10208: 10205: 10204: 10203: 10200: 10199: 10197: 10193: 10187: 10184: 10182: 10179: 10177: 10174: 10172: 10169: 10167: 10164: 10162: 10159: 10157: 10154: 10152: 10149: 10147: 10144: 10142: 10139: 10137: 10134: 10132: 10129: 10127: 10124: 10123: 10121: 10117: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10102: 10100: 10096: 10090: 10087: 10085: 10082: 10080: 10077: 10075: 10072: 10070: 10067: 10065: 10062: 10060: 10057: 10055: 10052: 10050: 10047: 10045: 10042: 10041: 10039: 10037: 10033: 10028: 10014: 10011: 10009: 10006: 10004: 10001: 9999: 9996: 9995: 9993: 9991:cannibalistic 9989: 9983: 9980: 9978: 9977:Breastfeeding 9975: 9973: 9972:Placentophagy 9970: 9968: 9965: 9963: 9960: 9959: 9957: 9953: 9947: 9944: 9942: 9939: 9937: 9934: 9932: 9929: 9927: 9924: 9922: 9919: 9917: 9914: 9912: 9909: 9907: 9904: 9902: 9899: 9897: 9894: 9892: 9891:Egg predation 9889: 9887: 9884: 9883: 9881: 9877: 9874: 9872: 9868: 9864: 9857: 9852: 9850: 9845: 9843: 9838: 9837: 9834: 9827: 9822: 9818: 9815: 9810: 9806: 9805: 9795: 9793:9780198528593 9789: 9785: 9781: 9777: 9773: 9769: 9767:9781444309102 9763: 9759: 9754: 9750: 9748:9783319324920 9744: 9740: 9735: 9731: 9727: 9723: 9722: 9717: 9716:Cott, Hugh B. 9713: 9709: 9703: 9699: 9695: 9691: 9687: 9685:9789401130981 9681: 9677: 9672: 9668: 9666:9780124076549 9662: 9658: 9653: 9652: 9639: 9635: 9631: 9627: 9623: 9619: 9612: 9605: 9591: 9587: 9580: 9578: 9576: 9574: 9572: 9570: 9561: 9555: 9551: 9547: 9541: 9534: 9533: 9530: 9527: 9513: 9512: 9507: 9500: 9492: 9486: 9482: 9478: 9470: 9466: 9459: 9444: 9440: 9433: 9425: 9423:9780857850560 9419: 9415: 9411: 9410: 9402: 9394: 9388: 9384: 9377: 9369: 9365: 9364: 9356: 9350: 9342: 9338: 9334: 9330: 9326: 9322: 9318: 9314: 9307: 9292: 9285: 9277: 9273: 9268: 9263: 9258: 9253: 9249: 9245: 9241: 9237: 9233: 9226: 9218: 9212: 9208: 9201: 9193: 9187: 9183: 9182: 9174: 9166: 9160: 9156: 9149: 9141: 9135: 9132:. Blackwell. 9131: 9124: 9116: 9112: 9108: 9104: 9100: 9096: 9092: 9088: 9084: 9080: 9073: 9065: 9061: 9057: 9053: 9049: 9045: 9038: 9030: 9026: 9022: 9015: 9007: 9003: 8999: 8995: 8991: 8987: 8983: 8979: 8972: 8964: 8960: 8955: 8950: 8946: 8942: 8938: 8934: 8930: 8923: 8915: 8911: 8907: 8901: 8897: 8890: 8882: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8864: 8860: 8856: 8852: 8848: 8844: 8840: 8833: 8831: 8822: 8818: 8814: 8810: 8806: 8802: 8798: 8794: 8786: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8766: 8762: 8758: 8754: 8750: 8743: 8735: 8731: 8727: 8723: 8719: 8715: 8711: 8707: 8703: 8699: 8692: 8684: 8680: 8676: 8672: 8668: 8664: 8660: 8656: 8652: 8648: 8644: 8640: 8633: 8625: 8619: 8615: 8610: 8609: 8603: 8599: 8593: 8591: 8582: 8578: 8574: 8570: 8563: 8555: 8551: 8547: 8543: 8539: 8535: 8532:(4): 248–57. 8531: 8527: 8520: 8512: 8508: 8504: 8500: 8496: 8492: 8485: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8465: 8461: 8457: 8453: 8449: 8442: 8434: 8430: 8426: 8422: 8418: 8414: 8407: 8399: 8395: 8391: 8387: 8383: 8379: 8375: 8371: 8364: 8356: 8350: 8346: 8345: 8337: 8328: 8323: 8319: 8315: 8311: 8304: 8302: 8294: 8293:Rockwood 2009 8289: 8282: 8281:Rockwood 2009 8277: 8271:, p. 246 8270: 8269:Rockwood 2009 8265: 8259:, p. 281 8258: 8257:Rockwood 2009 8253: 8245: 8241: 8236: 8231: 8226: 8221: 8217: 8213: 8209: 8205: 8201: 8194: 8186: 8184:9780191588518 8180: 8176: 8169: 8161: 8159:9781400847259 8155: 8151: 8144: 8136: 8134:9781400833023 8130: 8126: 8121: 8120: 8111: 8109: 8100: 8094: 8090: 8083: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8054: 8038: 8034: 8027: 8018: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7999: 7995: 7991: 7984: 7976: 7972: 7968: 7964: 7960: 7956: 7952: 7948: 7941: 7934: 7926: 7924:9780521532235 7920: 7916: 7909: 7900: 7895: 7891: 7887: 7883: 7876: 7874: 7865: 7859: 7855: 7848: 7840: 7834: 7830: 7823: 7807: 7803: 7797: 7789: 7783: 7779: 7775: 7771: 7764: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7739: 7734: 7730: 7726: 7722: 7718: 7714: 7710: 7703: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7683: 7679: 7675: 7671: 7667: 7660: 7651: 7650:11250/2492589 7646: 7641: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7620: 7616: 7609: 7601: 7597: 7593: 7589: 7585: 7581: 7577: 7573: 7566: 7558: 7554: 7550: 7546: 7542: 7538: 7534: 7530: 7522: 7520: 7511: 7507: 7503: 7499: 7495: 7491: 7487: 7483: 7476: 7468: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7450: 7446: 7442: 7438: 7434: 7427: 7421:, p. 107 7420: 7415: 7408: 7403: 7395: 7391: 7387: 7383: 7376: 7368: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7342: 7335: 7333: 7331: 7329: 7327: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7301: 7296: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7277: 7275: 7266: 7262: 7258: 7254: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7216: 7214: 7212: 7203: 7199: 7195: 7191: 7187: 7183: 7176: 7168: 7166:9780199874545 7162: 7158: 7153: 7152: 7143: 7136: 7131: 7124: 7119: 7112: 7107: 7099: 7093: 7089: 7085: 7081: 7073: 7064: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7040: 7033: 7028: 7020: 7016: 7012: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6971: 6963: 6959: 6955: 6951: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6932: 6925: 6920: 6912: 6910:9780198508182 6906: 6902: 6895: 6888: 6883: 6876: 6871: 6864: 6859: 6851: 6847: 6842: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6823: 6819: 6815: 6811: 6807: 6800: 6792: 6788: 6784: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6767:(1): 93–103. 6766: 6762: 6758: 6751: 6744: 6739: 6731: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6715: 6711: 6704: 6696: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6669: 6662: 6657: 6649: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6611: 6604: 6597: 6592: 6585: 6580: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6545: 6537: 6531: 6527: 6523: 6519: 6512: 6504: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6455: 6447: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6406: 6398: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6365: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6314: 6306: 6300: 6296: 6295: 6287: 6279: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6258: 6250: 6244: 6236: 6230: 6226: 6219: 6203: 6199: 6192: 6184: 6178: 6174: 6173: 6165: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6121: 6120: 6112: 6105: 6100: 6092: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6041: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 5998: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5963: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5935: 5928: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5897: 5889: 5883: 5879: 5878: 5870: 5862: 5856: 5852: 5851: 5843: 5835: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5802:(2): 113–24. 5801: 5797: 5793: 5786: 5778: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5763: 5755: 5736: 5729: 5723: 5721: 5719: 5702: 5695: 5679: 5678:"Zooplankton" 5673: 5665: 5663:9780123741448 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5640: 5624: 5618: 5610: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5582: 5578: 5575:(2): e31619. 5574: 5570: 5566: 5559: 5551: 5545: 5541: 5534: 5519: 5515: 5508: 5500: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5459: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5429: 5421: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5372: 5364: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5321: 5319: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5300: 5292: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5261: 5253: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5212: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5189: 5182: 5177: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5150: 5142: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5091: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5048: 5046: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5002: 4994: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4945: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4896: 4889: 4884: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4843: 4835: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4802: 4794: 4788: 4784: 4783: 4775: 4767: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4726: 4710: 4706: 4700: 4684: 4678: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4647: 4628: 4622: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4584: 4576: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4543: 4541: 4532: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4499: 4497: 4495: 4493: 4491: 4489: 4487: 4485: 4483: 4481: 4479: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4435: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4400: 4392: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4359: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4316: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4273: 4264: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4232: 4225: 4220: 4218: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4186:(1): 98–109. 4185: 4181: 4174: 4166: 4164:9780199797066 4160: 4156: 4149: 4142: 4137: 4135: 4133: 4131: 4122: 4120:9780691023823 4116: 4112: 4105: 4097: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4075: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4050: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4007: 4005: 3996: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3961: 3950: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3918: 3910: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3887: 3886: 3877: 3875: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3825: 3823: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3771: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3738: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3714: 3706: 3693: 3685: 3681: 3673: 3665: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3616: 3607: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3583: 3575: 3571: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3532: 3524: 3522:9781429223188 3518: 3514: 3507: 3499: 3497:9780520251182 3493: 3489: 3485: 3478: 3463: 3459: 3453: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3430: 3428: 3426: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3411: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3386: 3378: 3372: 3368: 3361: 3353: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3308: 3300: 3294: 3290: 3283: 3281: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3229: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3202: 3200: 3180: 3173: 3172: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3158: 3156: 3154: 3152: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3110: 3102: 3098: 3093: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3058: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3016: 3010: 3006: 3005: 2997: 2993: 2977: 2973: 2963: 2960: 2958: 2955: 2953: 2950: 2948: 2945: 2943: 2940: 2939: 2933: 2931: 2927: 2926: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2896: 2891: 2885: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2866: 2864: 2863: 2858: 2854: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2842: 2838: 2835: 2832: 2828: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2808: 2802:Symbolic uses 2799: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2733: 2729: 2724: 2710: 2709:superpredator 2706: 2703: 2699: 2693: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2675: 2674:Tyrannosaurus 2668: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2652: 2651:Carboniferous 2648: 2647: 2640: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2626: 2622: 2615: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2591: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2569: 2562: 2557: 2556: 2555: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2536: 2535:Tyrannosaurus 2531: 2527: 2526:Carboniferous 2523: 2519: 2515: 2514: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2476:fossil record 2472: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2457: 2452: 2448: 2443: 2439: 2438:calcification 2433: 2428: 2422: 2420: 2419:insect flight 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2392: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2367:age structure 2364: 2360: 2356: 2351: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2335: 2332: 2328: 2323: 2321: 2320: 2315: 2314: 2309: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2270:snowshoe hare 2266: 2263: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2246:snowshoe hare 2242: 2237: 2233: 2223: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2196: 2195:apex predator 2192: 2188: 2183: 2179: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2163: 2153: 2150: 2146: 2141: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2106:phytoplankton 2103: 2099: 2094: 2092: 2089:from another 2088: 2084: 2083:trophic level 2080: 2074: 2064: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2031:that feed on 2030: 2026: 2025:trophic level 2020: 2019:Apex predator 2016: 2015:Trophic level 2009:Trophic level 2006: 1997: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1981: 1979: 1973: 1969: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1934: 1926: 1921: 1916: 1906: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1873: 1870:, but has no 1869: 1865: 1861: 1855: 1846: 1842: 1836: 1826: 1816: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1801:peptidoglycan 1792: 1790: 1786: 1780: 1776: 1768: 1764: 1759: 1750: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1723:box jellyfish 1718: 1714: 1704: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1683: 1682: 1677: 1672: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1621: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1598: 1588: 1584: 1574: 1572: 1566: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1554:Eurasian lynx 1544: 1540: 1533: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1515: 1508: 1498: 1485: 1481: 1480:Indian python 1475: 1470: 1466: 1459: 1454: 1450: 1444: 1439: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1422: 1417: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1401:compound eyes 1395: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1371: 1366: 1365: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1345: 1344:of molluscs. 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1329:birds of prey 1326: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1261: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1229: 1227: 1226:baleen whales 1223: 1222:Killer whales 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1156: 1152: 1146: 1136: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1111: 1105: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1082: 1068: 1066: 1061: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1048:, especially 1047: 1043: 1042:baleen whales 1039: 1038:lunge feeding 1034: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1015: 1013: 1009: 1005: 993: 989: 985: 979: 970: 966: 960: 950: 940: 938: 934: 930: 921: 916: 907: 905: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 885:northern pike 882: 870: 863: 854: 850: 847: 841: 831: 821: 819: 815: 814: 809: 808: 797: 795: 791: 786: 782: 775: 771: 767: 758: 756: 752: 747: 745: 741: 736: 731: 723: 718: 714: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 687:Insectivorous 684: 680: 676: 672: 662: 660: 655: 647: 642: 637: 627: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 596:phytoplankton 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 572: 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 549:pitcher plant 545: 543: 540: 533: 530:, feeding on 529: 525: 524: 519: 515: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 472:sea cucumbers 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 404:scorpionflies 401: 397: 386: 382: 376: 367: 363: 357: 347: 346:Egg predation 343: 339: 335: 325: 323: 322:yellowjackets 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 301: 300: 299:egg predation 295: 291: 290: 285: 284:phytoplankton 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 256: 252: 250: 246: 243:, such as an 242: 233: 229: 225: 216: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 173: 171: 167: 163: 160:, have sharp 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 134: 132: 128: 123: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 100:parasitoidism 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 62: 58: 54: 50: 43: 39: 34: 30: 26: 22: 12131: 12092:Regime shift 12077:Macroecology 11798: 11794: 11734:Edge effects 11704:Biogeography 11649:Commensalism 11497:Biodiversity 11374:Allee effect 11113:kelp forests 11066:Example webs 10931:Detritivores 10897: 10770:Organotrophs 10750:Kinetotrophs 10702:Productivity 10519: 10438:Commensalism 10340:Trophallaxis 10244:Pivot feeder 10239:Lunge feeder 10217:Egg predator 10201: 10105:Phagocytosis 9955:reproductive 9926:Myrmecophagy 9916:Molluscivore 9816:at Wikiquote 9783: 9757: 9741:. Springer. 9738: 9720: 9697: 9675: 9659:. Elsevier. 9656: 9621: 9617: 9611: 9603: 9594:. Retrieved 9590:the original 9549: 9540: 9531: 9528: 9525: 9522: 9515:. Retrieved 9509: 9499: 9476: 9464: 9458: 9446:. Retrieved 9442: 9432: 9408: 9401: 9382: 9376: 9361: 9349: 9316: 9312: 9306: 9294:. Retrieved 9284: 9239: 9235: 9225: 9209:. Batsford. 9206: 9200: 9180: 9173: 9154: 9148: 9129: 9123: 9082: 9078: 9072: 9047: 9043: 9037: 9028: 9024: 9014: 8981: 8978:Paleobiology 8977: 8971: 8936: 8932: 8922: 8895: 8889: 8846: 8842: 8796: 8792: 8785: 8752: 8749:Paleobiology 8748: 8742: 8701: 8697: 8691: 8642: 8638: 8632: 8607: 8572: 8568: 8562: 8529: 8525: 8519: 8494: 8490: 8484: 8454:(1): 38–63. 8451: 8447: 8441: 8416: 8412: 8406: 8373: 8370:Nonlinearity 8369: 8363: 8343: 8336: 8317: 8313: 8288: 8276: 8264: 8252: 8210:(3): e9774. 8207: 8203: 8193: 8174: 8168: 8149: 8143: 8118: 8088: 8082: 8070:. Retrieved 8063:BBC Bitesize 8062: 8053: 8041:. Retrieved 8036: 8026: 7997: 7993: 7983: 7950: 7946: 7933: 7914: 7908: 7889: 7885: 7853: 7847: 7828: 7822: 7810:. Retrieved 7805: 7796: 7769: 7763: 7712: 7708: 7702: 7669: 7665: 7659: 7622: 7618: 7608: 7575: 7571: 7565: 7532: 7528: 7485: 7481: 7475: 7440: 7436: 7426: 7414: 7402: 7385: 7381: 7375: 7348: 7344: 7290: 7286: 7232: 7228: 7225:Krebs, J. R. 7185: 7181: 7175: 7150: 7142: 7130: 7118: 7106: 7079: 7072: 7053: 7049: 7039: 7027: 6984: 6980: 6970: 6945: 6941: 6937: 6931: 6919: 6900: 6894: 6882: 6870: 6858: 6813: 6809: 6799: 6764: 6760: 6750: 6738: 6713: 6709: 6703: 6678: 6674: 6668: 6656: 6621: 6617: 6603: 6591: 6579: 6554: 6550: 6544: 6517: 6511: 6468: 6464: 6454: 6419: 6415: 6405: 6378: 6374: 6364: 6326:(1): 81–89. 6323: 6319: 6313: 6293: 6286: 6267: 6257: 6224: 6218: 6206:. Retrieved 6201: 6191: 6171: 6164: 6123: 6117: 6111: 6099: 6054: 6050: 6040: 6007: 6003: 5997: 5972: 5968: 5962: 5937: 5933: 5927: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5896: 5876: 5869: 5849: 5842: 5799: 5795: 5785: 5761: 5754: 5742:. Retrieved 5735:the original 5705:. Retrieved 5694: 5682:. Retrieved 5672: 5645: 5639: 5627:. Retrieved 5617: 5572: 5568: 5558: 5539: 5533: 5523:17 September 5521:. Retrieved 5517: 5507: 5472: 5468: 5458: 5448:17 September 5446:. Retrieved 5442:the original 5437: 5428: 5388:(1): 11828. 5385: 5381: 5371: 5334: 5330: 5308:the original 5298: 5291: 5281:17 September 5279:. Retrieved 5275:the original 5270: 5260: 5225: 5221: 5211: 5203:10150/276864 5194: 5188: 5176: 5162:(1): 36–44. 5159: 5155: 5149: 5104: 5100: 5090: 5057: 5053: 5011: 5007: 5001: 4958: 4954: 4944: 4909: 4905: 4895: 4886: 4856: 4852: 4842: 4815: 4811: 4801: 4781: 4774: 4739: 4735: 4725: 4713:. Retrieved 4699: 4687:. Retrieved 4677: 4667:14 September 4665:. Retrieved 4661:the original 4656: 4646: 4634:. Retrieved 4621: 4609:. Retrieved 4605:the original 4592: 4583: 4556: 4552: 4512: 4508: 4444: 4440: 4434: 4409: 4405: 4399: 4372: 4368: 4358: 4325: 4321: 4315: 4282: 4278: 4272: 4245: 4241: 4231: 4183: 4179: 4173: 4154: 4148: 4110: 4104: 4095: 4055: 4049: 4016: 4012: 3976: 3931: 3927: 3917: 3884: 3838: 3834: 3780: 3776: 3770: 3727: 3723: 3713: 3692:cite journal 3672: 3632:(1): 22207. 3629: 3625: 3615: 3596: 3592: 3582: 3545: 3541: 3531: 3512: 3506: 3483: 3477: 3467:19 September 3465:. Retrieved 3461: 3452: 3443: 3439: 3391: 3385: 3366: 3360: 3317: 3313: 3307: 3288: 3238: 3234: 3228: 3211: 3207: 3186:. Retrieved 3179:the original 3170: 3115: 3109: 3074: 3071:Parasitology 3070: 3057: 3040: 3036: 3003: 2996: 2976: 2930:grizzly bear 2923: 2893: 2886: 2873: 2867: 2860: 2840: 2824: 2789: 2742: 2672: 2644: 2623: 2566: 2548:ceratopsians 2533: 2513:Dunkleosteus 2511: 2473: 2454: 2453: 2423: 2394: 2379:refuge areas 2352: 2336: 2324: 2317: 2311: 2305: 2267: 2259: 2249: 2200: 2168:biodiversity 2165: 2142: 2138:heterotrophy 2118:Detritivores 2095: 2076: 2022: 2003: 1982: 1977: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1933:echolocation 1930: 1925:echolocation 1903:playing dead 1880: 1798: 1785:electric ray 1782: 1763:electric ray 1731:rattlesnakes 1720: 1679: 1673: 1649:snow leopard 1647:such as the 1642: 1608:snow leopard 1567: 1551: 1543:Cape buffalo 1541:attacking a 1521:predator of 1512: 1403:, sensitive 1346: 1322: 1315:echolocating 1283: 1272: 1246:wolf spiders 1230: 1195: 1172:Harris hawks 1148: 1123:such as the 1118: 1062: 1035: 1016: 1007: 1000: 986:, like this 925: 906: 899:on land and 877: 817: 811: 805: 803: 787: 783: 779: 748: 729: 727: 678: 674: 671:sit-and-wait 670: 668: 658: 651: 616:meroplankton 573: 546: 536: 521: 468:sand dollars 393: 387:eating seeds 318:social wasps 304: 297: 293: 287: 261: 237: 228:Spider wasps 174: 158:invertebrate 135: 124: 79: 75: 67: 66: 42:bearded seal 29: 11729:Disturbance 11632:interaction 11454:Recruitment 11384:Depensation 11176:Copiotrophs 11047:Energy flow 10969:Lithotrophy 10913:Decomposers 10893:Planktivore 10868:Insectivore 10858:Heterotroph 10823:Bacterivore 10790:Phototrophs 10740:Chemotrophs 10712:Restoration 10662:Competition 10473:Synnecrosis 10453:Inquilinism 10443:Competition 10161:Planktivore 10146:Detritivore 10141:Coprophagia 10131:Bacterivore 10126:Microbivory 10110:Myzocytosis 10069:Nectarivore 10059:Graminivore 9906:Lepidophagy 9901:Insectivore 9896:Hematophagy 9724:. Methuen. 9448:7 September 8755:(1): 1–21. 8645:(1): 1–18. 8419:(1): 1–12. 7812:18 February 7738:10261/54628 7625:: 128–133. 7409:, p. 8 7137:, p. 4 6471:(1): 8638. 5707:7 September 5684:5 September 5629:5 September 5228:(1): 1765. 4715:12 December 4689:12 December 4636:3 September 3214:: 465–492. 2962:Cannibalism 2837:action film 2743:Humans, as 2658:dragonflies 2656:related to 2581:nematocysts 2552:ankylosaurs 2492:exoskeleton 2469:nematocysts 2283:fur hunters 2244:Numbers of 2116:/animals); 2114:zooplankton 1986:coral snake 1942:coevolution 1915:Coevolution 1909:Coevolution 1747:nucleotides 1661:fishing cat 1604:camouflaged 1523:land snails 1427:Crab spider 1279:adaptations 1258:zooplankton 1206:coral trout 1198:coral reefs 1164:chimpanzees 1125:Ictaluridae 1012:dragonflies 984:Dragonflies 881:angel shark 853:grasshopper 624:cladocerans 592:zooplankton 588:prokaryotes 502:(including 500:cephalopods 480:crustaceans 464:sea urchins 456:echinoderms 396:dragonflies 296:) or eggs ( 232:parasitoids 189:alarm calls 40:feeds on a 12138:Categories 12097:Sexecology 11674:Parasitism 11639:Antibiosis 11474:Resistance 11469:Resilience 11359:Population 11279:Camouflage 11231:Oligotroph 11146:Ascendency 11108:intertidal 11098:cold seeps 11052:Food chain 10853:Herbivores 10828:Carnivores 10755:Mixotrophs 10730:Autotrophs 10609:components 10554:Mycorrhiza 10533:Intraguild 10513:Parasitoid 10478:Parasitism 10468:Neutralism 10433:Amensalism 10325:Parasitism 10259:Bait balls 10249:Ram feeder 10181:Plastivore 10176:Lithotroph 10166:Saprophagy 10089:Osteophagy 10079:Palynivore 10036:Herbivores 9967:Paedophagy 9941:Spongivore 9931:Ophiophagy 9871:Carnivores 9467:. p. 9025:Kirtlandia 8575:: 79–105. 7994:BioScience 7892:(8): 755. 7886:BioScience 7345:BioScience 6816:(1): 2–8. 6551:BioScience 6208:31 January 4248:: 69–280. 3343:10468/3213 2988:References 2912:werewolves 2870:Ted Hughes 2850:man-eating 2796:pesticides 2765:cormorants 2683:Cretaceous 2677:, a large 2607:predators. 2544:hadrosaurs 2540:Cretaceous 2518:vertebrate 2500:placoderms 2407:eukaryotes 2398:eukaryotic 2134:autotrophy 2130:Mixotrophs 2110:Carnivores 2102:Herbivores 2057:gray foxes 2037:food chain 2033:herbivores 2029:Carnivores 1978:escalation 1883:camouflage 1845:camouflage 1809:amino acid 1805:cell walls 1795:Physiology 1697:Frogfishes 1659:(forest), 1645:cat family 1606:predator: 1583:Camouflage 1385:carnassial 1377:brown bear 1341:cormorants 1166:can catch 1143:See also: 1089:has sharp 933:chameleons 929:archerfish 761:Assessment 738:feed. The 703:shorebirds 701:and other 689:birds and 634:See also: 580:eukaryotes 523:Paramecium 512:cuttlefish 452:ctenophora 440:cnidarians 416:centipedes 306:Scavengers 272:mosquitoes 249:parasitism 241:parasitoid 219:Definition 197:camouflage 191:and other 154:vertebrate 120:frugivores 104:scavenging 88:parasitism 38:polar bear 12149:Predation 12002:Allometry 11956:Emergence 11684:Symbiosis 11669:Mutualism 11464:Stability 11369:Abundance 11181:Dominance 11139:Processes 11128:tide pool 11024:Food webs 10898:Predation 10883:Omnivores 10810:Consumers 10765:Mycotroph 10722:Producers 10667:Ecosystem 10632:Behaviour 10541:Symbiosis 10526:Carnivore 10520:Predation 10463:Mutualism 10330:Scavenger 10202:Predation 10171:Xenophagy 10151:Geophagia 10136:Fungivore 10084:Xylophagy 10074:Mellivory 10054:Frugivore 10049:Florivore 9946:Vermivore 9936:Piscivore 9921:Mucophagy 9911:Man-eater 9826:Predation 9814:Predation 9730:974070031 9694:Caro, Tim 9596:5 October 9517:5 October 9481:Routledge 9064:131583311 8914:840283264 8398:121559550 8072:7 October 8043:2 October 8000:(1): 25. 7709:Oecologia 7510:0012-9658 7287:Evolution 7123:Caro 2005 7111:Caro 2005 7032:Cott 1940 6875:Caro 2005 6761:Evolution 6743:Cott 1940 6661:Caro 2005 6596:Caro 2005 6243:cite book 6104:Cott 1940 6082:2263/9023 5699:Bar-Yam. 5337:: e3701. 4859:: 11034. 4328:: 59–83. 4224:Bell 2012 4141:Bell 2012 3762:231595236 3746:1543-5008 3446:(10): 36. 3314:Ecography 3235:Oecologia 2814:suckling 2745:omnivores 2705:placoderm 2601:sea floor 2577:cnidarian 2573:Ediacaran 2538:from the 2484:gastropod 2461:cnidarian 2442:burrowing 2340:subarctic 2176:ecosystem 2126:Omnivores 2079:nutrients 1950:competing 1923:Bats use 1899:startling 1864:mimicking 1733:and some 1685:fireflies 1558:ungulates 1409:mandibles 1375:Skull of 1238:wild cats 1234:Carnivora 1218:octopuses 1054:filtering 920:chameleon 790:ladybirds 751:Lévy walk 569:nematodes 504:octopuses 496:barnacles 476:flatworms 460:sea stars 444:jellyfish 432:nematodes 412:scorpions 400:lacewings 294:granivory 209:evolution 112:herbivory 68:Predation 57:meat ants 12057:Endolith 11986:Xerosere 11898:networks 11714:Ecocline 11260:Defense, 10936:Detritus 10838:Foraging 10707:Resource 10281:Browsing 10156:Omnivore 10098:Cellular 10044:Folivore 9718:(1940). 9696:(2005). 9341:18760825 9296:27 April 9276:28403172 9236:PLOS ONE 9107:26293961 9031:: 36–45. 9006:86203770 8963:24112975 8881:35879540 8821:92505644 8813:32412621 8777:83713101 8726:17759393 8683:26792772 8675:11538648 8604:(2005). 8554:19751753 8244:20333305 8204:PLOS ONE 8017:1807/359 7755:24289407 7747:24595837 7557:18831163 7467:32215909 7317:27317468 7309:28563514 7202:22739360 7011:19889364 6791:12031679 6783:28563638 6730:53164940 6648:28533458 6624:(1724). 6503:26485580 6446:19033131 6397:19376956 6356:17572816 6348:15696370 6156:39386614 6148:17747574 6091:18177336 5989:44045919 5834:21199247 5744:19 April 5609:22363687 5569:PLOS ONE 5499:29491995 5420:30087391 5363:28828280 5252:23612306 5141:25389760 5101:PLOS ONE 5082:29046557 4993:26393325 4961:: 8285. 4936:17923052 4928:16547295 4883:27023457 4834:23784698 4766:15695203 4589:"Cougar" 4575:23175528 4531:26117833 4469:13809116 4461:16947110 4426:53172079 4391:18528368 4350:25835600 4200:29578765 4041:85094710 3857:19174136 3813:14169325 3754:33434053 3664:26915464 3574:28861006 3352:56280901 3263:28310791 3142:21295676 3101:24229807 2936:See also 2922:'s 1894 2841:Predator 2827:humanoid 2702:Devonian 2630:Cambrian 2605:Cambrian 2532:such as 2508:Devonian 2504:Silurian 2427:Cambrian 2357:, or to 2344:goshawks 2297:Predator 2285:for the 2219:conifers 2145:food web 2122:detritus 2091:organism 2043:such as 1813:proteins 1743:mutation 1681:Photuris 1562:leopards 1519:flatworm 1405:antennae 1325:big cats 1071:Handling 1060:plates. 1046:plankton 1029:such as 1008:stalking 887:and the 849:ambushes 707:crappies 695:kestrels 659:handling 654:foraging 646:foraging 644:A basic 636:Foraging 630:Foraging 620:copepods 612:rotifers 608:ciliates 584:bacteria 576:protozoa 555:and the 539:colubrid 532:bacteria 484:lobsters 448:hydroids 408:alderfly 320:such as 312:and the 215:period. 213:Cambrian 183:such as 108:scavenge 76:predator 12144:Ecology 12047:Ecopath 11854:Habitat 11724:Ecotype 11719:Ecotone 11696:ecology 11694:Spatial 11630:Species 11490:Species 11361:ecology 11346:Ecology 11294:Mimicry 11262:counter 11206:f-ratio 10954:Archaea 10642:Biomass 10615:General 10607:Trophic 10599:Ecology 10458:Mimicry 10422:ecology 10296:Grazing 10195:Methods 9982:Weaning 9962:Oophagy 9886:Avivore 9649:Sources 9626:Bibcode 9321:Bibcode 9267:5389805 9244:Bibcode 9115:4985359 9087:Bibcode 9079:Science 8986:Bibcode 8941:Bibcode 8872:9349040 8851:Bibcode 8757:Bibcode 8734:2302113 8706:Bibcode 8698:Science 8667:1305691 8647:Bibcode 8534:Bibcode 8499:Bibcode 8476:3961711 8456:Bibcode 8421:Bibcode 8378:Bibcode 8235:2841644 8212:Bibcode 7975:3450359 7955:Bibcode 7947:Ecology 7717:Bibcode 7694:4161183 7674:Bibcode 7627:Bibcode 7600:1930126 7580:Bibcode 7572:Ecology 7537:Bibcode 7529:Ecology 7490:Bibcode 7482:Ecology 7445:Bibcode 7367:1313476 7265:9695900 7237:Bibcode 7019:9744565 6989:Bibcode 6962:1445113 6850:7816816 6818:Bibcode 6695:2295026 6639:5444062 6571:1310825 6494:4667699 6473:Bibcode 6437:2665802 6328:Bibcode 6128:Bibcode 6119:Science 6059:Bibcode 6032:1934223 6012:Bibcode 6004:Ecology 5954:8420787 5825:3032891 5804:Bibcode 5600:3282768 5577:Bibcode 5490:5804185 5411:6081395 5390:Bibcode 5354:5563439 5230:Bibcode 5132:4229308 5109:Bibcode 5062:Bibcode 5036:3565418 5016:Bibcode 4984:4595633 4963:Bibcode 4874:4820543 4757:1634948 4330:Bibcode 4307:1273796 4287:Bibcode 4250:Bibcode 4208:4334462 4033:2460632 3936:Bibcode 3865:5432036 3805:1713426 3785:Bibcode 3777:Science 3655:4768160 3634:Bibcode 3565:5563153 3548:: 598. 3322:Bibcode 3271:2145031 3243:Bibcode 3188:23 July 3092:4413784 2769:falcons 2681:of the 2625:Peytoia 2522:Insects 2502:of the 2480:bivalve 2375:chaotic 2371:seasons 2365:and an 2359:migrate 2215:willows 2211:beavers 2061:bobcats 2053:coyotes 1887:mimicry 1737:). The 1735:spiders 1693:orchids 1539:lioness 1381:canines 1298:hearing 1202:grouper 1121:catfish 1087:Catfish 1025:and by 943:Pursuit 800:Capture 730:patches 699:plovers 683:sunfish 528:ciliate 492:shrimps 458:(e.g., 442:(e.g., 418:; some 201:mimicry 193:signals 152:, both 150:animals 142:hearing 11078:Rivers 10974:Marine 10301:Forage 10291:Fodder 10119:Others 9790: 9764: 9745: 9728: 9704: 9682: 9663: 9556: 9487: 9420: 9389: 9339: 9274: 9264: 9213: 9188: 9161: 9136: 9113: 9105: 9062: 9004: 8961: 8912: 8902: 8879: 8869: 8819: 8811: 8775: 8732: 8724: 8681: 8673: 8665: 8620: 8616:–160. 8552: 8474: 8396: 8351: 8242: 8232: 8181: 8156: 8131: 8127:–209. 8095: 7973: 7921: 7860: 7835: 7784: 7753: 7745: 7692: 7666:Nature 7598: 7555: 7508: 7465: 7365: 7315: 7307: 7263: 7255: 7200: 7163: 7094: 7017: 7009: 6960: 6942:Copeia 6907: 6848: 6838: 6789: 6781: 6728: 6693: 6646: 6636: 6569: 6532: 6501: 6491: 6444: 6434: 6395: 6354: 6346: 6301: 6274: 6231: 6179: 6154: 6146: 6089: 6030: 5987: 5952: 5884: 5857: 5832: 5822: 5773: 5660: 5607: 5597: 5546: 5497: 5487: 5418: 5408: 5361: 5351: 5250: 5139: 5129: 5080: 5034: 4991: 4981: 4934: 4926: 4881: 4871: 4832: 4789: 4764: 4754: 4711:. 2014 4611:22 May 4573: 4529: 4467: 4459: 4424: 4389: 4369:Nature 4348: 4305: 4206: 4198: 4161: 4117: 4070: 4039: 4031: 3991: 3905: 3863: 3855: 3811: 3803: 3760: 3752: 3744: 3662: 3652: 3572: 3562: 3519: 3494: 3406: 3373: 3350: 3295: 3269: 3261: 3140: 3130: 3099: 3089: 3011: 2957:Wa-Tor 2904:Fenrir 2834:horror 2767:, and 2654:insect 1895:quills 1657:ocelot 1612:Ladakh 1571:refuge 1484:chital 1399:Large 1357:cougar 1353:shrews 1337:herons 1333:snakes 1290:vision 1242:coyote 1182:Wolves 1155:wolves 1153:, and 1151:hyenas 1133:osprey 1110:Osprey 1095:herons 1065:social 1058:baleen 1027:canids 883:, the 824:Ambush 796:prey. 691:shrews 675:active 665:Search 582:) and 567:catch 559:, are 557:sundew 551:, the 542:snakes 474:) and 470:, and 434:; and 424:snails 366:sundew 344:, and 310:jackal 276:aphids 138:vision 127:ambush 98:) and 61:cicada 11995:Other 11896:Other 11849:Guild 11821:Niche 11073:Lakes 9879:adult 9532:Pike. 9358:(PDF) 9111:S2CID 9060:S2CID 9002:S2CID 8817:S2CID 8773:S2CID 8730:S2CID 8679:S2CID 8663:JSTOR 8491:Oikos 8394:S2CID 7971:JSTOR 7943:(PDF) 7751:S2CID 7690:S2CID 7596:JSTOR 7363:JSTOR 7313:S2CID 7261:S2CID 7257:42057 7198:S2CID 7015:S2CID 6958:JSTOR 6841:42807 6787:S2CID 6726:S2CID 6691:S2CID 6567:JSTOR 6352:S2CID 6152:S2CID 6028:JSTOR 5985:S2CID 5950:S2CID 5738:(PDF) 5731:(PDF) 5331:PeerJ 5032:JSTOR 5008:Oikos 4932:S2CID 4685:. BBC 4630:(PDF) 4465:S2CID 4422:S2CID 4204:S2CID 4037:S2CID 4029:JSTOR 3893:–56. 3861:S2CID 3801:JSTOR 3758:S2CID 3348:S2CID 3267:S2CID 3182:(PDF) 3175:(PDF) 2968:Notes 2890:Aesop 2571:, an 2447:1,000 2403:cells 2363:sexes 2045:lions 1872:sting 1727:venom 1713:Venom 1707:Venom 1653:tiger 1429:, an 1411:) of 1296:, or 1294:smell 1190:bison 1127:have 1050:krill 969:krill 855:prey. 794:aphid 776:prey. 774:aphid 508:squid 488:crabs 428:slugs 420:mites 385:mouse 314:hyena 280:graze 268:fleas 162:claws 146:smell 144:, or 114:, as 70:is a 11083:Soil 10186:Pica 9788:ISBN 9762:ISBN 9743:ISBN 9726:OCLC 9702:ISBN 9680:ISBN 9661:ISBN 9598:2018 9554:ISBN 9519:2018 9485:ISBN 9473:In: 9450:2018 9418:ISBN 9387:ISBN 9337:PMID 9298:2012 9272:PMID 9211:ISBN 9186:ISBN 9159:ISBN 9134:ISBN 9103:PMID 8959:PMID 8910:OCLC 8900:ISBN 8877:PMID 8809:PMID 8722:PMID 8671:PMID 8618:ISBN 8550:PMID 8472:PMID 8349:ISBN 8240:PMID 8179:ISBN 8154:ISBN 8129:ISBN 8093:ISBN 8074:2015 8045:2018 7919:ISBN 7858:ISBN 7833:ISBN 7814:2023 7782:ISBN 7743:PMID 7553:PMID 7506:ISSN 7463:PMID 7305:PMID 7253:PMID 7161:ISBN 7092:ISBN 7007:PMID 6946:1983 6905:ISBN 6846:PMID 6779:PMID 6644:PMID 6530:ISBN 6499:PMID 6442:PMID 6393:PMID 6344:PMID 6299:ISBN 6272:ISBN 6249:link 6229:ISBN 6210:2018 6177:ISBN 6144:PMID 6087:PMID 5905:)". 5882:ISBN 5855:ISBN 5830:PMID 5771:ISBN 5746:2018 5709:2018 5686:2018 5658:ISBN 5631:2018 5605:PMID 5544:ISBN 5525:2018 5495:PMID 5450:2018 5416:PMID 5359:PMID 5283:2018 5248:PMID 5137:PMID 5078:PMID 4989:PMID 4924:PMID 4879:PMID 4830:PMID 4787:ISBN 4762:PMID 4717:2014 4691:2014 4669:2014 4638:2018 4613:2007 4599:and 4571:PMID 4527:PMID 4457:PMID 4387:PMID 4346:PMID 4303:PMID 4196:PMID 4159:ISBN 4115:ISBN 4068:ISBN 3989:ISBN 3903:ISBN 3853:PMID 3835:Cell 3809:PMID 3750:PMID 3742:ISSN 3705:help 3660:PMID 3570:PMID 3517:ISBN 3492:ISBN 3469:2018 3404:ISBN 3371:ISBN 3293:ISBN 3259:PMID 3190:2008 3138:PMID 3128:ISBN 3097:PMID 3009:ISBN 2900:Edda 2874:Pike 2862:Jaws 2844:and 2820:Rome 2810:The 2785:kudu 2773:pets 2761:dogs 2757:trap 2755:and 2753:hunt 2749:fish 2700:, a 2628:, a 2619:The 2595:The 2550:and 2482:and 2474:The 2346:and 2274:lynx 2272:and 2234:and 2217:and 2193:and 2059:and 2039:are 2017:and 1885:and 1868:wasp 1777:and 1725:use 1715:and 1701:esca 1665:lion 1634:lure 1585:and 1361:lion 1359:and 1351:and 1349:ants 1339:and 1318:bats 1304:and 1302:owls 1284:For 1256:and 1204:and 918:The 895:and 851:its 733:the 720:The 622:and 510:and 494:and 426:and 402:and 270:and 166:jaws 156:and 96:host 90:and 80:prey 23:and 10420:in 9634:doi 9329:doi 9262:PMC 9252:doi 9095:doi 9083:349 9052:doi 8994:doi 8949:doi 8867:PMC 8859:doi 8801:doi 8765:doi 8714:doi 8702:174 8655:doi 8614:155 8577:doi 8542:doi 8507:doi 8495:115 8464:doi 8429:doi 8386:doi 8322:doi 8230:PMC 8220:doi 8125:204 8067:BBC 8012:hdl 8002:doi 7963:doi 7894:doi 7774:doi 7733:hdl 7725:doi 7713:125 7682:doi 7670:275 7645:hdl 7635:doi 7623:168 7588:doi 7545:doi 7498:doi 7453:doi 7390:doi 7353:doi 7295:doi 7245:doi 7233:205 7190:doi 7084:doi 7058:doi 6997:doi 6950:doi 6940:". 6836:PMC 6826:doi 6769:doi 6718:doi 6683:doi 6634:PMC 6626:doi 6622:372 6559:doi 6522:doi 6489:PMC 6481:doi 6432:PMC 6424:doi 6383:doi 6379:212 6336:doi 6136:doi 6124:149 6077:hdl 6067:doi 6020:doi 5977:doi 5942:doi 5938:108 5915:doi 5911:270 5820:PMC 5812:doi 5650:doi 5595:PMC 5585:doi 5485:PMC 5477:doi 5406:PMC 5398:doi 5349:PMC 5339:doi 5238:doi 5199:hdl 5164:doi 5127:PMC 5117:doi 5070:doi 5024:doi 4979:PMC 4971:doi 4914:doi 4910:209 4869:PMC 4861:doi 4820:doi 4752:PMC 4744:doi 4740:272 4561:doi 4557:215 4517:doi 4449:doi 4445:168 4414:doi 4377:doi 4373:453 4338:doi 4295:doi 4258:doi 4246:195 4188:doi 4184:153 4060:doi 4021:doi 4017:116 3981:doi 3944:doi 3895:doi 3843:doi 3793:doi 3781:144 3732:doi 3680:doi 3650:PMC 3642:doi 3601:doi 3560:PMC 3550:doi 3396:doi 3338:hdl 3330:doi 3251:doi 3216:doi 3120:doi 3087:PMC 3079:doi 3075:142 3045:doi 2872:'s 2790:In 2777:San 2732:San 2506:to 2432:550 2108:); 1843:'s 1761:An 1674:In 1610:in 1216:or 1040:of 677:or 673:to 514:). 450:), 292:or 282:on 164:or 129:or 12140:: 11544:/ 11348:: 10605:: 10601:: 9778:; 9632:. 9622:10 9620:. 9568:^ 9521:. 9508:. 9479:. 9469:25 9441:. 9412:. 9366:. 9360:. 9335:. 9327:. 9317:55 9315:. 9270:. 9260:. 9250:. 9240:12 9238:. 9234:. 9109:. 9101:. 9093:. 9081:. 9058:. 9048:25 9046:. 9029:57 9027:. 9023:. 9000:. 8992:. 8982:35 8980:. 8957:. 8947:. 8937:23 8935:. 8931:. 8908:. 8875:. 8865:. 8857:. 8845:. 8841:. 8829:^ 8815:. 8807:. 8795:. 8771:. 8763:. 8753:34 8751:. 8728:. 8720:. 8712:. 8700:. 8677:. 8669:. 8661:. 8653:. 8643:65 8641:. 8600:; 8589:^ 8573:31 8571:. 8548:. 8540:. 8530:76 8528:. 8505:. 8493:. 8470:. 8462:. 8452:29 8450:. 8427:. 8417:31 8415:. 8392:. 8384:. 8374:26 8372:. 8318:42 8316:. 8312:. 8300:^ 8238:. 8228:. 8218:. 8206:. 8202:. 8107:^ 8065:. 8061:. 8035:. 8010:. 7998:51 7996:. 7992:. 7969:. 7961:. 7951:85 7949:. 7945:. 7890:54 7888:. 7884:. 7872:^ 7804:. 7780:. 7749:. 7741:. 7731:. 7723:. 7711:. 7688:. 7680:. 7668:. 7643:. 7633:. 7621:. 7617:. 7594:. 7586:. 7576:23 7574:. 7551:. 7543:. 7533:89 7531:. 7518:^ 7504:. 7496:. 7486:86 7484:. 7461:. 7451:. 7441:89 7439:. 7435:. 7386:25 7384:. 7361:. 7349:49 7347:. 7343:. 7325:^ 7311:. 7303:. 7291:40 7289:. 7285:. 7273:^ 7259:. 7251:. 7243:. 7231:. 7223:; 7210:^ 7196:. 7184:. 7159:. 7157:78 7090:. 7054:22 7052:. 7048:. 7013:. 7005:. 6995:. 6985:19 6983:. 6979:. 6956:. 6944:. 6844:. 6834:. 6824:. 6814:92 6812:. 6808:. 6785:. 6777:. 6765:39 6763:. 6759:. 6724:. 6714:63 6712:. 6689:. 6679:61 6677:. 6642:. 6632:. 6620:. 6616:. 6565:. 6555:38 6553:. 6528:. 6497:. 6487:. 6479:. 6467:. 6463:. 6440:. 6430:. 6418:. 6414:. 6391:. 6377:. 6373:. 6350:. 6342:. 6334:. 6324:60 6322:. 6245:}} 6241:{{ 6200:. 6150:. 6142:. 6134:. 6122:. 6085:. 6075:. 6065:. 6055:77 6053:. 6049:. 6026:. 6018:. 6008:53 6006:. 5983:. 5973:61 5971:. 5948:. 5936:. 5909:. 5828:. 5818:. 5810:. 5800:14 5798:. 5794:. 5765:. 5717:^ 5656:. 5603:. 5593:. 5583:. 5571:. 5567:. 5516:. 5493:. 5483:. 5473:63 5471:. 5467:. 5436:. 5414:. 5404:. 5396:. 5384:. 5380:. 5357:. 5347:. 5333:. 5329:. 5317:^ 5302:. 5269:. 5246:. 5236:. 5224:. 5220:. 5160:44 5158:. 5135:. 5125:. 5115:. 5103:. 5099:. 5076:. 5068:. 5056:. 5044:^ 5030:. 5022:. 5012:55 5010:. 4987:. 4977:. 4969:. 4957:. 4953:. 4930:. 4922:. 4908:. 4904:. 4885:. 4877:. 4867:. 4855:. 4851:. 4828:. 4816:53 4814:. 4810:. 4760:. 4750:. 4738:. 4734:. 4707:. 4655:. 4595:. 4591:. 4569:. 4555:. 4551:. 4539:^ 4525:. 4513:55 4511:. 4507:. 4477:^ 4463:. 4455:. 4443:. 4420:. 4410:83 4408:. 4385:. 4371:. 4367:. 4344:. 4336:. 4326:14 4324:. 4301:. 4293:. 4281:. 4256:. 4244:. 4240:. 4216:^ 4202:. 4194:. 4182:. 4129:^ 4082:^ 4066:. 4035:. 4027:. 4015:. 4003:^ 3987:. 3979:. 3959:^ 3942:. 3932:42 3930:. 3926:. 3901:. 3891:11 3873:^ 3859:. 3851:. 3839:19 3837:. 3833:. 3821:^ 3807:. 3799:. 3791:. 3779:. 3756:. 3748:. 3740:. 3728:72 3726:. 3722:. 3696:: 3694:}} 3690:{{ 3658:. 3648:. 3640:. 3628:. 3624:. 3597:24 3595:. 3591:. 3568:. 3558:. 3544:. 3540:. 3490:. 3486:. 3460:. 3442:. 3438:. 3418:^ 3402:. 3346:. 3336:. 3328:. 3318:40 3316:. 3279:^ 3265:. 3257:. 3249:. 3239:66 3237:. 3210:. 3198:^ 3150:^ 3136:. 3126:. 3095:. 3085:. 3073:. 3069:. 3041:17 3039:. 3023:^ 2865:. 2798:. 2763:, 2751:, 2554:. 2546:, 2413:, 2409:, 2405:, 2124:; 2063:. 2027:. 1996:. 1866:a 1602:A 1363:. 1327:, 1292:, 1260:. 1228:. 1212:, 1184:, 1014:. 939:. 867:A 746:. 685:, 626:. 610:, 606:, 602:, 506:, 490:, 486:, 482:, 466:, 462:, 446:, 430:; 422:, 414:; 398:, 383:: 364:: 340:, 336:, 199:, 195:, 187:, 140:, 55:: 11799:K 11797:/ 11795:r 11338:e 11331:t 11324:v 10591:e 10584:t 10577:v 10407:e 10400:t 10393:v 9855:e 9848:t 9841:v 9796:. 9770:. 9751:. 9732:. 9710:. 9688:. 9669:. 9640:. 9636:: 9628:: 9600:. 9562:. 9493:. 9471:. 9452:. 9426:. 9395:. 9343:. 9331:: 9323:: 9300:. 9278:. 9254:: 9246:: 9219:. 9194:. 9167:. 9142:. 9117:. 9097:: 9089:: 9066:. 9054:: 9008:. 8996:: 8988:: 8965:. 8951:: 8943:: 8916:. 8883:. 8861:: 8853:: 8847:6 8823:. 8803:: 8797:2 8779:. 8767:: 8759:: 8736:. 8716:: 8708:: 8685:. 8657:: 8649:: 8626:. 8583:. 8579:: 8556:. 8544:: 8536:: 8513:. 8509:: 8501:: 8478:. 8466:: 8458:: 8435:. 8431:: 8423:: 8400:. 8388:: 8380:: 8357:. 8330:. 8324:: 8246:. 8222:: 8214:: 8208:5 8187:. 8162:. 8137:. 8101:. 8076:. 8047:. 8020:. 8014:: 8004:: 7977:. 7965:: 7957:: 7927:. 7902:. 7896:: 7866:. 7841:. 7816:. 7790:. 7776:: 7757:. 7735:: 7727:: 7719:: 7696:. 7684:: 7676:: 7653:. 7647:: 7637:: 7629:: 7602:. 7590:: 7582:: 7559:. 7547:: 7539:: 7512:. 7500:: 7492:: 7469:. 7455:: 7447:: 7396:. 7392:: 7369:. 7355:: 7319:. 7297:: 7267:. 7247:: 7239:: 7204:. 7192:: 7186:1 7169:. 7100:. 7086:: 7066:. 7060:: 7021:. 6999:: 6991:: 6964:. 6952:: 6913:. 6852:. 6828:: 6820:: 6793:. 6771:: 6732:. 6720:: 6697:. 6685:: 6650:. 6628:: 6573:. 6561:: 6538:. 6524:: 6505:. 6483:: 6475:: 6469:6 6448:. 6426:: 6420:5 6399:. 6385:: 6358:. 6338:: 6330:: 6307:. 6280:. 6251:) 6237:. 6212:. 6185:. 6158:. 6138:: 6130:: 6093:. 6079:: 6069:: 6061:: 6034:. 6022:: 6014:: 5991:. 5979:: 5956:. 5944:: 5921:. 5917:: 5890:. 5863:. 5836:. 5814:: 5806:: 5779:. 5748:. 5711:. 5688:. 5666:. 5652:: 5633:. 5611:. 5587:: 5579:: 5573:7 5552:. 5527:. 5501:. 5479:: 5452:. 5422:. 5400:: 5392:: 5386:8 5365:. 5341:: 5335:5 5285:. 5254:. 5240:: 5232:: 5226:4 5205:. 5201:: 5170:. 5166:: 5143:. 5119:: 5111:: 5105:9 5084:. 5072:: 5064:: 5058:1 5038:. 5026:: 5018:: 4995:. 4973:: 4965:: 4959:6 4938:. 4916:: 4863:: 4857:7 4836:. 4822:: 4795:. 4768:. 4746:: 4719:. 4693:. 4671:. 4640:. 4615:. 4577:. 4563:: 4533:. 4519:: 4471:. 4451:: 4428:. 4416:: 4393:. 4379:: 4352:. 4340:: 4332:: 4309:. 4297:: 4289:: 4283:9 4266:. 4260:: 4252:: 4210:. 4190:: 4167:. 4123:. 4076:. 4062:: 4043:. 4023:: 3997:. 3983:: 3952:. 3946:: 3938:: 3911:. 3897:: 3867:. 3845:: 3815:. 3795:: 3787:: 3764:. 3734:: 3707:) 3703:( 3686:. 3682:: 3666:. 3644:: 3636:: 3630:6 3609:. 3603:: 3576:. 3552:: 3546:8 3525:. 3500:. 3471:. 3444:3 3412:. 3398:: 3379:. 3354:. 3340:: 3332:: 3324:: 3301:. 3273:. 3253:: 3245:: 3222:. 3218:: 3212:2 3192:. 3144:. 3122:: 3103:. 3081:: 3051:. 3047:: 3017:. 2583:. 2248:( 1874:. 1765:( 1192:. 994:. 586:( 578:( 27:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index