Early Germanic culture

3704: 4652:"After the 1939–45 war, it was obvious to nearly every one that racialism was not only immoral but also based on pseudo-science. There was a reaction, which resulted among other things in a revision of views about the early Germans... evisionism continues. A younger generation has now appeared, and taken the argument further... They use a sociological model which implies that social groups are infinitely flexible, and can be transformed more or less at will... This view is represented in a series of papers edited by Andrew Gillett and published in 2002. The collection presents a highly intelligent systematic deconstruction of the picture constructed by scholarship since the early 19th century, i.e., criticising even Wenskus and his school as crypto-nationalists. The argument of these, on the whole younger, scholars is that there was no coreculture— either of the Germani as a whole, or even of the separate Germanic tribes. They assert that if we know practically nothing about any of these peoples before they entered the Roman empire, that is because they did not know anything themselves... Those 'Germanic' customs which we know the Germans acquired in the empire, and from the Romans. We cannot therefore identify any specifically Germanic contribution to the post-Roman world." 3786: 4670:""ontinuous transformation is not incompatible with the possession of core-traditions. The various Germanic tribes possessed such traditions, and these tradition made it possible for these groups to function as effective units, and to survive from generation to generation. Some traditions, especially language, all the tribes had in common... In my opinion the arguments of opponents of the Traditionskern theory are flawed because they depend on a dogmatic and selective use of the evidence... To demolish the view that the Dark Age tribes had an identity based on ethnic core-traditions, the authors of the Gillett volume devote a great deal of energy to disqualifying the scholarship of earlier generations as distorted by mainly nationalist ideology. Yet they show no awareness that their own positions are very strongly ideological, deriving from the rejection of nationalism and the acceptance of multiculturalism, that are conspicuous features of current western values, and which find practical expression, among other things, in the downgrading of national patriotism in the interest of the European ideal." 2999: 4631:"Modern approaches to the problem of German origins have to a large extent been governed by shifts in political feeling... In the early 1960s, Germanic origins came under intense examination from linguists as well as archaeologists. Long-held notions about the separateness of the Germans were seriously challenged. The spread of Germanic peoples from a northern heart-land was brought into question and the creation of a Germanic identity was linked with the advance of Roman power to the Rhine and Danube. The reaction against extreme nationalism had gone too far. In the 1980s the pendulum began a backward swing. Once again, arguments which trace the origin of the Germanic peoples to a remote period of European prehistory, to the later Neolithic, are heard... It is possible to accept that the ancestors of the Germans known to our earliest surviving historical accounts can be traced back to the mid-first millennium bc..." 4526:"Teutonic tribes who moved into a large part of western Europe did not come empty-handed, and in some respects their technology was superior to that of the Romans. It has already been observed that they were people of the Iron Age, and although much about the origins of the heavy plow remains obscure these tribes appear to have been the first people with sufficiently strong iron plowshares to undertake the systematic settlement of the forested lowlands of northern and western Europe, the heavy soils of which had frustrated the agricultural techniques of their predecessors. The invaders came thus as colonizers. They may have been regarded as "barbarians" by the Romanized inhabitants of western Europe who naturally resented their intrusion, and the effect of their invasion was certainly to disrupt trade, industry, and town life. But the newcomers also provided an element of innovation and vitality." 2109: 1526: 3971: 3099: 3218:

emphasized the supposedly central role in Germanic culture of clans or large groups with common ancestry. But there is little evidence that such clans existed, and they were certainly not an important element of social organization. As historian Alexander C. Murray concludes, "kinship was a crucial factor in all aspects of barbarian activity, but its uses and groupings were fluid, and probably on the whole not long lasting." Internal competition within the factions of a tribe occasionally resulted in internecine warfare which weakened and sometime destroyed a group, as appears to have been the case for the Cherusci tribe during Rome's earlier period.

4643:"Walter Pohl, had a completely closed mind to any view that admitted that these northern gentes had genuine histories and traditions of their own. Not content to demolish the view that these tribes were essentially racial organizations, they relied on sociological theory that ethnicity is nothing more than a negotiated system of social classification, and that ethnic differences are "situational," to deny these peoples any institutions and values of their own, and so to reduce their contribution to medieval Europe to nothing at all. Such dogmatism is easily explained as a reaction to Nazi racism but it is nevertheless extraordinarily one-sided." 44: 2143:"Even iron is not plentiful with them, as we infer from the character of their weapons. But few use swords or long lances. They carry a spear (framea is their name for it), with a narrow and short head, but so sharp and easy to wield that the same weapon serves, according to circumstances, for close or distant conflict. As for the horse-soldier, he is satisfied with a shield and spear; the foot-soldiers also scatter showers of javelins each man having several and hurling them to an immense distance, and being naked or lightly clad with a little cloak." -Tacitus, Germania 1744: 3486: 2771:, which takes place in 6th century Scandinavia, the mead hall is described as a quadrilateral structure of wood with a raised platform on either side within. In the center on one side of the mead-hall, there was a high-seat and a secondary high-seat, which were reserved for the chieftain and his guest of honor respectively. In front of the high-seats were long tables upon which heavy planks were raised. The chief's followers would sleep in the hall at raised platforms during the night, with their equipment hanging above on the wall ready for use. 3272: 1871: 595: 3145: 154: 3263:

various barbarians tribes closer together. On the surface this change appeared to the Romans as welcome since they preferred to deal with a few strong chiefs to control the populations that they feared across the Rhine and Danube, but it eventually made these Germanic rulers of confederated peoples more and more powerful. While strong, they were still not federated to one another since they possessed no sense of "pan-Germanic solidarity", but this started to change noticeably by the 5th century CE at Rome's expense.

1623:, which above all valued trust, loyalty and courage. The attainment of honor, fame and recognition was a primary ambition. Independence and individuality was highly emphasized. This emphasis largely prevented the emergence of a unified Germanic state. The environment in which the Germanic peoples emerged, notably their attachment to the forest and the sea, played a major role in shaping such values. Germanic literature is filled with scorn for characters who failed to live the Germanic ideals. 211: 2905: 1636: 3669: 3609: 2929: 2438: 9404: 1458: 274: 1049: 2473: 64: 773: 2547: 888: 2749: 2628:"For in the Gothic country the barbarians are so far from tolerating this sort of oppression that not even Romans who live among them have to bear it. Hence all the Romans in that region have but one desire, that they may never have to return to the Roman jurisdiction. It is the unanimous prayer of the Roman people in that district that they may be permitted to continue to lead their present life among the barbarians." 3389: 1956: 825:, which regarded runic text as heathen symbols which supposedly contained inherent magical properties that they associated with the Germanic peoples' pagan past. Unfortunately, this primitive view ignores the abundance of "pious runic writing found on church-related objects" (ranging from inscriptions in the doorways of churches, on church bells and even those found on baptismal fonts) when Christianity was 3865: 2398: 3175:, in that, they either knew or believed that they shared a common biological ancestor with one another. Just how pervasive this awareness may have been is certainly debatable, but other factors like language, clothing, ornamentation, hair styles, weapon types, religious practices and shared oral history were likely just as significant in tribal identity for the Germanic peoples. 3210:

revenge on or monetary payment from the offender. This duty helped reaffirm the bonds between extended family members. Yet such feuds weakened the tribe as a whole, sometimes leading to the creation of a new tribe as one group separated from the rest. Clans of Germanic people consisted of groupings of about 50 households in total with societal rules for each specific clan.

3371:"Life is all in hunting and military exercise. From childhood they train for labor and hardship. They have great praise among them for those who remain longest without sexual experience. Some think this makes for height, muscle, and strength. Indeed to have had knowledge of a woman before age twenty they think very shameful, and there is no hiding it..." 2916:, near Cuxhaven at the mouth of the River Weser. This was inhabited from the first century BC until the fifth century AD, when due to the rising sea level, they probably emigrated to England. A comprehensive archaeological excavation between 1954 and 1963 yielded valuable knowledge about prehistoric settlements in the North Germany 2633:

their use of "gold and silver for the purpose of commerce", adding rather sardonically in his text, that they preferred silver for buying cheap everyday goods. Such observations from Tacitus aside, fine metalwork, iron and glassware was soon being traded by the Germanic peoples along the coast of the North Sea of Denmark and the

2229:

Agriculture was and had been for a long time a key component in Germanic life. Caesar's observations were made from warlike tribes on the move near the Roman borders, and are thus not representative of all the Germanic peoples. That agriculture was an important part of Germanic life is attested by Caesar, when he writes that the

4221:

Archaeological attempts to assign an identity to early Germanic peoples was deliberately avoided. The uniqueness, common northern origins and antiquity of the early Germanic peoples were called into question. The movement gained particular momentum during the 1960s. It has been strongly associated with the so-called

3168:, which was the basis for the organization of Germanic society. The sippe provided the basis for the organization of the "hundreds" in times of war, and determined the amount of weregild to be paid in disputes. A family was the core of the household, which also included slaves and others who worked on the estate. 2837:, with the interior of the house being divided into three parts by two rows of posts. The entrance was typically on the side and there was an exit in the roof for the smoke from the hearth. The living quarters were generally in one part of the building, while the stalls for cattle were in the side areas. 3532:

Revealing the warlike nature of their society, Tacitus reported that wives came to their husbands as a partner in toils and dangers; to suffer and to dare equally with him, in peace and in war. Upon the death of their husbands and other male relatives on the battlefield and the defeat of their tribe,

3262:

Important changes began taking place by the 4th century CE as Germanic peoples, while still cognizant of their unique clan identities, started forming larger confederations of a similar culture. Gathering around the dominant tribes among them and hearkening to the most charismatic leaders brought the

3254:

in German). Extensive contact with Rome altered the egalitarian structure of tribal Germanic society. As individuals rose to prominence, a distinction between commoner and nobility developed and with it the previous constructs of folkright shared equally across the tribe was replaced in some cases by

3178:

Members of a Germanic tribe told tales about the exploits of heroic founding figures who were more or less mythologized. Village life consisted of free men assembled under a chieftain, all of whom shared common cultural and political traditions. Status among the early Germanic tribes was often gauged

3117:

The most important family relationships among the early Germanic peoples were within the individual household, a fact based on the archaeological evidence from their settlements where the long-houses appeared to be central in their existence. Within the household unit, an individual was equally bound

2651:

Slavery was common among the early Germanic peoples. Slaves were both captured during war and purchased. Certain slaves had on the contrary lost their freedom through gambling. Such individuals were however generally expelled from the community. As the Germanic peoples were frequently engaged in war,

2347:

The prevalence of the individual farm among Germanic peoples has sometimes been ascribed to their love of independence. Such individual farms depended upon a plentiful supply of water. Areas with poor soil or where the area was broken up by hills also encouraged the prevalence of individual farms. In

2134:

Although the arrival of the Corded Ware culture in Northern Europe in the 3rd millennium BC must have been accompanied by widespread conflict, Germanic society during the Nordic Bronze Age of the 2nd millennium BC appears to have been largely peaceful. With the introduction of iron to Northern Europe

2060:

The social hierarchy is not only reflected in the weregild due in the case of the violent or accidental death of a man, but also in differences in fines for lesser crimes. Thus the fines for insults, injury, burglary or damage to property differ depending on the rank of the injured party. They do not

1259:

even today. Many of the Germanic tribes actually revered forests as sacred places and left them unmolested. Conversion to Christianity broke this pagan obsession with protecting the forest in some locations and allowed once migrant tribes to settle in places where they previously refused to cultivate

478:

and the Frankish dialects of German in Germany) has continuously been intelligible to some extent with both "Ingvaeonic" Low German, and some "Suebian" High German dialects, with which they form a spectrum of continental dialects. All these dialects or languages appear to have formed by the mixing of

3834:

Germanic women are notably depicted in one Roman illustration with trousers and the upper part of the breast partly exposed. This is however not the case from moor burials and other illustrations. It is possible that this illustration was of a female figure symbolizing Germania rather than a typical

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Some of the marriage attempts of the 6th century CE were deliberately planned for the sake of royal succession. Imperial policy had to be carefully charted between the Roman-Germanic claimants to kingship and the maintenance of Roman imperial administration, as the federated Germanic kings attempted

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did not form independent units among the early Germanic peoples. Though most members of a tribe would have been more or less distantly related, common descent was not the main source of a tribe's identity, and extended families were not the main social units within a tribe. Traditional theories have

1107:

Germanic priestesses were feared by the Romans, as these tall women with glaring eyes, wearing flowing white gowns often wielded a knife for sacrificial offerings. Captives might have their throats cut and be bled into giant cauldrons or have their intestines opened up and the entrails thrown to the

4432:

Many groups of Germanic peoples shared one form or another of a creation story where a divine being emerges from nothingness only to be sacrificed and torn to pieces; the bones of this divine creature (named Ymir) produced the rocks, his flesh became the earth, his blood formed the seas, the clouds

3843:

While Germanic males of the Bronze Age generally wore a helm-like cap, the Iron Age was characterized by leaving heads uncovered, whereas the head decorations of Germanic women varied considerably with the times. Women typically wore various kinds of "combs, hairpins and head decoration" as well as

2706:

along with the Celtic people experienced a major revolution in technology during the Late Bronze Age, shaping tools, containers and weapons through the improved techniques of working bronze. Both the sword and the bow and arrow as well as other weaponry proliferate and an arms race of sorts between

1354:

to regain its former strength. Easter celebrated the renewal of nature. The Midsummer's Day was the greatest festival of all, in which it was celebrated that the sun had regained its full power. On this occasion numerous tribes would come together to celebrate and a general peace would sometimes be

4661:"Chapter 6 reviews the debate on the nature of the Germanic tribes that established kingdoms in the provinces of the Empire. It argues that these people did indeed possess both core traditions and a sense of shared identity, and that these had evolved well before their entry into the Roman world." 3209:

Feuds were the standard means for resolving conflicts and regulating behavior. Peace within the tribe was about controlling violence with codes identifying exactly how certain types of feuds were to be settled. Those closely related to a person who had been injured or killed were supposed to exact

2721:

When the Iron Age arrived, the Germanic people showed greater mastery of ironworks than their Celtic contemporaries but they did not have the extensive trade networks during this period that their southern neighbors enjoyed with the Greco-Roman world. In many cases in fact, ancient Germanic smiths

2608:

One of the reasons the Romans may have drawn borders along the Rhine, besides the sizable population of Germanic warriors on one side of it, was that the Germanic economy was not robust enough for them to extract much booty nor were they convinced they could acquire sufficient tax revenue from any

1516:

Inhumation became common again during the Migration period. Since such graves were often arranged in long rows, they have been called row-graves. They are not distinguished by mounds. Often they were arranged on either side of a high-way. This was a practice that had survived from Neolithic times.

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Considering the great size of the population, adultery is very rare. The penalty for it is instant and left to the husband. He cuts off her hair, strips her naked in the presence of kinsmen, and flogs her all through the village. They have no mercy on a woman who prostitutes her chastity. Neither

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of law in the 7th century placed the prime of life at twenty years for both men and women, after which both presumably married. Thus it can be presumed that ancient Germanic brides were on average about twenty and were roughly the same age as their husbands. Anglo-Saxon women, like those of other

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Roman coinage was coveted by the Germanic people who preferred silver to gold coins, mostly likely indications that a market economy was developing. Tacitus does mention the presence of a bartering system being observable among the Germanic people, but this was not exclusive, as he also writes of

1512:

Among the coastal and island peoples of the north, the deceased was often placed with all his possessions in his boat, and then set on fire. Boat burials remained common in later times, even when inhumation was reintroduced. In such burials, the body was often placed in a boat over which a burial

1254:

While the Germanic peoples were slowly converted to Christianity by varying means, many elements of the pre-Christian culture and indigenous beliefs remained firmly in place after the conversion process, particularly in the more rural and distant regions. Of particular note is the survival of the

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Contrary to Caesar, Tacitus writes that several Germanic tribes were known to drink excessively. Germanic drinking bouts were often accompanied with violence. Tacitus adds in this connection that the Germanic peoples were more easily defeated through exploiting their vices than by attacking them

2023:

A fascinating component of early Germanic laws were the varying distinctions concerning the physical body, as each body part had a personal injury value and corresponding legal claims for personal injury viewed matters like gender, rank and status as a secondary interest when deliberating cases.

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the soil or chop down trees based on religious belief. To that end, the Christianisation of Germanic peoples facilitated the clearing of forests and therewith provided "a broad and stable basis for the medieval economy of Central Europe" by leveraging the vast forest resources available to them.

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A common theme in Germanic literature is the consequences of failing to live up to one's moral principles, and the moral dilemma faced by an individual struggling to maintain his loyalty under difficult conditions. A key theme is the attempt of the individual to overcome his fate, referred to as

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there was a backlash against nationalism, and as a response, government support for the study of ancient Germanic history and culture was significantly reduced both in Germany and Scandinavia. In these years, what remained of Germanic studies was characterized by a reaction against nationalism.

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A code of ethics in battle prevailed among the Germanic kin. According to Tacitus, the greatest disgrace that can befall a warrior of a clan among the Germanic tribes was the abandonment of their shield during combat, as this almost certainly resulted in social isolation. Within tribal Germanic

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Caesar writes that the Germanic tribes were not agricultural people, and that tribal leaders instituted active measures to prevent members of the tribe from becoming settled agriculturalists. Archaeological research has however discovered that this observation by Caesar is not entirely correct.

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has emerged as a leading figure among these scholars. According to them, linguistic evidence and Roman and early Germanic literature is unreliable, while archaeology "cannot be used to distinguish between peoples, and should not be used to trace migration". They state that Germanic culture was

2147:

Germanic warfare largely emphasized offensive infantry warfare. Armies would typically attack in a wedge formation, with chieftains leading from the front fighting side by side with their immediate family members. Germanic warriors would eventually also excel at horse-powered warfare and naval

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Caesar notes that the Suebi wore only skins, but Tacitus does not agree with this in his observations a hundred years later. While customs might have changed during this time, it is probable that Caesar based his observations strictly from warriors. Evidence from Roman columns and moor bodies

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Germanic weapons were usually spears, javelins, shields and sometimes broad slashing swords, known as Spathae to the Romans. Shields were round, oval or hexagonal, often painted with tribal or clan symbols. Body armour and helmets were rare, being reserved for chiefs and their inner circle of

4535:"The Teutonic tribes who conquered and divided the Roman Empire were little versed in the monumental arts and unskilled in figure representation; but in metalworking, in the making of weapons and other utilitarian objects, and in the delicate ornament of the goldsmith's art they excelled.." 2077:

Caesar writes that Germanic peoples did not own private property, but that land was the property of the entire tribe, and was distributed by the tribal leaders to be occupied for a specified amount of time. Such measures were intended to prevent members of the tribe from becoming settled

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Upon being married, a Germanic woman fell under the guardianship of her husband. She became his property. If a man was proven guilty of being violent towards his wife, her family would in some cases begin feud against her husband. Such feuds are described vividly in the Icelandic sagas.

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Fathers were the main figures of authority, but wives also played an important and respected role. Children were valued, and according to Tacitus, limiting or destroying one's offspring was considered shameful. Mothers apparently breast-fed their own children rather than using nurses.

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entirely derived from the Romans, and that there was therefore "no Germanic contribution to medieval Europe." Gillett's theories have been dismissed by Liebeschuetz as "flawed because they depend on a dogmatic and selective use of the evidence" and "very strongly ideological".

3805:

Jackets from the 3rd century AD were typically worn over a linen garment. Short knee trousers were also worn. This is shown from moor burials, and from the fact that such trousers began to be used by Roman soldiers at the time, probably as an imitation of Germanic warriors.

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Trade relations between Rome and the Germanic peoples increased throughout the history of the Roman Empire. This trade also facilitated increased cultural contacts. As the Germanic peoples became more and more acquainted with Roman industrial products, their appreciation of

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The general public plays an insignificant role in Germanic literature, which revolves almost exclusively around chieftains, warriors and their associates. Wives and other female relatives of such leaders and warriors figure prominently in many pieces of Germanic literature.

4610:"In Germany...the first need was to detach prehistoric studies from the political influences of the pre-war period. German archaeologists, like their Scandinavian colleagues though sometimes for different reasons, have had to make do with very slender financial resources." 3299:

Despite their lack of direct political influence, Roman writers note that Germanic women had much influence in their society. Some tribes believed that women possessed magical powers and were feared accordingly. Female priestesses had a major influence on decisions made by

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Capital crimes in early Germanic culture included treason, cowardice in battle, desertion, assassination, degenerate magical practices and robbery. Tacitus notes that traitors were on occasion hanged in trees, while cowards were disposed of by drowning them in swamps:

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who cleared forests for herding cattle and sometime after 3000 BCE began using wheeled carts and plows to cultivate their lands. Central to survival for their assistance in tilling the soil and supplying food, cattle became an economic resource to these early people.

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Free women did not have a political station of their own but inherited the rank of their father if unmarried, or their husband if married. The weregild or recompense due for the killing or injuring of a woman is notably set at twice that of a man of the same rank in

3435:"The young men are slow to mate, and reach manhood with unimpaired vigour. Nor are the virgins hurried into marriage. Being as old and as tall as the men, they are equal to their mates in age and strength, and the children inherit the robustness of their parents." 3892:

By the 3rd century AD, significant changes had occurred with regards to the Germanic hairstyle. The custom of wearing the hair long had become prominent among such peoples as the Franks, among whom it became a sign of noble birth and eligibility for kingship.

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In the case of renowned leaders, their wives were sometimes burned alive with their dead husbands. This tradition is vividly described in the Germanic epics, and the wives who subjected themselves to immolation are praised for their loyalty to their husbands.

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is situated at the center of the earth, its top touching the sky, its branches covering the earth, and the great tree's roots plunging into hell. Connecting the three planes of "Heaven, Earth, and Hades", this "Universal Tree" symbolized the universe itself.

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The diet consisted mainly of the products of farming and husbandry and was supplied by hunting to a very modest extent. Barley and wheat were the most common agricultural products and were used for baking a certain flat type of bread as well as brewing beer.

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In early Germanic society, a woman had no formal political rights, meaning that she was not permitted to participate in popular or tribal assemblies. She could be represented through her male relatives, and thus only exert influence from behind the scenes.

884:: "a system of interlocking and closely interrelated religious worldviews and practices rather than as one indivisible religion" and as such consisted of "individual worshippers, family traditions and regional cults within a broadly consistent framework". 2355:

The establishment of agricultural villages was more common in areas with rich soil or a poor water supply. Such settlements were typically grouped around a common water supply. Such settlements required a more sophisticated form or communal organization.

1921:

Failing in having witness testify in his favor, an accused man could prove his innocence in a trial. Such trials often the outcome when numerous individuals would swear oaths both in support and opposition of the defendant. Trials were typically either a

1104:, there does not appear to have been a priestly caste among the Germanic peoples. There were however individuals who performed certain religious duties. This included carrying out sacrifices and punishing those found guilty of crimes against the tribe. 2570:, coins, glassware, silverware and weapons. In turn the Romans received amber, cattle, fur and slaves. By the 4th century, wine became a very important Roman export to the Germanic world. It became a luxury product widely consumed by Germanic leaders. 4544:"Some smiths were able to rework iron into high-quality steel and make sword blades with a core of softer steel for flexibility and harder steel on the exterior to keep a sharp edge, far finer weapons than those used in the Roman army at the time." 3469:

beauty, nor youth, nor wealth can find her another husband. In fact, no one there laughs about vice, nor is seducing and being seduced called "modern"... To limit the number of their children or to kill one of the later-born is regarded as a crime.

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has however been well preserved due to the physical conditions. The descriptions by Roman writers, and particularly the depictions of Germanic warriors on Roman columns, provide valuable evidence of the clothing used by the early Germanic peoples.

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Besides parents and children, a household might include slaves, but slavery was uncommon, and according to Tacitus, slaves normally had households of their own. Their slaves (usually prisoners of war) were most often employed as domestic servants.

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The king was bound to uphold ancestral law, but was at the same time the source for new laws for cases not addressed in previous tradition. This aspect was the reason for the creation of the various Germanic law codes by the kings following their

4495:"When a nation either defends itself in war or wages it, magistrates are selected to be in charge of the war with power of life and death... Those unwilling to follow are thought as deserters and traitors and are no longer trusted in anything." 4287:

has characterized the theories of the Vienna School as "extraordinarily one-sided" and "dogmatism", and its proponents as having "a closed mind". More recently, an even more radical group has emerged, which also employs sociological theories to

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Archaeologists have discovered a number of well-constructed roads across moors in Germanic territories. Although the Germanic peoples were not road-builders, paths and wagon tracks were created. They later learned the art of road-building from

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The principle shared deity among the Germanic tribes, Odin-Wodan, (in varying name forms) was not only the god of war, but of the dead as well. Odin protected great heroes in combat but often killed his "protégés", who were led to him by the

2968:

Although the Germanic tribes practiced both agriculture and husbandry, the latter was extremely important both as a source of dairy products and as a basis for wealth and social status, which was measured by the size of an individual's herd.

3190:, especially close kinship, was very important to life within a tribe but generally was not the source of a tribe's identity. In fact, several elements of ancient Germanic life tended to weaken the role of kinship: the importance of the 2663:

games between slaves, such as those carried out in ancient Rome, is not mentioned as having been common among Germanic peoples, although it is possible that such games were arranged among the Germanic peoples living on the Roman border.

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Tacitus writes that the Germanic peoples were more of a pastoral people than an agricultural people. Wealth was in a large part measured by the amount of cattle owned. He noted that Germanic cattle was of smaller size than Roman cattle.

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According to Tacitus, Germanic peoples treated slaves more mildly than contemporary peoples. Although the master had complete power of life and death over his slave, mistreatment of slaves is not recorded in early Germanic literature.

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When a nation either defends itself in war or wages it, magistrates are selected to be in charge of the war with power of life and death... Those unwilling to follow are thought as deserters and traitors and are no longer trusted in

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Archaeological research has uncovered two forms of Germanic agricultural settlements. There were the farm village and the individual farm. The prevalence of either of these forms of settlements depended upon the nature of the land.

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Germanic literature includes all the oral and written literature which was common to the early Germanic peoples, in respect to form and nature of content. It was generally intended to honor the gods or to praise tribal ancestors.

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Roman writers note that Germanic peoples were extremely fond of gambling. Francis Owen note that these Roman observations were made from Germanic warriors, who were not necessarily representative of their communities as a whole.

697:. Accounts of the history of the Goths play and important role in Germanic literature, and although the Goths themselves disappeared, their deeds were remembered for centuries afterwards among Germanic peoples living as far as 2880:

Germanic settlements were typically small, rarely containing much more than ten households, often less, and were usually located by clearings in the woods. Settlements remained of a fairly constant size throughout the period.

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Generally speaking, Roman legal codes eventually provided the model for many Germanic laws and they were fixed in writing along with Germanic legal customs. Traditional Germanic society was gradually replaced by the system of

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increased. The importation of Roman coins into Germanic territories reduced the importance of amber in Germanic society. Large collections of Roman coinage have been found deep into Germanic territories, even in Scandinavia.

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The marriage of a daughter was typically arranged by her parents, although the wishes of the daughter was generally taken into considerations. Sometimes girls would be given away for marriage as a way to preserve the peace.

545:. Conversely, many common given names in the Iberian peninsula, and the surnames derived from them, are of Germanic origin (Álvaro – Álvarez; Fernando – Fernández/Hernández; Gonzalo – González; Rodrigo – Rodríguez, etc.). 1208:

in about CE 496 without an intervening time as Arians. The Visigoths converted to Roman Catholicism in 589 AD. Several centuries later, Anglo-Saxon and Frankish missionaries and warriors undertook the conversion of their

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The practice of cremation by Germanic tribes of the Bronze Age and Pre-Roman Iron Age has made it difficult to ascertain the clothing of Germanic peoples during the initial years of the Iron Age. By the beginning of the

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Round houses were not uncommon in Germanic architecture, but was more frequent among the Celts. This form of architecture appears to have been borrowed by Germanic peoples encroaching upon Celtic territory, such as the

2160:, some even gaining prominent positions. Early Germanic peoples believed that heroic death in battle would enable a warrior admittance to Valhalla, a majestic hall presided over by Odin, chief of the Germanic pantheon. 2334:

coast, cattle raising appears to have been prevalent. This was because the high probability of flooding made agriculture risky. Similarly, in mountainous areas with good pasture but poor soil, husbandry was prevalent.

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did not command a weregild, and the recompense paid in the event of their death was merely for material damage, 15 shillings in the case of the Alamanni, increased to 40 or 50 if the victim had been a skilled artisan.

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The dwelling houses of the Germanic tribes varied by locality and time period. Typically, they were of timber and constructed rectangularly with walls of upright posts. Intervening spaces were filled with interwoven

512:

Despite their common linguistic framework, by the 5th century CE, the Germanic peoples were linguistically differentiated and could no longer easily comprehend one another. Nonetheless, the line between Germanic and

1626:

Although Germanic society was highly stratified between leaders, freemen and slaves, their culture still emphasized equality. On occasion, the freemen of the tribe would overrule the decisions of their own leaders.

3827:

Tacitus writes that Germanic women more frequently wore linen garments than men. They wore long dresses that were generally dyed in red or other colors. This dress had a high waist and was generally sleeveless.

2375:

The plough was typically drawn by oxen, as shown in Bronze Age rock carvings. The wheel plough was eventually introduced to them from the south. It significantly improved the efficiency of Germanic agriculture.

4255:), Pohl has later maintained that early Germanic peoples had no institutions or values of their own, and made no contribution to medieval Europe whatsoever. These views are seconded by Wolfram, who states that 2707:

the tribes ensued as they tried to outpace one another. Trade was taking place to a greater degree and simple gems and amber from the Mediterranean indicate that long-distance exchange of goods was occurring.

1728:

Caesar notes that in wartime, Germanic tribes would select a "magistrate" with supreme authority to wage war. Those who refused to follow him were considered traitors, and were subjected to social isolation:

3703: 4407:. In the text, Harald honors his parents using runic script and on the other side of the stone is a depiction of 'Christ in His Glory', incorporating a runic inscription which extolls Harald for acquiring 462:" near the Rhine, to whom the term was originally applied by Caesar, may not have even spoken Germanic languages, let alone a language recognizably ancestral to modern Dutch. The close relatives of Dutch, 1130:

Germanic ideology and religious practices were pervaded and colored to a large degree by war, particularly the notion of a heroic death on the battlefield, as this brought the god(s) a "blood sacrifice."

2859:

Germanic houses were frequently constructed on artificial mounds as a measure against flooding. This form of construction was particularly common along the North Sea coast, where floods were frequent.

3824:

The dress of Germanic women changed considerably from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. In particular, skirts were more ample and free-flowing. The girle-ornament of the Bronze Age was no longer worn.

1389:. The calendars were an element of early Germanic culture. The Germanic peoples had names for the months that varied by region and dialect, but they were later replaced with local adaptations of the 3760:

held at the neck with a brooch or safety pin. Contrary to the Bronze Age however, trousers were now being used. This custom had been adopted from the Celts, who in turn had adopted this custom from

2609:

additional efforts of conquest. Drawing a distinctive line between themselves and Germanic people also incentivized alliances and trade as the Germanic people sought a share of the imperial wealth.

1082:

Spiritual rituals frequently occurred in consecrated groves or upon islands on lakes where perpetual fires burned. The Germanic peoples did not construct temples to carry out their religious rites.

3520:

Roman leaders were not oblivious to the clever tactics (intermarriage and offspring) employed by Germanic chieftains and adopted creative treaties to either appease them or temper their ambitions.

1976:"Traitors and deserters are hanged on trees. Cowards, those who will not fight, and those who have defiled their bodies, are plunged into a boggy mire, with a wicker hurdle pressed on top of them." 3551:

of the Lombards, which stated that women were not allowed to live of their own freewill and that they had to be subject to a man and if no one else, they were to be "under the power of the king".

818:

Runes had a special significance in early Germanic culture, and each runic letter had a distinct name associated with a particular subject. The origins of runes has been a source of controversy.

4486:"The rigorous ethics of early Germanic society, based on trust, loyalty, and courage, and the perhaps somewhat idealized picture of the moral code given by Tacitus, had a divine sanction..." 2675:

of slaves among Germanic peoples was common, just as it was among the Romans. Owen notes that the life of a Germanic slave was "infinitely better than on the industrialized farms of Italy.".

2197:

Cereals produced by Germanic agriculturalists was normally used for home consumption, rather than being sold or exported. Cattle hides was however an important export for Germanic merchants.

1166:

Pagan beliefs amid the Germanic tribes were reported by some of the earlier Roman historians and in the 6th century CE another instance of this appears when the Byzantine historian and poet,

3785: 3831:

The dress of Germanic women indicate a high degree of practical knowledge of the use of materials. Women must have had a knowledge of dying, and colors were certainly derived from plants.

3566:

In cases of divorce described in the Icelandic sagas, the purchase price for the woman had to be paid back to her parents, and she was permitted to retain property legally owned by her.

2205:

Traces of the earliest pastoralism of the Germanic peoples appear in central Europe in the form of elaborate cattle burials along the Elbe and Vistula Rivers from around 4000–3000 BCE.

1914:

In the case of a suspected crime, the accused could avoid punishment by presenting a fixed number of free men (their number depending on the severity of the crime) prepared to swear an

1495:

The deceased was buried along with his possessions so that he could bring them to the afterlife. Such possessions included weapons, personal adornments and other belongings, sometimes

529:, the linguistic patterns did not move much. Further west and south in Europe-proper, the linguistic presence of the Germanic languages is almost negligible. Despite the fact that the 1980:

Hanging was considered an offering to the gods, while the drowning in swamps was more of a symbolic act, intended to completely remove the criminal from contact with the living. Some

2764:. It was designed for the purpose of serving as a dining-hall, sleeping-room and assembly for the chieftain and his followers. Such hall are vividly described in the Germanic epics. 3775:

Roman monuments typically depicts Germanic warriors as being naked from the waist up, except from a mantle worn over the shoulders. This was probably to achieve increased mobility.

4312:

writes, the ideologically motivated theories of the post-war era have lost currency. The origins of the Germanic peoples are again traced to the first millennium BC, or even the

1995:, which was left to the judgement of the family of the victim, but to settle damages as fairly as possible once an involved party decided to bring a dispute before the assembly. 622:

Germanic literature is divided into literature transferred orally from generation to generation and literature written down at a later date. Some of this literature, such as the

3415:

is not brought by the wife to the husband but by the husband to the wife" and wedding gifts related to a marriage consisted of things like oxen, saddles and various armaments.

3367:

until adulthood increased physical growth and manliness. For a young Germanic man, having had sexual relations with a woman before the age of twenty was considered a disgrace:

2163:

In times of distress, a Germanic tribe would on occasion embark on a wholesale mass-migration, in which the entire able-bodied population became engaged in war. In a series of

3054:, while ale was made from grain alone. Since the honey had to be imported from the south, it is probable that ale was being drunk among the Germanic tribes earlier than beer. 2725:

Germanic metalworkers must have held very important positions in their societies. This is attested by the respect accorded to master craftsmen in Germanic literature, such as

990:, the gods of wisdom, thunder and war respectively. Týr appears to at one point have been the chief deity in the Germanic pantheon, but he was eventually displaced by Odin. 3259:. Elites within the Germanic tribes who learned the Roman system and emulated the way they established dominion were able to gain advantages and exploit them accordingly. 2536:, testifying to a massive export of this commodity by the Germanic peoples to their Celtic southern neighbors. From the Hallstatt culture, this amber found its way to the 913:

From its earliest descriptions by Roman authors in antiquity to the Icelandic accounts written in the Middle Ages, Germanic religion appears to have changed considerably.

3903:

Germanic women typically wore their hair long or plaited. Germanic women wore various types of hairpins and combs. It was considered disgraceful to wear the hair short.

963:

appeared under similar names across the Germanic peoples, most notably the god known to the Germans as Wodan or Wōden, to the Anglo-Saxons as Woden, and to the Norse as

4517:

E.g. reduction of the weregild to half the regular amount if the man responsible for the killing is employed by the king in the laws of Æthelberht of Kent, paragraph 7.

2856:

and Pliny, who claim that those could be loaded on wagons and established at a new place. These constructions were probably utilized during times of war or migration.

2148:

warfare. Fortifications were rarely used, and as a result, there was little use for siege equipment. Raids by small war bands led by a charismatic leader, a so-called

1811:: besides recording inherited tribal law, these codes have the purpose of settling the position of the church and Christian clergy within society, usually setting the 1003: 3060:

Evidence from Germanic literature and the Germanic vocabulary show that mead played a particularly important role in early Germanic culture. The oldest mentioning of

1725:, the power of Germanic kings over their own people increased throughout the centuries, partially because mass-migrations of the time required more stern leadership. 1232:

Eventually for many Germanic tribes, the conversion to Christianity was achieved by armed force, successfully completed by Charlemagne, in a series of campaigns (the

3513:

as the Romans connoted the bond, an instrument of politics. Earlier treaty terms in the late 4th century CE had forbidden "foreign" Goths to intermarry with Romans.

3404:

Generally, there were two forms of marriage among the Germanic peoples, one involving the participation of the parents and the other, those that did not. Known as

1492:, the possessions of the deceased was sometimes placed in a hollowed-out grave without an urn. During the Roman period, urns were typically placed in flat graves. 3031:, beer and wine. The importance of drinking at social functions is vividly described in pieces of Germanic literature such as Beowulf, the Nibelungenlied and the 2100:

and gifts. This system of sworn retainers was central to early Germanic society, and the loyalty of the retainer to his lord generally replaced his family ties.

1229:, in CE 723. When Thor failed to strike Boniface dead after the oak hit the ground, the Franks were amazed and began their conversion to the Christian faith. 442:, including modern German. More speculatively, given the lack of any such clear explanation in any classical source, modern linguists sometimes designate the 2020:

The amount of weregild to be paid depended upon the damage done and the position of the persons involved. It was generally regulated by the tribal assembly.

2543:

The arrival of iron from the south into Germanic territories led to a partial collapse of the Nordic Bronze Age. By this time the amber trade had declined.

2513:

graves, and the presence of Italian bronze daggers in Northern European graves, attest to trade relations between early Bronze Age Germanic peoples and the

1506:

Tacitus reports that certain Germanic individuals were inhumated in mound graves. Archaeological evidence does not suggest that this was a common practice.

6589: 3540:

For Germanic women of later antiquity, marriage obviously had its appeal since it offered greater security and better placement in their social hierarchy.

383:, have a continuous recorded existence, and so there is a reasonable confidence that their modern dialects can be traced back to those in classical times. 3075:

Wine seems to have been introduced to the Germanic tribes at a late date, as this drink could not be produced in Northern Europe, and had to be imported.

2685:

ith their great ferocity combine great craft, to an extent scarcely credible to one who has had no experience with them, and are a race to lying born...

2327:

were used to plow the fields and for drawing wagons. This was the main means of transport. Horses were used for riding, and also later as a draft animal.

125:

and the abandonment of their tribal way of life. Certain traces of early Germanic culture have survived among the Germanic peoples up to the present day.

3206:

society, their social hierarchy was linked intrinsically to war and this warrior code maintained the fidelity between chiefs and their young warriors.

2312:, horses and sheep also played an important role. This had been the case since at least the early Bronze Age. There were plenty of chickens, ducks and 2052:

Among the Alemanni the basic weregild for a free man was 200 shillings, and the amount could be doubled or tripled according to the man's rank. Unfree

2394:

was used for the reaping of grain, while the ancient practice of beating out grain with sticks or tramping it out remained prevalent for a long time.

1201:

were not converted until after their entrance into the Empire, but received Christianity from Arian Germanic tribes sometime during the 5th century.

3448:

Germanic tribes, are marked as women from the age of twelve onward, based on archaeological finds, implying that the age of marriage coincided with

4003:

and only in a second phase in pre-Christian Northern Europe. The Germanic peoples of the Roman era were often lumped with the other agents of the "

3068:, who writes that mead was being consumed at the court of Attila. Mead was prepared through boiling a mixture of water and honey and leaving it to 2998: 17: 3408:, the latter form consisted of marriage between a free man and a free woman, since marriage between free persons and slaves was forbidden by law. 3186:, each functioning as an economic and military unit and sometimes united by a common religious cult. Outsiders could be adopted into a new tribe. 2383:, which enabled them to farm the rough forested lowlands of Northern Europe. In this respect their technology was superior to that of the Romans. 5533: 2220:

and Corded Ware culture and (circa. 2900–2300 BCE) coincide one another and provide evidence of how the ancestors of the Germanic peoples lived.

1197:

who converted them. Goths, Vandals, and other Germanic peoples often offered political resistance prior to their conversion to Christianity. The

2826:

Early Germanic houses were typically unitary, housing both humans and animals. Buildings often had upright logs or posts as walls, long crossed

648:

The structure of the verse and the rime system shows that Germanic poetry followed a distinct poetic form. A significant characteristic is the

3756:

By the Roman Iron Age, as in the Bronze Age, Germanic peoples were wearing long-sleeved jackets reaching down the knees, and a skin or woolen

2559: 2500: 1991:

appears generally to be the most severe penalty issued officially. This reflects that Germanic tribal law did not have the scope of exacting

7269: 3768:. The adoption of this custom has been ascribed to climatic changes and the increased role of horsemanship in Germanic culture at the time. 3844:

ornaments around the forehead; it was also customary for women to wear their hair long and short hair was considered "a mark of disgrace."

738:

During his reign, Charlemagne ordered a collection of the old heroic songs to be made, but this collection was later destroyed by order of

1525: 910:. Despite the unique practices of some tribes, there was a degree of cultural uniformity among the Germanic peoples concerning religion. 6707: 3336:

Germanic literature contains many references to mischief caused by women. Women playing a prominent role in Germanic literature include

1941:

If someone was accused of crimes against the community itself, the determining of guilt or innocence was generally left to the priests.

8314: 2348:

the Icelandic sagas only individual farms are mentioned, and this also appears to have been the case in Norway, from where most of the

1304:

of early Germanic peoples was intimately intertwined with their natural surroundings. Legendary creatures of Germanic folklore include

4553:"Furthermore, the skills of Germanic smiths and other craftsmen were as good as, or better than those found inside the Roman empire." 2852:

A more simple Germanic construction were log huts with thatched roofs at an angle of ca. 45 degrees. Such structures are described by

1484:, while his weapons and other possessions were placed in an urn for burial. Leading members of the community were sometimes buried in 8002: 4619:"Archaeological attempts to assign an identity to the Germani have been consciously avoided since the end of the Second World War." 685:

Powerful individuals of the distant past figure prominently in Germanic literature. Such individuals include Julius Caesar, Attila,

9361: 1808: 1140: 826: 114: 4811: 4579:"hey allowed import of no wine or other luxury goods, because they thought these things weakned spirits and diminshed courage..." 3319:

Germanic epics, such as the Nibelungenlied and Beowulf, describe the strong influence which royal women exerted in their society.

2652:

there was a constant supply of cheap slaves, although slavery was never as important an institution as it became in ancient Rome.

1244:, where as many as 4,500 people were beheaded according to one of Charlemagne's chroniclers, were a direct result of this policy. 1075:

In Germanic religion, one distinguishes between household worship and community worship. This was similar to religious worship in

9379: 3509:, a certain degree of intermarriage was undertaken to strengthen their ties to one another and to the Empire, making marriage or 1847:

as an indirect result of Christianisation, but also because political structures had grown too large for the flat hierarchy of a

1480:

By the early Bronze Age, cremation became more frequent, and eventually universal. The deceased was generally burnt at a funeral

1154: 3970: 3460:

Based on the writings of Tacitus, most of the Germanic men were content with one wife, which indicates a general trend towards

3157: 3006: 1181:, Visigoths, and Vandals were Christianized while they were still outside the bounds of the Empire; however, they converted to 7938: 7894: 7875: 7852: 7776: 7711: 7692: 7671: 7652: 7613: 7525: 7474: 7455: 7417: 7379: 7346: 7327: 7308: 7258: 7158: 7139: 7120: 7087: 7068: 7045: 7001: 6973: 6904: 6877: 6858: 6839: 6801: 6782: 6763: 6725: 6686: 6659: 6640: 6619: 6554: 6535: 1503:. In certain rare cases the deceased was even buried along with several of his servants, who would be slain for the purpose. 3057:

Tacitus notes that the Germanic drink was "a liquid made from barley or wheat fermented into a faint resemblance of whine."

2655:

In the Germanic economy, slaves performed both domestic work and farm labor. Attractive female slaves would often end up as

921:

Germanic religion appears to have emerged as a synthesis of the religion of the Indo-European speakers who arrived with the

5278: 4172:

with its neighboring rivals of differing ancestry. The emergence of a German ethnic identity was subsequently founded upon

2573:

The two most important trade routes between Rome and the Germanic world went either along the North Sea coast or along the

2081:

To a large degree, many of the extant legal records from the Germanic tribes seem to revolve around property transactions.

4399:

As late as the 10th century there is evidence of runic writing on a stone monument erected by the first Christian king of

4121:. Apart from linguistic studies, the subject of what became of the Roman era Germanic tribes, and how they influenced the 3098: 3213:

Recent scholarship suggests that, despite the obligation to take part in feuds and other customs involving kinship ties,

1815:

of the members of the clerical hierarchy parallel to that of the existing hierarchy of nobility, with the position of an

548:

By 500 CE, the West Germanic speakers had apparently developed a distinct language continuum with extensive loaning from

3537:

and committed suicide. Such was the fate of the women of the Cimbri and Teutons after their defeat in the Cimbrian War.

3225:

in German). The overall territory occupied by people from the same tribe was designated in the writings of Tacitus as a

724:, but since their authors were of Germanic origin and because their works show traces of Germanic heritage, philologist 8158: 8126: 7963: 7179: 1283: 5679: 3798: 3712: 1064:

Archaeological findings suggest that the early Germanic peoples practiced some of the same 'spiritual' rituals as the

8460: 8214: 8101: 8073: 7982: 7915: 7804: 7436: 7364: 7214: 6820: 4062:

The pace of publication increased during the 17th century with Latin translations of the Edda (notably Peder Resen's

3885:

By the Iron Age, Germanic warriors, particularly those of the Suebi, are known for wearing their hair in a so-called

3554:

From the Icelandic sagas, it becomes evident that married women had almost complete control of household management.

3375:

Caesar further noted, to his amazement, that men and women would frequently bath naked together in lakes and rivers.

1892:, remained in effect throughout the Middle Ages, in the case of the Holy Roman Empire until the establishment of the 2061:

usually depend on the rank of the guilty party, although there are some exceptions associated with royal privilege.

2017:. It was a sum of money which was to be paid to the injured party as compensation for damage to person or property. 1851:. The same effect of political centralization took hold in Scandinavia slightly later, in the 12th to 13th century ( 1509:

Cremation appears to have been much more common and long lasting in Scandinavia than in other Germanic territories.

8422: 3333:

Tacitus describes how, during battles, Germanic warriors were encouraged and cared for by their wives and mothers.

1193:

by Catholics. The one great written remnant of the Gothic language is the Gothic Bible made by Wulfila, the Arian

9428: 9384: 8592: 6587: 5539: 3975: 2009:

Early Germanic law reflects a hierarchy of worth within the society of free men, reflected in the differences in

1158: 8281: 7575: 4588:"They do not let wine be imported to them, for they think it softens men for hard work and makes them womanly." 811:

Some of the other earliest known physical records of the Germanic language appear on stone and wood carvings in

9374: 8642: 8447: 8307: 8271: 8242: 8186: 8045: 7597: 7557: 7239: 6670: 4149: 2671:

In the Icelandic sagas, the children of slaves and masters are often mentioned as playing with each other. The

1405:

month names are attested from the 13th century. As with most pre-modern calendars, the reckoning used in early

4144:

The development of Germanic studies as an academic discipline in the 19th century ran parallel to the rise of

2524:

The early Germanic peoples imported a large amount of gold from Ireland and ornaments from cultures along the

1792:

structures remained comparatively local, the Germanic thing survived into the 21st century in the form of the

3679: 3619: 2939: 2448: 144: 140: 5178: 4055:

of Tacitus as the "Old Germans", whose virtue and unspoiled manhood, as it appears in the Roman accounts of

3464:. Tacitus notes that the Germanic tribes were strictly monogamous, and that adultery was severely punished: 2620:

Early Germanic peoples are recorded as being intensely opposed to taxation. For this reason, it is noted by

2368:

was the most important form of agricultural equipment for the early Germanic peoples, who had abandoned the

8523: 8011: 3729:

however, burial practices were again changing, although little clothing is generally preserved in burials.

1584: 1550: 907: 7078:

Jansen, Christian (2011). "The Formation of German Nationalism, 1740–1850". In Helmut Walser Smith (ed.).

6943: 4249:

entirely. While Wenskus earlier maintained that the early Germanic peoples held a certain core-tradition (

9389: 8402: 7721: 4226: 2496: 1639: 83: 5293: 3918:

The display of ornaments played an important part in early Germanic culture. Products were made of both

8550: 8037: 7484: 6734: 2896:-covered roofs. These were generally used as supply-rooms, work-rooms or dwelling places for the poor. 2691: 2113: 1987:

Corporal or capital punishment for free men does not figure prominently in the Germanic law codes, and

725: 7827: 7734: 7580: 7020: 6948: 6594: 2096:

to a man of property who as their lord would then be responsible for their upkeep, including generous

1163:

Christianity had no relevance for the pagan barbarians until their contact and integration with Rome.

9443: 9438: 9407: 8587: 8494: 8487: 8465: 8300: 2846: 1754: 372:

dialects derived from a common parent language but there are no written records to verify this fact.

552:(due to their ongoing contact with the Romans), whereas the East Germanic languages were dying out. 9433: 8627: 8612: 8427: 8412: 7822: 7508: 4433:

emerged from his hair, and his skull made up the sky. In this creation story, a mighty tree called

3244:

In cases where the tribes were grouped into larger confederations or a group of kingdoms, the term

2209: 2152:, was a common occurrence. Military training was started from an early age. During the time of the 2078:

agriculturalists, and to prevent wealth concentration, which could become a source of instability.

1710:

combining the functions of military leader, high priest, lawmaker and judge. Germanic monarchy was

1566: 960: 950: 731:

A large amount of Germanic epic literature must have been produced during the violent years of the

455: 427: 246: 227: 6966:

The Continental Saxons from the Migration Period to the Tenth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective

3922:, gold and silver. Early Germanic literature reserves a prominent place for ornaments such as the 1721:) tracing their ancestry to the tribe's divine or semi-divine founder. Under the influence of the 8742: 8632: 8622: 8617: 8437: 8417: 8374: 7955: 7566: 7280: 3431:

among ancient Germanic tribes, according to Tacitus, was late for women compared to Roman women:

3047: 1860: 1856: 1364: 954: 541:

for upwards of 250 years, there are almost no recognizable Gothic words borrowed into Spanish or

411: 403: 362: 319: 266: 7818: 4105: 3182:

Before their conversion to Christianity, the Germanic peoples of Europe were made up of several

3090:, banning the import of alcoholic beverages to their territories in order to combat degeneracy. 1874: 9144: 8577: 8572: 8499: 8234: 8196: 8065: 8055: 7814: 7567: 7409:

Germanic Kinship Structure: Studies in Law and Societies in Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages

4416: 4189: 4165: 4118: 3349: 2129: 1893: 1789: 1538: 1279: 1072:, divination, and the belief in spiritual connection with the natural environment around them. 660: 577: 2288:, Germany (which existed between BCE 50 to CE 450) shows that the Germanic peoples cultivated 1247:

In Scandinavia, Germanic paganism continued to dominate until the 11th century in the form of

434:. Within the West Germanic group, linguists associate the Suebian or Hermionic group with an " 375:

The Germanic tribes moved and interacted over the next centuries, and separate dialects among

8442: 8332: 7231: 7202:

East and West in Late Antiquity: Invasion, Settlement, Ethnogenesis and Conflicts of Religion

3256: 3221:

When a certain number of families resided on the same territory, this constituted a village (

2849:, Roman soldiers are depicted setting fire to such round houses belonging to the Marcomanni. 892: 369: 43: 3982: 1967:. Such bodies are often the remains of Germanic individuals subjected to capital punishment. 926: 606: 8533: 8504: 8407: 7813: 7038:

The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective

5284: 4202: 3651: 2390:

is of Indo-European origin, indicating that this tool was introduced at an early time. The

2217: 2171:

and established themselves as the foremost military powers of Western Europe in its place.

2168: 1852: 1840: 1824: 1671: 1604: 871: 637:, who were poets employed by a chieftain to memorize his deeds and those of his ancestors. 277:

The approximate extent of Germanic languages in northern Europe in the early 10th century:

106: 6813:

A History of Religious Ideas (vol. II): From Gautama Buddha to the Triumph of Christianity

6547:

The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade

4505: 2912:

The best known settlements are the wurts, or warfts in North Germany. The classic site is

2316:

in Germanic farmyards. A Germanic farm was typically inhabited by a large number of dogs.

8: 9369: 8582: 8263: 8093: 8027: 6701: 4230: 4095: 4000: 3715:. Such clothing and weapons were commonplace among peoples on the Roman Empire's borders. 3575: 2982:

Many of the famous Germanic mass-migrations carried out appear to have been motivated by

1743: 1317: 1146: 1053: 975: 922: 690: 656: 542: 497: 3485: 2372:

in Neolithic times. The Germanic words for plough are of distinct Indo-European origin.

1204:

The Franks were converted directly from paganism to Catholicism under the leadership of

971:– known to the Germans as Donar, to the Anglo-Saxons as Þunor and to the Norse as Þórr. 483:. So it is not clear if these medieval dialect divisions correspond to any mentioned by 86:

and indigenous Northern European elements, the Germanic culture started to exist in the

8752: 8604: 8543: 8432: 8364: 8340: 8118: 8015: 7927: 7682: 7660: 7632: 7549: 7407: 4157: 4100: 4078: 4048: 4044: 3583: 3393: 3283: 3111: 2537: 2237:

had been forced to migrate from their lands after the Suebi had sabotaged their crops.

1897: 1610: 1489: 1410: 1248: 1241: 925:

and the indigenous populations among whom they settled. It is often suggested that the

863: 649: 534: 471: 376: 236: 215: 134: 8136: 6941: 5685: 3869: 3279: 3271: 2088:

and were subject to the king directly, without any intermediate hierarchy as in later

2045:"200-man" for this reason, while a nobleman commanded a fee of six times that amount ( 1870: 1654:

of Norway, but also to give his daughter to him in marriage. Illustration by C. Krogh.

1647: 8528: 8379: 8354: 8267: 8238: 8210: 8182: 8154: 8122: 8097: 8069: 8041: 7978: 7959: 7934: 7911: 7905: 7890: 7871: 7864: 7848: 7800: 7772: 7755: 7707: 7688: 7667: 7648: 7609: 7601: 7553: 7521: 7470: 7451: 7432: 7413: 7394: 7375: 7360: 7342: 7323: 7304: 7254: 7235: 7210: 7196: 7175: 7154: 7135: 7116: 7083: 7064: 7057: 7041: 6997: 6969: 6900: 6893: 6888: 6873: 6870:

Before France and Germany: The Creation & Transformation of the Merovingian World

6854: 6835: 6816: 6797: 6778: 6759: 6753: 6682: 6674: 6655: 6636: 6630: 6615: 6569: 6550: 6531: 4284: 4138: 4130: 4016: 3757: 3746: 3591: 3579: 3364: 3214: 2788: 2726: 2555: 2533: 2514: 2504: 1836: 1711: 1651: 1588: 1470: 1386: 1309: 1301: 1295: 1269: 1186: 1057: 999: 896: 881: 857: 467: 443: 118: 91: 68: 7010: 6914: 4377:

Of the Germanic languages, the only well-attested East Germanic language is Gothic.

2979:

Beowulf and the Icelandic sagas describe a society with a plentiful supply of food.

2862:

Houses belonging to powerful members of the community were normally quite spacious.

1039: 594: 8951: 8323: 8253: 8168: 7725: 7571: 7498: 7206: 7015: 6738: 6654:. Translated by James O'Donnell. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. 4564:

Before France and Germany. The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World

4404: 3548: 3517:

to put their stamp on Roman rule and replace Roman armies with their own warriors.

3498: 3428: 3144: 2913: 2703: 2510: 2425:

Among Germanic peoples living along the coasts, fishing was an important business.

2281: 2191: 1882: 1832: 1773: 1766: 1749: 1714:; the king was elected by the free men from among eligible candidates of a family ( 1614: 1406: 1378: 1190: 983: 822: 732: 717: 709: 565: 492: 95: 79: 35: 31: 7662:

Old English and its Closest Relatives: A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages

7502: 7488: 7251:

Ancestral Journeys: The Peopling of Europe from the First Venturers to the Vikings

3198:, the ability of strong leaders to unite people who were not closely related, and 789: 8560: 8538: 8482: 8452: 8336: 8257: 8228: 8206: 8200: 8172: 8150: 8140: 8112: 8087: 8059: 8031: 8000:

Fleming von Sweringen, Grace (October 1909). "Women in the Germanic Hero-Sagas".

7949: 7796: 7790: 7752:

Historian in an Age of Crisis. The Life and Work of Johannes Aventinus, 1477–1534

7543: 7225: 7200: 7169: 7101: 4161: 4126: 4110: 3765: 3761: 3655: 3639: 3444: 2892:

The more simple structures in Germanic villages were often dug-out shelters with

2795: 2308:

Germanic agriculturalists primarily emphasized the raising of cattle, but goats,

2066: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1889: 1426: 1418: 1398: 1390: 1382: 1237: 1079:. In household worship the male head of the household would act as the "priest". 1069: 938: 867: 848:, which is the earliest known translation of the Bible into a Germanic language. 841: 785: 767: 739: 713: 514: 488: 415: 335: 87: 7729: 1477:

In Neolithic Northern Europe, the deceased were generally buried by inhumation.

9234: 9018: 8682: 8369: 8178: 7539: 7535: 4458:

to practice fighting in preparation for the final eschatological battle of the

4330: 4313: 4301: 4289: 4280: 4272: 4238: 4067: 3988: 3953: 3912: 3726: 3587: 3506: 3171:

The writings of Tacitus allude to the Germanic peoples being aware of a shared

2972:

Caesar writes that the Germanic peoples mainly consumed milk, cheese and meat.

2594: 2085: 2038: 1848: 1675: 1620: 1579:

There were many symbols of importance in early Germanic culture, including the

1414: 1256: 1076: 721: 671: 589: 447: 358: 345: 292: 283: 158: 148: 6743: 6720: 6711:. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 414–438. 4293: 3923: 3900:, but this practice probably varied from tribe to tribe and period to period. 1043: 623: 153: 9422: 8993: 8956: 8916: 8782: 8511: 8470: 8083: 7011: 6696: 4260: 4194: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4114: 4036: 3965: 3595: 3360: 3002: 2904: 2387: 2309: 2297: 2164: 1843:

England in the 11th to 12th centuries, to some extent under the influence of

1794: 1703: 1687: 1643: 1635: 1438: 1332: 1214: 941:

branch of the Germanic pantheon, represents a remembrance of this synthesis.

781: 480: 475: 435: 349: 256: 210: 52: 9095: 6913: 5184: 3082:

Caesar notes that certain warlike and powerful Germanic tribes, such as the

2540:. In return, the Germanic peoples imported salt from the Hallstatt culture. 2406: 1777:, where disputes between freemen were addressed according to customary law. 1462: 600: 218:

dialect groups and their approximate distribution in northern Europe around

8687: 8677: 8660: 8477: 8224: 7786: 7645:

A Linguistic History of English: From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic

6899:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 4366:

A Linguistic History of English: From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic

4335: 4309: 4297: 4217: 4210: 4153: 4056: 4031: 3961: 3886: 3880: 3873: 3794: 3309: 3290: 3202:

and other conflicts within a tribe that might lead to permanent divisions.

3005:

bronze horn fittings and 3rd century glass drinking horn on display at the

2987: 2578: 2414: 2380: 2153: 1984:

appear to have been bound, and it is possible that they were buried alive.

1864: 1722: 1659: 1558: 1496: 1485: 1452: 1150: 845: 805: 797: 777: 506: 439: 122: 99: 7623:

Price, Arnold H. (1965). "The Germanic Forest Taboo and Economic Growth".

6088: 2624:, native Romans in many cases preferred "barbarian" rule over Roman rule. 2562:(in purple). Other trade routes of the 8th–11th centuries shown in orange. 1121: 9169: 9127: 9050: 8963: 8831: 8821: 8732: 8516: 7337:

Mjöberg, Johan (1980). "Romanticism and Revival". In David Wilson (ed.).

5743: 4325: 4234: 4145: 4134: 4122: 4090: 4082: 4071: 3996: 3915:. The same techniques were handed down to the craftsmen of the Iron Age. 3534: 3397: 3149: 3139: 3087: 3032: 2834: 2722:

and other craftsmen produced products of higher quality than the Romans.

2672: 2634: 2084:

In early Germanic society, the free men of property each ruled their own

1960: 1785: 1715: 1707: 1500: 1448: 1394: 1313: 1007: 877: 694: 419: 323: 310: 301: 110: 8019: 7720: 7636: 5299: 4460: 3782:

clothing appears more frequently, which is a sign of increasing wealth.

3668: 3608: 2928: 2871: 2437: 821:

Runic writing likely disappeared due to the concerted opposition of the

9346: 9134: 9117: 9065: 9055: 9040: 9008: 8998: 8876: 8826: 8702: 8697: 8665: 8384: 7759: 7398: 6573: 6100: 6052: 4435: 4345: 4206: 3659: 3599: 3544: 3388: 3313: 2842: 2794:

Germanic peoples did not build bridges. Rivers were instead crossed at

2602: 2551: 2492: 2481: 2477: 2402: 2369: 2349: 2157: 2121: 2014: 1992: 1988: 1816: 1781: 1758: 1665: 1592: 1574: 1442: 1323:

Remnants of early Germanic folklore has survived unto the present day.

1233: 1194: 1178: 1035: 903: 751: 463: 451: 423: 399: 391: 7771:. Translated by Anthony R. Birley. New York: Oxford University Press. 7391:

The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich

5355: 4504:

E.g. "If a freeman steal from the king, let him pay ninefold", in the

2617:

In early Germanic society, amber was an important medium of exchange.

1562: 1457: 1048: 386:

By extension, but sometimes controversially, the names of the sons of

9341: 9336: 9326: 9259: 9164: 9060: 9023: 9013: 8973: 8926: 8921: 8871: 8811: 8737: 8727: 8707: 8670: 8655: 5858: 5602: 4768: 4386:

For more on this, see: Kurt Braunmüller, "Was ist Germanisch heute?"

4340: 4276: 4246: 4242: 4023: 4004: 3957: 3708: 3490: 3440: 3195: 3172: 2831: 2761: 2753: 2743: 2718:

and, more rarely, the fabrication of iron tools, especially weapons.

2660: 2656: 2379:

The Germanic tribes appear to have been the first peoples to use the

2331: 2149: 2089: 1963:

of the 4th century BCE is one of the best studied examples of a

1844: 1828: 1580: 1570: 1546: 1422: 1402: 1344: 1125: 837: 686: 530: 431: 395: 331: 327: 3443:

had set the prime of life at 37 years for men and 18 for women, the

2472: 1340: 273: 63: 9314: 9299: 9279: 9264: 9244: 9219: 9204: 9199: 9179: 9149: 9139: 9090: 9080: 9075: 8906: 8891: 8866: 8846: 8816: 8806: 8801: 8772: 8767: 8757: 8692: 8650: 8359: 8292: 8174:

The Germanic Hero: Politics and Pragmatism in Early Medieval Poetry

7171:

Expansions: Competition and Conquest in Europe Since the Bronze Age

7097: 6775:

A History of Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland

4455: 4451: 3927: 3819: 3815: 3733: 3494: 3474: 3461: 3341: 3305: 2893: 2566:

Roman goods exported by the Romans to Germanic territories include

2546: 2518: 2285: 2234: 2230: 2034: 2010: 2004: 1981: 1964: 1950: 1909: 1878: 1812: 1374: 1355:

declared. Meanwhile, the autumn festival was a period of mourning.

1275: 1222: 1218: 1205: 1198: 1182: 1171: 1167: 1117: 979: 906:

in nature, with some underlying similarities to other European and

772: 705: 629:

Much of what is known about Germanic literature was passed down by

538: 6394: 3064:

being drunk by the Germanic tribes is from the 5th century writer

2908:

A reconstructed house from Feddersen Wierde in the Hannover Museum

2748: 2180: 1771:

All freemen had the right to participate in general assemblies or

1331:

Festivals in early Germanic culture included the autumn festival (

1274:

Elements of Germanic paganism survived into post-Christianization

1031: 1023: 887: 9331: 9319: 9309: 9284: 9274: 9269: 9249: 9239: 9214: 9154: 9112: 9085: 9003: 8936: 8931: 8911: 8901: 8856: 8851: 8841: 8836: 8777: 8762: 8712: 7684:

Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels: The Ways of Medieval Warfare

6262: 4408: 4400: 4256: 3790: 3449: 3345: 3323: 3191: 3187: 3179:

by the size of a man's cattle herd or by one's military prowess.

3153: 3103: 3069: 3065: 3043: 2884:

Germanic settlements were typically along the coasts and rivers.

2774:

The king would normally sleep in a separate structure. A blazing

2768: 2715: 2711: 2699: 2621: 2574: 2274: 1697: 1554: 1466: 1226: 844:

and translated the scriptures from Greek into Gothic, creating a

833: 801: 698: 667: 638: 585: 484: 407: 6700: 6669:

Cameron, Averil (1997). "Cult and Worship in East and West". In

4566:(New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 44 ff. and M. Innes, 3911:

The Germanic peoples of the Bronze Age are well known for their

3896:

Germanic warriors are often depicted in Roman columns with full

1955: 1011: 930: 9351: 9304: 9289: 9254: 9229: 9194: 9189: 9122: 9107: 9045: 8983: 8968: 8946: 8896: 8886: 8881: 8794: 8789: 8747: 8717: 6490: 5906: 5655: 5614: 5506: 4412: 4268: 3919: 3853: 3337: 3301: 3275: 3107: 3083: 3018: 2983: 2853: 2827: 2820: 2812: 2775: 2646: 2525: 2391: 2365: 2293: 2250: 2135:

however, Germanic society became heavily characterized by war.

2097: 1534: 1210: 1095: 1027: 1019: 974:

Tacitus writes that the Germanic peoples primarily worshipped "

832:

An important linguistic step was made by the Christian convert

642: 526: 502: 387: 56: 6466: 6322: 5954: 5836: 5834: 5821: 5819: 5817: 5205: 4176:

of Germanic antiquity. These tendencies culminated in a later

3864: 3164:

A Germanic family was part of an extended family known as the

2798:

or by boats. This is vividly described in the Nibelungenlied.

2397: 987: 368:

From what is known, the early Germanic tribes may have spoken

9224: 9209: 9184: 9174: 9159: 9102: 9070: 9035: 9030: 8988: 8978: 8861: 8722: 8565: 6076: 5592: 5590: 4710: 4708: 4292:

Germanic peoples, while accusing the Vienna School of being "

4264: 4074:

created a fascination with anything "Nordic" in disposition.

4008: 3897: 3779: 3412: 3327: 3246: 3183: 3165: 3135: 3051: 2875: 2529: 2313: 2266: 2262: 2117: 2029: 1693: 1670:

Common elements of Germanic society can be deduced both from

1533:'s hammer in silver with filigree ornamentation was found in 1421:

was lunisolar, fixing the beginning of the year at the first

1401:

month names date to the 8th and 9th centuries, respectively.

1305: 1101: 1091: 1065: 1015: 934: 812: 763: 675: 630: 573: 549: 525:

fell under Germanic domination and was firmly settled by the

518: 470:, are sometimes designated as Ingvaeonic, or alternatively, " 380: 48: 7977:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 7889:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 7130:

Kishlansky, Mark; Geary, Patrick; O'Brien, Patricia (2008).

6478: 6454: 6430: 6204: 6202: 6200: 6198: 6028: 5991: 5989: 5918: 986:". These have generally been identified with Odin, Thor and 379:

developed down to the present day. Some groups, such as the

9294: 8941: 6851:

Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe: Society in Transformation

6298: 6286: 6250: 6196: 6194: 6192: 6190: 6188: 6186: 6184: 6182: 6180: 6178: 6139: 6018: 6016: 5987: 5985: 5983: 5981: 5979: 5977: 5975: 5973: 5971: 5969: 5831: 5814: 5694: 5667: 5494: 5482: 5426: 5424: 5422: 5420: 5418: 5416: 5414: 5412: 5410: 5408: 5406: 5404: 5402: 5308: 5229: 5166: 5142: 5045: 5043: 4867: 4865: 4562:

This and the following information is based on P.J. Geary,

4012: 3199: 3061: 3028: 3014: 2816: 2808: 2586: 2582: 2567: 2485: 2324: 2320: 2270: 2093: 2053: 1915: 1863:), by the end of the 14th century culminating in the giant 1530: 1481: 1336: 968: 964: 747: 735:, but few of these accounts appear to have been preserved. 728:

considers these works part of Germanic literature as well.

679: 641:

notes that such skalds were also prominent at the court of

634: 626:, appears to have been passed down from a very early time. 581: 569: 561: 522: 7596:

Pohl, Walter (1997). "The Barbarian Successor States". In

7129: 6713:

Classification....1. Indo-European (Indo-Germanic) Family.

6346: 6334: 6105: 6103: 5778: 5768: 5766: 5764: 5762: 5760: 5758: 5749: 5733: 5731: 5729: 5727: 5725: 5723: 5721: 5633: 5631: 5629: 5587: 5565: 5563: 5561: 5559: 5557: 5555: 5553: 5551: 5457: 5455: 5453: 5451: 5400: 5398: 5396: 5394: 5392: 5390: 5388: 5386: 5384: 5382: 5345: 5343: 5341: 5339: 5337: 5335: 5268: 5266: 5264: 5262: 5260: 5258: 5256: 5041: 5039: 5037: 5035: 5033: 5031: 5029: 5027: 5025: 5023: 4890: 4888: 4886: 4884: 4882: 4880: 4863: 4861: 4859: 4857: 4855: 4853: 4851: 4849: 4847: 4845: 4732: 4705: 3533:

Germanic women are recorded by Roman historians as having

2710:

Important small-scale industries in Germanic society were

1282:

exist which see themselves as modern revivals of Germanic

1004:

Sacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology

402:, are sometimes used to divide up the medieval and modern 94:. It came under significant external influence during the 6777:. Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press. 6406: 6370: 6151: 6064: 6040: 5790: 5367: 5130: 5118: 5079: 4996: 3039: 3024: 2760:

A significant structure in Germanic architecture was the

2289: 2258: 2254: 1642:

showing the power of his office to the King of Sweden at

1351: 6382: 6310: 6214: 6175: 6013: 5966: 5523: 5521: 5241: 5096: 5094: 4756: 4744: 3473:

For those higher within their social hierarchy however,

3118:

to both the mother and the father's side of the family.

3050:. In early Germanic culture, beer had been sweetened by 361:

language existed and was distinguishable from the other

8282:"A Comparative Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages" 8251: 7429:

The Germanic Invasions, the Making of Europe 400–600 AD

6590:"History of Technology: Medieval advance (500–1500 ce)" 6358: 6115: 6001: 5755: 5718: 5706: 5626: 5548: 5540:

History of Technology: Medieval advance (500–1500 ce),

5448: 5379: 5332: 5253: 5020: 4924: 4877: 4842: 4720: 4164:. A Germanic national ethnicity offered itself for the 2605:

brought back many Roman products to their communities.

2581:. Significant trade routes were also located along the 1619:

Early Germanic society was characterized by a rigorous

880:, Germanic peoples followed what is now referred to as 517:

in central Europe remained at the western mouth of the

7754:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 7625:

Vierteljahrshefte für Sozial-und Wirtschaftsgeschichte

7412:. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. 7063:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 6891:. In G.W. Bowersock; Peter Brown; Oleg Grabar (eds.). 6442: 6127: 5942: 5870: 5643: 5320: 5067: 4948: 4780: 4568:

Introduction to Early Medieval Western Europe, 300–900

2417:, although heavier models also existed in some areas. 2190:

Germanic agriculture emphasized cereal production and

2013:. The weregild was instituted as a way to prevent the 1255:

pagan fascination with the forest in the retention of

7999: 6832:

Gods and Worshippers in the Viking and Germanic World

6502: 6274: 5518: 5154: 5091: 5008: 4984: 4936: 4900: 4059:, they contrast with the decadence of their own day. 3505:

For Germanic kings, warrior chieftains, senators and

3255:

privilege. As a result, Germanic society became more

2517:. Such trade further increased in volume through the 2156:, large number of Germanic mercenaries served in the 2139:

warriors, many Germanic warriors often fought naked.

796:

The earliest known Germanic inscription was found at

418:. The dialect of the Germanic people who remained in 7518:

Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World

6996:. Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. 6418: 6238: 6226: 6163: 5882: 5846: 5575: 5436: 5217: 5106: 5055: 4912: 4830: 4792: 4639: 4637: 4188:

which had as its aim, the political unity of all of

4015:, as opposed to the civilized Roman identity of the 3322:

Goddesses revered among the Germanic tribes include

1308:, who inhabited the woods, foundations and streams; 1174:

religion was "solidly and unsophisticatedly pagan."

6983:Hachmann, Rolf; Kossack, Georg; Kuhn, Hans (1962). 6982: 6815:. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. 5930: 5894: 4960: 3852:Early Germanic peoples typically wore shoes of the 3477:was sometimes solicited on account of their rank. 7926: 7863: 7659: 7056: 6895:Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World 6892: 5802: 5193: 4972: 4089:of 1814, and was in full bloom by the 1830s, with 4034:, 1555) and the first edition of the 13th century 2413:The fields were tilled with a light-weight wooden 1251:, when it was gradually replaced by Christianity. 7606:The Transformation of the Roman World, AD 400–900 7320:Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity 6679:The Transformation of the Roman World, AD 400–900 6614:. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. 4655: 4634: 3732:The clothing of Germanic criminals buried in the 9420: 8256:; Hardin, James N.; Read, Malcolm Kevin (2004). 8033:Language and History in the Early Germanic World 7467:Civilization: A New History of the Western World 7374:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 7082:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 6872:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 6796:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 2249:The chief cereal grains produced were wheat and 105:The Germanic peoples eventually overwhelmed the 6580:Braunmüller, Kurt. "Was ist Germanisch heute?" 4368:(New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 213. 4113:. Jacob Grimm also coauthored with his brother 2208:These archaeological remnants were left by the 1753:, drawn after the depiction in a relief of the 59:, an important centre of early Germanic culture 8061:Germanic Origins: A Study in Primitive Culture 7190:Vitae Sancti Bonifatii archiepiscopi moguntini 6964:Green, Dennis Howard; Siegmund, Frank (2003). 6794:Alamanni and Rome 213–496: Caracalla to Clovis 5473: 4475:Vitae Sancti Bonifatii archiepiscopi moguntini 4081:proper begins in the early 19th century, with 2819:. When dry this had the same effect as modern 2261:were also cultivated. Garden products such as 2027:Among the Anglo-Saxons, a regular free man (a 1702:A main element uniting Germanic societies was 1650:not only to accept peace with his enemy, King 750:by the Anglo-Saxons. In Germanic literature, 458:" is often preferred. However, the classical " 410:are thought to have been united in the use of 8308: 7866:The Fall of Rome: And the End of Civilization 7534: 7357:Runes and Their Origin: Denmark and Elsewhere 6994:The Old English Rune Poem: A Critical Edition 6963: 6082: 4421:Runes and Their Origin: Denmark and Elsewhere 4099:giving an extensive account of reconstructed 3980: 3072:. In later times wine was added to the mead. 2501:Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks 1134: 7861: 7842: 7359:. Copenhagen: Nationalmuseets Forlag, 1985. 7195: 7080:The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History 6496: 6484: 6472: 6460: 6436: 5960: 5924: 5840: 5825: 5700: 5673: 5661: 5620: 5512: 5500: 5488: 5172: 5148: 4714: 4250: 4182: 3793:couple, with the male having his hair in a " 3237:(or cantons), which were made up of several 2323:from their sheep, and used it for clothing. 2167:, invading Germanic peoples overwhelmed the 840:Goths in CE 341; he subsequently invented a 666:Important works are Germanic literature are 157:Expansion of the early Germanic tribes into 8339:origin primarily identified as speakers of 7704:The Ideological Origins of Nazi Imperialism 7647:. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. 7497: 7317: 7167: 6721:"Developing the 'Germani' in Roman Studies" 6563: 6412: 5912: 5596: 5211: 4700:, vol. I, London: Penguin, p. 108 4026:culture appeared in the 16th century, e.g. 3363:notes that early Germanic peoples believed 3042:are of distinct Germanic origin, having no 2823:. Roofs were thatched with grass or straw. 2338: 2194:. This depended on the nature of the area. 491:. Indeed, in Tacitus (Tac. Ger. 40) and in 30:This article is about the early culture of 8315: 8301: 8230:The Northern Barbarians, 100 B.C.-A.D. 300 7148: 6791: 6612:Rome and the Barbarians, 100 B.C.—A.D. 400 6530:. New York and Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 6328: 5124: 4627: 4625: 3933: 3642:for a discussion of Germanic archaeology. 1236:), that also brought Saxon lands into the 1213:neighbors. A key event was the felling of 509:, are designated as being a Suebic tribe. 8003:Journal of English and Germanic Philology 7975:The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples 7951:Arminius the Liberator: Myth and Ideology 7223: 7151:A Companion to Western Historical Thought 6848: 6742: 6157: 6046: 5712: 4205:in Scandinavia placed more weight on the 2092:. Free men without landed property could 8195: 8082: 7903: 7884: 7843:Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2006). 7680: 7657: 7322:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 7267: 7110: 7096: 6695: 6632:The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians 6564:Bémont, Charles; Monod, Gabriel (2012). 6549:. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 6525: 6316: 6007: 5948: 5235: 5136: 5085: 5073: 4954: 4762: 4738: 3969: 3863: 3784: 3702: 3484: 3455: 3387: 3270: 3143: 3097: 2997: 2903: 2747: 2545: 2471: 2396: 2107: 1954: 1869: 1742: 1634: 1524: 1456: 1312:, who inhabited the caves of the earth; 1141:Christianisation of the Germanic peoples 1047: 886: 771: 593: 272: 209: 152: 62: 42: 9380:Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England 8167: 8054: 7972: 7947: 7766: 7749: 7576:"Ancient Rome: The Barbarian Invasions" 7464: 7336: 7298: 7054: 7035: 6991: 6932: 6758:. New York: Columbia University Press. 6668: 6635:. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 6448: 6304: 6292: 6280: 6256: 6145: 6133: 6121: 6109: 6094: 6070: 6058: 5876: 5864: 5649: 5608: 5527: 5361: 5326: 5160: 4942: 4774: 4622: 4229:and includes prominent members such as 4022:Early modern publications dealing with 3547:is evident later in the 7th century CE 2296:as fertilizer, and that they practiced 2280:Evidence from a Saxon village known as 1155:Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England 406:. The more easterly groups such as the 14: 9421: 7924: 7545:Germany: a companion to German studies 7515: 7445: 7426: 7405: 7369: 7270:"Y Haplogroups of the World (PDF map)" 7077: 6987:(in German). Neumünster: K. Wachholtz. 6937:(in German). Stuttgart: Magnus-Verlag. 6810: 6649: 6352: 6340: 6034: 5888: 5796: 5784: 5442: 5373: 5314: 5223: 5100: 5014: 5002: 4990: 4798: 4786: 4750: 4695: 4263:"have as much a Germanic history" as " 4028:Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus 3789:Reconstruction of the garments of the 3383: 3158:Swedish Museum of National Antiquities 3007:Swedish Museum of National Antiquities 2778:was placed in the center of the hall. 2601:Returning Germanic mercenaries in the 1598: 808:dating back to the first century BCE. 82:. Largely derived from a synthesis of 8296: 8259:Early Germanic Literature and Culture 8110: 8026: 7870:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7706:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7701: 7622: 7388: 7248: 6886: 6867: 6829: 6772: 6751: 6726:Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal 6609: 6544: 6400: 6388: 6376: 6364: 6268: 5852: 5581: 5247: 5112: 5061: 4978: 4966: 4918: 4836: 4726: 4599:Family Life in the Age of Shakespeare 4419:into Christians. See: Moltke (1985). 4209:, resulting in the movement known as 3023:Early Germanic peoples prepared both 2223: 1587:. Such symbols are attested from the 1432: 27:Early culture of the Germanic peoples 8322: 8223: 7785: 7595: 7483: 6935:Handbuch der Germanischen Mythologie 6718: 6628: 6508: 6424: 6244: 6232: 6220: 6208: 6169: 6022: 5995: 5936: 5900: 5808: 5772: 5750:Kishlansky, Geary & O'Brien 2008 5737: 5637: 5569: 5461: 5430: 5349: 5272: 5199: 5049: 4930: 4906: 4894: 4871: 3930:hoard and the heirlooms of Beowulf. 3663: 3603: 3411:Of note, Tacitus observed that "The 3378: 2923: 2659:for leaders and wealthy landowners. 2532:has been discovered at sites of the 2432: 1903: 1888:Elements of tribal law, notably the 479:migrating peoples after the time of 7149:Kramer, Lloyd; Maza, Sarah (2002). 6985:Völker zwischen Germanen und Kelten 6652:The War for Gaul: A New Translation 4103:and composing a German dictionary ( 3947: 3422: 2899: 1646:, 1018. The lawspeaker forced King 655:Riddles figure prominently in both 188: New settlements by 250 177: New settlements by 500 166: Settlements before 750 24: 8288:. English Studies, 102:1, 144-153. 8135: 7993: 7450:. Toronto: University of Toronto. 7393:. New York: Grosset & Dunlap. 4245:theories to reject the concept of 3999:revived interest in pre-Christian 3809: 3129: 2887: 1674:and comparative evidence from the 961:deities found in Germanic paganism 454:, although the geographical term " 357:Linguists postulate that an early 25: 9455: 7823:"Germanic religion and mythology" 7253:. New York: Thames & Hudson. 6834:. Stroud, UK: The History Press. 5285:Germanic religion and mythology, 3523: 2781: 2714:, the manual production of basic 2041:or gold pieces), classified as a 1798:, albeit subject to federal law. 1316:, who inhabited the sea; and the 9403: 9402: 8149:] (in German). Vol. 1. 7910:. New York: St. Martin's Press. 7845:Encyclopedia of European Peoples 7608:. London: British Museum Press. 7507:. Nordgermanen.English. London: 7431:. New York: Barnes & Noble. 7040:. Rochester, NY: Boydell Press. 6681:. London: British Museum Press. 4664: 4646: 4613: 4604: 4591: 4198:) into a Germanic nation state. 3751: 3667: 3607: 3480: 3266: 2927: 2698:After 1300 BCE the societies of 2678: 2436: 2401:Iron Age oak boat discovered at 1350:Yule was intended to induce the 1100:Unlike the Celts, who had their 18:Family in early Germanic culture 9385:Christianization of Scandinavia 7493:. New York: Bookman Associates. 7448:The Body Legal in Barbarian Law 7303:. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. 7153:. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. 6853:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 6518: 5467: 4804: 4582: 4573: 4556: 4547: 4538: 4529: 4520: 4511: 4498: 4489: 4480: 4467: 4443: 4426: 4393: 4380: 4371: 4358: 4225:, which is associated with the 4129:was a subject discussed during 3799:Archaeological Museum of Kraków 3778:From about the 3rd century AD, 3713:Archaeological Museum of Kraków 2732: 2244: 1159:Christianization of Scandinavia 1108:ground for prophetic readings. 474:". Frankish, (and later Dutch, 9375:Christianization of the Franks 8448:Continental Germanic mythology 7520:. New York: Harper Perennial. 7318:McKitterick, Rosamond (2008). 7192:. Hannover: Hahn Verlag, 1905. 7115:. New York: Fall River Press. 6528:Runes and Germanic Linguistics 5688:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 5542:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 5302:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 5287:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 5187:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 4698:Penguin Atlas of World History 4689: 4125:and the development of modern 3698: 3569: 3229:, with each of the individual 3093: 2865: 2185: 1881:with Berg-Önundr, painting by 1801: 414:, the most famous of which is 13: 1: 7885:Wightman, Edith Mary (1985). 7406:Murray, Alexander C. (1983). 7372:The Oxford History of Britain 7341:. London: Thames and Hudson. 7301:Christianity: An Introduction 7134:. New York: Pearson Longman. 4812:"¿Qué legaron los visigodos?" 4677: 4601:. Greenwood Press, pp. 16–17. 4597:See: Young, Bruce W. (2008). 4148:in Europe and the search for 4040:(Saxo Grammaticus), in 1514. 3859: 1944: 1738: 1320:, who inhabited the marshes. 1263: 836:, who became a bishop to the 555: 141:Germanic substrate hypothesis 78:was the culture of the early 8555: 8012:University of Illinois Press 7862:Ward-Perkins, Bryan (2005). 6944:"Metalwork: Teutonic Tribes" 6792:Drinkwater, John F. (2007). 6719:Clay, Cheryl Louise (2008). 6403:, pp. 27, 220, 238–248. 5686:Metalwork: Teutonic Tribes, 4682: 3976:Thor's Fight with the Giants 3906: 3355: 3316:during his war with Caesar. 3280:Battle of the Goths and Huns 2801: 2737: 2359: 2303: 1819:mirroring that of the king. 1551:Swastika (Germanic Iron Age) 1326: 1189:, and were soon regarded as 1111: 128: 34:. For related subjects, see 7: 9390:Christianization of Iceland 7948:Winkler, Martin M. (2016). 7933:. New York: Vintage Books. 7847:. New York: Facts on File. 7767:Tacitus, Cornelius (2009). 7702:Smith, Woodruff D. (1989). 7469:. New York: Pegasus Books. 7227:Germanic Warrior 236-568 AD 6942:Grancsay, Stephen Vincent. 6849:Frassetto, Michael (2003). 6271:, pp. 3–9, 14–23, 331. 5476:Uniforms of the Roman world 4319: 4227:European Science Foundation 4168:, contrasting the emerging 3938: 3838: 3740: 2752:A reconstructed Viking Age 2560:Dnieper and Dniester routes 2497:Trade during the Viking Age 2319:Germanic farmers harvested 2072: 1998: 1681: 1497:including the owner's horse 1358: 1289: 851: 815:script from around 200 CE. 10: 9460: 8038:Cambridge University Press 7681:Santosuo, Antonio (2004). 7168:Kristinsson, Axel (2010). 7016:"Germany: Ancient History" 6933:Golther, Wolfgang (1908). 6889:"Barbarians and Ethnicity" 6887:Geary, Patrick J. (1999). 6868:Geary, Patrick J. (1988). 6735:Open Library of Humanities 6545:Bauer, Susan Wise (2010). 4241:. These scholars employed 3951: 3926:of the goddess Freya, the 3878: 3813: 3744: 3719: 3649: 3573: 3561: 3288: 3133: 3012: 2958: 2869: 2741: 2692:Marcus Velleius Paterculus 2644: 2640: 2612: 2490: 2428: 2420: 2200: 2178: 2174: 2127: 2114:Great Ludovisi sarcophagus 2103: 2002: 1948: 1907: 1809:conversion to Christianity 1764: 1691: 1685: 1663: 1657: 1608: 1602: 1544: 1520: 1446: 1436: 1362: 1335:), the New Year festival ( 1293: 1267: 1144: 1138: 1135:Conversion to Christianity 1115: 1089: 1085: 997: 993: 948: 944: 916: 861: 855: 761: 757: 720:were written in Latin and 610:(AM 132 folio 13r) c. 1350 559: 199: New settlements by 138: 132: 90:that developed out of the 29: 9398: 9360: 8641: 8603: 8393: 8347: 8330: 7516:Ostler, Nicholas (2006). 7509:Weidenfeld & Nicolson 7504:The World of the Norsemen 7299:McGrath, Alister (2015). 7224:MacDowall, Simon (2000). 7106:. Kimber & Sharpless. 6992:Halsall, Maureen (1981). 6744:10.16995/TRAC2007_131_150 6566:Medieval Europe, 395–1270 6083:Green & Siegmund 2003 4454:and gathered together at 3981: 2993: 2847:Column of Marcus Aurelius 2509:The presence of amber in 2116:depicts a battle between 1930:. Common ordeals include 1755:Column of Marcus Aurelius 829:into the Germanic North. 800:(in what is now southern 537:in what is now Spain and 8628:North Germanic languages 8613:Germanic parent language 7973:Wolfram, Herwig (1997). 7929:Charlemagne: A Biography 7904:Williams, Derek (1998). 7750:Strauss, Gerald (1963). 7658:Robinson, Orrin (1992). 7370:Morgan, Kenneth (2001). 7174:. ReykjavíkurAkademían. 7132:Civilization in the West 7113:A History of the Vikings 7111:Kendrick, T.D. (2013) . 6588:Buchanan, Robert Angus. 6526:Antonsen, Elmer (2002). 5925:Waldman & Mason 2006 5841:Waldman & Mason 2006 5826:Waldman & Mason 2006 5701:Waldman & Mason 2006 5674:Waldman & Mason 2006 5662:Waldman & Mason 2006 5621:Waldman & Mason 2006 5513:Waldman & Mason 2006 5501:Waldman & Mason 2006 5489:Waldman & Mason 2006 5173:Waldman & Mason 2006 5149:Waldman & Mason 2006 4715:Waldman & Mason 2006 4696:Kinder, Hermann (1988), 4351: 3847: 3038:Both the words beer and 2919: 2815:, and then smeared with 2467: 2339:Agricultural settlements 2210:Globular Amphora culture 2033:) had a weregild of 200 1537:. It was donated to the 1393:month names. Records of 1381:before they adopted the 1371:early Germanic calendars 1339:), the spring festival ( 1240:. Massacres, such as at 951:List of Germanic deities 937:, the two groups in the 422:is not generally called 365:as far back as 500 BCE. 214:One proposed theory for 8633:West Germanic languages 8623:East Germanic languages 8618:Proto-Germanic language 8438:Proto-Germanic folklore 8375:Romano-Germanic culture 8111:Hinds, Kathryn (2010). 8056:Gummere, Francis Barton 7956:Oxford University Press 7828:Encyclopædia Britannica 7735:Encyclopædia Britannica 7687:. New York: MJF Books. 7581:Encyclopædia Britannica 7465:Osborne, Roger (2008). 7427:Musset, Lucien (1993). 7268:McDonald, J.D. (2005). 7098:Josephus, Titus Flavius 7055:Herlihy, David (1985). 7036:Heather, Peter (2003). 7021:Encyclopædia Britannica 6949:Encyclopædia Britannica 6919:Encyclopædia Britannica 6811:Eliade, Mircea (1984). 6755:Dictionary of Languages 6708:Encyclopædia Britannica 6650:Caesar, Julius (2019). 6595:Encyclopædia Britannica 5913:Bémont & Monod 2012 5474:Kevin F. Kiley (2013). 4570:(Abingdon 2007), 71–72. 4415:and for converting the 3934:Recreational activities 3707:Attempt to reconstruct 3148:A drinking scene on an 3048:Indo-European languages 2963: 1861:Civil war era in Norway 1857:Consolidation of Sweden 1365:Early Germanic calendar 1280:new religious movements 955:Common Germanic deities 908:Indo-European religions 891:The gilded side of the 438:" which developed into 430:, which developed into 426:, but is classified as 412:East Germanic languages 404:West Germanic languages 363:Indo-European languages 9429:Early Germanic culture 7925:Wilson, Derek (2005). 7389:Mosse, George (1964). 7277:University of Illinois 7197:Liebeschuetz, J.H.W.F. 6752:Dalby, Andrew (1999). 6610:Burns, Thomas (2003). 6329:Kramer & Maza 2002 4316:, in Northern Europe. 4251: 4190:German-speaking Europe 4183: 4166:unification of Germany 4133:by such as writers as 3992: 3876: 3802: 3772:substantiate Tacitus. 3716: 3676:This section is empty. 3645: 3616:This section is empty. 3502: 3471: 3437: 3401: 3373: 3326:of the Ingvaeones and 3286: 3161: 3114: 3010: 2936:This section is empty. 2909: 2757: 2687: 2630: 2563: 2550:Map showing the major 2488: 2445:This section is empty. 2410: 2386:The Germanic word for 2145: 2130:Early Germanic warfare 2125: 1978: 1968: 1894:Imperial Chamber Court 1885: 1831:characteristic of the 1762: 1736: 1655: 1640:Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker 1630: 1542: 1539:Swedish History Museum 1474: 1061: 902:Germanic religion was 899: 793: 611: 578:Old English literature 354: 270: 207: 76:Early Germanic culture 72: 60: 8443:Anglo-Saxon mythology 8333:Ethnolinguistic group 7907:Romans and Barbarians 7819:Polomé, Edgar Charles 7815:Turville-Petre, E.O.G 7666:. London: Routledge. 7446:Oliver, Lisi (2011). 6037:, pp. 154, 6.21. 5317:, pp. 155, 6.23. 4473:See: Levison (1905). 4156:developing after the 3973: 3952:Further information: 3879:Further information: 3867: 3814:Further information: 3788: 3745:Further information: 3706: 3650:Further information: 3574:Further information: 3543:Evidence of Germanic 3535:killed their children 3488: 3466: 3456:Monogamy vs. polygamy 3433: 3429:age at first marriage 3391: 3369: 3274: 3194:surrounding military 3147: 3134:Further information: 3101: 3086:and Suebi, practiced 3013:Further information: 3001: 2907: 2870:Further information: 2751: 2683: 2626: 2549: 2491:Further information: 2475: 2400: 2179:Further information: 2141: 2111: 1974: 1958: 1949:Further information: 1908:Further information: 1873: 1746: 1731: 1692:Further information: 1638: 1603:Further information: 1567:Dragon's Eye (symbol) 1528: 1469:, Sweden is from the 1460: 1437:Further information: 1413:. As an example, the 1377:used among the early 1145:Further information: 1090:Further information: 1051: 998:Further information: 967:, as well as the god 893:Trundholm Sun Chariot 890: 862:Further information: 788:, on the 9th-century 776:An inscription using 775: 762:Further information: 754:figures prominently. 597: 560:Further information: 370:mutually intelligible 276: 213: 156: 139:Further information: 66: 46: 8264:Boydell & Brewer 8147:The Germanic Peoples 8089:The Germanic peoples 7797:Blackwell Publishing 7769:Agricola and Germany 7249:Manco, Jean (2013). 6830:Ewing, Thor (2008). 6773:Derry, T.K. (2012). 6629:Bury, J. B. (1928). 6584:25 (2000): 271– 295. 5787:, pp. 51, 2.15. 4203:Romantic nationalism 4184:Alldeutsche Bewegung 4106:Deutsches Wörterbuch 3987:was made during the 3652:Migration Period art 2218:Funnelbeaker culture 2169:Western Roman Empire 1875:Egill Skallagrímsson 1853:Age of the Sturlungs 1672:Roman historiography 1605:Old Norse philosophy 1170:, remarked that the 1056:in southern Sweden, 872:Anglo-Saxon paganism 674:, and the Icelandic 456:Weser–Rhine Germanic 446:(and its descendant 247:Weser–Rhine Germanic 107:Western Roman Empire 98:, particularly from 9370:Gothic Christianity 7490:The Germanic People 7286:on 11 December 2013 7059:Medieval Households 7012:Heather, Peter John 6379:, pp. 218–225. 6355:, pp. 242–249. 6343:, pp. 242–243. 6331:, pp. 124–138. 6307:, pp. 207–238. 6295:, pp. 229–230. 6259:, pp. 146–151. 6223:, pp. 115–118. 6211:, pp. 115–119. 6148:, pp. 106–107. 6025:, pp. 152–153. 5998:, pp. 143–147. 5915:, pp. 410–415. 5799:, pp. 51, 4.2. 5775:, pp. 133–139. 5740:, pp. 139–143. 5664:, pp. 314–315. 5640:, pp. 150–153. 5623:, pp. 315–316. 5572:, pp. 174–178. 5515:, pp. 313–314. 5464:, pp. 119–133. 5433:, pp. 166–174. 5376:, pp. 203–226. 5352:, pp. 147–150. 5275:, pp. 178–179. 5250:, pp. 368–378. 5238:, pp. 118–123. 5214:, pp. 103–106. 5052:, pp. 183–209. 5005:, pp. 155–156. 4933:, pp. 209–225. 4897:, pp. 153–166. 4874:, pp. 225–262. 4753:, pp. 304–314. 4741:, pp. 194–195. 4390:25 (2000): 271–295. 4119:Grimm's Fairy Tales 4096:Deutsche Mythologie 4001:Classical Antiquity 3576:Corded Ware culture 3384:Process of marriage 2986:, often induced by 2756:(28.5 metres long). 2528:. Large amounts of 2330:In areas along the 1599:Patterns of thought 1513:mound was erected. 1147:Gothic Christianity 923:Corded Ware culture 691:Theodoric the Great 505:, ancestors of the 84:Proto-Indo-European 71:culture, ca 1200 BC 8753:Germani cisrhenani 8461:Funerary practices 8365:Pre-Roman Iron Age 8341:Germanic languages 8119:Marshall Cavendish 8094:Barrie and Jenkins 7339:The Northern World 7188:Levison, Wilhelm. 6915:"Germanic peoples" 6582:Sprachwissenschaft 6391:, pp. 97–111. 6097:, pp. 47-48 . 5185:Germanic peoples, 4729:, p. 224–225. 4388:Sprachwissenschaft 4150:national histories 4111:Germanic etymology 4101:Germanic mythology 4087:Icelandic Lexicon 4079:Germanic philology 4049:Johannes Aventinus 4045:German Renaissance 3993: 3983:Mårten Eskil Winge 3877: 3803: 3717: 3584:Pre-Roman Iron Age 3503: 3402: 3394:Ring of Pietroassa 3287: 3284:Peter Nicolai Arbo 3162: 3115: 3112:Heinrich Leutemann 3102:"The Women of the 3011: 2910: 2758: 2564: 2554:trade routes: the 2538:Villanovan culture 2489: 2411: 2224:Roman descriptions 2126: 1969: 1918:on his innocence. 1898:German Renaissance 1886: 1763: 1708:sacral institution 1656: 1611:Nine Noble Virtues 1543: 1490:Pre-Roman Iron Age 1475: 1433:Funerary practices 1373:were the regional 1249:Old Norse religion 1062: 900: 864:Old Norse Religion 794: 650:alliterative verse 612: 472:North Sea Germanic 377:Germanic languages 355: 318: Continental 271: 237:North Sea Germanic 208: 135:Germanic languages 113:facilitated their 73: 61: 9416: 9415: 8588:Gothic and Vandal 8380:Germanic Iron Age 8355:Nordic Bronze Age 8337:Northern European 8252:Wobrey, William; 8202:The Early Germans 7940:978-0-307-27480-9 7896:978-0-520-05297-0 7877:978-0-19-280728-1 7854:978-0-8160-4964-6 7792:The Early Germans 7778:978-0-19953-926-0 7726:Glendon, Mary Ann 7713:978-0-19-504741-7 7694:978-1-56731-891-3 7673:978-0-8047-1454-9 7653:978-0-19-955229-0 7615:978-0-7141-0585-7 7572:MacMullen, Ramsay 7527:978-0-06-093572-6 7499:Oxenstierna, Eric 7476:978-1-933648-76-7 7457:978-0-8020-9706-4 7419:978-0-88844-065-5 7381:978-0-19-280135-7 7348:978-0-500-28430-8 7329:978-0-521-71645-1 7310:978-1-118-46565-3 7260:978-0-500-05178-8 7160:978-0-631-21714-5 7141:978-0-205-55684-7 7122:978-1-43514-641-9 7089:978-0-19-923739-5 7070:978-0-674-56376-6 7047:978-1-84383-033-7 7003:978-0-8020-5477-7 6975:978-1-84383-026-9 6968:. Boydell Press. 6906:978-0-674-51173-6 6879:978-0-19504-458-4 6860:978-1-57607-263-9 6841:978-0-7524-3590-9 6803:978-0-19-929568-5 6784:978-0-8166-3799-7 6765:978-0-231-11568-1 6702:"Philology" 6688:978-0-7141-0585-7 6661:978-0-69117-492-1 6642:978-0-393-00388-8 6621:978-0-8018-7306-5 6556:978-0-393-05975-5 6537:978-3-11-017462-5 6499:, p. 99-100. 6497:Liebeschuetz 2015 6485:Liebeschuetz 2015 6473:Liebeschuetz 2015 6461:Liebeschuetz 2015 6437:Liebeschuetz 2015 6367:, pp. 67–87. 6073:, pp. 73–75. 5963:, pp. 50–51. 5961:Ward-Perkins 2005 5139:, pp. 14–16. 5088:, pp. 81–82. 4909:, pp. 12–13. 4789:, pp. 12–13. 4765:, pp. 12–14. 4506:Law of Æthelberht 4308:In modern times, 4285:Wolf Liebeschuetz 4139:Giambattista Vico 4131:the Enlightenment 4077:The beginning of 4017:Holy Roman Empire 4007:" invasions, the 3747:Anglo-Saxon dress 3696: 3695: 3636: 3635: 3592:Germanic Iron Age 3580:Nordic Bronze Age 3379:Marital relations 3365:sexual abstinence 3350:Njáll Þorgeirsson 3344:and the wives of 3215:extended families 2956: 2955: 2727:Wayland the Smith 2558:(in red) and the 2556:Volga trade route 2534:Hallstatt culture 2515:Mediterranean Sea 2505:Volga trade route 2465: 2464: 2277:were well known. 2253:. In later times 1904:Determining guilt 1837:Holy Roman Empire 1589:Nordic Bronze Age 1471:Nordic Bronze Age 1387:Early Middle Ages 1296:Germanic folklore 1270:Germanic paganism 1225:, apostle of the 1187:Roman Catholicism 1058:Nordic Bronze Age 1000:Temple at Uppsala 897:Nordic Bronze Age 882:Germanic paganism 858:Germanic paganism 444:Frankish language 92:Nordic Bronze Age 69:Nordic Bronze Age 16:(Redirected from 9451: 9444:Medieval culture 9439:Germanic culture 9406: 9405: 9362:Christianization 8952:Ripuarian Franks 8324:Germanic peoples 8317: 8310: 8303: 8294: 8293: 8289: 8277: 8248: 8220: 8192: 8164: 8132: 8107: 8079: 8051: 8023: 7988: 7969: 7944: 7932: 7921: 7900: 7881: 7869: 7858: 7839: 7837: 7835: 7810: 7782: 7763: 7746: 7744: 7742: 7717: 7698: 7677: 7665: 7640: 7619: 7592: 7590: 7588: 7563: 7531: 7512: 7494: 7480: 7461: 7442: 7423: 7402: 7385: 7352: 7333: 7314: 7295: 7293: 7291: 7285: 7279:. Archived from 7274: 7264: 7245: 7220: 7185: 7164: 7145: 7126: 7107: 7093: 7074: 7062: 7051: 7032: 7030: 7028: 7007: 6988: 6979: 6960: 6958: 6956: 6938: 6929: 6927: 6925: 6910: 6898: 6883: 6864: 6845: 6826: 6807: 6788: 6769: 6748: 6746: 6715: 6704: 6692: 6665: 6646: 6625: 6606: 6604: 6602: 6577: 6560: 6541: 6512: 6511:, pp. 9–11. 6506: 6500: 6494: 6488: 6482: 6476: 6475:, p. 87-90. 6470: 6464: 6458: 6452: 6446: 6440: 6434: 6428: 6422: 6416: 6413:Oxenstierna 1967 6410: 6404: 6398: 6392: 6386: 6380: 6374: 6368: 6362: 6356: 6350: 6344: 6338: 6332: 6326: 6320: 6314: 6308: 6302: 6296: 6290: 6284: 6278: 6272: 6266: 6260: 6254: 6248: 6242: 6236: 6230: 6224: 6218: 6212: 6206: 6173: 6167: 6161: 6155: 6149: 6143: 6137: 6131: 6125: 6119: 6113: 6107: 6098: 6092: 6086: 6080: 6074: 6068: 6062: 6056: 6050: 6044: 6038: 6032: 6026: 6020: 6011: 6005: 5999: 5993: 5964: 5958: 5952: 5946: 5940: 5934: 5928: 5922: 5916: 5910: 5904: 5898: 5892: 5886: 5880: 5874: 5868: 5862: 5856: 5850: 5844: 5838: 5829: 5823: 5812: 5806: 5800: 5794: 5788: 5782: 5776: 5770: 5753: 5747: 5741: 5735: 5716: 5710: 5704: 5698: 5692: 5683: 5677: 5671: 5665: 5659: 5653: 5647: 5641: 5635: 5624: 5618: 5612: 5606: 5600: 5597:Kristinsson 2010 5594: 5585: 5579: 5573: 5567: 5546: 5537: 5531: 5525: 5516: 5510: 5504: 5498: 5492: 5486: 5480: 5479: 5471: 5465: 5459: 5446: 5440: 5434: 5428: 5377: 5371: 5365: 5359: 5353: 5347: 5330: 5324: 5318: 5312: 5306: 5297: 5291: 5282: 5276: 5270: 5251: 5245: 5239: 5233: 5227: 5221: 5215: 5212:McKitterick 2008 5209: 5203: 5197: 5191: 5182: 5176: 5170: 5164: 5158: 5152: 5146: 5140: 5134: 5128: 5122: 5116: 5110: 5104: 5098: 5089: 5083: 5077: 5071: 5065: 5059: 5053: 5047: 5018: 5012: 5006: 5000: 4994: 4988: 4982: 4976: 4970: 4964: 4958: 4952: 4946: 4940: 4934: 4928: 4922: 4916: 4910: 4904: 4898: 4892: 4875: 4869: 4840: 4834: 4828: 4827: 4825: 4823: 4808: 4802: 4796: 4790: 4784: 4778: 4772: 4766: 4760: 4754: 4748: 4742: 4736: 4730: 4724: 4718: 4712: 4703: 4701: 4693: 4671: 4668: 4662: 4659: 4653: 4650: 4644: 4641: 4632: 4629: 4620: 4617: 4611: 4608: 4602: 4595: 4589: 4586: 4580: 4577: 4571: 4560: 4554: 4551: 4545: 4542: 4536: 4533: 4527: 4524: 4518: 4515: 4509: 4502: 4496: 4493: 4487: 4484: 4478: 4471: 4465: 4447: 4441: 4430: 4424: 4405:Harald Bluetooth 4397: 4391: 4384: 4378: 4375: 4369: 4364:See: Don Ringe, 4362: 4254: 4231:Reinhard Wenskus 4186: 4152:for the nascent 4070:of 18th century 3986: 3985: 3948:Germanic studies 3835:Germanic woman. 3711:costumes at the 3691: 3688: 3678:You can help by 3671: 3664: 3631: 3628: 3618:You can help by 3611: 3604: 3549:Edict of Rothari 3499:Loggia dei Lanzi 3423:Marriageable age 3278:dying after the 2951: 2948: 2938:You can help by 2931: 2924: 2914:Feddersen Wierde 2900:Feddersen Wierde 2704:Northern Germany 2694: 2460: 2457: 2447:You can help by 2440: 2433: 2282:Feddersen Wierde 2192:animal husbandry 2112:The 3rd-century 1883:Johannes Flintoe 1833:High Middle Ages 1784:organization of 1767:Thing (assembly) 1615:Prussian virtues 1407:Germanic culture 1379:Germanic peoples 1054:The King's Grave 1052:Stone slab from 823:Christian Church 733:Migration Period 718:Saxo Grammaticus 710:Gregory of Tours 566:Old Norse poetry 521:river and while 493:Claudius Ptolemy 343: 317: 308: 299: 290: 281: 264: 254: 244: 234: 225: 221: 204: 203: 198: 193: 192: 187: 182: 181: 176: 171: 170: 165: 96:Migration Period 80:Germanic peoples 36:Germanic culture 32:Germanic peoples 21: 9459: 9458: 9454: 9453: 9452: 9450: 9449: 9448: 9434:Ancient culture 9419: 9418: 9417: 9412: 9394: 9356: 8637: 8599: 8561:Gothic alphabet 8453:Norse mythology 8389: 8343: 8326: 8321: 8280: 8274: 8245: 8217: 8207:Clarendon Press 8197:Thompson, E. A. 8189: 8179:A & C Black 8161: 8129: 8104: 8076: 8048: 7996: 7994:Further reading 7991: 7985: 7966: 7941: 7918: 7897: 7878: 7855: 7833: 7831: 7807: 7779: 7740: 7738: 7722:Stein, Peter G. 7714: 7695: 7674: 7616: 7586: 7584: 7560: 7540:Bithell, Jethro 7536:Pasley, Malcolm 7528: 7477: 7458: 7439: 7420: 7382: 7349: 7330: 7311: 7289: 7287: 7283: 7272: 7261: 7242: 7217: 7182: 7161: 7142: 7123: 7090: 7071: 7048: 7026: 7024: 7004: 6976: 6954: 6952: 6923: 6921: 6907: 6880: 6861: 6842: 6823: 6804: 6785: 6766: 6689: 6662: 6643: 6622: 6600: 6598: 6568:. Lecturable . 6557: 6538: 6521: 6516: 6515: 6507: 6503: 6495: 6491: 6483: 6479: 6471: 6467: 6459: 6455: 6447: 6443: 6435: 6431: 6423: 6419: 6411: 6407: 6399: 6395: 6387: 6383: 6375: 6371: 6363: 6359: 6351: 6347: 6339: 6335: 6327: 6323: 6315: 6311: 6303: 6299: 6291: 6287: 6279: 6275: 6267: 6263: 6255: 6251: 6243: 6239: 6231: 6227: 6219: 6215: 6207: 6176: 6168: 6164: 6156: 6152: 6144: 6140: 6132: 6128: 6120: 6116: 6108: 6101: 6093: 6089: 6081: 6077: 6069: 6065: 6057: 6053: 6045: 6041: 6033: 6029: 6021: 6014: 6006: 6002: 5994: 5967: 5959: 5955: 5947: 5943: 5935: 5931: 5923: 5919: 5911: 5907: 5899: 5895: 5887: 5883: 5875: 5871: 5863: 5859: 5851: 5847: 5839: 5832: 5824: 5815: 5807: 5803: 5795: 5791: 5783: 5779: 5771: 5756: 5748: 5744: 5736: 5719: 5711: 5707: 5703:, pp. 324. 5699: 5695: 5684: 5680: 5672: 5668: 5660: 5656: 5648: 5644: 5636: 5627: 5619: 5615: 5607: 5603: 5595: 5588: 5580: 5576: 5568: 5549: 5538: 5534: 5526: 5519: 5511: 5507: 5499: 5495: 5487: 5483: 5472: 5468: 5460: 5449: 5441: 5437: 5429: 5380: 5372: 5368: 5360: 5356: 5348: 5333: 5325: 5321: 5313: 5309: 5298: 5294: 5283: 5279: 5271: 5254: 5246: 5242: 5234: 5230: 5222: 5218: 5210: 5206: 5198: 5194: 5183: 5179: 5171: 5167: 5159: 5155: 5147: 5143: 5135: 5131: 5125:Drinkwater 2007 5123: 5119: 5111: 5107: 5099: 5092: 5084: 5080: 5072: 5068: 5060: 5056: 5048: 5021: 5013: 5009: 5001: 4997: 4989: 4985: 4977: 4973: 4965: 4961: 4953: 4949: 4941: 4937: 4929: 4925: 4917: 4913: 4905: 4901: 4893: 4878: 4870: 4843: 4835: 4831: 4821: 4819: 4816:LibertadDigital 4810: 4809: 4805: 4797: 4793: 4785: 4781: 4773: 4769: 4761: 4757: 4749: 4745: 4737: 4733: 4725: 4721: 4713: 4706: 4694: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4674: 4669: 4665: 4660: 4656: 4651: 4647: 4642: 4635: 4630: 4623: 4618: 4614: 4609: 4605: 4596: 4592: 4587: 4583: 4578: 4574: 4561: 4557: 4552: 4548: 4543: 4539: 4534: 4530: 4525: 4521: 4516: 4512: 4503: 4499: 4494: 4490: 4485: 4481: 4472: 4468: 4448: 4444: 4431: 4427: 4398: 4394: 4385: 4381: 4376: 4372: 4363: 4359: 4354: 4322: 4162:Napoleonic Wars 4127:Western culture 4064:Edda Islandorum 4051:discovered the 4043:Authors of the 3968: 3950: 3941: 3936: 3909: 3883: 3862: 3850: 3841: 3822: 3812: 3810:Female clothing 3754: 3749: 3743: 3722: 3701: 3692: 3686: 3683: 3662: 3656:Anglo-Saxon art 3648: 3640:Jastorf culture 3632: 3626: 3623: 3602: 3572: 3564: 3526: 3483: 3458: 3445:Visigothic Code 3425: 3386: 3381: 3358: 3293: 3269: 3142: 3132: 3130:Extended family 3096: 3021: 2996: 2966: 2961: 2952: 2946: 2943: 2922: 2902: 2890: 2888:Other buildings 2878: 2868: 2830:at the top and 2804: 2789:Roman engineers 2784: 2746: 2740: 2735: 2696: 2689: 2681: 2649: 2643: 2615: 2507: 2470: 2461: 2455: 2452: 2431: 2423: 2362: 2341: 2306: 2247: 2226: 2203: 2188: 2183: 2177: 2132: 2106: 2075: 2007: 2001: 1953: 1947: 1928:trial by combat 1924:trial by ordeal 1912: 1906: 1890:wager of battle 1804: 1769: 1741: 1700: 1690: 1684: 1668: 1662: 1648:Olof Skötkonung 1633: 1617: 1607: 1601: 1577: 1523: 1455: 1445: 1435: 1427:winter solstice 1419:medieval Sweden 1399:Old High German 1383:Julian calendar 1367: 1361: 1345:Midsummer's Day 1329: 1298: 1292: 1272: 1266: 1238:Frankish empire 1161: 1143: 1137: 1128: 1116:Main articles: 1114: 1098: 1088: 1070:human sacrifice 1046: 996: 957: 949:Main articles: 947: 919: 874: 868:Gothic paganism 860: 854: 842:Gothic alphabet 806:a bronze helmet 786:Younger Futhark 770: 768:Gothic alphabet 760: 740:Louis the Pious 714:Paul the Deacon 592: 558: 515:Romance peoples 353: 341: 339: 336:Old High German 315: 313: 306: 304: 297: 295: 288: 286: 279: 269: 262: 260: 252: 250: 242: 240: 232: 230: 223: 219: 206: 201: 200: 196: 194: 190: 189: 185: 183: 179: 178: 174: 172: 168: 167: 163: 151: 137: 131: 109:, which by the 88:Jastorf culture 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9457: 9447: 9446: 9441: 9436: 9431: 9414: 9413: 9411: 9410: 9399: 9396: 9395: 9393: 9392: 9387: 9382: 9377: 9372: 9366: 9364: 9358: 9357: 9355: 9354: 9349: 9344: 9339: 9334: 9329: 9324: 9323: 9322: 9317: 9307: 9302: 9297: 9292: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9267: 9262: 9257: 9252: 9247: 9242: 9237: 9232: 9227: 9222: 9217: 9212: 9207: 9202: 9197: 9192: 9187: 9182: 9177: 9172: 9167: 9162: 9157: 9152: 9147: 9142: 9137: 9132: 9131: 9130: 9125: 9120: 9115: 9110: 9100: 9099: 9098: 9088: 9083: 9078: 9073: 9068: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9048: 9043: 9038: 9033: 9028: 9027: 9026: 9021: 9019:Thracian Goths 9016: 9011: 9006: 9001: 8996: 8986: 8981: 8976: 8971: 8966: 8961: 8960: 8959: 8954: 8944: 8939: 8934: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8914: 8909: 8904: 8899: 8894: 8889: 8884: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8859: 8854: 8849: 8844: 8839: 8834: 8829: 8824: 8819: 8814: 8809: 8804: 8799: 8798: 8797: 8792: 8787: 8786: 8785: 8780: 8775: 8770: 8765: 8760: 8745: 8740: 8735: 8730: 8725: 8720: 8715: 8710: 8705: 8700: 8695: 8690: 8685: 8680: 8675: 8674: 8673: 8668: 8663: 8658: 8647: 8645: 8639: 8638: 8636: 8635: 8630: 8625: 8620: 8615: 8609: 8607: 8601: 8600: 8598: 8597: 8596: 8595: 8590: 8585: 8575: 8570: 8569: 8568: 8563: 8553: 8548: 8547: 8546: 8541: 8536: 8526: 8521: 8520: 8519: 8509: 8508: 8507: 8502: 8492: 8491: 8490: 8485: 8475: 8474: 8473: 8468: 8458: 8457: 8456: 8450: 8445: 8440: 8430: 8425: 8420: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8399: 8397: 8391: 8390: 8388: 8387: 8382: 8377: 8372: 8370:Roman Iron Age 8367: 8362: 8357: 8351: 8349: 8345: 8344: 8331: 8328: 8327: 8320: 8319: 8312: 8305: 8297: 8291: 8290: 8286:Nelson Goering 8278: 8272: 8254:Murdoch, Brian 8249: 8243: 8221: 8215: 8193: 8187: 8169:Murdoch, Brian 8165: 8160:978-0761445159 8159: 8133: 8128:978-0761445159 8127: 8108: 8102: 8084:Hachmann, Rolf 8080: 8074: 8052: 8046: 8024: 7995: 7992: 7990: 7989: 7983: 7970: 7965:978-0190252915 7964: 7945: 7939: 7922: 7916: 7901: 7895: 7887:Gallia Belgica 7882: 7876: 7859: 7853: 7840: 7811: 7805: 7783: 7777: 7764: 7747: 7730:"Germanic law" 7718: 7712: 7699: 7693: 7678: 7672: 7655: 7641: 7631:(3): 368–378. 7620: 7614: 7602:Michelle Brown 7598:Leslie Webster 7593: 7564: 7558: 7532: 7526: 7513: 7495: 7481: 7475: 7462: 7456: 7443: 7437: 7424: 7418: 7403: 7386: 7380: 7367: 7355:Moltke, Erik. 7353: 7347: 7334: 7328: 7315: 7309: 7296: 7265: 7259: 7246: 7240: 7232:Bloomsbury USA 7221: 7215: 7193: 7186: 7181:978-9979992219 7180: 7165: 7159: 7146: 7140: 7127: 7121: 7108: 7094: 7088: 7075: 7069: 7052: 7046: 7033: 7008: 7002: 6989: 6980: 6974: 6961: 6939: 6930: 6911: 6905: 6884: 6878: 6865: 6859: 6846: 6840: 6827: 6821: 6808: 6802: 6789: 6783: 6770: 6764: 6749: 6716: 6699:, ed. (1911). 6697:Chisholm, Hugh 6693: 6687: 6675:Michelle Brown 6671:Leslie Webster 6666: 6660: 6647: 6641: 6626: 6620: 6607: 6585: 6578: 6561: 6555: 6542: 6536: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6514: 6513: 6501: 6489: 6487:, p. xxv. 6477: 6465: 6463:, p. xxi. 6453: 6441: 6439:, p. 314. 6429: 6427:, p. 146. 6417: 6405: 6393: 6381: 6369: 6357: 6345: 6333: 6321: 6319:, p. 414. 6309: 6297: 6285: 6273: 6261: 6249: 6247:, p. 151. 6237: 6235:, p. 118. 6225: 6213: 6174: 6172:, p. 281. 6162: 6160:, p. 261. 6158:Frassetto 2003 6150: 6138: 6126: 6124:, p. 105. 6114: 6112:, p. 47 . 6099: 6087: 6085:, p. 107. 6075: 6063: 6061:, p. 48 . 6051: 6049:, p. 262. 6047:Frassetto 2003 6039: 6027: 6012: 6000: 5965: 5953: 5941: 5929: 5927:, p. 321. 5917: 5905: 5893: 5881: 5879:, p. 324. 5869: 5867:, p. 40 . 5857: 5855:, p. 111. 5845: 5843:, p. 318. 5830: 5828:, p. 317. 5813: 5801: 5789: 5777: 5754: 5752:, p. 164. 5742: 5717: 5713:MacDowall 2000 5705: 5693: 5678: 5676:, p. 315. 5666: 5654: 5652:, p. 303. 5642: 5625: 5613: 5611:, p. 40 . 5601: 5599:, p. 172. 5586: 5584:, p. 202. 5574: 5547: 5532: 5517: 5505: 5503:, p. 313. 5493: 5491:, p. 312. 5481: 5466: 5447: 5435: 5378: 5366: 5364:, p. 43 . 5354: 5331: 5329:, p. 310. 5319: 5307: 5300:Germanic law, 5292: 5277: 5252: 5240: 5228: 5216: 5204: 5192: 5177: 5175:, p. 497. 5165: 5153: 5151:, p. 327. 5141: 5129: 5127:, p. 117. 5117: 5115:, p. 368. 5105: 5103:, p. 161. 5090: 5078: 5066: 5064:, p. 367. 5054: 5019: 5017:, p. 157. 5007: 4995: 4993:, p. 154. 4983: 4971: 4959: 4947: 4935: 4923: 4921:, p. 224. 4911: 4899: 4876: 4841: 4839:, p. 225. 4829: 4803: 4801:, p. 307. 4791: 4779: 4777:, p. 58 . 4767: 4755: 4743: 4731: 4719: 4717:, p. 300. 4704: 4687: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4673: 4672: 4663: 4654: 4645: 4633: 4621: 4612: 4603: 4590: 4581: 4572: 4555: 4546: 4537: 4528: 4519: 4510: 4508:, paragraph 4. 4497: 4488: 4479: 4466: 4442: 4425: 4423:, pp. 207–220. 4392: 4379: 4370: 4356: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4349: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4331:Ancient Greece 4328: 4321: 4318: 4314:Late Neolithic 4302:Andrew Gillett 4265:Slavic nations 4252:Traditionskern 4239:Herwig Wolfram 4174:national myths 4068:Viking revival 4066:of 1665). The 4057:noble savagery 3989:Viking revival 3954:Viking revival 3949: 3946: 3940: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3908: 3905: 3861: 3858: 3849: 3846: 3840: 3837: 3811: 3808: 3753: 3750: 3742: 3739: 3727:Roman Iron Age 3721: 3718: 3700: 3697: 3694: 3693: 3674: 3672: 3647: 3644: 3634: 3633: 3614: 3612: 3588:Roman Iron Age 3571: 3568: 3563: 3560: 3525: 3524:Marriage roles 3522: 3507:Roman nobility 3482: 3479: 3457: 3454: 3424: 3421: 3385: 3382: 3380: 3377: 3357: 3354: 3268: 3265: 3131: 3128: 3095: 3092: 2995: 2992: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2954: 2953: 2934: 2932: 2921: 2918: 2901: 2898: 2889: 2886: 2867: 2864: 2803: 2800: 2783: 2782:Infrastructure 2780: 2742:Main article: 2739: 2736: 2734: 2731: 2682: 2680: 2677: 2645:Main article: 2642: 2639: 2614: 2611: 2469: 2466: 2463: 2462: 2443: 2441: 2430: 2427: 2422: 2419: 2361: 2358: 2340: 2337: 2305: 2302: 2292:and rye, used 2246: 2243: 2225: 2222: 2202: 2199: 2187: 2184: 2176: 2173: 2128:Main article: 2105: 2102: 2074: 2071: 2003:Main article: 2000: 1997: 1946: 1943: 1932:trial by water 1905: 1902: 1849:tribal society 1803: 1800: 1765:Main article: 1740: 1737: 1706:, in origin a 1686:Main article: 1683: 1680: 1676:Early Medieval 1658:Main article: 1652:Olaf the Stout 1632: 1629: 1621:code of ethics 1600: 1597: 1522: 1519: 1434: 1431: 1415:Runic calendar 1363:Main article: 1360: 1357: 1328: 1325: 1294:Main article: 1291: 1288: 1268:Main article: 1265: 1262: 1257:Christmas tree 1139:Main article: 1136: 1133: 1113: 1110: 1087: 1084: 1077:Roman religion 1040:Uppåkra temple 995: 992: 946: 943: 918: 915: 856:Main article: 853: 850: 759: 756: 716:, Priscus and 672:Nibelungenlied 590:Nibelungenlied 557: 554: 466:, English and 428:North Germanic 359:Proto-Germanic 346:Crimean Gothic 340: 314: 305: 296: 293:Old East Norse 287: 284:Old West Norse 278: 261: 251: 249:, (Istvaeonic) 241: 231: 228:North Germanic 222: 195: 184: 173: 162: 159:Central Europe 149:Proto-Germanic 133:Main article: 130: 127: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9456: 9445: 9442: 9440: 9437: 9435: 9432: 9430: 9427: 9426: 9424: 9409: 9401: 9400: 9397: 9391: 9388: 9386: 9383: 9381: 9378: 9376: 9373: 9371: 9368: 9367: 9365: 9363: 9359: 9353: 9350: 9348: 9345: 9343: 9340: 9338: 9335: 9333: 9330: 9328: 9325: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9312: 9311: 9308: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9291: 9288: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9266: 9263: 9261: 9258: 9256: 9253: 9251: 9248: 9246: 9243: 9241: 9238: 9236: 9233: 9231: 9228: 9226: 9223: 9221: 9218: 9216: 9213: 9211: 9208: 9206: 9203: 9201: 9198: 9196: 9193: 9191: 9188: 9186: 9183: 9181: 9178: 9176: 9173: 9171: 9168: 9166: 9163: 9161: 9158: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9129: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9109: 9106: 9105: 9104: 9101: 9097: 9094: 9093: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9084: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9054: 9052: 9049: 9047: 9044: 9042: 9039: 9037: 9034: 9032: 9029: 9025: 9022: 9020: 9017: 9015: 9012: 9010: 9007: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8994:Crimean Goths 8992: 8991: 8990: 8987: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8967: 8965: 8962: 8958: 8957:Salian Franks 8955: 8953: 8950: 8949: 8948: 8945: 8943: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8925: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8903: 8900: 8898: 8895: 8893: 8890: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8865: 8863: 8860: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8843: 8840: 8838: 8835: 8833: 8830: 8828: 8825: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8788: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8764: 8761: 8759: 8756: 8755: 8754: 8751: 8750: 8749: 8746: 8744: 8741: 8739: 8736: 8734: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8721: 8719: 8716: 8714: 8711: 8709: 8706: 8704: 8701: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8691: 8689: 8686: 8684: 8681: 8679: 8676: 8672: 8669: 8667: 8664: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8653: 8652: 8649: 8648: 8646: 8644: 8640: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8626: 8624: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8614: 8611: 8610: 8608: 8606: 8602: 8594: 8591: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8580: 8579: 8576: 8574: 8571: 8567: 8564: 8562: 8559: 8558: 8557: 8554: 8552: 8549: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8537: 8535: 8532: 8531: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8518: 8515: 8514: 8513: 8510: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8497: 8496: 8493: 8489: 8486: 8484: 8481: 8480: 8479: 8476: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8463: 8462: 8459: 8454: 8451: 8449: 8446: 8444: 8441: 8439: 8436: 8435: 8434: 8431: 8429: 8426: 8424: 8421: 8419: 8416: 8414: 8411: 8409: 8406: 8404: 8401: 8400: 8398: 8396: 8395:Early culture 8392: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8378: 8376: 8373: 8371: 8368: 8366: 8363: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8352: 8350: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8329: 8325: 8318: 8313: 8311: 8306: 8304: 8299: 8298: 8295: 8287: 8283: 8279: 8275: 8269: 8265: 8261: 8260: 8255: 8250: 8246: 8240: 8236: 8232: 8231: 8226: 8225:Todd, Malcolm 8222: 8218: 8216:9780198142522 8212: 8208: 8204: 8203: 8198: 8194: 8190: 8184: 8180: 8176: 8175: 8170: 8166: 8162: 8156: 8152: 8148: 8144: 8143: 8138: 8137:Krüger, Bruno 8134: 8130: 8124: 8120: 8116: 8115: 8114:Early Germans 8109: 8105: 8103:9780214652189 8099: 8095: 8091: 8090: 8085: 8081: 8077: 8075:9780521794237 8071: 8067: 8063: 8062: 8057: 8053: 8049: 8043: 8039: 8035: 8034: 8029: 8025: 8021: 8017: 8013: 8009: 8005: 8004: 7998: 7997: 7986: 7984:0-520-08511-6 7980: 7976: 7971: 7967: 7961: 7957: 7953: 7952: 7946: 7942: 7936: 7931: 7930: 7923: 7919: 7917:0-312-19958-9 7913: 7909: 7908: 7902: 7898: 7892: 7888: 7883: 7879: 7873: 7868: 7867: 7860: 7856: 7850: 7846: 7841: 7830: 7829: 7824: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7808: 7806:1-4051-1714-1 7802: 7798: 7794: 7793: 7788: 7787:Todd, Malcolm 7784: 7780: 7774: 7770: 7765: 7761: 7757: 7753: 7748: 7737: 7736: 7731: 7727: 7723: 7719: 7715: 7709: 7705: 7700: 7696: 7690: 7686: 7685: 7679: 7675: 7669: 7664: 7663: 7656: 7654: 7650: 7646: 7642: 7638: 7634: 7630: 7626: 7621: 7617: 7611: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7594: 7583: 7582: 7577: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7561: 7555: 7551: 7547: 7546: 7541: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7523: 7519: 7514: 7510: 7506: 7505: 7500: 7496: 7492: 7491: 7486: 7485:Owen, Francis 7482: 7478: 7472: 7468: 7463: 7459: 7453: 7449: 7444: 7440: 7438:1-56619-326-5 7434: 7430: 7425: 7421: 7415: 7411: 7410: 7404: 7400: 7396: 7392: 7387: 7383: 7377: 7373: 7368: 7366: 7365:87-480-0578-9 7362: 7358: 7354: 7350: 7344: 7340: 7335: 7331: 7325: 7321: 7316: 7312: 7306: 7302: 7297: 7282: 7278: 7271: 7266: 7262: 7256: 7252: 7247: 7243: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7228: 7222: 7218: 7216:9789004289529 7212: 7208: 7204: 7203: 7198: 7194: 7191: 7187: 7183: 7177: 7173: 7172: 7166: 7162: 7156: 7152: 7147: 7143: 7137: 7133: 7128: 7124: 7118: 7114: 7109: 7105: 7104: 7103:Early Germans 7099: 7095: 7091: 7085: 7081: 7076: 7072: 7066: 7061: 7060: 7053: 7049: 7043: 7039: 7034: 7023: 7022: 7017: 7013: 7009: 7005: 6999: 6995: 6990: 6986: 6981: 6977: 6971: 6967: 6962: 6951: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6936: 6931: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6902: 6897: 6896: 6890: 6885: 6881: 6875: 6871: 6866: 6862: 6856: 6852: 6847: 6843: 6837: 6833: 6828: 6824: 6822:0-226-20403-0 6818: 6814: 6809: 6805: 6799: 6795: 6790: 6786: 6780: 6776: 6771: 6767: 6761: 6757: 6756: 6750: 6745: 6740: 6736: 6732: 6728: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6714: 6710: 6709: 6703: 6698: 6694: 6690: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6667: 6663: 6657: 6653: 6648: 6644: 6638: 6634: 6633: 6627: 6623: 6617: 6613: 6608: 6597: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6562: 6558: 6552: 6548: 6543: 6539: 6533: 6529: 6524: 6523: 6510: 6505: 6498: 6493: 6486: 6481: 6474: 6469: 6462: 6457: 6451:, p. 12. 6450: 6445: 6438: 6433: 6426: 6421: 6414: 6409: 6402: 6397: 6390: 6385: 6378: 6373: 6366: 6361: 6354: 6349: 6342: 6337: 6330: 6325: 6318: 6317:Chisholm 1911 6313: 6306: 6301: 6294: 6289: 6282: 6277: 6270: 6265: 6258: 6253: 6246: 6241: 6234: 6229: 6222: 6217: 6210: 6205: 6203: 6201: 6199: 6197: 6195: 6193: 6191: 6189: 6187: 6185: 6183: 6181: 6179: 6171: 6166: 6159: 6154: 6147: 6142: 6136:, p. 88. 6135: 6130: 6123: 6118: 6111: 6106: 6104: 6096: 6091: 6084: 6079: 6072: 6067: 6060: 6055: 6048: 6043: 6036: 6031: 6024: 6019: 6017: 6010:, p. 79. 6009: 6008:Williams 1998 6004: 5997: 5992: 5990: 5988: 5986: 5984: 5982: 5980: 5978: 5976: 5974: 5972: 5970: 5962: 5957: 5950: 5949:Santosuo 2004 5945: 5939:, p. 34. 5938: 5933: 5926: 5921: 5914: 5909: 5903:, p. 30. 5902: 5897: 5891:, p. 64. 5890: 5885: 5878: 5873: 5866: 5861: 5854: 5849: 5842: 5837: 5835: 5827: 5822: 5820: 5818: 5811:, p. 32. 5810: 5805: 5798: 5793: 5786: 5781: 5774: 5769: 5767: 5765: 5763: 5761: 5759: 5751: 5746: 5739: 5734: 5732: 5730: 5728: 5726: 5724: 5722: 5715:, p. 16. 5714: 5709: 5702: 5697: 5690: 5689: 5682: 5675: 5670: 5663: 5658: 5651: 5646: 5639: 5634: 5632: 5630: 5622: 5617: 5610: 5605: 5598: 5593: 5591: 5583: 5578: 5571: 5566: 5564: 5562: 5560: 5558: 5556: 5554: 5552: 5544: 5543: 5536: 5530:, p. 39. 5529: 5524: 5522: 5514: 5509: 5502: 5497: 5490: 5485: 5477: 5470: 5463: 5458: 5456: 5454: 5452: 5445:, p. 27. 5444: 5439: 5432: 5427: 5425: 5423: 5421: 5419: 5417: 5415: 5413: 5411: 5409: 5407: 5405: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5397: 5395: 5393: 5391: 5389: 5387: 5385: 5383: 5375: 5370: 5363: 5358: 5351: 5346: 5344: 5342: 5340: 5338: 5336: 5328: 5323: 5316: 5311: 5304: 5303: 5296: 5289: 5288: 5281: 5274: 5269: 5267: 5265: 5263: 5261: 5259: 5257: 5249: 5244: 5237: 5236:Kendrick 2013 5232: 5226:, p. 47. 5225: 5220: 5213: 5208: 5202:, p. 37. 5201: 5196: 5189: 5188: 5181: 5174: 5169: 5163:, p. 97. 5162: 5157: 5150: 5145: 5138: 5137:Santosuo 2004 5133: 5126: 5121: 5114: 5109: 5102: 5097: 5095: 5087: 5086:Williams 1998 5082: 5076:, p. 82. 5075: 5074:Williams 1998 5070: 5063: 5058: 5051: 5046: 5044: 5042: 5040: 5038: 5036: 5034: 5032: 5030: 5028: 5026: 5024: 5016: 5011: 5004: 4999: 4992: 4987: 4980: 4975: 4969:, p. 44. 4968: 4963: 4957:, p. 37. 4956: 4955:Antonsen 2002 4951: 4945:, p. 15. 4944: 4939: 4932: 4927: 4920: 4915: 4908: 4903: 4896: 4891: 4889: 4887: 4885: 4883: 4881: 4873: 4868: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4860: 4858: 4856: 4854: 4852: 4850: 4848: 4846: 4838: 4833: 4818:. 5 June 2009 4817: 4813: 4807: 4800: 4795: 4788: 4783: 4776: 4771: 4764: 4763:Wightman 1985 4759: 4752: 4747: 4740: 4739:Robinson 1992 4735: 4728: 4723: 4716: 4711: 4709: 4699: 4692: 4688: 4667: 4658: 4649: 4640: 4638: 4628: 4626: 4616: 4607: 4600: 4594: 4585: 4576: 4569: 4565: 4559: 4550: 4541: 4532: 4523: 4514: 4507: 4501: 4492: 4483: 4476: 4470: 4463: 4462: 4457: 4453: 4446: 4438: 4437: 4429: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4396: 4389: 4383: 4374: 4367: 4361: 4357: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4323: 4317: 4315: 4311: 4306: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4275:and even the 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4261:Scandinavians 4258: 4253: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4223:Vienna School 4219: 4214: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4201:Contemporary 4199: 4197: 4196: 4195:Volksdeutsche 4191: 4187: 4185: 4179: 4178:Pan-Germanism 4175: 4171: 4170:German Empire 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4154:nation states 4151: 4147: 4142: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4117:, the famous 4116: 4112: 4108: 4107: 4102: 4098: 4097: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4075: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4060: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4041: 4039: 4038: 4037:Gesta Danorum 4033: 4029: 4025: 4020: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3990: 3984: 3978: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3966:Pan-Germanism 3963: 3959: 3955: 3945: 3931: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3916: 3914: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3894: 3890: 3888: 3882: 3875: 3871: 3866: 3857: 3855: 3845: 3836: 3832: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3807: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3787: 3783: 3781: 3776: 3773: 3769: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3752:Male clothing 3748: 3738: 3735: 3730: 3728: 3714: 3710: 3705: 3690: 3687:December 2019 3681: 3677: 3673: 3670: 3666: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3643: 3641: 3630: 3627:December 2019 3621: 3617: 3613: 3610: 3606: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3596:Vendel Period 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3567: 3559: 3555: 3552: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3530: 3521: 3518: 3514: 3512: 3508: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3487: 3481:Intermarriage 3478: 3476: 3470: 3465: 3463: 3453: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3436: 3432: 3430: 3420: 3416: 3414: 3409: 3407: 3399: 3395: 3390: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3366: 3362: 3361:Julius Caesar 3353: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3331: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3317: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3297: 3292: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3267:Role of women 3264: 3260: 3258: 3253: 3250:was applied ( 3249: 3248: 3242: 3240: 3236: 3233:divided into 3232: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3216: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3180: 3176: 3174: 3169: 3167: 3160:in Stockholm. 3159: 3155: 3151: 3146: 3141: 3137: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3100: 3091: 3089: 3085: 3080: 3076: 3073: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3058: 3055: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3036: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3020: 3016: 3008: 3004: 3003:Vendel Period 3000: 2991: 2989: 2988:crop failures 2985: 2980: 2977: 2973: 2970: 2950: 2947:December 2019 2941: 2937: 2933: 2930: 2926: 2925: 2917: 2915: 2906: 2897: 2895: 2885: 2882: 2877: 2873: 2863: 2860: 2857: 2855: 2850: 2848: 2844: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2799: 2797: 2792: 2790: 2779: 2777: 2772: 2770: 2765: 2763: 2755: 2750: 2745: 2730: 2728: 2723: 2719: 2717: 2713: 2708: 2705: 2701: 2695: 2693: 2686: 2679:Craftsmanship 2676: 2674: 2669: 2665: 2662: 2658: 2653: 2648: 2638: 2636: 2629: 2625: 2623: 2618: 2610: 2606: 2604: 2599: 2596: 2595:Roman coinage 2590: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2571: 2569: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2548: 2544: 2541: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2522: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2474: 2459: 2456:December 2019 2450: 2446: 2442: 2439: 2435: 2434: 2426: 2418: 2416: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2395: 2393: 2389: 2384: 2382: 2377: 2373: 2371: 2367: 2357: 2353: 2351: 2345: 2336: 2333: 2328: 2326: 2322: 2317: 2315: 2311: 2301: 2299: 2298:crop rotation 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2278: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2242: 2238: 2236: 2232: 2221: 2219: 2214: 2211: 2206: 2198: 2195: 2193: 2182: 2172: 2170: 2166: 2165:Germanic Wars 2161: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2131: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2110: 2101: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2082: 2079: 2070: 2068: 2067:Alemannic law 2062: 2058: 2055: 2050: 2049:"1200-man"). 2048: 2047:twelfhyndeman 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2031: 2025: 2021: 2018: 2016: 2012: 2006: 1996: 1994: 1990: 1985: 1983: 1977: 1973: 1966: 1962: 1957: 1952: 1942: 1939: 1937: 1936:trial by fire 1933: 1929: 1925: 1919: 1917: 1911: 1901: 1899: 1896:in the early 1895: 1891: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1820: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1799: 1797: 1796: 1795:Landsgemeinde 1791: 1787: 1783: 1778: 1776: 1775: 1768: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1751: 1745: 1735: 1730: 1726: 1724: 1720: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1699: 1695: 1689: 1688:Germanic king 1679: 1677: 1673: 1667: 1661: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1644:Gamla Uppsala 1641: 1637: 1628: 1624: 1622: 1616: 1612: 1606: 1596: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1527: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1502: 1501:even his boat 1498: 1493: 1491: 1488:. During the 1487: 1486:burial mounds 1483: 1478: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1459: 1454: 1450: 1444: 1440: 1439:Norse funeral 1430: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1417:developed in 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1366: 1356: 1353: 1348: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1333:Winter Nights 1324: 1321: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1297: 1287: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1271: 1261: 1258: 1252: 1250: 1245: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1230: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1207: 1202: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1175: 1173: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1142: 1132: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1109: 1105: 1103: 1097: 1093: 1083: 1080: 1078: 1073: 1071: 1067: 1059: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 991: 989: 985: 981: 978:", but also " 977: 972: 970: 966: 962: 956: 952: 942: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 914: 911: 909: 905: 898: 894: 889: 885: 883: 879: 876:Prior to the 873: 869: 865: 859: 849: 847: 843: 839: 835: 830: 828: 824: 819: 816: 814: 809: 807: 803: 799: 791: 790:Rök runestone 787: 783: 782:Elder Futhark 779: 774: 769: 765: 755: 753: 749: 743: 741: 736: 734: 729: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 704:The works of 702: 700: 696: 692: 688: 683: 681: 677: 673: 669: 664: 662: 658: 653: 651: 646: 644: 640: 636: 632: 627: 625: 620: 616: 609: 608: 607:Möðruvallabók 603: 602: 598:Excerpt from 596: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 553: 551: 546: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 510: 508: 504: 500: 499: 494: 490: 486: 482: 481:Julius Caesar 477: 476:Luxembourgish 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 436:Elbe Germanic 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 384: 382: 378: 373: 371: 366: 364: 360: 351: 350:East Germanic 347: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 320:West Germanic 312: 303: 294: 285: 275: 268: 267:East Germanic 258: 257:Elbe Germanic 248: 238: 229: 217: 212: 160: 155: 150: 146: 142: 136: 126: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 103: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 70: 65: 58: 54: 53:Gamla Uppsala 50: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 8688:Anglo-Saxons 8678:Adrabaecampi 8661:Bucinobantes 8403:Architecture 8394: 8285: 8258: 8229: 8201: 8173: 8151:Akad.-Verlag 8146: 8142:Die Germanen 8141: 8113: 8088: 8060: 8032: 8028:Green, D. H. 8007: 8001: 7974: 7950: 7928: 7906: 7886: 7865: 7844: 7832:. Retrieved 7826: 7791: 7768: 7751: 7739:. Retrieved 7733: 7703: 7683: 7661: 7644: 7643:Ringe, Don. 7628: 7624: 7605: 7585:. Retrieved 7579: 7544: 7517: 7503: 7489: 7466: 7447: 7428: 7408: 7390: 7371: 7356: 7338: 7319: 7300: 7288:. Retrieved 7281:the original 7276: 7250: 7226: 7201: 7189: 7170: 7150: 7131: 7112: 7102: 7079: 7058: 7037: 7025:. Retrieved 7019: 6993: 6984: 6965: 6953:. Retrieved 6947: 6934: 6922:. Retrieved 6918: 6894: 6869: 6850: 6831: 6812: 6793: 6774: 6754: 6730: 6724: 6712: 6706: 6678: 6651: 6631: 6611: 6599:. Retrieved 6593: 6581: 6565: 6546: 6527: 6519:Bibliography 6504: 6492: 6480: 6468: 6456: 6449:Wolfram 1997 6444: 6432: 6420: 6415:, p. 3. 6408: 6396: 6384: 6372: 6360: 6348: 6336: 6324: 6312: 6305:Mjöberg 1980 6300: 6293:Strauss 1963 6288: 6283:, p. 3. 6281:Golther 1908 6276: 6264: 6257:McGrath 2015 6252: 6240: 6228: 6216: 6165: 6153: 6146:Wolfram 1997 6141: 6134:Wolfram 1997 6129: 6122:Wolfram 1997 6117: 6110:Tacitus 2009 6095:Tacitus 2009 6090: 6078: 6071:Herlihy 1985 6066: 6059:Tacitus 2009 6054: 6042: 6030: 6003: 5956: 5951:, p. 9. 5944: 5932: 5920: 5908: 5896: 5884: 5877:Heather 2003 5872: 5865:Tacitus 2009 5860: 5848: 5804: 5792: 5780: 5745: 5708: 5696: 5687: 5681: 5669: 5657: 5650:Winkler 2016 5645: 5616: 5609:Tacitus 2009 5604: 5577: 5541: 5535: 5528:Osborne 2008 5508: 5496: 5484: 5475: 5469: 5438: 5369: 5362:Tacitus 2009 5357: 5327:Wolfram 1997 5322: 5310: 5301: 5295: 5286: 5280: 5243: 5231: 5219: 5207: 5195: 5186: 5180: 5168: 5161:Cameron 1997 5156: 5144: 5132: 5120: 5108: 5081: 5069: 5057: 5010: 4998: 4986: 4981:, p. 9. 4974: 4962: 4950: 4943:Halsall 1981 4938: 4926: 4914: 4902: 4832: 4820:. Retrieved 4815: 4806: 4794: 4782: 4775:Tacitus 2009 4770: 4758: 4746: 4734: 4722: 4697: 4691: 4666: 4657: 4648: 4615: 4606: 4598: 4593: 4584: 4575: 4567: 4563: 4558: 4549: 4540: 4531: 4522: 4513: 4500: 4491: 4482: 4477:, pp. 31–32. 4474: 4469: 4459: 4445: 4434: 4428: 4420: 4395: 4387: 4382: 4373: 4365: 4360: 4336:Ancient Rome 4310:Malcolm Todd 4307: 4298:nationalists 4243:sociological 4222: 4218:World War II 4215: 4211:Scandinavism 4200: 4193: 4181: 4143: 4104: 4094: 4086: 4076: 4063: 4061: 4052: 4042: 4035: 4032:Olaus Magnus 4027: 4021: 3994: 3974: 3962:Scandinavism 3942: 3917: 3910: 3902: 3895: 3891: 3887:Suebian knot 3884: 3881:Suebian knot 3874:Suebian knot 3870:Osterby Head 3851: 3842: 3833: 3830: 3826: 3823: 3804: 3797:" (160 AD), 3795:Suebian knot 3777: 3774: 3770: 3755: 3731: 3723: 3684: 3680:adding to it 3675: 3637: 3624: 3620:adding to it 3615: 3565: 3556: 3553: 3542: 3539: 3531: 3527: 3519: 3515: 3510: 3504: 3472: 3467: 3459: 3438: 3434: 3426: 3417: 3410: 3405: 3403: 3396:(drawing by 3374: 3370: 3359: 3335: 3332: 3321: 3318: 3310:Cimbrian War 3298: 3294: 3291:Shieldmaiden 3261: 3251: 3245: 3243: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3220: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3181: 3177: 3170: 3163: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3110:" (1882) by 3081: 3079:militarily. 3077: 3074: 3059: 3056: 3037: 3022: 2981: 2978: 2974: 2971: 2967: 2944: 2940:adding to it 2935: 2911: 2891: 2883: 2879: 2861: 2858: 2851: 2839: 2835:saddle roofs 2825: 2805: 2793: 2785: 2773: 2766: 2759: 2733:Architecture 2724: 2720: 2709: 2697: 2688: 2684: 2670: 2666: 2654: 2650: 2631: 2627: 2619: 2616: 2607: 2600: 2591: 2577:towards the 2572: 2565: 2542: 2523: 2508: 2453: 2449:adding to it 2444: 2424: 2412: 2385: 2381:heavy plough 2378: 2374: 2363: 2354: 2346: 2342: 2329: 2318: 2307: 2279: 2248: 2245:Crop raising 2239: 2227: 2215: 2207: 2204: 2196: 2189: 2162: 2154:Roman Empire 2146: 2142: 2137: 2133: 2094:swear fealty 2083: 2080: 2076: 2063: 2059: 2051: 2046: 2042: 2028: 2026: 2022: 2019: 2008: 1986: 1979: 1975: 1970: 1940: 1920: 1913: 1887: 1877:engaging in 1865:Kalmar Union 1841:Anglo-Norman 1835:in both the 1821: 1805: 1793: 1779: 1772: 1770: 1748: 1732: 1727: 1723:Roman Empire 1718: 1701: 1669: 1660:Germanic law 1625: 1618: 1578: 1559:Raven banner 1515: 1511: 1508: 1505: 1494: 1479: 1476: 1453:Horse burial 1370: 1368: 1349: 1330: 1322: 1299: 1278:, and today 1273: 1253: 1246: 1231: 1203: 1185:rather than 1176: 1165: 1162: 1151:Gothic Bible 1129: 1106: 1099: 1081: 1074: 1068:, including 1063: 973: 959:Many of the 958: 929:between the 920: 912: 904:polytheistic 901: 875: 846:Gothic Bible 831: 820: 817: 810: 795: 778:cipher runes 744: 737: 730: 726:Francis Owen 703: 684: 665: 663:literature. 661:Scandianvian 654: 647: 628: 621: 617: 613: 605: 599: 547: 511: 507:Anglo-Saxons 496: 459: 440:Upper German 385: 374: 367: 356: 239:(Ingvaeonic) 145:Pre-Germanic 123:Christianity 104: 100:ancient Rome 75: 74: 67:Area of the 40: 9128:Nahanarvali 9051:Hilleviones 8964:Frisiavones 8832:Cananefates 8822:Burgundians 8733:Banochaemae 8583:Anglo-Saxon 8534:Anglo-Saxon 8500:Anglo-Saxon 8483:Anglo-Saxon 8466:Anglo-Saxon 8014:: 501–512. 7741:8 September 7568:Petit, Paul 6955:8 September 6737:: 131–150. 6601:8 September 6353:Jansen 2011 6341:Jansen 2011 6035:Caesar 2019 5889:Murray 1983 5797:Caesar 2019 5785:Caesar 2019 5443:Oliver 2011 5374:Oliver 2011 5315:Caesar 2019 5224:Wilson 2005 5101:Eliade 1984 5015:Eliade 1984 5003:Eliade 1984 4991:Eliade 1984 4799:Ostler 2006 4787:Musset 1993 4751:Ostler 2006 4326:Early Slavs 4290:deconstruct 4235:Walter Pohl 4146:nationalism 4135:Montesquieu 4123:Middle Ages 4091:Jacob Grimm 4083:Rasmus Rask 4072:Romanticism 3997:Renaissance 3924:Brísingamen 3699:Appearances 3570:Archaeology 3501:, Florence. 3398:Henri Trenk 3308:during the 3150:image stone 3140:Norse clans 3106:Defend the 3094:Family life 3088:teetotalism 3033:Poetic Edda 2866:Settlements 2673:manumission 2635:Netherlands 2186:Agriculture 2043:twyhyndeman 2015:blood feuds 1961:Tollund Man 1802:Legal codes 1786:Switzerland 1449:Ship burial 1409:was likely 1395:Old English 1044:Vé (shrine) 1008:Heathen hof 878:Middle Ages 695:Charlemagne 657:Anglo-Saxon 624:Grottasöngr 420:Scandinavia 324:Old Frisian 311:Old English 302:Old Gutnish 259:(Irminonic) 111:Middle Ages 9423:Categories 9347:Vinoviloth 9135:Marcomanni 9118:Helveconae 9096:Heaðobards 9066:Istvaeones 9056:Ingaevones 9041:Hermunduri 9009:Ostrogoths 8999:Greuthungi 8877:Chattuarii 8703:Angrivarii 8698:Ampsivarii 8666:Lentienses 8495:Literature 8385:Viking Age 8273:157113199X 8244:0091222206 8235:Hutchinson 8188:1441174656 8047:0521794234 7760:B0000CLVQC 7559:1438129181 7399:B000W259Y8 7241:1841761524 6574:B00ASEDPFA 6401:Derry 2012 6389:Smith 1989 6377:Mosse 1964 6365:Mosse 1964 6269:Burns 2003 5853:Geary 1999 5582:Manco 2013 5248:Price 1965 5113:Burns 2003 5062:Burns 2003 4979:Ewing 2008 4967:Bauer 2010 4919:Dalby 1999 4837:Dalby 1999 4822:29 October 4727:Dalby 1999 4678:References 4436:Yggdrasill 4346:Sarmatians 4216:Following 4207:Viking Age 3979:(1872) by 3860:Hairstyles 3660:Viking art 3600:Viking Age 3545:patriarchy 3493:, wife of 3489:Statue of 3406:Friedelehe 3314:Ariovistus 3289:See also: 3257:stratified 3196:chieftains 3108:Wagon Fort 2843:Marcomanni 2657:concubines 2603:Roman army 2493:Amber Road 2482:Baltic Sea 2478:Amber Road 2409:, Denmark. 2407:Sønderborg 2403:Nydam Mose 2350:Icelanders 2158:Roman army 1989:banishment 1982:bog bodies 1945:Punishment 1817:archbishop 1782:federalist 1757:(193 1739:Assemblies 1666:Mund (law) 1664:See also: 1609:See also: 1593:Viking Age 1591:up to the 1575:Triskelion 1545:See also: 1463:Håga mound 1447:See also: 1443:Sutton Hoo 1264:Heathenism 1234:Saxon Wars 1215:Thor's Oak 1195:missionary 1179:Ostrogoths 1036:Trollkyrka 827:introduced 784:, and the 752:dark humor 659:and early 601:Njáls saga 556:Literature 543:Portuguese 464:Low German 452:Istvaeonic 424:Ingvaeonic 400:Ingvaeones 392:Istvaeones 115:conversion 9342:Vidivarii 9337:Victohali 9327:Vangiones 9260:Thuringii 9165:Nuithones 9061:Irminones 9024:Visigoths 9014:Thervingi 8974:Gambrivii 8927:Dulgubnii 8922:Dauciones 8872:Chasuarii 8812:Brondings 8738:Bastarnae 8728:Baiuvarii 8708:Armalausi 8671:Raetovari 8605:Languages 8573:Symbology 8433:Folklore 8428:Festivals 6509:Todd 2004 6425:Clay 2008 6245:Owen 1960 6233:Owen 1960 6221:Owen 1960 6209:Owen 1960 6170:Bury 1928 6023:Owen 1960 5996:Owen 1960 5937:Pohl 1997 5901:Todd 2004 5809:Todd 2004 5773:Owen 1960 5738:Owen 1960 5638:Owen 1960 5570:Owen 1960 5462:Owen 1960 5431:Owen 1960 5350:Owen 1960 5273:Owen 1960 5200:Pohl 1997 5050:Owen 1960 4931:Owen 1960 4907:Todd 2004 4895:Owen 1960 4872:Owen 1960 4683:Citations 4452:Valkyries 4341:Scythians 4277:Tunisians 4247:ethnicity 4024:Old Norse 4005:barbarian 3958:Gothicism 3913:ornaments 3907:Ornaments 3801:, Poland. 3709:Bastarnae 3511:connubium 3491:Thusnelda 3441:Aristotle 3356:Sexuality 3173:ethnicity 3156:, in the 3046:in other 2845:. On the 2802:Dwellings 2762:mead hall 2754:mead hall 2744:Mead hall 2738:Mead hall 2661:Gladiator 2552:Varangian 2511:Mycenaean 2480:from the 2360:Equipment 2332:North Sea 2304:Husbandry 2150:comitatus 2090:feudalism 2035:shillings 1845:Roman law 1829:feudalism 1813:weregilds 1747:Germanic 1734:anything. 1581:sun cross 1571:Triquetra 1547:Sun cross 1423:full moon 1411:lunisolar 1403:Old Norse 1375:calendars 1327:Festivals 1284:Heathenry 1172:Alemannic 1126:Einherjar 1122:Fólkvangr 1112:Afterlife 1060:, 1400 BC 838:Thervingi 792:in Sweden 687:Ermanaric 531:Visigoths 498:Geography 432:Old Norse 396:Irminones 332:Old Dutch 328:Old Saxon 129:Languages 9408:Category 9315:Hasdingi 9300:Usipetes 9280:Tubantes 9265:Toxandri 9245:Tencteri 9220:Suarines 9205:Sicambri 9200:Semnones 9180:Reudigni 9150:Mattiaci 9140:Marsacii 9091:Lombards 9081:Lacringi 9076:Juthungi 8907:Corconti 8892:Cherusci 8867:Charudes 8847:Chaedini 8817:Bructeri 8802:Bateinoi 8773:Eburones 8768:Condrusi 8763:Caeroesi 8758:Atuatuci 8693:Ambrones 8656:Brisgavi 8651:Alemanni 8529:Paganism 8418:Clothing 8413:Calendar 8360:Germania 8227:(1975). 8199:(1965). 8171:(1996). 8086:(1971). 8058:(1892). 8030:(2004). 8020:27699995 7789:(2004). 7637:20729190 7604:(eds.). 7542:(1972). 7501:(1967). 7487:(1960). 7290:22 April 7199:(2015). 7100:(1833). 6733:(2007). 6677:(eds.). 4461:Ragnarök 4456:Valhalla 4320:See also 4047:such as 4011:and the 3939:Gambling 3928:Nibelung 3839:Headgear 3820:Hangerok 3816:Hangaroc 3791:Vandalic 3741:Clothing 3638:See the 3495:Arminius 3475:polygamy 3462:monogamy 3400:, 1875). 3342:Brunhild 3306:Teutones 3192:retinues 3044:cognates 2872:Árheimar 2832:thatched 2813:branches 2589:rivers. 2579:Adriatic 2519:Iron Age 2286:Cuxhaven 2235:Tencteri 2231:Usipetes 2073:Property 2011:weregild 2005:Weregild 1999:Weregild 1965:bog body 1951:Bog body 1910:Holmgang 1879:holmgang 1790:cantonal 1788:, where 1712:elective 1704:kingship 1682:Kingship 1678:period. 1585:swastika 1583:and the 1541:in 1895. 1359:Calendar 1314:serpents 1302:folklore 1290:Folklore 1276:folklore 1223:Boniface 1219:Fritzlar 1206:Clovis I 1199:Lombards 1191:heretics 1183:Arianism 1168:Agathias 1118:Valhalla 980:Hercules 927:conflict 852:Religion 706:Jordanes 539:Portugal 533:ruled a 216:Germanic 119:paganism 9332:Varisci 9320:Silingi 9310:Vandals 9285:Tulingi 9275:Triboci 9270:Treveri 9250:Teutons 9240:Taifals 9215:Sitones 9155:Nemetes 9113:Helisii 9086:Lemovii 9004:Gutones 8937:Firaesi 8932:Favonae 8912:Cugerni 8902:Cobandi 8857:Chamavi 8852:Chaemae 8842:Casuari 8837:Caritni 8807:Betasii 8778:Paemani 8713:Auiones 8578:Warfare 8556:Scripts 8524:Numbers 8348:History 8066:D. Nutt 7834:12 July 7587:12 July 7550:Methuen 7027:12 July 6924:11 July 4409:Denmark 4401:Denmark 4281:Maltese 4257:Germans 4160:of the 4115:Wilhelm 4053:Germani 3766:steppes 3764:of the 3720:Sources 3562:Divorce 3450:puberty 3346:Gunther 3324:Nerthus 3231:civitas 3227:civitas 3188:Kinship 3154:Gotland 3104:Teutons 3070:ferment 3066:Priscus 2959:Cuisine 2828:rafters 2769:Beowulf 2716:pottery 2712:weaving 2700:Jutland 2641:Slavery 2622:Salvian 2613:Finance 2575:Vistula 2429:Hunting 2421:Fishing 2275:turnips 2201:History 2175:Economy 2104:Warfare 1993:revenge 1825:estates 1780:In the 1698:Kindins 1563:Mjölnir 1555:Valknut 1521:Symbols 1467:Uppsala 1385:in the 1343:), and 1310:dwarves 1227:Germans 1086:Priests 994:Rituals 982:" and " 976:Mercury 945:Deities 917:Origins 834:Ulfilas 802:Austria 758:Scripts 699:Iceland 668:Beowulf 639:Priscus 604:in the 586:Beowulf 535:kingdom 485:Tacitus 468:Frisian 460:Germani 408:Vandals 205: 1 9352:Warini 9305:Vagoth 9290:Tungri 9255:Thelir 9235:Swedes 9230:Sunici 9195:Saxons 9190:Rugini 9123:Manimi 9108:Diduni 9046:Heruli 8984:Gepids 8969:Frisii 8947:Franks 8897:Cimbri 8887:Chauci 8882:Chatti 8795:Nervii 8790:Morini 8748:Belgae 8743:Batavi 8718:Avarpi 8683:Angles 8643:Groups 8593:Viking 8539:Gothic 8517:Gothic 8423:Family 8270: 8241: 8213: 8185: 8157: 8125: 8100: 8072: 8044: 8018: 7981: 7962: 7937: 7914: 7893: 7874: 7851: 7803: 7775: 7758: 7710: 7691: 7670: 7651: 7635: 7612: 7556: 7524: 7473: 7454: 7435: 7416: 7397: 7378: 7363: 7345: 7326: 7307: 7257: 7238: 7213: 7178: 7157: 7138: 7119: 7086: 7067: 7044: 7000: 6972: 6903: 6876: 6857: 6838: 6819: 6800: 6781: 6762: 6685: 6658: 6639: 6618: 6572: 6553: 6534: 4413:Norway 4294:crypto 4269:Greeks 3964:, and 3920:bronze 3898:beards 3856:type. 3854:sandal 3762:nomads 3758:mantle 3658:, and 3598:, and 3439:Where 3338:Gudrun 3312:, and 3302:Cimbri 3276:Hervor 3184:tribes 3084:Nervii 3019:Symbel 2994:Drinks 2984:famine 2854:Strabo 2821:stucco 2776:hearth 2647:Thrall 2526:Danube 2503:, and 2392:sickle 2388:harrow 2366:plough 2352:came. 2294:manure 2251:barley 2122:Romans 2098:feasts 2086:estate 2039:solidi 2037:(i.e. 1774:things 1573:, and 1535:Scania 1425:after 1391:Julian 1341:Easter 1242:Verden 1157:, and 1124:, and 1102:druids 1096:Veleda 1042:, and 1028:Symbel 1020:Hallow 870:, and 780:, the 670:, the 643:Attila 631:skalds 588:, and 527:Franks 503:Anglii 501:, the 416:Gothic 398:, and 388:Mannus 344: 342: 316: 309: 307: 300: 298: 291: 289: 282: 280: 265: 263: 255: 253: 245: 243: 235: 233: 226: 224: 197: 186: 175: 164: 147:, and 57:Sweden 49:mounds 47:Royal 9225:Suebi 9210:Sciri 9185:Rugii 9175:Quadi 9160:Njars 9145:Marsi 9103:Lugii 9071:Jutes 9036:Harii 9031:Gutes 8989:Goths 8979:Geats 8917:Danes 8862:Chali 8783:Segni 8723:Baemi 8566:Runes 8551:Rings 8544:Norse 8512:Names 8505:Norse 8488:Norse 8471:Norse 8145:[ 8016:JSTOR 8010:(4). 7633:JSTOR 7284:(PDF) 7273:(PDF) 7207:BRILL 4417:Danes 4352:Notes 4273:Turks 4192:(all 4109:) of 4009:Alans 3872:with 3848:Shoes 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Early Germanic culture

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