Animal testing - Knowledge

1673:. This defines the parameters that govern animal testing in the U.S. It states "The ability to experience and respond to pain is widespread in the animal kingdom...Pain is a stressor and, if not relieved, can lead to unacceptable levels of stress and distress in animals." The Guide states that the ability to recognize the symptoms of pain in different species is vital in efficiently applying pain relief and that it is essential for the people caring for and using animals to be entirely familiar with these symptoms. On the subject of analgesics used to relieve pain, the Guide states "The selection of the most appropriate analgesic or anesthetic should reflect professional judgment as to which best meets clinical and humane requirements without compromising the scientific aspects of the research protocol". Accordingly, all issues of animal pain and distress, and their potential treatment with analgesia and anesthesia, are required regulatory issues in receiving animal protocol approval. Currently, traumatic methods of marking laboratory animals are being replaced with non-invasive alternatives. 1364:

animals". The OIG found that "as a result, animals are not always receiving basic humane care and treatment and, in some cases, pain and distress are not minimized during and after experimental procedures". According to the report, within a three-year period, nearly half of all American laboratories with regulated species were cited for AWA violations relating to improper IACUC oversight. The USDA OIG made similar findings in a 2005 report. With only a broad number of 120 inspectors, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) oversees more than 12,000 facilities involved in research, exhibition, breeding, or dealing of animals. Others have criticized the composition of IACUCs, asserting that the committees are predominantly made up of animal researchers and university representatives who may be biased against animal welfare concerns.

447: 3514:, the Interagency Coordinating Committee for the Validation of Alternative Methods in the US, ZEBET in Germany, and the Japanese Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods (among others) also promote and disseminate the 3Rs. These bodies are mainly driven by responding to regulatory requirements, such as supporting the cosmetics testing ban in the EU by validating alternative methods. The European Partnership for Alternative Approaches to Animal Testing serves as a liaison between the European Commission and industries. The European Consensus Platform for Alternatives coordinates efforts amongst EU member states. Academic centers also investigate alternatives, including the Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing at the 2562: 1051: 993:. One of the most significant advancements in medical science involves the use of dogs in developing the answers to insulin production in the body for diabetics and the role of the pancreas in this process. They found that the pancreas was responsible for producing insulin in the body and that removal of the pancreas, resulted in the development of diabetes in the dog. After re-injecting the pancreatic extract (insulin), the blood glucose levels were significantly lowered. The advancements made in this research involving the use of dogs has resulted in a definite improvement in the quality of life for both humans and animals. 916: 19011: 1418:

animals used in the U.S. range from 10 million to upwards of 100 million each year, and that their own best estimate was at least 17 million to 22 million. In 2016, the Department of Agriculture listed 60,979 dogs, 18,898 cats, 71,188 non-human primates, 183,237 guinea pigs, 102,633 hamsters, 139,391 rabbits, 83,059 farm animals, and 161,467 other mammals, a total of 820,812, a figure that includes all mammals except purpose-bred mice and rats. The use of dogs and cats in research in the U.S. decreased from 1973 to 2016 from 195,157 to 60,979, and from 66,165 to 18,898, respectively.

1226: 8135: 2984:, among others, who argues that animals are beings with beliefs and desires, and as such are the "subjects of a life" with moral value and therefore moral rights. Regan still sees ethical differences between killing human and non-human animals, and argues that to save the former it is permissible to kill the latter. Likewise, a "moral dilemma" view suggests that avoiding potential benefit to humans is unacceptable on similar grounds, and holds the issue to be a dilemma in balancing such harm to humans to the harm done to animals in research. In contrast, an 1514: 2595: 833: 3421:(ASPCA), with America's first specifically anti-vivisection organization being the American AntiVivisection Society (AAVS), founded in 1883. Antivivisectionists of the era generally believed the spread of mercy was the great cause of civilization, and vivisection was cruel. However, in the USA the antivivisectionists' efforts were defeated in every legislature, overwhelmed by the superior organization and influence of the medical community. Overall, this movement had little legislative success until the passing of the 1422:

animals are frequently euthanized after the experiment; however death is the endpoint of some procedures. The procedures conducted on animals in the UK in 2017 were categorised as: 43% (1.61 million) sub-threshold, 4% (0.14 million) non-recovery, 36% (1.35 million) mild, 15% (0.55 million) moderate, and 4% (0.14 million) severe. A 'severe' procedure would be, for instance, any test where death is the end-point or fatalities are expected, whereas a 'mild' procedure would be something like a blood test or an MRI scan.

1653:, the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals, writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain, and that veterinarians trained in the U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore animal pain. In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians, he was regularly asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" grounds for claiming that they feel pain. Carbone writes that 1360:

govern the IACUCs. The Public Health Service policy oversees the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The CDC conducts infectious disease research on nonhuman primates, rabbits, mice, and other animals, while FDA requirements cover use of animals in pharmaceutical research. Animal Welfare Act (AWA) regulations are enforced by the USDA, whereas Public Health Service regulations are enforced by OLAW and in many cases by AAALAC.

2925: 3283: 1526:. It was in part out of public concern over the sale of pets to research facilities that the 1966 Laboratory Animal Welfare Act was ushered in—the Senate Committee on Commerce reported in 1966 that stolen pets had been retrieved from Veterans Administration facilities, the Mayo Institute, the University of Pennsylvania, Stanford University, and Harvard and Yale Medical Schools. The USDA recovered at least a dozen stolen pets during a raid on a Class B dealer in Arkansas in 2003. 3066: 463: 18346: 1029: 2345:. Acute toxicity is studied by using a rising dose until signs of toxicity become apparent. Current European legislation demands that "acute toxicity tests must be carried out in two or more mammalian species" covering "at least two different routes of administration". Sub-acute toxicity is where the drug is given to the animals for four to six weeks in doses below the level at which it causes rapid poisoning, in order to discover if any toxic 14935: 1603: 8274:, U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1986, p. 64. In 1966, the Laboratory Animal Breeders Association estimated in testimony before Congress that the number of mice, rats, guinea pigs, hamsters, and rabbits used in 1965 was around 60 million. (Hearings before the Subcommittee on Livestock and Feed Grains, Committee on Agriculture, U.S. House of Representatives, 1966, p. 63.) 3316: 1190:) because rabbits have less tear flow than other animals, and the lack of eye pigment in albinos make the effects easier to visualize. The numbers of rabbits used for this purpose has fallen substantially over the past two decades. In 1996, there were 3,693 procedures on rabbits for eye irritation in the UK, and in 2017 this number was just 63. Rabbits are also frequently used for the production of polyclonal antibodies. 1556:. In the UK, most animals used in experiments are bred for the purpose under the 1988 Animal Protection Act, but wild-caught primates may be used if exceptional and specific justification can be established. The United States also allows the use of wild-caught primates; between 1995 and 1999, 1,580 wild baboons were imported into the U.S. Over half the primates imported between 1995 and 2000 were handled by 14923: 3263:

there were promising results for new drugs in animals, but human clinical studies did not show the same results. The researchers suggested that this might be due to researcher bias, or simply because animal models do not accurately reflect human biology. Lack of meta-reviews may be partially to blame. Poor methodology is an issue in many studies. A 2009 review noted that many animal experiments did not use

1066: 2391:, perch, cats, earthworms, grasshoppers, crayfish and starfish are commonly used in classroom dissections. Alternatives to the use of animals in classroom dissections are widely used, with many U.S. States and school districts mandating students be offered the choice to not dissect. Citing the wide availability of alternatives and the decimation of local frog species, India banned dissections in 2014. 354:) is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries, and by one estimate, the number of mice and rats used in the United States alone in 2001 was 80 million. In 2013, it was reported that mammals (mice and rats), fish, amphibians, and reptiles together accounted for over 85% of research animals. In 2022, a law was passed in the United States that eliminated the 88: 15071: 970: 1937:. These models allow investigations on how and why the disease develops, as well as providing ways to develop and test new treatments. The vast majority of these transgenic models of human disease are lines of mice, the mammalian species in which genetic modification is most efficient. Smaller numbers of other animals are also used, including rats, pigs, sheep, fish, birds, and amphibians. 3267:, a key element of many scientific studies in which researchers are not told about the part of the study they are working on to reduce bias. A 2021 paper found, in a sample of Open Access Alzheimer Disease studies, that if the authors omit from the title that the experiment was performed in mice, the News Headline follow suit, and that also the Twitter repercussion is higher. 2192:, where a test substance is applied to an animal's eyes or skin, usually an albino rabbit. For Draize eye testing, the test involves observing the effects of the substance at intervals and grading any damage or irritation, but the test should be halted and the animal killed if it shows "continuing signs of severe pain or distress". The 8818:. American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. According to the ASPCA, the following states prohibit shelters from providing animals for research: Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, and West Virginia. 1798:

distinction between pure and applied research—research that has a specific practical aim—unclear. Pure research uses larger numbers and a greater variety of animals than applied research. Fruit flies, nematode worms, mice and rats together account for the vast majority, though small numbers of other species are used, ranging from

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100,000 rhesus monkeys, with 65 doses of vaccine produced from each monkey. Sabin wrote in 1992, "Without the use of animals and human beings, it would have been impossible to acquire the important knowledge needed to prevent much suffering and premature death not only among humans, but also among animals."

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or computer simulation and mathematical modeling which seeks to investigate and ultimately predict toxicity and drug effects on humans without using animals. This is done by investigating test compounds on a molecular level using recent advances in technological capabilities with the ultimate goal of

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for the use of animals in research in most countries. Whilst replacement of animals, i.e. alternatives to animal testing, is one of the principles, their scope is much broader. Although such principles have been welcomed as a step forwards by some animal welfare groups, they have also been criticized

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The 3Rs have a broader scope than simply encouraging alternatives to animal testing, but aim to improve animal welfare and scientific quality where the use of animals can not be avoided. These 3Rs are now implemented in many testing establishments worldwide and have been adopted by various pieces of

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Cats are most commonly used in neurological research. In 2016, 18,898 cats were used in the United States alone, around a third of which were used in experiments which have the potential to cause "pain and/or distress" though only 0.1% of cat experiments involved potential pain which was not relieved

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said that "the miserable torture of vivisection places the body in an unnatural state". O'Meara and others argued pain could affect animal physiology during vivisection, rendering results unreliable. There were also objections ethically, contending that the benefit to humans did not justify the harm

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provided $ 400,000 in taxpayer money to fund experiments in which 28 beagles were infected by disease-causing parasites. The White Coat Project found reports that said dogs taking part in the experiments were "vocalizing in pain" after being injected with foreign substances. Following public outcry,

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According to the USDA, in 2016 501,560 animals (61%) (not including rats, mice, birds, or invertebrates) were used in procedures that did not include more than momentary pain or distress. 247,882 (31%) animals were used in procedures in which pain or distress was relieved by anesthesia, while 71,370

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Despite the widespread acceptance of the 3Rs, many countries—including Canada, Australia, Israel, South Korea, and Germany—have reported rising experimental use of animals in recent years with increased use of mice and, in some cases, fish while reporting declines in the use of cats, dogs, primates,

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In 1995, researchers at Tufts University Center for Animals and Public Policy estimated that 14–21 million animals were used in American laboratories in 1992, a reduction from a high of 50 million used in 1970. In 1986, the U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment reported that estimates of the

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magazine in July 2001 confirmed the low reliability of IACUC reviews of animal experiments. Funded by the National Science Foundation, the three-year study found that animal-use committees that do not know the specifics of the university and personnel do not make the same approval decisions as those

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similarities which is why they are used for research. The National Library of Medicine shows many examples of the types of cancer zebrafish are used in. The use of zebrafish have allowed them to find differences between MYC-driven pre-B vs T-ALL and be exploited to discover novel pre-B ALL therapies

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technology, genetically modified mice can be generated to order and can provide models for a range of human diseases. Rats are also widely used for physiology, toxicology and cancer research, but genetic manipulation is much harder in rats than in mice, which limits the use of these rodents in basic

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toxin and demonstrated its effects in guinea pigs. He went on to develop an antitoxin against diphtheria in animals and then in humans, which resulted in the modern methods of immunization and largely ended diphtheria as a threatening disease. The diphtheria antitoxin is famously commemorated in the

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Aitman TJ, Critser JK, Cuppen E, Dominiczak A, Fernandez-Suarez XM, Flint J, Gauguier D, Geurts AM, Gould M, Harris PC, Holmdahl R, Hubner N, Izsvák Z, Jacob HJ, Kuramoto T, Kwitek AE, Marrone A, Mashimo T, Moreno C, Mullins J, Mullins L, Olsson T, Pravenec M, Riley L, Saar K, Serikawa T, Shull JD,

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is another alternative to the use of animals in experimentation. Microdosing is a process whereby volunteers are administered a small dose of a test compound allowing researchers to investigate its pharmacological affects without harming the volunteers. Microdosing can replace the use of animals in

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in March 1871: "You ask about my opinion on vivisection. I quite agree that it is justifiable for proper investigations on physiology; but not for mere damnable and detestable curiosity. It is a subject which makes me sick with horror, so I will not say another word about it, else I shall not sleep

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as "frankly terroristic tactics similar to those of anti-abortion extremists", and in 2005 an official with the FBI's counter-terrorism division referred to SHAC's activities in the United States as domestic terrorist threats. 13 members of SHAC were jailed for between 15 months and eleven years on

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The moral and ethical questions raised by performing experiments on animals are subject to debate, and viewpoints have shifted significantly over the 20th century. There remain disagreements about which procedures are useful for which purposes, as well as disagreements over which ethical principles

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released video showing Guard members cutting off the limbs of unconscious goats with tree trimmers and inflicting other injuries with a shotgun, pistol, ax and a scalpel. That same year, citing the availability of human simulators and other alternatives, the Department of Defense announced it would

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According to the 2014 U.S. Department of Agriculture Office of the Inspector General (OIG) report—which looked at the oversight of animal use during a three-year period—"some Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees ...did not adequately approve, monitor, or report on experimental procedures on

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unless it would interfere with the study. The IACUCs regulate all vertebrates in testing at institutions receiving federal funds in the USA. Although the Animal Welfare Act does not include purpose-bred rodents and birds, these species are equally regulated under Public Health Service policies that

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The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal Welfare Report shows that 60,979 dogs were used in USDA-registered facilities in 2016. In the UK, according to the UK Home Office, there were 3,847 procedures on dogs in 2017. Of the other large EU users of dogs, Germany conducted 3,976 procedures on dogs

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improved the vaccine by passing the polio virus through animal hosts, including monkeys; the Sabin vaccine was produced for mass consumption in 1963, and had virtually eradicated polio in the United States by 1965. It has been estimated that developing and producing the vaccines required the use of

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Animal models are required to connect in order to understand whole organisms, both in healthy and diseased states. In turn, these animal studies are required for understanding and treating human disease ...In many cases, though, there will be no substitute for whole-animal studies because of the

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has strong support, some critics continue to question how reliably animal mental states can be determined. However, some canine experts are stating that, while intelligence does differ animal to animal, dogs have the intelligence of a two to two-and-a-half-year old. This does support the idea that

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Animals used by laboratories are largely supplied by specialist dealers. Sources differ for vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Most laboratories breed and raise flies and worms themselves, using strains and mutants supplied from a few main stock centers. For vertebrates, sources include breeders

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The USDA/APHIS has published the 2016 animal research statistics. Overall, the number of animals (covered by the Animal Welfare Act) used in research in the US rose 6.9% from 767,622 (2015) to 820,812 (2016). This includes both public and private institutions. By comparing

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In the U.S., the numbers of rats and mice used is estimated to be from 11 million to between 20 and 100 million a year. Other rodents commonly used are guinea pigs, hamsters, and gerbils. Mice are the most commonly used vertebrate species because of their size, low cost, ease of handling, and fast

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causes serious birth defects in humans, but not in some animals such as mice (however, it does cause birth defects in rabbits). A 2004 paper concluded that much animal research is wasted because systemic reviews are not used, and due to poor methodology. A 2006 review found multiple studies where

1845:, to understand how organisms detect and interact with each other and their environment, in which fruit flies, worms, mice, and rats are all widely used. Studies of brain function, such as memory and social behavior, often use rats and birds. For some species, behavioral research is combined with 1421:

In the UK, Home Office figures show that 3.79 million procedures were carried out in 2017. 2,960 procedures used non-human primates, down over 50% since 1988. A "procedure" refers here to an experiment that might last minutes, several months, or years. Most animals are used in only one procedure:

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The National Library of Medicine also explains how a neoplasm is difficult to diagnose at an early stage. Understanding the molecular mechanism of digestive tract tumorigenesis and searching for new treatments is the current research. Zebrafish and humans share similar gastric cancer cells in the

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waxworm have been particularly important for analysis of virulent traits of mammalian pathogens. Waxworms and other insects have also proven valuable for the identification of pharmaceutical compounds with favorable bioavailability. The decision to adopt such models generally involves accepting a

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The Sonoran Arthropod Institute hosts an annual Invertebrates in Education and Conservation Conference to discuss the use of invertebrates in education. There also are efforts in many countries to find alternatives to using animals in education. The NORINA database, maintained by Norecopa, lists

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gastric cancer xenotransplantation model. This allowed researchers to find that Triphala could inhibit the growth and metastasis of gastric cancer cells. Since zebrafish liver cancer genes are related with humans they have become widely used in liver cancer search, as will as many other cancers.

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Arguments regarding whether biomedical science can advance without the use of animals are frequently mooted and make as much sense as questioning if clinical trials are necessary before new medical therapies are allowed to be widely used in the general population ...animal models are likely to

3350:, founded the first anti-vivisection society in France in 1883—famously wrote in 1865 that "the science of life is a superb and dazzlingly lighted hall which may be reached only by passing through a long and ghastly kitchen". Arguing that "experiments on animals are entirely conclusive for the 3253:

have pointed out that animal testing often fails to accurately mirror outcomes in humans. For instance, a 2013 review noted that some 100 vaccines have been shown to prevent HIV in animals, yet none of them have worked on humans. Effects seen in animals may not be replicated in humans, and vice

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Cosmetics testing on animals is banned in India, the United Kingdom, the European Union, Israel and Norway while legislation in the U.S. and Brazil is currently considering similar bans. In 2002, after 13 years of discussion, the European Union agreed to phase in a near-total ban on the sale of

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Scientists face growing pressure to move away from using traditional animal toxicity tests to determine whether manufactured chemicals are safe. Among variety of approaches to toxicity evaluation the ones which have attracted increasing interests are in vitro cell-based sensing methods applying

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through many generations to create strains with defined characteristics. These provide animals of a known genetic background, an important tool for genetic analyses. Larger mammals are rarely bred specifically for such studies due to their slow rate of reproduction, though some scientists take

1723:; during studies if their pain or suffering falls into certain categories regarded as unacceptable, such as depression, infection that is unresponsive to treatment, or the failure of large animals to eat for five days; or when they are unsuitable for breeding or unwanted for some other reason. 361:

Animal testing is regulated to varying degrees in different countries. Animal testing is regulated differently in different countries: in some cases it is strictly controlled while others have more relaxed regulations. There are ongoing debates about the ethics and necessity of animal testing.

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results being a particular problem, but false positives appear not to be prohibitively common. Variability in results arises from using the effects of high doses of chemicals in small numbers of laboratory animals to try to predict the effects of low doses in large numbers of humans. Although

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defines "vivisection" as: "Operation on a living animal for experimental rather than healing purposes; more broadly, all experimentation on live animals", although dictionaries point out that the broader definition is "used only by people who are opposed to such work". The word has a negative

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In the U.S., Class A breeders are licensed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to sell animals for research purposes, while Class B dealers are licensed to buy animals from "random sources" such as auctions, pound seizure, and newspaper ads. Some Class B dealers have been accused of

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in a model organism does not ensure an effect in humans, and care must be taken when generalizing from one organism to another. However, many drugs, treatments and cures for human diseases are developed in part with the guidance of animal models. Treatments for animal diseases have also been

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testing. In these cases animals are treated with a substance that produces no pharmacological effect, but is administered in order to determine any biological alterations due to the experience of a substance being administered, and the results are compared with those obtained with an active

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led to generation of the DBA ("dilute, brown and non-agouti") inbred mouse strain and the systematic generation of other inbred strains. The mouse has since been used extensively as a model organism and is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries.

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under study. This approach can be contrasted with field studies in which animals are observed in their natural environments or habitats. Experimental research with animals is usually conducted in universities, medical schools, pharmaceutical companies, defense establishments, and commercial

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Basic or pure research investigates how organisms behave, develop, and function. Those opposed to animal testing object that pure research may have little or no practical purpose, but researchers argue that it forms the necessary basis for the development of applied research, rendering the

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and poorly regulated, that medical progress is actually held back by misleading animal models that cannot reliably predict effects in humans, that some of the tests are outdated, that the costs outweigh the benefits, or that animals have the intrinsic right not to be used or harmed in

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have created "organs-on-a-chip", including the "lung-on-a-chip" and "gut-on-a-chip". Researchers at cellasys in Germany developed a "skin-on-a-chip". These tiny devices contain human cells in a 3-dimensional system that mimics human organs. The chips can be used instead of animals in

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Valdés-González RA, White DJ, Dorantes LM, Terán L, Garibay-Nieto GN, Bracho-Blanchet E, Dávila-Pérez R, Evia-Viscarra L, Ormsby CE, Ayala-Sumuano JT, Silva-Torres ML, Ramírez-González B (2007). "Three-yr follow-up of a type 1 diabetes mellitus patient with an islet xenotransplant".

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The most stringent tests are reserved for drugs and foodstuffs. For these, a number of tests are performed, lasting less than a month (acute), one to three months (subchronic), and more than three months (chronic) to test general toxicity (damage to organs), eye and skin irritancy,

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may be used, typically on dogs, ruminants, horses, pigs and rabbits. It causes death by a concussion to the brain. Gunshot may be used, but only in cases where a penetrating captive bolt may not be used. Some physical methods are only acceptable after the animal is unconscious.

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Studies on models of naturally occurring disease and condition. Certain domestic and wild animals have a natural propensity or predisposition for certain conditions that are also found in humans. Cats are used as a model to develop immunodeficiency virus vaccines and to study

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testing became important in the 20th century. In the 19th century, laws regulating drugs were more relaxed. For example, in the US, the government could only ban a drug after they had prosecuted a company for selling products that harmed customers. However, in response to the

15464: 1988:. Much animal research into potential treatments for humans is wasted because it is poorly conducted and not evaluated through systematic reviews. For example, although such models are now widely used to study Parkinson's disease, the British anti-vivisection interest group 1220: 282:. Performing experiments in model organisms allows for better understanding the disease process without the added risk of harming an actual human. The species of the model organism is usually chosen so that it reacts to disease or its treatment in a way that resembles human 923:. The water is within 1 cm of the small flower pot bottom platform where the rat sits. The rat is able to sleep but at the onset of REM sleep muscle tone is lost and the rat would either fall into the water only to clamber back to the pot to avoid drowning, or its 779:. Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there is no useful 323:. Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there is no useful 3137:

in 1985, removing Britches and 466 other animals. The National Institutes of Health conducted an eight-month investigation and concluded, however, that no corrective action was necessary. During the 2000s other cases have made headlines, including experiments at the

1834:. By studying the changes in development these changes produce, scientists aim to understand both how organisms normally develop, and what can go wrong in this process. These studies are particularly powerful since the basic controls of development, such as the 3085:

were determined with work done using frog muscles (including the force generating mechanism of all muscle, the length-tension relationship, and the force-velocity curve), and frogs are still the preferred model organism due to the long survival of muscles

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Regulations require that scientists use as few animals as possible, especially for terminal experiments. However, while policy makers consider suffering to be the central issue and see animal euthanasia as a way to reduce suffering, others, such as the

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Several invertebrate systems are considered acceptable alternatives to vertebrates in early-stage discovery screens. Because of similarities between the innate immune system of insects and mammals, insects can replace mammals in some types of studies.

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can use an amazing array of genetic tools. These invertebrates offer some advantages over vertebrates in animal testing, including their short life cycle and the ease with which large numbers may be housed and studied. However, the lack of an adaptive

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Methods of euthanizing laboratory animals are chosen to induce rapid unconsciousness and death without pain or distress. The methods that are preferred are those published by councils of veterinarians. The animal can be made to inhale a gas, such as

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of 1937 in which the eponymous drug killed over 100 users, the US Congress passed laws that required safety testing of drugs on animals before they could be marketed. Other countries enacted similar legislation. In the 1960s, in reaction to the

1351:), published by the National Academy of Sciences, any procedure can be performed on an animal if it can be successfully argued that it is scientifically justified. Researchers are required to consult with the institution's veterinarian and its 2065:, to be used in experiments that involved grafting pig tissues, had serious and sometimes fatal injuries. A scandal occurred when it was revealed that the company had communicated with the British government in an attempt to avoid regulation. 1552:, which requires lab animals to be specially bred, unless the animal has been lawfully imported and is not a wild animal or a stray. The latter requirement may also be exempted by special arrangement. In 2010 the Directive was revised with 3410:) was formed in 1908 "to make known the facts as to experiments on animals in this country; the immense importance to the welfare of mankind of such experiments and the great saving of human life and health directly attributable to them". 3369:

said "The antivivisectionists are the second of the two types Theodore Roosevelt described when he said, 'Common sense without conscience may lead to crime, but conscience without common sense may lead to folly, which is the handmaiden of

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claimed responsibility for the attack. As a result of the campaign, the researcher sent an email to the Primate Freedom Project stating "you win", and "please don't bother my family anymore". In another incident at UCLA in June 2007, the

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monkeys for vision experiments; each monkey was anesthetized for a single physiological experiment lasting up to 120 hours, and then euthanized. The researcher's name, phone number, and address were posted on the website of the

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Various specific cases of animal testing have drawn attention, including both instances of beneficial scientific research, and instances of alleged ethical violations by those performing the tests. The fundamental properties of

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The...methods of scientific inquiry have greatly reduced the incidence of human disease and have substantially increased life expectancy. Those results have come largely through experimental methods based in part on the use of

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used in medical training are quite efficient in simulating the behavior of a human body, some trainees feel that "the goat exercise provide a sense of urgency that only real life trauma can provide". Nevertheless, in 2014, the

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From antibiotics and insulin to blood transfusions and treatments for cancer or HIV, virtually every medical achievement in the past century has depended directly or indirectly on research using animals, including veterinary

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A 2015 Gallup poll found that 67% of Americans were "very concerned" or "somewhat concerned" about animals used in research. A Pew poll taken the same year found 50% of American adults opposed the use of animals in research.

8794:. Temple University Press, 1995, p. 192; Magnuson, Warren G., Chairman. "Opening remarks in hearings prior to enactment of Pub. L. 89-544, the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act," U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, 25 March 1966. 4978:"REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT Seventh Report on the Statistics on the Number of Animals used for Experimental and other Scientific Purposes in the Member States of the European Union" 1355:(IACUC), which every research facility is obliged to maintain. The IACUC must ensure that alternatives, including non-animal alternatives, have been considered, that the experiments are not unnecessarily duplicative, and 3162:(PETA). Following release of the footage, the U.S. Department of Agriculture fined Covance $ 8,720 for 16 citations, three of which involved lab monkeys; the other citations involved administrative issues and equipment. 234:

were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations. Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include

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Animal-based research has played a key role in understanding infectious diseases, neuroscience, physiology, and toxicology. Experimental results from animal studies have served as the basis for many key biomedical

1414:, argued that the use of animals in the US has dramatically increased in recent years. Researchers found this increase is largely the result of an increased reliance on genetically modified mice in animal studies. 2295:

Before the early 20th century, laws regulating drugs were lax. Currently, all new pharmaceuticals undergo rigorous animal testing before being licensed for human use. Tests on pharmaceutical products involve:

981:, because they are gentle and easy to handle, and to allow for comparisons with historical data from beagles (a Reduction technique). They are used as models for human and veterinary diseases in cardiology, 379:(PET) scans which allow scanning of the human brain without harming humans; comparative epidemiological studies among human populations; simulators and computer programs for teaching purposes; among others. 374:

that mimics human organs for lab tests, microdosing techniques which involve administering small doses of test compounds to human volunteers instead of non-human animals for safety tests or drug screenings;

2208:

may reduce suffering and provide more realistic results and this was adopted as the new standard in September 2009. However, the Draize test will still be used for substances that are not severe irritants.

1391:

Accurate global figures for animal testing are difficult to obtain; it has been estimated that 100 million vertebrates are experimented on around the world every year, 10–11 million of them in the EU. The

3339:

to animals. Early objections to animal testing also came from another angle—many people believed animals were inferior to humans and so different that results from animals could not be applied to humans.

2105:, on behalf of a wide variety of customers. According to 2005 EU figures, around one million animals are used every year in Europe in toxicology tests; which are about 10% of all procedures. According to 989:. The most common use of dogs is in the safety assessment of new medicines for human or veterinary use as a second species following testing in rodents, in accordance with the regulations set out in the 4664:

Biomedical research depends on the use of animal models to understand the pathogenesis of human disease at a cellular and molecular level and to provide systems for developing and testing new therapies.

3856:

7163: 12291: 634:. The success of animal studies in producing the diphtheria antitoxin has also been attributed as a cause for the decline of the early 20th-century opposition to animal research in the United States. 10905: 3046:

The British government has required that the cost to animals in an experiment be weighed against the gain in knowledge. Some medical schools and agencies in China, Japan, and South Korea have built

3028:

outcome assessment, and that failure to employ these features exaggerates the apparent benefit of drugs tested in animals, leading to a failure to translate much animal research for human benefit.

8803: 7842: 3190:

was placed on the porch of what was believed to be the home of another UCLA primate researcher; instead, it was accidentally left on the porch of an elderly woman unrelated to the university. The

2387:

It is estimated that 20 million animals are used annually for educational purposes in the United States including, classroom observational exercises, dissections and live-animal surgeries. Frogs,

2395:

products that may be used as alternatives or supplements to animal use in education, and in the training of personnel who work with animals. These include alternatives to dissection in schools.

1092:, there were 71,188 monkeys in U.S. laboratories in 2016. 23,465 monkeys were imported into the U.S. in 2014 including 929 who were caught in the wild. Most of the NHPs used in experiments are 4866:

Lyuksyutova AL, Lu C-C MN, Milanesio N, King LA, Guo N, Wang Y, Nathans J, Tessier-Lavigne M, et al. (2003). "Anterior-posterior guidance of commissural axons by Wnt-Frizzled signaling".

418:

connotation, implying torture, suffering, and death. The word "vivisection" is preferred by those opposed to this research, whereas scientists typically use the term "animal experimentation".

3402:

was formed in 1876 to give physiologists "mutual benefit and protection", the Association for the Advancement of Medicine by Research was formed in 1882 and focused on policy-making, and the

11911: 11861: 1662:

dogs, at the very least, have some form of consciousness. The ability of invertebrates to experience pain and suffering is less clear, however, legislation in several countries (e.g. U.K.,

1440:

Replacement which refers to the preferred use of non-animal methods over animal methods whenever it is possible to achieve the same scientific aims. These methods include computer modeling.

1012:. Used to explore the immune system and genetic strains. They are low in cost, small size, fast reproduction rate, and able to observe cancer cells in real time. Humans and zebrafish share 12343:

Rollin, Bernard E. (1998) "The moral status of animals and their use as experimental subjects," in Kuhse, Helga and Singer, Peter (eds.). "A Companion to Bioethics". Blackwell Publishing,

13232: 1545:—require their shelters to provide animals to research facilities. Fourteen states explicitly prohibit the practice, while the remainder either allow it or have no relevant legislation. 1084:. They are caught in the wild or purpose-bred. In the United States and China, most primates are domestically purpose-bred, whereas in Europe the majority are imported purpose-bred. The 12167: 3031:

Governments such as the Netherlands and New Zealand have responded to the public's concerns by outlawing invasive experiments on certain classes of non-human primates, particularly the

3442:

Most scientists and governments state that animal testing should cause as little suffering to animals as possible, and that animal tests should only be performed where necessary. The "

1443:

Reduction which refers to methods that enable researchers to obtain comparable levels of information from fewer animals, or to obtain more information from the same number of animals.

13983:, Australian and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching (ANZCCART), accessed 12 December 2007, cites original reference in Maehle, A-H. and Tr6hler, U. 4140: 2349:

build up over time. Testing for chronic toxicity can last up to two years and, in the European Union, is required to involve two species of mammals, one of which must be non-rodent.

11698: 2185:, which use fewer animals and cause less suffering. Abbott writes that, as of 2005, "the LD50 acute toxicity test ... still accounts for one-third of all animal tests worldwide". 997:

in 2016 and France conducted 4,204 procedures in 2016. In both cases this represents under 0.2% of the total number of procedures conducted on animals in the respective countries.

222:

wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science". Research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as the production of the

1992:

argues that these models only superficially resemble the disease symptoms, without the same time course or cellular pathology. In contrast, scientists assessing the usefulness of

8129:

While growth has leveled off and there have been significant reductions in some countries, the number of animals used in research globally still totals almost 100 million a year.

8036: 7774: 3279:

requests to obtain information about taxpayer funding of animal testing. For example, the White Coat Waste Project, a group of activists that hold that taxpayers should not have

7596:

Yang SH, Cheng PH, Banta H, Piotrowska-Nitsche K, Yang JJ, Cheng EC, Snyder B, Larkin K, Liu J, Orkin J, Fang ZH, Smith Y, Bachevalier J, Zola SM, Li SH, Li XJ, Chan AW (2008).

2514:, argue that virtually every medical achievement in the 20th century relied on the use of animals in some way. The Institute for Laboratory Animal Research of the United States 1246: 9930:

For example "in addition to providing the chimpanzees with enrichment, the termite mound is also the focal point of a tool-use study being conducted", from the web page of the

2256: 19240: 2992:

argues that benefits to human beings cannot outweigh animal suffering, and that human beings have no moral right to use an animal in ways that do not benefit that individual.

2144:, manufacturers believe these tests overestimate the toxic effects of substances; they therefore repeat the tests using their finished products to obtain a less toxic label. 843:

Although many more invertebrates than vertebrates are used in animal testing, these studies are largely unregulated by law. The most frequently used invertebrate species are

1376:

made by animal-use committees that do know the university and personnel. Specifically, blinded committees more often ask for more information rather than approving studies.

1367:

Larry Carbone, a laboratory animal veterinarian, writes that, in his experience, IACUCs take their work very seriously regardless of the species involved, though the use of

4119: 8843:"Directive 2010/63/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2010 on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes Text with EEA relevance" 1436:

The Three Rs (3Rs) are guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in testing. These were first described by W.M.S. Russell and R.L. Burch in 1959. The 3Rs state:

12327: 2402:

In November 2013, the U.S.-based company Backyard Brains released for sale to the public what they call the "Roboroach", an "electronic backpack" that can be attached to

10698: 2430:. It has been suggested that the use of such a device may be a teaching aid that can promote interest in science. The makers of the "Roboroach" have been funded by the 180:

Research using animal models has been central to most of the achievements of modern medicine. It has contributed to most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human

14017: 13842: 10675: 7510:

Lutz C, Well A, Novak M (2003). "Stereotypic and Self-Injurious Behavior in Rhesus Macaques: A Survey and Retrospective Analysis of Environment and Early Experience".

6727:

Waterfield NR, Sanchez-Contreras M, Eleftherianos I, Dowling A, Yang G, Wilkinson P, Parkhill J, Thomson N, Reynolds SE, Bode HB, Dorus S, Ffrench-Constant RH (2008).

3039:

adding new road blocks to those wishing to experiment on them. Similarly, citing ethical considerations and the availability of alternative research methods, the U.S.

11398: 10414: 13281: 7062:

Smith D, Broadhead C, Descotes G, Fosse R, Hack R, Krauser K, Pfister R, Phillips B, Rabemampianina Y, Sanders J, Sparrow S, Stephan-Gueldner M, Jacobsen SD (2002).

5717:

Abdel-Halim RE (2006). "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology. A study and translations from his book Al-Mukhtar".

3418: 559:

Research using animal models has been central to most of the achievements of modern medicine. It has contributed most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human

8737: 3957:

Most of our basic knowledge of human biochemistry, physiology, endocrinology, and pharmacology has been derived from initial studies of mechanisms in animal models.

3428:

Real progress in thinking about animal rights build on the "theory of justice" (1971) by the philosopher John Rawls and work on ethics by philosopher Peter Singer.

2506:

vary between countries and species; most animals are purpose-bred, while a minority are caught in the wild or supplied by dealers who obtain them from auctions and

16221: 3358:

effects of these substances are the same on man as on animals, save for differences in degree", Bernard established animal experimentation as part of the standard

2716: 11322: 3218:

campaign used tactics ranging from non-violent protest to the alleged firebombing of houses owned by executives associated with HLS's clients and investors. The

2263:

Cosmetics testing on animals is particularly controversial. Such tests, which are still conducted in the U.S., involve general toxicity, eye and skin irritancy,

1893:

are now being used to study how many and which types of mutations are selected to produce adaptations in animals' morphology during the evolution of new species.

11379: 3098:

and the understanding and treatment of muscular disorders is based on this work and subsequent work in mice (often engineered to express disease states such as

2225:, and reproductive problems. The cost of the full complement of tests is several million dollars per substance and it may take three or four years to complete. 11490:

Patronek G, Rauch A (1 January 2007). "Systematic review of comparative studies examining alternatives to the harmful use of animals in biomedical education".

8592: 3342:

On the other side of the debate, those in favor of animal testing held that experiments on animals were necessary to advance medical and biological knowledge.

2446:

Animals are used by the military to develop weapons, vaccines, battlefield surgical techniques, and defensive clothing. For example, in 2008 the United States

2178: 17745: 12288: 3291: 2465:. (Goats have become the main animal species used for this purpose after the Pentagon phased out using dogs for medical training in the 1980s.) While modern 512:

introduced an experimental method of testing surgical procedures before applying them to human patients. Discoveries in the 18th and 19th centuries included

2101:

Toxicology testing, also known as safety testing, is conducted by pharmaceutical companies testing drugs, or by contract animal testing facilities, such as

14710: 11884: 3896:

Animal studies have been an essential component of every field of medical research and have been crucial for the acquisition of basic knowledge in biology.

3452: 1906:

of diseases or conditions, which are often discovered or generated by pure research programmes. In turn, such applied studies may be an early stage in the

8815: 7408:"Seventh Report on the Statistics on the Number of Animals used for Experimental and other Scientific Purposes in the Member States of the European Union" 4791:

AIDS Reviews 2005;7:67-83 Antiretroviral Drug Studies in Nonhuman Primates: a Valid Animal Model for Innovative Drug Efficacy and Pathogenesis Experiments

3645:"Ethical Issues in the Use of Animal Models for Tissue Engineering: Reflections on Legal Aspects, Moral Theory, 3Rs Strategies, and Harm-Benefit Analysis" 2050:

remains a problem, recent clinical trials that involved implanting pig insulin-secreting cells into diabetics did reduce these people's need for insulin.

15290: 13415: 7850: 1239: 10789:

Watt JA, Dickinson RG (1990). "The effect of diethyl ether, pentobarbitone and urethane anaesthesia on diflunisal conjugation and disposition in rats".

2096: 1194:

by anesthetics/analgesics. In the UK, just 198 procedures were carried out on cats in 2017. The number has been around 200 for most of the last decade.

18386: 15295: 14586:"Comparative study of control selection in a national population -based case-control study: Estimating risk of smoking on cancer deaths in Chinese men" 12106: 8155: 7049: 4397:

Chakraborty C, Hsu C, Wen Z, Lin C, Agoramoorthy G (1 February 2009). "Zebrafish: A Complete Animal Model for In Vivo Drug Discovery and Development".

10949: 10676:

Fifth Report on the Statistics on the Number of Animals used for Experimental and other Scientific Purposes in the Member States of the European Union

10614: 6260: 5491: 1763:(breaking the neck or spine) may be used for birds, mice, rats, and rabbits depending on the size and weight of the animal. High-intensity microwave 15252: 13980: 11437: 4812:

Jameson BA, McDonnell JM, Marini JC, Korngold R (April 1994). "A rationally designed CD4 analogue inhibits experimental allergic encephalomyelitis".

3000:

and animal experimentation "is probably the cruelest of all Man's attack on the rest of Creation." Another prominent position is that of philosopher

1396:

reports that global annual estimates range from 50 to 100 million animals. None of the figures include invertebrates such as shrimp and fruit flies.

680:. The vaccine, which was made publicly available in 1955, reduced the incidence of polio 15-fold in the United States over the following five years. 11869: 15600: 7206: 872:

and their simple organs prevent worms from being used in several aspects of medical research such as vaccine development. Similarly, the fruit fly

11794: 8858: 8416: 2275:

animal-tested cosmetics by 2009, and to ban all cosmetics-related animal testing. France, which is home to the world's largest cosmetics company,

17897: 14967: 8476: 8258:

Rowan, A., Loew, F., and Weer, J. (1995) "The Animal Research Controversy. Protest, Process and Public Policy: An Analysis of Strategic Issues."

8179: 2955: 11955:"Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research", Institute for Laboratory Animal Research, The National Academies Press, 1988 3330:

As the experimentation on animals increased, especially the practice of vivisection, so did criticism and controversy. In 1655, the advocate of

19077: 12935:

Lutz GJ, Lieber RL (2000). "Myosin isoforms in anuran skeletal muscle: Their influence on contractile properties and in vivo muscle function".

12077: 7553:

Chan AW, Chong KY, Martinovich C, Simerly C, Schatten G (2001). "Transgenic monkeys produced by retroviral gene transfer into mature oocytes".

7279:

Workman P, Aboagye EO, Balkwill F, Balmain A, Bruder G, Chaplin DJ, Double JA, Everitt J, Farningham Da, Glennie MJ, Kelland LR (25 May 2010).

2531: 1989: 1232: 14348:"Skin-on-a-Chip: Transepithelial Electrical Resistance and Extracellular Acidification Measurements through an Automated Air-Liquid Interface" 12206: 11976: 5538: 4745:

Guela C, Wu CK, Saroff D, Lorenzo A, Yuan M, Yankner BA (July 1998). "Aging renders the brain vulnerable to amyloid β-protein neurotoxicity".

15350: 13249: 13079: 11691: 9433:

Close B, Banister K, Baumans V, Bernoth EM, Bromage N, Bunyan J, Erhardt W, Flecknell P, Gregory N, Hackbarth H, Morton D, Warwick C (1996).

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pre-clinical drug screening and can reduce the number of animals used in safety and toxicity testing. Additional alternative methods include

3234:

to declare in 2002 that the animal rights movement had "clearly taken a turn toward the more extreme"—prompted the US government to pass the

2522:, which are unable to deal with the extremely complex interactions between molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organisms and the environment. 2042:. Current research involves using primates as the recipients of organs from pigs that have been genetically modified to reduce the primates' 6021: 5690:

Abdel-Halim RE (2005). "Contributions of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) to the progress of surgery: a study and translations from his book Al-Taisir".

3451:

as both outdated by current research, and of little practical effect in improving animal welfare. The scientists and engineers at Harvard's

2038:

research involves transplanting tissues or organs from one species to another, as a way to overcome the shortage of human organs for use in

609:

remains one of the most widely used eukaryotic model organisms. During the same time period, studies on mouse genetics in the laboratory of

18917: 15605: 13343: 11042: 10395: 8287: 7466: 1663: 11590: 8988:

Rollin drafted the 1985 Health Research Extension Act and an animal welfare amendment to the 1985 Food Security Act: see Rollin, Bernard.

4137: 665:

and related compounds, were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations.

17572: 17516: 15380: 15325: 15035: 10314:

Tolwani RJ, Jakowec MW, Petzinger GM, Green S, Waggie K (1999). "Experimental models of Parkinson's disease: insights from many models".

4335:"Evolutionary remnants as widely accessible evidence for evolution: the structure of the argument for application to evolution education" 3296: 3239: 3159: 2527: 2173:("Lethal Dose 50%") test is used to evaluate the toxicity of a substance by determining the dose required to kill 50% of the test animal 1877:

purposes. Scientists studying how animals evolve use many animal species to see how variations in where and how an organism lives (their

1352: 1212: 14540: 13324: 6729:"Rapid Virulence Annotation (RVA): Identification of virulence factors using a bacterial genome library and multiple invertebrate hosts" 3398:

to-night." In response to the lobbying by anti-vivisectionists, several organizations were set up in Britain to defend animal research:

3378:

in the early 1900s, when hundreds of medical students clashed with anti-vivisectionists and police over a memorial to a vivisected dog.

19187: 17243: 12000: 11934: 8046: 7781: 7192: 3276: 3143: 2229: 11122: 8698: 3177:(UCLA) shut down the experiments in his lab after threats from animal rights activists. The researcher had received a grant to use 30 17656: 15315: 9730: 9713: 9207:

Klabukov I, Shestakova V, Krasilnikova O, Smirnova A, Abramova O, Baranovskii D, Atiakshin D, Kostin AA, Shegay P, Kaprin AD (2023).

3871: 3781: 3082: 876:

differs greatly from that of humans, and diseases in insects can be different from diseases in vertebrates; however, fruit flies and

14634: 13364: 6307: 3462:

disease research, drug testing, and toxicity testing. Researchers have also begun using 3-D bioprinters to create human tissues for

2988:

holds that there is no moral justification for any harmful research on animals that is not to the benefit of the individual animal.

18678: 18674: 18012: 17777: 16029: 15580: 15470: 15161: 15136: 15045: 13213: 12695: 10918: 8319: 7484: 2490:

Besides the United States, six out of 28 NATO countries, including Poland and Denmark, use live animals for combat medic training.

1216: 863:, the worm's body is completely transparent and the precise lineage of all the organism's cells is known, while studies in the fly 14397: 13942:, 1865. First English translation by Henry Copley Greene, published by Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927; reprinted in 1949, p. 125. 5028: 18724: 18682: 18670: 15620: 15522: 12721: 11361: 10762:

Watkins JB (1989). "Exposure of rats to inhalational anesthetics alters the hepatobiliary clearance of cholephilic xenobiotics".

10526:

Valdés-González RA, Dorantes LM, Garibay GN, Bracho-Blanchet E, Mendez AJ, Dávila-Pérez R, Elliott RB, Terán L, White DJ (2005).

5885: 4793: 4116: 3533: 3004:, who argues that there are no grounds to include a being's species in considerations of whether their suffering is important in 1993: 1503: 409:. Literally, "vivisection" means "live sectioning" of an animal, and historically referred only to experiments that involved the 14660: 12770: 4098: 2355:, which test whether experimental drugs work by inducing the appropriate illness in animals. The drug is then administered in a 2109:, 5,000 animals are used for each chemical being tested, with 12,000 needed to test pesticides. The tests are conducted without 18379: 15697: 14187: 14090: 12320: 11334: 10657: 8734: 6209:

Wilmut I, Schnieke AE, McWhir J, Kind AJ, Campbell KH (1997). "Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells".

6038:"the work on [polio] prevention was long delayed by... misleading experimental models of the disease in monkeys" | ari.info 6037: 1120: 451: 362:

Proponents argue that it has led to significant advancements in medicine and other fields while opponents raise concerns about

14744: 14037: 12948: 12302: 10745: 6348:

Antoshechkin I, Sternberg PW (2007). "The versatile worm: genetic and genomic resources for Caenorhabditis elegans research".

1755:. Physical methods are also used, with or without sedation or anesthesia depending on the method. Recommended methods include 1719:, not whether their death is undesirable in itself. The animals are euthanized at the end of studies for sample collection or 413:

of live animals. The term is occasionally used to refer pejoratively to any experiment using living animals; for example, the

19147: 17913: 17501: 17426: 15833: 15610: 15565: 14894: 14879: 14820: 14155: 12986: 11573: 11538: 11380:"Cruelty Free International Applauds Congressman Jim Moran for Bill to End Cosmetics Testing on Animals in the United States" 9388: 8945:

Curtis SE, Stricklin WR (1991). "The importance of animal cognition in agricultural animal production systems: an overview".

8879:""Statistics of Scientific Procedures on Living Animals", Statistics of Scientific Procedures on Living Animals, Home Office" 6149:"Simian Virus 40 DNA Sequences in DNA of Healthy Adult Mice Derived from Preimplantation Blastocysts Injected with Viral DNA" 5993: 5966: 4708: 4681: 4617: 4309: 3991: 3950: 3925: 3174: 2614: 348:, vertebrate species represent 93% of animals used in research, and 11.5 million animals were used there in 2011. The mouse ( 13654:

Perel P, Roberts I, Sena E, Wheble P, Briscoe C, Sandercock P, Macleod M, Mignini LE, Jayaram P, Khan KS (25 January 2007).

12255: 8498: 2237:

relationships do exist, opinion is divided on how to use data on one species to predict the exact level of risk in another.

1780:(inserting a tool into the base of the brain) is usable on animals already unconscious. Slow or rapid freezing, or inducing 657:'s research in guinea pigs discovered the anticonvulsant properties of lithium salts, which revolutionized the treatment of 19102: 18845: 18761: 17644: 17183: 15926: 15345: 15095: 15005: 12999: 11402: 10411: 9931: 9209:"Refinement of Animal Experiments: Replacing Traumatic Methods of Laboratory Animal Marking with Non-Invasive Alternatives" 8118: 2200:

and inaccurate, subjective, over-sensitive, and failing to reflect human exposures in the real world. Although no accepted

1776:

may be used for cattle, sheep, swine, foxes, and mink after the animals are unconscious, often by a prior electrical stun.

1767:

of the brain can preserve brain tissue and induce death in less than 1 second, but this is currently only used on rodents.

1380: 1045: 14939: 13278: 9559: 5672: 1129:

The first transgenic primate was produced in 2001, with the development of a method that could introduce new genes into a

366:

and question its effectiveness and reliability. There are efforts underway to find alternatives to animal testing such as

18626: 18068: 16273: 14960: 12070: 5513: 5050: 3238:

and the UK government to add the offense of "Intimidation of persons connected with animal research organisation" to the

3126: 2948: 2431: 2193: 1711:, argue that the lives of laboratory animals have intrinsic value. Regulations focus on whether particular methods cause 986: 446: 17: 18596: 13432:

Knight A (May 2008). "Systematic reviews of animal experiments demonstrate poor contributions toward human healthcare".

12136: 12038: 9143: 8717: 8609: 3129:, gained public attention. He had his eyelids sewn shut and a sonar sensor on his head as part of an experiment to test 2140:, or their chemical ingredients. Most tests involve testing ingredients rather than finished products, but according to 157:

facilities that provide animal-testing services to the industry. The focus of animal testing varies on a continuum from

18193: 17536: 17446: 15335: 14725: 7407: 7338:"Triphala Suppresses Growth and Migration of Human Gastric Carcinoma Cells In Vitro and in a Zebrafish Xenograft Model" 5414:"Alternatives to animal testing in toxicity testing: Current status and future perspectives in food safety assessments" 3382: 13862: 7716: 4723: 4038: 3998:...without this fundamental knowledge, most of the clinical advances described in these pages would not have occurred. 1637:

The idea that animals might not feel pain as human beings feel it traces back to the 17th-century French philosopher,

1408:

estimated that around 12 million vertebrates were used in research in the US in 2016. A 2015 article published in the

18372: 18261: 17737: 17697: 17620: 17577: 17431: 17356: 16830: 15585: 15575: 15340: 15110: 14133: 14005: 13963: 13921: 13876: 12348: 11960: 9919: 9588:, House of Lords, 16 July 2002. See chapter 3: "The purpose and nature of animal experiments." Retrieved 6 July 2010. 9481: 9176: 8762: 8329: 5650: 5478: 5123:"Regulatory landscape of alternatives to animal testing in food safety evaluations with a focus on the western world" 5003: 4432:

Kari G, Rodeck U, Dicker AP (July 2007). "Zebrafish: An Emerging Model System for Human Disease and Drug Discovery".

3889: 3799: 1751:, or inhalant anesthetics may be used. Amphibians and fish may be immersed in water containing an anesthetic such as 991:

International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use

11179:

Brown SL, Brett SM, Gough M, Rodricks JV, Tardiff RG, Turnbull D (1988). "Review of interspecies risk comparisons".

8744:, paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Royal York, Toronto, 15 October 2006 8589: 3614: 2802: 1965:; as the bacteria responsible for this disease cannot yet be grown in culture, armadillos are the primary source of 19097: 19072: 18910: 18883: 17905: 17556: 17386: 17213: 16283: 16278: 15708: 14203: 14148:

Animal Research in Medicine: 100 years of politics, protest and progress. The Story of the Research Defence Society

8453: 3578: 661:, replacing the previous treatments of lobotomy or electroconvulsive therapy. Modern general anaesthetics, such as 13711:

Schulz KF, Chalmers I, Altman DG (5 February 2002). "The Landscape and Lexicon of Blinding in Randomized Trials".

7433: 2561: 42: 19235: 19220: 17873: 17626: 17511: 16720: 16306: 16201: 15090: 14995: 14927: 14844: 13398: 12746: 11616: 11476: 11462: 11383: 9585: 7814: 3235: 2809: 2671: 2232:

report, "critical information for assessing hazard and risk potential". Animal tests may overestimate risk, with

1446:

Refinement which refers to methods that alleviate or minimize potential pain, suffering or distress, and enhance

821: 641:'s research in dogs, which determined that the isolates of pancreatic secretion could be used to treat dogs with 65: 18690: 14903: 11888: 9267: 8894: 8842: 8828: 3760: 2057:

showed that, between 1994 and 2000, wild baboons imported to the UK from Africa by Imutran Ltd, a subsidiary of

1221:

European Convention for the Protection of Vertebrate Animals used for Experimental and other Scientific Purposes

19250: 19245: 19157: 18728: 18450: 17849: 16211: 15921: 15590: 15365: 15285: 14990: 14953: 3437: 3322:, regarded as the "prince of vivisectors", argued that experiments on animals are "entirely conclusive for the 3215: 3151: 2941: 1685: 1089: 12404:"Evidence for the efficacy of NXY-059 in experimental focal cerebral ischaemia is confounded by study quality" 11664: 10268:

Vail DM, MacEwen EG (2000). "Spontaneously occurring tumors of companion animals as models for human cancer".

7655: 4081: 19152: 19135: 19107: 18876: 18561: 17486: 17371: 16191: 15723: 15661: 15390: 15189: 14107: 10635: 8206: 6950:

Szpirer C, Twigger SN, Voigt B, Worley K (2008). "Progress and prospects in rat genetics: a community view".

3422: 3413:

Opposition to the use of animals in medical research first arose in the United States during the 1860s, when

3407: 3242:. Such legislation and the arrest and imprisonment of activists may have decreased the incidence of attacks. 3139: 2706: 1684:. This would be an intermediate step towards eventually stopping all experimentation on animals and adopting 1393: 1145: 793: 760: 713: 304: 8162: 1170:

Over 500,000 fish and 9,000 amphibians were used in the UK in 2016. The main species used is the zebrafish,

1140:. Notable studies on non-human primates have been part of the polio vaccine development, and development of 19230: 19112: 19030: 18855: 17588: 17546: 17366: 16760: 15691: 15636: 15050: 11639: 9121: 6334: 5499: 3482: 3300: 2985: 2839: 2780: 2688: 2515: 2250: 1976:

and symptoms that resemble a human disease. Examples include restricting blood flow to the brain to induce

1257: 376: 166: 14863: 14685: 14420: 11819: 8324:(Special ed.). South Mimms, Potters Bar, Herts, England: Universities Federation for Animal Welfare. 6680:"Galleria mellonella as a model host to study infection by the Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain" 4689:

remain necessary until science develops alternative models and systems that are equally sound and robust .

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resign effective immediately and that there is a "need to find a new NIH director to replace the outgoing

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tragedy, further laws were passed requiring safety testing on pregnant animals before a drug can be sold.

19125: 19062: 19052: 18903: 18819: 18791: 18720: 18474: 18044: 17833: 17461: 17411: 16095: 15570: 15515: 15151: 11419: 9097:"Smarter Than You Think: Renowned Canine Researcher Puts Dogs' Intelligence on Par with 2-Year-Old Human" 7064:"Preclinical Safety Evaluation Using Nonrodent Species: An Industry/ Welfare Project to Minimize Dog Use" 6434:

Schulenburg H, Kurz CL, Ewbank JJ (2004). "Evolution of the innate immune system: the worm perspective".

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Matthews KA, Kaufman TC, Gelbart WM (2005). "Research resources for Drosophila: the expanding universe".

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announced in 2013 that it would dramatically reduce and eventually phase out experiments on chimpanzees.

3017: 2451: 2356: 1918: 1677: 1565: 1499: 1476: 1460: 650: 11216:"Testing Chemical Safety: What Is Needed to Ensure the Widespread Application of Non-animal Approaches?" 9884:

Yamamuro Y (2006). "Social behavior in laboratory rats: Applications for psycho-neuroethology studies".

8775: 7874:"USDA Inspector General Audit Report of APHIS Animal Care Program Inspection and Enforcement Activities" 4994:

Hedrich, Hans, ed. (21 August 2004). "The house mouse as a laboratory model: a historical perspective".

4977: 4013: 3374:" These divisions between pro- and anti-animal testing groups first came to public attention during the 1735:, by being placed in a chamber, or by use of a face mask, with or without prior sedation or anesthesia. 735:

Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include

230:

and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death. Modern general anaesthetics such as

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Venken KJ, Bellen HJ (2005). "Emerging technologies for gene manipulation in Drosophila melanogaster".

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involvement of multiple tissue and organ systems in both normal and aberrant physiological conditions .

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can all be required by law, depending on the result of other studies and the type of drug being tested.

1557: 1487: 1431: 1340: 1208: 1050: 505: 5018:

Carbone, Larry. (2004). What Animals Want: Expertise and Advocacy in Laboratory Animal Welfare Policy.

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writes that the procedure can cause redness, ulceration, hemorrhaging, cloudiness, or even blindness.

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Malone BJ, Kumar VR, Ringach DL (2007). "Dynamics of Receptive Field Size in Primary Visual Cortex".

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Statistics of Scientific Procedures on Living Animals, Great Britain, 1996 – UK Home Office, Table 13

3583: 3399: 3346:—who is sometimes known as the "prince of vivisectors" and the father of physiology, and whose wife, 3121:

Concerns have been raised over the mistreatment of primates undergoing testing. In 1985, the case of

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announced that it would reduce the number of animals it uses in its training exercises by half after

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reported that in 2011, 6,012 monkeys were experimented on in European laboratories. According to the

904: 895:

lower degree of biological similarity with mammals for significant gains in experimental throughput.

576: 441: 197: 69: 38: 13179: 9948: 8134: 2000:, state that these models were invaluable and that they led to improved surgical treatments such as 1849:

strategies for animals in captivity because it allows them to engage in a wider range of activities.

1459:

rabbits, guinea pigs, and hamsters. Along with other countries, China has also escalated its use of

880:

can be useful in studies to identify novel virulence factors or pharmacologically active compounds.

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Animal experimentation from antiquity to the end of the eighteenth century: attitudes and arguments

13656:"Comparison of treatment effects between animal experiments and clinical trials: systematic review" 13377: 13063: 12232: 11973: 8878: 7736: 4624:...animal models are central to the effective study and discovery of treatments for human diseases. 4515:"Dual-subtype FIV vaccine (Fel-O-Vax® FIV) protection against a heterologous subtype B FIV isolate" 3553: 3515: 3503:

among human populations. Simulators and computer programs have also replaced the use of animals in

3403: 3211: 2892: 2619: 2259:

The "Leaping Bunny" logo: Some products in Europe that are not tested on animals carry this symbol.

2102: 2062: 1972:

Studies on induced animal models of human diseases. Here, an animal is treated so that it develops

1681: 915: 525: 18172: 10009:

Peichel CL, Nereng KS, Ohgi KA, Cole BL, Colosimo PF, Buerkle CA, Schluter D, Kingsley DM (2001).

7992:

Plous S, Herzog H (2001). "Animal Research: Reliability of Protocol Reviews for Animal Research".

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Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science, Volume I, Third Edition: Essential Principles and Practices

3917:

Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science, Volume I, Third Edition: Essential Principles and Practices

3510:

Official bodies such as the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Test Methods of the

1339:

The regulations that apply to animals in laboratories vary across species. In the U.S., under the

1072:

Non-human primates (NHPs) are used in toxicology tests, studies of AIDS and hepatitis, studies of

19215: 18995: 18648: 18518: 18496: 18465: 18440: 18423: 18321: 18092: 17996: 17809: 17785: 17662: 17541: 17496: 17391: 17278: 17087: 15763: 15681: 15476: 15355: 15330: 15305: 15300: 15085: 15000: 13367:, US Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, 26 October 2005, accessed 17 January 2011. 6019: 3389:, the first law specifically aimed at regulating animal testing. The legislation was promoted by 3191: 3183: 3134: 1926: 1553: 1157: 1137: 1119:

In a survey in 2003, it was found that 89% of singly-housed primates exhibited self-injurious or

1035:

are a freshwaterfish and belong to the minnow family. They are commonly used for cancer research.

845: 836: 589: 210: 13896: 13340: 12363:"Emergency medicine animal research: does use of randomization and blinding affect the results?" 11695:(Abstract from Fifth World Congress on Alternatives and Animal Use in the Life Sciences, Berlin) 11565: 11559: 11058: 10528:"Xenotransplantation of porcine neonatal islets of Langerhans and Sertoli cells: a 4-year study" 10390: 9386:

Animal Procedures Committee: review of cost-benefit assessment in the use of animals in research

7394: 1630:, and the capacity of animals to experience and comprehend them, is the subject of much debate. 18799: 18636: 18557: 18349: 18294: 17841: 17416: 17376: 17330: 17248: 17203: 17072: 16725: 16710: 16364: 15941: 15560: 15508: 15146: 13174: 11862:"Military is required to justify using animals in medic training after pressure from activists" 9954: 4630:

Lieschke GJ, Currie PD (May 2007). "Animal models of human disease: zebrafish swim into view".

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Lieschke GJ, Currie PD (May 2007). "Animal models of human disease: zebrafish swim into view".

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who supply purpose-bred and wild-caught animals; businesses that trade in wild animals such as

1148:. In 2008, a proposal to ban all primates experiments in the EU has sparked a vigorous debate. 1141: 851: 631: 553: 533: 456: 19010: 13987:. In N. A. Rupke (ed.) Vivisection in Historical Perspective. Croom Helm, London, 1987, p. 22. 12979:

Skeletal Muscle Structure, Function, and Plasticity: The Physiological Basis of Rehabilitation

11795:"Resistance is Futile: PETA Attempts to Halt the Sale of Remote-Controlled Cyborg Cockroaches" 10010: 8990:"Animal research: a moral science. Talking Point on the use of animals in scientific research" 8989: 8910:

Duncan IJ, Petherick JC (1991). "The implications of cognitive processes for animal welfare".

6574:"Exploiting the potential of insects for in vivo pathogenicity testing of microbial pathogens" 4063: 3644: 1116:

are used in the US. As of 2015, there are approximately 730 chimpanzees in U.S. laboratories.

18926: 18640: 18527: 18435: 18399: 18100: 17921: 17881: 17793: 17753: 17674: 17668: 17481: 16765: 16665: 16630: 16216: 16115: 16024: 15863: 15753: 15718: 15204: 14548: 11362:"India Joins the EU and Israel in Surpassing the US in Cruelty-Free Cosmetics Testing Policy" 9096: 5178:"Public perception of laboratory animal testing: Historical, philosophical, and ethical view" 3875: 3785: 3563: 3493: 2763: 2726: 2721: 2419: 2118: 1950: 1933:, or even transgenic mice that carry the same mutations that occur during the development of 1922: 1902:

Applied research aims to solve specific and practical problems. These may involve the use of

1846: 1818: 1593: 928: 827: 768: 610: 580: 312: 271: 255: 201: 18364: 16750: 13724: 12168:"The regulation of animal research and the emergence of animal ethics: A conceptual history" 11399:"Animal Attraction: Federal Bill to End Cosmetics Testing on Animals Introduced in Congress" 7826: 6522:"Worms and flies as genetically tractable animal models to study host-pathogen interactions" 5837:"Abbie Lathrop, the "Mouse Woman of Granby": Rodent Fancier and Accidental Genetics Pioneer" 3983: 2479:

begin reducing the number of animals it uses in various training programs. In 2013, several

544:

used animal testing of mice and guinea pigs to discover the bacteria that cause anthrax and

18606: 18124: 17929: 17857: 17608: 17551: 17421: 17273: 17258: 17132: 17032: 16987: 16840: 16062: 15903: 15671: 15651: 15488: 15375: 14773:

Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing – Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health

13897:"Experimenters Fed Puppies' Heads to Infected Flies, but That's Not All Fauci's NIH Funded" 13029: 12795: 12786:

Huxley AF, Simmons RM (1971). "Proposed Mechanism of Force Generation in Striated Muscle".

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6822: 6740: 6629: 6218: 6160: 6062: 5066:"The ethics of animal research. Talking Point on the use of animals in scientific research" 4875: 4821: 3543: 3130: 2844: 2594: 2182: 2047: 1914: 1874: 1760: 1688:. Additionally, this would not stop research animals from experiencing psychological harm. 1658: 1405: 704:

were developed using armadillos, then given to humans. The ability of humans to change the

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Conn, P. Michael and Parker, James V (2008). The Animal Research War, Palgrave Macmillan,

14398:"Alternatives to Animal Testing | Animals Used for Experimentation | The Issues" 11767: 11665:"Invertebrates in Education and Conservation Conference | Department of Neuroscience" 9560:"AVMA Guidelines on Euthanasia, June 2007 edition, Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia" 9061:

Allen C (1998). "Assessing animal cognition: ethological and philosophical perspectives".

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At present the use of animals remains the only way for some areas of research to progress.

985:, and bone and joint studies, research that tends to be highly invasive, according to the 8: 18513: 18445: 18218: 18165: 17582: 17193: 16805: 16800: 16680: 16655: 16374: 16231: 16120: 16014: 16009: 13847: 12445:"Systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy of tirilazad in experimental stroke" 7220:

Li Z, Zheng W, Wang H, Cheng Y, Fang Y, Wu F, Sun G, Sun G, Lv C, Hui B (15 March 2021).

5562: 3558: 3511: 3021: 2681: 2035: 2030: 1886: 1799: 1748: 1657:

Academic reviews of the topic are more equivocal, noting that although the argument that

1597: 1498:

also supply the laboratories directly. Large centers also exist to distribute strains of

1085: 1081: 945: 920: 890: 605:

wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science".

367: 287: 14173:

Publications of the Research Defence Society: March 1908–1909; Selected by the committee

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Dunham SP (2006). "Lessons from the cat: development of vaccines against lentiviruses".

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Prasad BC, Reed RR (1999). "Chemosensation: Molecular mechanisms in worms and mammals".

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have specific genes inserted, modified or removed, to mimic specific conditions such as

1634:(9%) were used in studies that would cause pain or distress that would not be relieved. 1517:

A laboratory mouse cage. Mice are either bred commercially, or raised in the laboratory.

1225: 1133:. This transgenic technology is now being applied in the search for a treatment for the 832: 19225: 19057: 19025: 18766: 18716: 18531: 18460: 18418: 18179: 18116: 17937: 17769: 17761: 17638: 17614: 17526: 17152: 16559: 16052: 16004: 15994: 15805: 15713: 15194: 15060: 14610: 14585: 14517: 14492: 14468: 14443: 14374: 14347: 14301: 13798: 13763: 13744: 13688: 13655: 13574: 13541: 13512: 13479: 13210: 13147: 13092: 12960: 12912: 12887: 12863: 12838: 12819: 12676: 12627: 12571: 12544: 12520: 12485: 12461: 12444: 12379: 12362: 12276:

Singer, Peter (ed.). "A Companion to Ethics". Blackwell Companions to Philosophy, 1991.

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Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

8658: 8393: 8366: 8234: 8099: 8041: 8017: 7960: 7933: 7630: 7597: 7535: 7372: 7337: 7313: 7280: 7256: 7222:"Application of Animal Models in Cancer Research: Recent Progress and Future Prospects" 7221: 7133: 7100: 7032: 6975: 6896: 6846: 6763: 6728: 6704: 6679: 6652: 6617: 6546: 6521: 6502: 6459: 6416: 6373: 6326: 6242: 6124: 6099: 5861: 5836: 5804: 5676: 5449: 5394: 5337: 5300:"Alternatives to animal testing in basic and preclinical research of atopic dermatitis" 5280: 5210: 5177: 5158: 5098: 5065: 4959: 4899: 4845: 4770: 4655: 4552: 4457: 4356: 3847: 3729: 3694: 3675: 3264: 3099: 3091: 3013: 2787: 2629: 2535: 2480: 2466: 2197: 2167: 2074: 1929:. Other models mimic complex, multifactorial diseases with genetic components, such as 1870: 1666:, Norway) protects some invertebrate species if they are being used in animal testing. 1589: 1368: 910: 584: 572: 425: 363: 205: 193: 162: 18232: 14686:"NTP Interagency Center for the Evaluation of Alternative Toxicological Methods – NTP" 14570: 13631: 13598: 13399:"Animal rights activists jailed for terrorising suppliers to Huntingdon Life Sciences" 12839:"The variation in isometric tension with sarcomere length in vertebrate muscle fibres" 11157: 10975: 10367: 10342: 9817: 8735:"Stealing Pets for Research and Profit: The Enforcement (?) of the Animal Welfare Act" 8301: 6935: 6183: 6148: 5941: 5893: 4790: 601:

became one of the first, and for some time the most widely used, model organisms, and

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In the U.S., the defining text on animal welfare regulation in animal testing is the

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some methods of testing are excluded from the ban or the laws vary within the country

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ZEBET database on alternatives to animal experiments on the Internet (AnimAlt-ZEBET)

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Hirst JA, Howick J, Aronson J, Roberts N, Perera R, Koshiaris C, Heneghan C (2014).

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medical centers stopped using ferrets in intubation exercises after complaints from

2434:

and state that the device is intended to encourage children to become interested in

1638: 1144:, and their current heaviest non-toxicological use occurs in the monkey AIDS model, 18960: 18940: 18614: 18535: 18489: 18484: 18246: 17972: 17521: 17188: 17092: 17052: 17042: 16972: 16835: 16775: 16730: 16695: 16554: 16494: 16268: 16226: 16186: 16156: 16146: 16141: 16080: 15883: 15646: 15615: 15237: 15210: 15184: 15141: 14741: 14605: 14597: 14584:

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Antivivisection and the charge of zoophil-psychosis in the early twentieth century.

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Vivisection or Science? An Investigation into Testing Drugs and Safeguarding Health

13793: 13775: 13764:"What's not in the news headlines or titles of Alzheimer disease articles? #InMice" 13720: 13683: 13667: 13626: 13610: 13569: 13553: 13507: 13491: 13441: 13184: 13151: 13131: 13037: 12964: 12944: 12907: 12903: 12899: 12858: 12854: 12850: 12803: 12680: 12658: 12611: 12566: 12556: 12515: 12505: 12456: 12415: 12374: 12299: 12182: 11499: 11294: 11286: 11237: 11227: 11188: 11153: 11088: 11006: 10971: 10878: 10862: 10798: 10741: 10721: 10577: 10539: 10498: 10448: 10362: 10354: 10277: 10242: 10219: 10199: 10162: 10121: 10080: 10053: 10033: 9981: 9893: 9856: 9848: 9813: 9778: 9725: 9684: 9637: 9515: 9507: 9446: 9328: 9318: 9279: 9238: 9220: 9070: 9047: 9027: 8954: 8919: 8640: 8562: 8388: 8378: 8218: 8081: 8001: 7955: 7945: 7903: 7687: 7625: 7617: 7570: 7519: 7367: 7349: 7308: 7292: 7251: 7233: 7128: 7112: 7071: 7006: 6959: 6931: 6900: 6880: 6830: 6758: 6748: 6699: 6691: 6647: 6637: 6585: 6541: 6533: 6506: 6486: 6443: 6400: 6357: 6246: 6226: 6178: 6168: 6119: 6111: 6070: 5856: 5848: 5788: 5757: 5753: 5614: 5471:

Vivisection or Science? An Investigation into Testing Drugs and Safeguarding Health

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Pu R, Coleman J, Coisman J, Sato E, Tanabe T, Arai M, Yamamoto JK (February 2005).

4441: 4406: 4346: 3870: 3831: 3780: 3724: 3706: 3659: 3568: 3548: 3447: 3375: 3187: 3155: 3103: 3095: 3025: 2887: 2711: 2471: 2342: 2304: 2114: 2092: 2039: 1878: 1806:. Examples of the types of animals and experiments used in basic research include: 1611: 1577: 1513: 1494:; and dealers who supply animals sourced from pounds, auctions, and newspaper ads. 1176:, which are translucent during their embryonic stage, and the African clawed frog, 1134: 937: 736: 729: 697: 658: 622: 275: 236: 16599: 16444: 13017: 11108: 9385: 9307:"No Pain, No Gain? In Defence of Genetically Disenhancing (Most) Research Animals" 8222: 8069: 7934:"Analysis of animal research ethics committee membership at American institutions" 6834: 6799: 6477:

Leclerc V, Reichhart JM (2004). "The immune response of Drosophila melanogaster".

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Gorden P (1997). "Non-insulin dependent diabetes – the past, present and future".

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Still, a wide range of viewpoints exist. The view that animals have moral rights (

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always raises what he calls a "red flag of special concern". A study published in

19117: 18809: 18632: 18587: 18060: 17168: 17122: 17117: 16967: 16932: 16917: 16855: 16745: 16690: 16670: 16609: 16519: 16429: 16369: 16344: 15999: 15873: 15428: 15408: 14748: 14729: 14094: 14041: 13780: 13347: 13298: 13285: 13217: 13105: 12978: 12774: 12561: 12510: 12420: 12403: 12306: 12295: 11980: 11555: 11232: 10661: 10618: 10418: 10399: 10246: 9943: 9689: 9672: 9473: 9392: 9168: 8862: 8721: 8702: 8596: 7574: 7397:, Proceedings of the Workshop Held 17–19 April, pp. 36–45, 46–48, 63–69, 197–200. 6695: 6642: 6590: 6573: 6025: 4797: 4696: 4671: 4607: 4299: 4144: 4123: 4102: 3940: 3915: 3879: 3789: 3304: 3200: 3009: 2792: 2566: 2346: 2308: 1728: 1641:, who argued that animals do not experience pain and suffering because they lack 1581: 1356: 1105: 1058: 977:

Dogs are widely used in biomedical research, testing, and education—particularly

725: 709: 371: 14459: 14272:"Expanding the three Rs to meet new challenges in humane animal experimentation" 13671: 12747:"Summary of House of Lords Select Committee on Animals in Scientific Procedures" 12486:"The Need for Randomization in Animal Trials: An Overview of Systematic Reviews" 11591:"Should students dissect animals or should schools move to virtual dissections?" 9268:"Marking methods in small mammals: ear-tattoo as an alternative to toe-clipping" 7076: 7063: 6618:"Deciphering the Multifactorial Nature of Acinetobacter baumannii Pathogenicity" 6098:

Scollard DM, Adams LB, Gillis TP, Krahenbuhl JL, Truman RW, Williams DL (2006).

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to pay $ 20 billion every year for experiments on animals, highlighted that the

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vaccine. Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for

637:

Subsequent research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as

19170: 19000: 18990: 18945: 18835: 18708: 18501: 18413: 18004: 17801: 17401: 17303: 17233: 17223: 17147: 17077: 17062: 17002: 16927: 16902: 16850: 16795: 16755: 16660: 16650: 16625: 16539: 16469: 16394: 16334: 16206: 16136: 15981: 15956: 15888: 15878: 15853: 15813: 15768: 15676: 15423: 15370: 15199: 15131: 14907: 14288: 14271: 14247: 14230: 13936: 13843:"Should dogs be guinea pigs in government research? A bipartisan group says no" 13445: 12402:

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genes, have similar functions in organisms as diverse as fruit flies and man.

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who will shut down research that violates the dignity of nonhuman animals."

3282: 2534:—question the need for and legitimacy of animal testing, arguing that it is 1126:

behaviors including pacing, rocking, hair pulling, and biting among others.

19142: 19040: 19035: 18656: 18540: 17456: 17298: 17288: 17137: 17112: 17017: 17012: 16997: 16957: 16947: 16820: 16740: 16735: 16715: 16705: 16700: 16640: 16579: 16574: 16524: 16514: 16504: 16414: 16339: 16196: 16151: 16110: 16072: 16057: 16019: 15838: 15818: 15738: 15433: 15418: 14619: 14526: 14477: 14383: 14332: 14297: 14256: 13807: 13740: 13697: 13640: 13583: 13521: 13461: 13196: 13143: 12956: 12672: 12623: 12580: 12529: 12470: 12429: 12388: 12194: 11511: 11503: 11308: 11251: 11165: 11100: 11018: 10983: 10733: 10589: 10553: 10512: 10376: 10327: 10289: 10254: 10211: 10176: 10167: 10150: 10135: 10094: 10045: 9995: 9870: 9825: 9782: 9739: 9698: 9649: 9614: 9537: 9372: 9342: 9252: 9190:"How to Work With Your Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)" 9039: 8958: 8923: 8654: 8576: 8402: 8230: 8095: 8013: 7969: 7721: 7701: 7639: 7598:"Towards a transgenic model of Huntington's disease in a non-human primate" 7582: 7531: 7381: 7354: 7322: 7296: 7265: 7142: 7085: 7028: 6971: 6892: 6842: 6772: 6713: 6661: 6599: 6555: 6498: 6455: 6412: 6369: 6173: 6133: 5870: 5765: 5730: 5703: 5628: 5445: 5413: 5390: 5333: 5276: 5234: 5219: 5154: 5122: 5107: 4955: 4895: 4651: 4586: 4548: 4453: 4418: 3843: 3738: 3671: 3573: 3496: 3115: 3001: 2924: 2899: 2797: 2768: 2519: 2462: 2435: 1903: 1781: 1768: 1756: 1585: 764: 681: 568: 564: 545: 487: 478:

The earliest references to animal testing are found in the writings of the

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The Case for Animal Experimention: An Evolutionary and Ethical Perspective

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container and tube surgically implanted in his muzzle, Pavlov Museum, 2005

18975: 18950: 18850: 18704: 18577: 18567: 18020: 17466: 17293: 17283: 17268: 17208: 17037: 16942: 16912: 16887: 16825: 16815: 16604: 16489: 16474: 16459: 16424: 16419: 16389: 16359: 16354: 16166: 16100: 15971: 15946: 15843: 15748: 15743: 14364: 14231:"ECVAM: desperately needed or superfluous? An animal welfare perspective" 14207: 11323:

An overview of Animal Testing Issues, Humane Society of the United States

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Anti-animal testing activists protesting in the streets of London in 2009

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Animal testing, science, medicine, animal welfare, animal rights, ethics

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Documents released to the news media by the animal rights organization

1981: 1954: 1882: 1865: 1823: 1740: 1697: 1615: 1607: 1401: 1123: 1028: 788: 740: 669: 630:

Iditarod race, which is modeled after the delivery of antitoxin in the

626: 594: 560: 517: 509: 410: 402: 333: 283: 240: 215: 181: 174: 105: 93: 13495: 13480:"Systematic Reviews of Animal Models: Methodology versus Epistemology" 11935:"PETA: Madigan Army Medical Center Has Stopped 'Cruel' Ferret-Testing" 11290: 11267:"Fluorescence-based assay as a new screening tool for toxic chemicals" 9511: 9206: 7737:"Statistics of Scientific Procedures on Living Animals, Great Britain" 7523: 7441: 7164:"Statistics of Scientific Procedures on Living Animals, Great Britain" 5316: 5299: 5193: 1182:. Over 20,000 rabbits were used for animal testing in the UK in 2004. 936:

reproduction rate. Mice are widely considered to be the best model of

653:) and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death. 18970: 18895: 18712: 18700: 18225: 18084: 17680: 17451: 17057: 16922: 16897: 16785: 16564: 16509: 16161: 15961: 15868: 15848: 15823: 15758: 15443: 15257: 12949:

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Report from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament

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and rhesus monkeys; the bomb had a faulty fuse and did not detonate.

3050:

for killed animals. In Japan there are also annual memorial services

2981: 2909: 2854: 2427: 2415: 2403: 2312: 2222: 2125: 2097:

Genetically modified food controversies § Animal feeding studies

1973: 1958: 1854: 1803: 1784:

are acceptable only with prior anesthesia to induce unconsciousness.

1716: 1627: 1530: 1491: 1073: 1065: 1032: 1005: 919:

This rat is being deprived of rapid eye-movement (REM) sleep using a

772: 672:

used rhesus monkey studies to isolate the most virulent forms of the

662: 654: 483: 421:

The following text excludes as much as possible practices related to

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International Perspectives: The Future of Nonhuman Primate Resources

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for the animals used. These methods include non-invasive techniques.

1379:

Scientists in India are protesting a recent guideline issued by the

148:, in experiments that seek to control the variables that affect the 19192: 18746: 16860: 15778: 15728: 15360: 13881: 13325:"Seeing Is Believing – cruelty to dogs at Huntingdon Life Sciences" 12888:"Tension transients during steady shortening of frog muscle fibres" 11668: 8679: 8524: 7881:

United States Department of Agriculture Office of Inspector General

7465:

Kathleen M. Conlee, Erika H. Hoffeld and Martin L. Stephens (2004)

6963: 6884: 3458: 3315: 3047: 2904: 2741: 2731: 2634: 2058: 2005: 1961:

and humans are among only a few animal species that naturally have

1942: 1860: 1835: 1752: 1736: 1655:

the view that animals feel pain differently is now a minority view.

1602: 1538: 1522:

kidnapping pets and illegally trapping strays, a practice known as

1097: 1077: 1018: 1013: 877: 856: 781: 756: 705: 501: 341: 325: 300: 149: 14887:

Experimenting with humans and animals: from Galen to animal rights

13821: 7717:"Ban on primate experiments would be devastating, scientists warn" 7281:"Guidelines for the welfare and use of animals in cancer research" 6616:

Antunes LC, Imperi F, Carattoli A, Visca P (2011). Adler B (ed.).

4915: 4913: 3227:

charges of conspiracy to blackmail or harm HLS and its suppliers.

2255: 2204:

alternatives exist, a modified form of the Draize test called the

2181:

international guidelines in 2002, replaced by methods such as the

1057:, the third primate to orbit the Earth, before insertion into the 19165: 18955: 18751: 16090: 16044: 15703: 14945: 14934: 13981:"Animal Experimentation: A Student Guide to Balancing the Issues" 10566: 10503: 10486: 10151:"Crippling p53 activities via knock-in mutations in mouse models" 7207:"France, Italy and the Netherlands publish their 2016 statistics" 3178: 3147: 3111: 3073: 2849: 2214: 2016: 1966: 1962: 1777: 1720: 1561: 1483: 1383:

to ban the use of live animals in universities and laboratories.

1093: 1008:

are commonly used for the basic study and development of various

752: 717: 701: 646: 583:, and have benefited both humans and animals. From 1910 to 1927, 537: 471: 393: 296: 251: 227: 204:, and have benefited both humans and animals. From 1910 to 1927, 170: 15500: 10341:

Pound P, Ebrahim S, Sandercock P, Bracken MB, Roberts I (2004).

9435:"Recommendations for euthanasia of experimental animals: Part 1" 9006:

The Unheeded Cry: Animal Consciousness, Animal Pain, and Science

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The use of non-human animals in research: a guide for scientists

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Low LA, Mummery C, Berridge BR, Austin CP, Tagle DA (May 2021).

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This test has also been criticized by scientists for being cruel

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of mice. This genetic research progressed rapidly and, in 1996,

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Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research

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Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research

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cause birth defects in animals, but not in humans. Conversely,

2411: 2410:, use sandpaper to wear down the shell, insert a wire into the 2124:

Toxicology tests are used to examine finished products such as

1977: 1957:

making them the major model used to study the human condition.

1934: 1827: 1183: 1109: 1009: 978: 748: 721: 490:

were among the first to perform experiments on living animals.

292: 12401: 12107:"Biomedical Research: The Humane Society of the United States" 11265:

Moczko E, Mirkes EM, Cáceres C, Gorban AN, Piletsky S (2016).

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Job CK (2003). "Nine-banded armadillo and leprosy research".

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Flecknell P (2002). "Replacement, reduction and refinement".

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Alternatives to Animal Use in Research, Testing and Education

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Demographic Analysis of Primate Research in the United States

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Steensma DP, Kyle Robert A., Shampo Marc A. (November 2010).

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next of kin...A report on the use of primates in experiments

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Russell, W. M. S. (William Moy Stratton), Health JB (1992).

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Journal of Community Hospital Internal Medicine Perspectives

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Threats of violence to animal researchers are not uncommon.

1659:

animals have at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings

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at the Nuffield Council on Bioethics. Published 25 May 2005

11843:"Who, What, Why: Does shooting goats save soldiers' lives?" 10664: 9841:"Neurophysiological methods in C. elegans: an introduction" 9432: 9404:

Carbone, Larry. "Euthanasia," in Bekoff, M. and Meaney, C.

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Pierce K. H. Chow, Robert T. H. Ng, Bryan E. Ogden (2008).

3230:

These attacks—as well as similar incidents that caused the

2484: 2475: 2458: 2141: 2084: 1712: 1623: 1542: 1534: 941: 924: 169:. In education, animal testing is sometimes a component of 8804:

Notorious Animal Dealer Loses License and Pays Record Fine

8067: 5051:"U.S. Will No Longer Require Animal Testing for New Drugs" 4694: 3938: 3913: 3146:

in 2002. In 2004 and 2005, undercover footage of staff of

2518:

has argued that animal testing cannot be replaced by even

2279:, has protested the proposed ban by lodging a case at the 18980: 14772: 13416:"Collapse in support for animal rights extremist attacks" 12722:"NIH Will Retire Most Research Chimps, End Many Projects" 12483: 11264: 10764:

The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics

6677: 5297: 4721: 3758: 3419:

American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

3040: 1946: 355: 16222:

University of California, Riverside 1985 laboratory raid

13956:

Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes Towards Speciesism

13288:, Small World Productions (2005). Retrieved 6 July 2010. 11689: 11059:

Toxicity Testing for Assessment of Environmental Agents"

10906:

Inter-Governmental Organization Eliminates the LD50 Test

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Give and Take: the Development of Tissue Transplantation

2061:

Pharma AG, in conjunction with Cambridge University and

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Reddy N, Lynch B, Gujral J, Karnik K (September 2023).

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Reddy N, Lynch B, Gujral J, Karnik K (September 2023).

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Walter B. Cannon Papers, American Philosophical Society

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was enacted in the British parliament, followed by the

3133:

devices for blind people. The laboratory was raided by

3094:

preparations (not possible in other organisms). Modern

700:. In the 1970s, antibiotic treatments and vaccines for 389:

animal testing, animal experimentation, animal research

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Dalal R, Even M, Sandusky C, Barnard N (August 2005).

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Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association

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In 2019, Katrien Devolder and Matthias Eggel proposed

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In the European Union, animal sources are governed by

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of animals took an enormous step forward in 1974 when

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Ethically disputed research practices towards animals

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An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine

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Draize rabbit eye test replacement milestone welcomed

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Madden JC, Enoch SJ, Paini A, Cronin MT (July 2020).

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National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

2454:

explosions on internal organs, especially the brain.

2406:. The operator is required to amputate a cockroach's 2228:

These toxicity tests provide, in the words of a 2006

567:, and has played significant roles in fields such as 188:, and has played significant roles in fields such as 14761:

ecopa – european consensus-platform for alternatives

14345: 14035:

Animal Experimentation: the Legacy of Claude Bernard

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Löwa A, Jevtić M, Gorreja F, Hedtrich S (May 2018).

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are an invertebrate commonly used in animal testing.

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National Research Council of the National Academies

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Examples include: 1871:inbred domesticated animals 1477:International primate trade 696:, became the first of many 587:'s work with the fruit fly 208:'s work with the fruit fly 10: 19272: 19131:Monkeys in Chinese culture 17954:Making a Stand for Animals 17826:The Case for Animal Rights 17477:Hunt Saboteurs Association 17437:Cruelty Free International 17407:Anti-Vivisection Coalition 15932:Animal testing regulations 15483:Animal Welfare Act of 1966 15460:Animal testing regulations 15321:Cruelty Free International 15281:Anti-Vivisection Coalition 15228:Charles River Laboratories 15031:History of model organisms 15021:Animal testing regulations 14289:10.1177/026119290403200507 14248:10.1177/026119290203002S26 14126:Charles Darwin: A New Life 13822:"White Coat Waste Project" 13446:10.2174/157488708784223844 13167:Journal of Neurophysiology 9934:. Retrieved 25 April 2007. 9910:Marler P., Slabbekoorn H, 9565:. Avma.org. Archived from 9452:10.1258/002367796780739871 9422:. University of Minnesota. 8895:U.S. Primate Imports Spike 8646:10.1016/j.cell.2006.12.018 8124:Gen. Eng. Biotechnol. News 8087:10.1177/026119290803600310 7902:Young R (September 2005). 7883:(Report No. 33601–0001–41) 6285:PMPA blocks SIV in monkeys 6051:"Armadillos fight leprosy" 4796:December 17, 2008, at the 4531:10.1016/j.jfms.2004.08.005 4411:10.2174/138920009787522197 3435: 3125:, a macaque monkey at the 2546: 2441: 2422:onto the insect's back. A 2248: 2115:interactions between drugs 2078: 2072: 2028: 1695: 1575: 1558:Charles River Laboratories 1488:Charles River Laboratories 1470: 1466: 1432:Three Rs (animal research) 1429: 1386: 1209:Animal testing regulations 1206: 1155: 1043: 956: 908: 902: 898: 825: 819: 808: 716:, by integrating DNA from 698:animals to orbit the Earth 621:In the late 19th century, 439: 435: 372:organs-on-chips technology 368:computer simulation models 226:and the 1922 discovery of 74: 63: 19018: 19007: 18933: 18864: 18829:Interpretation of results 18828: 18790: 18739: 18689: 18663: 18625: 18595: 18586: 18562:Nested case–control study 18512: 18459: 18406: 18340: 18313: 18260: 18210: 18150: 18143: 18109:The Ghosts in Our Machine 17964: 17946:Animal Ethics in the Wild 17729: 17725: 17714: 17690: 17601: 17565: 17382:Animal Legal Defense Fund 17349: 17342: 17338: 17324: 17161: 16880: 16873: 16676:William Hamilton Drummond 16618: 16327: 16318: 16314: 16300: 16261: 16240: 16179: 16129: 16071: 16043: 16035:Welfare of farmed insects 15980: 15912: 15804: 15797: 15662:Animal–industrial complex 15629: 15553: 15549: 15538: 15452: 15399: 15271: 15220: 15170: 15157:Laboratory animal allergy 15119: 15078: 15067: 15041:Laboratory animal sources 15026:History of animal testing 15016:Animal testing on rodents 15011:Animal testing on rabbits 14983: 14859:Resources in your library 13958:. 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CRC Press. p. 2. 3516:Johns Hopkins University 3404:Research Defence Society 3212:Huntingdon Life Sciences 2969:apply to which species. 2103:Huntingdon Life Sciences 2063:Huntingdon Life Sciences 1885:in their physiology and 1529:Four states in the U.S.— 1400:with EU data, where all 785:model system available. 712:could produce the first 532:'s demonstration of the 329:model system available. 39:latest accepted revision 18996:Animal-assisted therapy 18649:Relative risk reduction 18497:Adaptive clinical trial 18441:Evidence-based medicine 18424:Adaptive clinical trial 18322:Holocaust on your Plate 18093:An Apology to Elephants 17874:Do Animals Have Rights? 17810:Animals, Men and Morals 17786:Better-World Philosophy 17663:Italian Animalist Party 17542:United Poultry Concerns 17497:Last Chance for Animals 17392:Animal Liberation Front 17279:Maud Ingersoll Probasco 15764:Replaceability argument 15682:Animal-free agriculture 15477:Animal Welfare Act 1999 15356:Primate Freedom Project 15301:Animal Free Research UK 15001:Animal testing on frogs 14747:1 November 2013 at the 14206:. 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For the journal, see 19236:Comparative psychology 19221:Animal test conditions 18637:Number needed to treat 18295:Salvation of Innocents 17842:Zoos and Animal Rights 17417:Beauty Without Cruelty 17377:Animal Justice Project 16711:John Zephaniah Holwell 16365:Stephen St. C. Bostock 15942:Great ape research ban 15561:Animal rights movement 15147:Great ape research ban 14938:Quotations related to 14093:6 October 2020 at the 13267:Countryside Undercover 12773:29 August 2007 at the 11504:10.2460/javma.230.1.37 10421:. parkinsonsappeal.com 10168:10.1038/sj.onc.1210278 9974:Developmental Dynamics 9955:The Jackson Laboratory 9886:Animal Science Journal 9783:10.1098/rstb.1995.0119 8959:10.2527/1991.69125001x 8924:10.2527/1991.69125017x 8549:Kong Q, Qin C (2009). 8475:Even D (29 May 2013). 8452:Merkes M, Buttrose R. 7297:10.1038/sj.bjc.6605642 6526:Infection and Immunity 6174:10.1073/pnas.71.4.1250 5917:Ann. Acad. Med. Singap 5781:Pavlovian J. Biol. Sci 5498:. 2007. 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In the case of 835: 828:Pain in invertebrates 769:classical swine fever 611:William Ernest Castle 581:organ transplantation 465: 449: 313:classical swine fever 256:human experimentation 202:organ transplantation 94:Wistar laboratory rat 18607:Cumulative incidence 17930:Sentientist Politics 17858:The Lives of Animals 17609:Animal Justice Party 17422:Born Free Foundation 17259:Lizzy Lind af Hageby 17133:Wendy Turner-Webster 16841:Adam Gottlieb Weigen 16063:Recreational fishing 15904:Ventilation shutdown 15672:Animal protectionism 15652:Animal consciousness 15489:Directive 2010/63/EU 15376:Speaking of Research 14930:at Wikimedia Commons 14365:10.3390/genes9020114 14087:The Brown Dog Affair 13341:"From push to shove" 13284:8 March 2012 at the 13124:Nature Biotechnology 13110:The Arizona Republic 12117:on 30 September 2020 11872:on 15 December 2013. 11818:Brook, Tom Vanden, " 11479:. Eur-lex.europa.eu. 11465:. 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Cannon 3326:and hygiene of man". 3246:Scientific criticism 3131:sensory substitution 2845:Animal protectionism 2457:In the US military, 2414:, and then glue the 2183:fixed dose procedure 2048:transplant rejection 1927:Huntington's disease 1915:Genetic modification 1761:Cervical dislocation 1566:importer of primates 1406:Speaking of Research 1203:Regulations and laws 1138:Huntington's disease 777:parasitic infections 732:from an adult cell. 577:eradication of polio 321:parasitic infections 224:diphtheria antitoxin 198:eradication of polio 19231:Biology experiments 18514:Observational study 18446:Real world evidence 18400:experimental design 18354:( 139 ) 18180:Etica & Animali 18166:Between the Species 17890:An American Trilogy 17583:Humanitarian League 17194:Frances Power Cobbe 16806:Arthur Schopenhauer 16801:Henry Stephens Salt 16681:Edward Payson Evans 16375:Stephen R. L. 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Sapontzis 16053:Commercial fishing 16005:Pain in amphibians 15995:Cruelty to animals 15967:Operation Backfire 15806:Animal agriculture 15714:Emotion in animals 15195:Monkey Drug Trials 15061:Toxicology testing 14910:. January 9, 2023. 14811:Carbone L (2004). 14692:on 9 December 2013 14665:The New York Times 14639:The New York Times 14602:10.7150/ijms.6.329 14327:(Suppl 1): 63–76. 13899:. 25 October 2021. 13885:. 5 November 2021. 13405:, 25 October 2010. 13082:, CNN (2003-10-12) 13004:The New York Times 12768:韓国・食薬庁で「実験動物慰霊祭」挙行 12700:The New York Times 12166:Rollin BE (2006). 11442:The Times of India 11271:Scientific Reports 9987:10.1002/dvdy.20564 9806:Trends in Genetics 9572:on 15 August 2011. 9439:Laboratory Animals 9324:10.3390/ani9040154 9272:Journal of Zoology 8049:on 27 October 2012 8042:The Times of India 7951:10.3390/ani2010068 7744:British government 7674:Emborg ME (2007). 7489:The New York Times 6049:Walgate R (1981). 6024:2011-06-04 at the 5793:10.1007/BF02734662 5502:on 1 January 2008. 5053:. 13 January 2022. 4759:10.1038/nm0798-827 4176:Surg. Gynec. Obst. 4158:Raventos J (1956) 4143:2009-02-10 at the 3328: 3288: 3251:Systematic reviews 3100:muscular dystrophy 3078: 2930:Animals portal 2570: 2372:embryonic toxicity 2366:Specific tests on 2261: 2075:Toxicology testing 2069:Toxicology testing 1919:Transgenic animals 1620: 1590:Pain in amphibians 1572:Pain and suffering 1519: 1369:non-human primates 1341:Animal Welfare Act 1337: 1070: 1063: 1040:Non-human primates 1037: 975: 933: 911:Median lethal dose 841: 585:Thomas Hunt Morgan 573:infectious disease 476: 460: 426:veterinary surgery 332:The annual use of 206:Thomas Hunt Morgan 194:infectious disease 35: 19203: 19202: 18966:Laboratory animal 18893: 18892: 18841:Survivorship bias 18805:Systematic review 18772:Multicenter trial 18735: 18734: 18725:Likelihood-ratios 18697:Clinical endpoint 18665:Population impact 18619:Period prevalence 18396:Clinical research 18362: 18361: 18355: 18336: 18335: 18332: 18331: 18303:Onward to Freedom 18271:Animal Liberation 18256: 18255: 18077:Forks Over Knives 18029:Peaceable Kingdom 17989:Shores of Silence 17981:A Cow at My Table 17866:Eternal Treblinka 17818:Animal Liberation 17710: 17709: 17706: 17705: 17597: 17596: 17532:Uncaged Campaigns 17507:Mercy for Animals 17472:Great Ape Project 17387:Animal Liberation 17333:(groups, parties) 17320: 17319: 17316: 17315: 17312: 17311: 17219:Elizabeth Farians 17128:Christine Townend 17068:Heather Nicholson 16993:Brigitte Gothière 16983:Antoine Goetschel 16869: 16868: 16530:Charles Patterson 16435:Gary L. Francione 16410:Josephine Donovan 16400:Daniel Dombrowski 16380:Alasdair Cochrane 16296: 16295: 16292: 16291: 16175: 16174: 16106:Predation problem 15990:Animal euthanasia 15899:Foam depopulation 15734:Insects in ethics 15498: 15497: 14926:Media related to 14896:978-0-8018-7197-9 14880:978-0-230-60014-0 14845:Library resources 14822:978-0-19-972188-7 14157:978-0-9560008-0-4 13952:Ryder, Richard D. 13496:10.7150/ijms.5529 13397:Weaver, Matthew. 13305:. 18 January 2001 13016:Holden C (1986). 12987:978-0-7817-3061-7 12645:Vermij P (2003). 12212:on 8 October 2020 12111:Humanesociety.org 11847:BBC News Magazine 11774:. 9 November 2013 11575:978-0-19-511908-4 11540:978-0-313-32390-4 11405:on 11 March 2014. 11386:on 18 March 2014. 11291:10.1038/srep33922 10697:Abbott A (2005). 10114:Diabetic Medicine 9512:10.1111/ejn.14091 9004:Rollin, Bernard. 8755:Stolen for Profit 7853:on 23 August 2017 7659:The Royal Society 7524:10.1002/ajp.10075 7291:(11): 1555–1577. 6296:PMPA is tenofovir 5514:"Vivisection FAQ" 5317:10.1111/exd.13498 5194:10.1111/adb.12991 5182:Addiction Biology 4820:(6473): 744–746. 4710:978-1-4200-8456-6 4683:978-981-281-202-5 4619:978-0-12-415912-9 4374:Slack JM (2013). 4311:978-0-520-05501-8 4268:Fleming A (1929) 4238:Gibbon JH (1937) 4068:Columbia Magazine 3993:978-0-309-56994-1 3952:978-1-4200-8458-0 3927:978-1-4200-8456-6 3544:Krogh's principle 3360:scientific method 3311:Historical debate 3083:muscle physiology 2966: 2965: 2810:Companion animals 2539:experimentation. 2498:Most animals are 2341:, sub-acute, and 2245:Cosmetics testing 2055:Uncaged Campaigns 2040:organ transplants 1889:. As an example, 1841:Experiments into 1702:Animal euthanasia 1482:and dealers like 1334: 1330: 1329: 963:Soviet space dogs 714:transgenic mammal 639:Frederick Banting 514:Antoine Lavoisier 504:, a 12th-century 167:cosmetics testing 154:biological system 142:non-human animals 120: 119: 47:20 September 2024 26: 16:(Redirected from 19263: 19256:Research methods 19013: 18961:Animals in sport 18941:Animal husbandry 18920: 18913: 18906: 18897: 18896: 18740:Trial/test types 18615:Point prevalence 18593: 18592: 18536:Ecological study 18519:EBM II-2 to II-3 18490:Open-label trial 18485:Blind experiment 18461:Controlled study 18389: 18382: 18375: 18366: 18365: 18353: 18348: 18347: 18159:Animal Sentience 18148: 18147: 18013:Legally Blonde 2 17973:The Animals Film 17727: 17726: 17716: 17715: 17522:Rise for Animals 17347: 17346: 17340: 17339: 17326: 17325: 17189:Edith Carrington 17093:Craig Rosebraugh 17053:Virginia McKenna 17043:Jo-Anne McArthur 16973:Juliet Gellatley 16878: 16877: 16836:Mary Anne Warren 16776:Humphrey Primatt 16761:Edward Nicholson 16731:Charles R. Magel 16696:Thomas G. Gentry 16555:Richard D. Ryder 16495:Thomas Lepeltier 16325: 16324: 16316: 16315: 16302: 16301: 16269:World Animal Day 16227:Unnecessary Fuss 16187:Brown Dog affair 16157:Animals in sport 16147:Animal slaughter 16142:Animal sacrifice 16081:Culling wildlife 15884:Wildlife farming 15802: 15801: 15647:Animal cognition 15616:Total liberation 15551: 15550: 15540: 15539: 15525: 15518: 15511: 15502: 15501: 15211:Unnecessary Fuss 15185:Brown Dog affair 15073: 14970: 14963: 14956: 14947: 14946: 14937: 14925: 14900: 14834: 14798: 14797: 14795: 14793: 14782: 14776: 14770: 14764: 14758: 14752: 14739: 14733: 14720: 14714: 14708: 14702: 14701: 14699: 14697: 14682: 14676: 14675: 14673: 14671: 14656: 14650: 14649: 14647: 14645: 14630: 14624: 14623: 14613: 14581: 14575: 14574: 14567: 14561: 14560: 14558: 14556: 14537: 14531: 14530: 14520: 14488: 14482: 14481: 14471: 14454:(7586): 182–84. 14439: 14433: 14432: 14430: 14428: 14416: 14410: 14409: 14407: 14405: 14394: 14388: 14387: 14377: 14367: 14343: 14337: 14336: 14316: 14310: 14309: 14291: 14267: 14261: 14260: 14250: 14229:Kolar R (2002). 14226: 14220: 14219: 14217: 14215: 14210:on 1 August 2014 14200: 14194: 14184: 14178: 14177: 14168: 14162: 14161: 14146:Ilman J (2008). 14143: 14137: 14122: 14116: 14115: 14114:. Fullbooks.com. 14104: 14098: 14082: 14076: 14075: 14060:The Physiologist 14055: 14049: 14031: 14025: 14015: 14009: 13994: 13988: 13978: 13967: 13949: 13943: 13934: 13925: 13910: 13901: 13900: 13893: 13887: 13886: 13873: 13867: 13866: 13859: 13853: 13852: 13839: 13833: 13832: 13830: 13828: 13818: 13812: 13811: 13801: 13783: 13759: 13753: 13752: 13708: 13702: 13701: 13691: 13651: 13645: 13644: 13634: 13609:(7438): 514–17. 13594: 13588: 13587: 13577: 13537: 13526: 13525: 13515: 13475: 13466: 13465: 13429: 13423: 13412: 13406: 13395: 13389: 13374: 13368: 13361: 13355: 13338: 13332: 13321: 13315: 13314: 13312: 13310: 13295: 13289: 13276: 13270: 13263: 13257: 13246: 13240: 13230: 13224: 13207: 13201: 13200: 13182: 13162: 13156: 13155: 13119: 13113: 13102: 13096: 13089: 13083: 13077: 13071: 13060: 13054: 13053: 13028:(4747): 147–50. 13013: 13007: 12996: 12990: 12975: 12969: 12968: 12932: 12926: 12925: 12915: 12883: 12877: 12876: 12866: 12834: 12828: 12827: 12808:10.1038/233533a0 12794:(5321): 533–38. 12783: 12777: 12765: 12759: 12758: 12756: 12754: 12743: 12737: 12736: 12734: 12732: 12717: 12711: 12710: 12708: 12706: 12691: 12685: 12684: 12666: 12642: 12636: 12635: 12591: 12585: 12584: 12574: 12564: 12540: 12534: 12533: 12523: 12513: 12481: 12475: 12474: 12464: 12440: 12434: 12433: 12423: 12399: 12393: 12392: 12382: 12358: 12352: 12341: 12335: 12334: 12332: 12325: 12316: 12310: 12286: 12277: 12274: 12268: 12267: 12265: 12263: 12251: 12245: 12244: 12242: 12240: 12228: 12222: 12221: 12219: 12217: 12211: 12205:. Archived from 12172: 12163: 12157: 12156: 12154: 12152: 12143:. Archived from 12133: 12127: 12126: 12124: 12122: 12113:. Archived from 12103: 12097: 12096: 12094: 12092: 12086: 12080:. Archived from 12075: 12067: 12061: 12060: 12058: 12056: 12050: 12044:. Archived from 12043: 12035: 12029: 12028: 12026: 12024: 12010: 12004: 11994: 11988: 11970: 11964: 11953: 11947: 11946: 11944: 11942: 11930: 11924: 11923: 11921: 11919: 11907: 11901: 11900: 11898: 11896: 11887:. Archived from 11880: 11874: 11873: 11868:. Archived from 11857: 11851: 11850: 11838: 11829: 11816: 11810: 11809: 11807: 11805: 11790: 11784: 11783: 11781: 11779: 11764: 11755: 11754: 11752: 11750: 11745:. 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Archived from 10923: 10915: 10909: 10903: 10897: 10896: 10886: 10849:Walum E (1998). 10846: 10840: 10839: 10837: 10835: 10821: 10815: 10814: 10786: 10780: 10779: 10759: 10753: 10752: 10750: 10744:. Archived from 10712:(7065): 144–46. 10703: 10694: 10683: 10673: 10667: 10652: 10643: 10632: 10626: 10608: 10602: 10601: 10564: 10558: 10557: 10547: 10523: 10517: 10516: 10506: 10482: 10473: 10472: 10428: 10422: 10409: 10403: 10387: 10381: 10380: 10370: 10338: 10332: 10331: 10311: 10302: 10301: 10265: 10259: 10258: 10230: 10224: 10223: 10187: 10181: 10180: 10170: 10146: 10140: 10139: 10129: 10105: 10099: 10098: 10088: 10064: 10058: 10057: 10024:(6866): 901–05. 10015: 10006: 10000: 9999: 9989: 9965: 9959: 9941: 9935: 9932:Lincoln Park Zoo 9928: 9922: 9908: 9902: 9901: 9881: 9875: 9874: 9864: 9836: 9830: 9829: 9801: 9795: 9794: 9769:(1329): 313–19. 9758: 9752: 9751: 9733: 9709: 9703: 9702: 9692: 9668: 9662: 9661: 9625: 9619: 9618: 9598: 9589: 9583: 9574: 9573: 9571: 9564: 9556: 9550: 9549: 9523: 9506:(6): 3493–3498. 9494:Diaz SL (2020). 9491: 9485: 9471: 9465: 9464: 9454: 9430: 9424: 9423: 9415: 9409: 9402: 9396: 9383: 9377: 9376: 9356: 9347: 9346: 9336: 9326: 9302: 9296: 9295: 9263: 9257: 9256: 9246: 9228: 9204: 9198: 9197: 9186: 9180: 9166: 9160: 9159: 9157: 9155: 9140: 9134: 9133: 9131: 9129: 9118: 9112: 9111: 9109: 9107: 9093: 9087: 9086: 9058: 9052: 9051: 9020:Animal Cognition 9015: 9009: 9002: 8993: 8986: 8980: 8979:Carbone, p. 149. 8977: 8971: 8970: 8942: 8936: 8935: 8907: 8901: 8892: 8886: 8885: 8883: 8875: 8866: 8853: 8847: 8846: 8839: 8833: 8832: 8825: 8819: 8813: 8807: 8801: 8795: 8785: 8779: 8772: 8766: 8751: 8745: 8731: 8725: 8724:, Aesop Project. 8712: 8706: 8693: 8687: 8676: 8667: 8666: 8648: 8624: 8618: 8617: 8606: 8600: 8587: 8581: 8580: 8570: 8546: 8540: 8539: 8537: 8535: 8521: 8515: 8514: 8512: 8510: 8495: 8489: 8488: 8486: 8484: 8472: 8466: 8465: 8463: 8461: 8449: 8443: 8442: 8440: 8438: 8432: 8421: 8413: 8407: 8406: 8396: 8386: 8362: 8356: 8355: 8353: 8351: 8342:. Archived from 8315: 8306: 8305: 8298: 8292: 8291: 8284: 8275: 8269: 8263: 8260:Tufts University 8256: 8250: 8249: 8247: 8245: 8202: 8196: 8195: 8193: 8191: 8176: 8170: 8169: 8168:on 25 June 2008. 8167: 8160: 8152: 8139: 8138: 8137: 8131: 8114: 8108: 8107: 8089: 8065: 8059: 8058: 8056: 8054: 8045:. Archived from 8032: 8026: 8025: 8000:(5530): 608–09. 7989: 7983: 7980: 7974: 7973: 7963: 7953: 7929: 7923: 7922: 7920: 7918: 7908: 7899: 7893: 7892: 7890: 7888: 7878: 7869: 7863: 7862: 7860: 7858: 7849:. Archived from 7839: 7830: 7824: 7818: 7812: 7806: 7803: 7797: 7796: 7794: 7792: 7786: 7779: 7771: 7765: 7762: 7756: 7755: 7753: 7751: 7741: 7733: 7727: 7726: 7712: 7706: 7705: 7695: 7671: 7662: 7653: 7644: 7643: 7633: 7608:(7197): 921–24. 7593: 7587: 7586: 7561:(5502): 309–12. 7550: 7544: 7543: 7507: 7501: 7500: 7498: 7496: 7480: 7474: 7463: 7454: 7453: 7451: 7449: 7440:. Archived from 7430: 7424: 7423: 7421: 7419: 7404: 7398: 7392: 7386: 7385: 7375: 7357: 7333: 7327: 7326: 7316: 7276: 7270: 7269: 7259: 7241: 7217: 7211: 7210: 7203: 7197: 7196: 7189: 7183: 7182: 7180: 7178: 7168: 7160: 7147: 7146: 7136: 7096: 7090: 7089: 7079: 7059: 7053: 7047: 7041: 7040: 7014: 7005:(5–6): 196–213. 6990: 6984: 6983: 6946: 6940: 6939: 6911: 6905: 6904: 6868: 6855: 6854: 6810: 6804: 6803: 6796: 6777: 6776: 6766: 6756: 6739:(41): 15967–72. 6724: 6718: 6717: 6707: 6675: 6666: 6665: 6655: 6645: 6613: 6604: 6603: 6593: 6569: 6560: 6559: 6549: 6517: 6511: 6510: 6474: 6468: 6467: 6431: 6425: 6424: 6388: 6382: 6381: 6345: 6339: 6338: 6322: 6316: 6315: 6304: 6298: 6293: 6287: 6282: 6276: 6275: 6273: 6271: 6257: 6251: 6250: 6231:10.1038/385810a0 6217:(6619): 810–13. 6206: 6197: 6196: 6186: 6176: 6144: 6138: 6137: 6127: 6095: 6089: 6088: 6078: 6076:10.1038/291527a0 6046: 6040: 6035: 6029: 6017: 6011: 6010:Salk polio virus 6009: 6007: 6005: 5996:. Archived from 5990: 5984: 5982: 5980: 5978: 5973:on 11 March 2010 5969:. Archived from 5963: 5957: 5950: 5944: 5939: 5933: 5932: 5912: 5906: 5905: 5903: 5901: 5881: 5875: 5874: 5864: 5832: 5826: 5823:Lords of the Fly 5819: 5813: 5812: 5776: 5770: 5769: 5741: 5735: 5734: 5714: 5708: 5707: 5687: 5681: 5680: 5669: 5663: 5660: 5654: 5639: 5633: 5632: 5622: 5598: 5592: 5589: 5580: 5579: 5577: 5575: 5558: 5552: 5551: 5549: 5547: 5540:Encyclopedia.com 5534: 5528: 5527: 5525: 5518: 5510: 5504: 5503: 5488: 5482: 5467: 5458: 5457: 5409: 5403: 5402: 5376: 5352: 5346: 5345: 5319: 5295: 5289: 5288: 5262: 5230: 5224: 5223: 5213: 5173: 5167: 5166: 5118: 5112: 5111: 5101: 5061: 5055: 5054: 5047: 5041: 5040: 5038: 5036: 5025: 5019: 5016: 5010: 5009: 4991: 4982: 4981: 4974: 4968: 4967: 4941: 4917: 4908: 4907: 4874:(5652): 1984–8. 4863: 4854: 4853: 4834:10.1038/368744a0 4809: 4800: 4788: 4779: 4778: 4742: 4733: 4730: 4718: 4691: 4666: 4626: 4600: 4591: 4590: 4570: 4561: 4560: 4542: 4510: 4501: 4495: 4466: 4465: 4429: 4423: 4422: 4394: 4388: 4387: 4371: 4365: 4364: 4354: 4330: 4324: 4323: 4295: 4289: 4282: 4273: 4266: 4257: 4256:Hinshaw obituary 4252: 4243: 4236: 4227: 4220: 4211: 4204: 4195: 4188: 4179: 4174:Carrel A (1912) 4172: 4163: 4156: 4147: 4138:Thompson bio ref 4135: 4126: 4114: 4105: 4093: 4084: 4079: 4070: 4060: 4051: 4050: 4048: 4046: 4035: 4026: 4025: 4023: 4021: 4010: 4001: 4000: 3981: 3971: 3962: 3959: 3935: 3908: 3899: 3898: 3868: 3859: 3858: 3819: 3810: 3809: 3778: 3769: 3768: 3756: 3743: 3742: 3732: 3714: 3693:Hajar R (2011). 3690: 3684: 3683: 3649: 3640: 3627: 3626: 3624: 3622: 3611: 3569:Sentinel species 3549:Microphysiometry 3376:Brown Dog affair 3373: 3357: 3188:Molotov cocktail 3158:lab was shot by 3104:Roslin Institute 3096:physical therapy 3061: 2996:has stated that 2958: 2951: 2944: 2928: 2927: 2888:Environmentalism 2615:Around the world 2597: 2587: 2572: 2571: 2472:U.S. Coast Guard 2424:mobile phone app 2353:efficacy studies 2347:drug metabolites 2343:chronic toxicity 2335:toxicology tests 2305:pharmacokinetics 2303:, investigating 2093:Chronic toxicity 1898:Applied research 1612:common sand frog 1578:Animal cognition 1332: 1317: 1304: 1293: 1280: 1269: 1263: 1262: 1249: 1242: 1235: 1135:genetic disorder 1106:squirrel monkeys 737:organ transplant 659:bipolar disorder 623:Emil von Behring 548:. In the 1890s, 506:Arabic physician 455:, from 1768, by 276:genetic material 237:organ transplant 140:, is the use of 125:, also known as 90: 83: 82: 21: 19271: 19270: 19266: 19265: 19264: 19262: 19261: 19260: 19206: 19205: 19204: 19199: 19014: 19005: 18929: 18924: 18894: 18889: 18860: 18824: 18786: 18731: 18685: 18659: 18633:Risk difference 18621: 18582: 18516: 18508: 18463: 18455: 18419:Trial protocols 18402: 18393: 18363: 18358: 18328: 18309: 18252: 18233:Muutoksen kevät 18206: 18139: 18045:Behind the Mask 17960: 17770:Animals' Rights 17721: 17702: 17686: 17593: 17561: 17334: 17308: 17169:Cleveland Amory 17157: 17123:Darren Thurston 17118:Marianne Thieme 16968:Bruce Friedrich 16933:Joey Carbstrong 16918:Brigitte Bardot 16865: 16856:Jon Wynne-Tyson 16746:J. Howard Moore 16691:John Galsworthy 16671:Wilhelm Dietler 16614: 16610:Corey Lee Wrenn 16520:Martha Nussbaum 16430:Lawrence Finsen 16370:Paola Cavalieri 16345:Kristin Andrews 16320: 16310: 16288: 16257: 16236: 16171: 16125: 16067: 16039: 16000:Pain in animals 15976: 15908: 15874:Poultry farming 15793: 15625: 15545: 15534: 15529: 15499: 15494: 15448: 15429:Neal D. Barnard 15409:Colin Blakemore 15401: 15395: 15273: 15267: 15216: 15172: 15166: 15115: 15111:Syrian hamsters 15074: 15065: 14979: 14974: 14918: 14913: 14897: 14870: 14869: 14868: 14853: 14852: 14848: 14841: 14839:Further reading 14823: 14807: 14802: 14801: 14791: 14789: 14784: 14783: 14779: 14771: 14767: 14759: 14755: 14749:Wayback Machine 14740: 14736: 14730:Wayback Machine 14721: 14717: 14709: 14705: 14695: 14693: 14684: 14683: 14679: 14669: 14667: 14657: 14653: 14643: 14641: 14631: 14627: 14582: 14578: 14569: 14568: 14564: 14554: 14552: 14539: 14538: 14534: 14509:10.1002/wsbm.75 14489: 14485: 14440: 14436: 14426: 14424: 14417: 14413: 14403: 14401: 14396: 14395: 14391: 14344: 14340: 14317: 14313: 14276:Altern Lab Anim 14268: 14264: 14235:Altern Lab Anim 14227: 14223: 14213: 14211: 14202: 14201: 14197: 14185: 14181: 14170: 14169: 14165: 14158: 14144: 14140: 14123: 14119: 14106: 14105: 14101: 14095:Wayback Machine 14083: 14079: 14056: 14052: 14042:Wayback Machine 14032: 14028: 14024:, November 2003 14016: 14012: 13995: 13991: 13979: 13970: 13950: 13946: 13937:Bernard, Claude 13935: 13928: 13912:Croce, Pietro. 13911: 13904: 13895: 13894: 13890: 13875: 13874: 13870: 13865:. 30 July 2021. 13861: 13860: 13856: 13841: 13840: 13836: 13826: 13824: 13820: 13819: 13815: 13774:(6): e3001260. 13760: 13756: 13709: 13705: 13652: 13648: 13595: 13591: 13538: 13529: 13476: 13469: 13430: 13426: 13420:The Independent 13413: 13409: 13396: 13392: 13375: 13371: 13363:Lewis, John E. 13362: 13358: 13348:Wayback Machine 13339: 13335: 13322: 13318: 13308: 13306: 13297: 13296: 13292: 13286:Wayback Machine 13277: 13273: 13264: 13260: 13247: 13243: 13231: 13227: 13218:Wayback Machine 13208: 13204: 13180:10.1.1.133.3969 13163: 13159: 13120: 13116: 13103: 13099: 13090: 13086: 13078: 13074: 13061: 13057: 13014: 13010: 12997: 12993: 12976: 12972: 12933: 12929: 12884: 12880: 12835: 12831: 12784: 12780: 12775:Wayback Machine 12766: 12762: 12752: 12750: 12745: 12744: 12740: 12730: 12728: 12718: 12714: 12704: 12702: 12692: 12688: 12651:Nature Medicine 12643: 12639: 12616:10.1038/437027a 12602:(7055): 27–29. 12592: 12588: 12555:(3): e1000245. 12541: 12537: 12482: 12478: 12441: 12437: 12414:(10): 2824–29. 12400: 12396: 12359: 12355: 12342: 12338: 12330: 12323: 12317: 12313: 12307:Wayback Machine 12296:Wayback Machine 12287: 12280: 12275: 12271: 12261: 12259: 12252: 12248: 12238: 12236: 12229: 12225: 12215: 12213: 12209: 12170: 12164: 12160: 12150: 12148: 12147:on 23 July 2011 12135: 12134: 12130: 12120: 12118: 12105: 12104: 12100: 12090: 12088: 12084: 12073: 12069: 12068: 12064: 12054: 12052: 12051:on 25 June 2008 12048: 12041: 12037: 12036: 12032: 12022: 12020: 12012: 12011: 12007: 11995: 11991: 11981:Wayback Machine 11971: 11967: 11954: 11950: 11940: 11938: 11931: 11927: 11917: 11915: 11908: 11904: 11894: 11892: 11881: 11877: 11858: 11854: 11839: 11832: 11817: 11813: 11803: 11801: 11791: 11787: 11777: 11775: 11766: 11765: 11758: 11748: 11746: 11741: 11740: 11736: 11726: 11724: 11719: 11718: 11714: 11704: 11702: 11694: 11688: 11684: 11674: 11672: 11663: 11662: 11658: 11648: 11646: 11636: 11632: 11622: 11620: 11613: 11609: 11599: 11597: 11587: 11583: 11576: 11552: 11548: 11541: 11523: 11519: 11488: 11484: 11475: 11474: 11470: 11461: 11460: 11456: 11446: 11444: 11434: 11430: 11417: 11410: 11395: 11391: 11378: 11377: 11373: 11358: 11354: 11344: 11342: 11333: 11332: 11328: 11320: 11316: 11263: 11259: 11226:(5): e1002156. 11212: 11208: 11177: 11173: 11142: 11138: 11128: 11126: 11121: 11120: 11116: 11093:10.1038/460208a 11069: 11065: 11057: 11053: 11047:Dr Hadwen Trust 11041: 11034: 10995: 10991: 10960: 10956: 10948: 10944: 10934: 10932: 10928: 10921: 10917: 10916: 10912: 10904: 10900: 10867:10.2307/3433801 10847: 10843: 10833: 10831: 10823: 10822: 10818: 10787: 10783: 10760: 10756: 10748: 10726:10.1038/438144a 10701: 10695: 10686: 10674: 10670: 10662:Wayback Machine 10653: 10646: 10633: 10629: 10619:Wayback Machine 10609: 10605: 10565: 10561: 10524: 10520: 10483: 10476: 10429: 10425: 10419:Wayback Machine 10410: 10406: 10400:Wayback Machine 10388: 10384: 10339: 10335: 10312: 10305: 10266: 10262: 10231: 10227: 10204:10.1038/nrc2192 10188: 10184: 10161:(15): 2177–84. 10147: 10143: 10106: 10102: 10065: 10061: 10038:10.1038/414901a 10013: 10007: 10003: 9966: 9962: 9942: 9938: 9929: 9925: 9909: 9905: 9882: 9878: 9837: 9833: 9802: 9798: 9759: 9755: 9710: 9706: 9669: 9665: 9642:10.1038/nrg1553 9626: 9622: 9599: 9592: 9584: 9577: 9569: 9562: 9558: 9557: 9553: 9492: 9488: 9472: 9468: 9431: 9427: 9416: 9412: 9403: 9399: 9393:Wayback Machine 9384: 9380: 9357: 9350: 9303: 9299: 9264: 9260: 9205: 9201: 9188: 9187: 9183: 9167: 9163: 9153: 9151: 9142: 9141: 9137: 9127: 9125: 9120: 9119: 9115: 9105: 9103: 9095: 9094: 9090: 9059: 9055: 9016: 9012: 9003: 8996: 8987: 8983: 8978: 8974: 8953:(12): 5001–07. 8943: 8939: 8918:(12): 5017–22. 8908: 8904: 8893: 8889: 8881: 8877: 8876: 8869: 8863:Wayback Machine 8854: 8850: 8841: 8840: 8836: 8827: 8826: 8822: 8814: 8810: 8802: 8798: 8788:Francione, Gary 8786: 8782: 8773: 8769: 8752: 8748: 8732: 8728: 8722:Wayback Machine 8713: 8709: 8703:Wayback Machine 8696:Class B dealers 8694: 8690: 8677: 8670: 8625: 8621: 8608: 8607: 8603: 8597:Wayback Machine 8588: 8584: 8547: 8543: 8533: 8531: 8523: 8522: 8518: 8508: 8506: 8505:. 20 April 2018 8497: 8496: 8492: 8482: 8480: 8473: 8469: 8459: 8457: 8456:. ABC. The Drum 8450: 8446: 8436: 8434: 8430: 8419: 8415: 8414: 8410: 8363: 8359: 8349: 8347: 8332: 8316: 8309: 8300: 8299: 8295: 8286: 8285: 8278: 8270: 8266: 8257: 8253: 8243: 8241: 8203: 8199: 8189: 8187: 8178: 8177: 8173: 8165: 8158: 8154: 8153: 8142: 8132: 8115: 8111: 8066: 8062: 8052: 8050: 8033: 8029: 7990: 7986: 7982:Carbone, p. 94. 7981: 7977: 7930: 7926: 7916: 7914: 7906: 7900: 7896: 7886: 7884: 7876: 7870: 7866: 7856: 7854: 7841: 7840: 7833: 7825: 7821: 7813: 7809: 7804: 7800: 7790: 7788: 7784: 7777: 7773: 7772: 7768: 7763: 7759: 7749: 7747: 7739: 7735: 7734: 7730: 7713: 7709: 7672: 7665: 7654: 7647: 7594: 7590: 7551: 7547: 7508: 7504: 7494: 7492: 7481: 7477: 7464: 7457: 7447: 7445: 7432: 7431: 7427: 7417: 7415: 7406: 7405: 7401: 7393: 7389: 7334: 7330: 7277: 7273: 7218: 7214: 7205: 7204: 7200: 7191: 7190: 7186: 7176: 7174: 7166: 7162: 7161: 7150: 7097: 7093: 7060: 7056: 7048: 7044: 6991: 6987: 6952:Nature Genetics 6947: 6943: 6912: 6908: 6869: 6858: 6811: 6807: 6798: 6797: 6780: 6725: 6721: 6676: 6669: 6614: 6607: 6570: 6563: 6518: 6514: 6475: 6471: 6432: 6428: 6405:10.1038/nrg1554 6389: 6385: 6362:10.1038/nrg2105 6346: 6342: 6323: 6319: 6306: 6305: 6301: 6294: 6290: 6283: 6279: 6269: 6267: 6259: 6258: 6254: 6207: 6200: 6145: 6141: 6096: 6092: 6047: 6043: 6036: 6032: 6026:Wayback Machine 6018: 6014: 6003: 6001: 5992: 5991: 5987: 5976: 5974: 5965: 5964: 5960: 5951: 5947: 5940: 5936: 5913: 5909: 5899: 5897: 5882: 5878: 5833: 5829: 5820: 5816: 5777: 5773: 5742: 5738: 5725:(11): 1631–41. 5715: 5711: 5688: 5684: 5671: 5670: 5666: 5661: 5657: 5640: 5636: 5599: 5595: 5591:Carbone, p. 22. 5590: 5583: 5573: 5571: 5569:Merriam-Webster 5561:"Vivisection". 5560: 5559: 5555: 5545: 5543: 5537:"Vivisection". 5536: 5535: 5531: 5526:on 13 May 2015. 5523: 5516: 5512: 5511: 5507: 5490: 5489: 5485: 5468: 5461: 5410: 5406: 5353: 5349: 5296: 5292: 5231: 5227: 5174: 5170: 5119: 5115: 5062: 5058: 5049: 5048: 5044: 5034: 5032: 5027: 5026: 5022: 5017: 5013: 5006: 4992: 4985: 4976: 4975: 4971: 4918: 4911: 4864: 4857: 4810: 4803: 4798:Wayback Machine 4789: 4782: 4747:Nature Medicine 4743: 4736: 4711: 4684: 4644:10.1038/nrg2091 4620: 4601: 4594: 4571: 4564: 4511: 4504: 4496: 4469: 4430: 4426: 4395: 4391: 4372: 4368: 4331: 4327: 4312: 4298:Fox MA (1986). 4296: 4292: 4283: 4276: 4267: 4260: 4253: 4246: 4237: 4230: 4222:Moore F (1964) 4221: 4214: 4205: 4198: 4189: 4182: 4173: 4166: 4157: 4150: 4145:Wayback Machine 4136: 4129: 4124:Wayback Machine 4115: 4108: 4103:Wayback Machine 4094: 4087: 4080: 4073: 4061: 4054: 4044: 4042: 4037: 4036: 4029: 4019: 4017: 4012: 4011: 4004: 3994: 3972: 3965: 3953: 3928: 3909: 3902: 3892: 3869: 3862: 3836:10.1038/nrg2091 3820: 3813: 3802: 3779: 3772: 3757: 3746: 3691: 3687: 3647: 3641: 3630: 3620: 3618: 3617:. UK Parliament 3613: 3612: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3524: 3497:epidemiological 3440: 3434: 3393:, who wrote to 3371: 3355: 3313: 3305:Francis Collins 3273: 3256:corticosteroids 3248: 3201:ophthalmologist 3168: 3070:Dolly the sheep 3010:Malcolm Macleod 2962: 2922: 2915: 2914: 2878: 2870: 2869: 2835: 2827: 2826: 2702: 2694: 2693: 2667: 2657: 2656: 2605: 2585: 2567:Keio University 2559: 2545: 2496: 2444: 2385: 2325:intramuscularly 2301:metabolic tests 2293: 2253: 2247: 2219:carcinogenicity 2171: 2153:intramuscularly 2099: 2077: 2071: 2044:immune response 2033: 2027: 1900: 1795: 1790: 1729:carbon monoxide 1704: 1694: 1600: 1582:Pain in animals 1574: 1496:Animal shelters 1479: 1471:Main articles: 1469: 1434: 1428: 1389: 1335: 1319: 1315: 1306: 1302: 1295: 1291: 1282: 1278: 1271: 1267: 1261: 1253: 1223: 1205: 1200: 1168: 1154: 1061:capsule in 1961 1059:Mercury-Atlas 5 1048: 1042: 1003: 965: 955: 913: 907: 901: 865:D. melanogaster 830: 824: 818: 813: 807: 805:Model organisms 771:(hog cholera), 726:Dolly the sheep 710:Rudolf Jaenisch 607:D. melanogaster 470:'s dogs with a 444: 438: 385: 315:(hog cholera), 146:model organisms 131:animal research 96: 79: 73: 60: 55: 54: 53: 52: 51: 50: 34: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 19269: 19259: 19258: 19253: 19248: 19243: 19238: 19233: 19228: 19223: 19218: 19216:Animal testing 19201: 19200: 19198: 19197: 19196: 19195: 19185: 19184: 19183: 19178: 19173: 19171:Whale watching 19168: 19160: 19155: 19150: 19148:Spotted hyenas 19145: 19140: 19139: 19138: 19133: 19128: 19120: 19115: 19110: 19105: 19100: 19095: 19094: 19093: 19088: 19080: 19075: 19070: 19065: 19060: 19055: 19050: 19049: 19048: 19043: 19038: 19028: 19022: 19020: 19016: 19015: 19008: 19006: 19004: 19003: 19001:Working animal 18998: 18993: 18991:Service animal 18988: 18983: 18978: 18973: 18968: 18963: 18958: 18953: 18948: 18943: 18937: 18935: 18931: 18930: 18923: 18922: 18915: 18908: 18900: 18891: 18890: 18888: 18887: 18884:List of topics 18880: 18873: 18865: 18862: 18861: 18859: 18858: 18853: 18848: 18843: 18838: 18836:Selection bias 18832: 18830: 18826: 18825: 18823: 18822: 18817: 18812: 18807: 18802: 18796: 18794: 18788: 18787: 18785: 18784: 18779: 18774: 18769: 18764: 18759: 18757:Animal testing 18754: 18749: 18743: 18741: 18737: 18736: 18733: 18732: 18709:Mortality rate 18695: 18693: 18687: 18686: 18669: 18667: 18661: 18660: 18631: 18629: 18623: 18622: 18601: 18599: 18590: 18584: 18583: 18581: 18580: 18575: 18570: 18565: 18555: 18554: 18553: 18548: 18538: 18524: 18522: 18510: 18509: 18507: 18506: 18505: 18504: 18502:Platform trial 18494: 18493: 18492: 18487: 18482: 18471: 18469: 18457: 18456: 18454: 18453: 18448: 18443: 18438: 18433: 18428: 18427: 18426: 18421: 18414:Clinical trial 18410: 18408: 18404: 18403: 18392: 18391: 18384: 18377: 18369: 18360: 18359: 18357: 18356: 18341: 18338: 18337: 18334: 18333: 18330: 18329: 18327: 18326: 18317: 18315: 18311: 18310: 18308: 18307: 18299: 18291: 18283: 18275: 18266: 18264: 18258: 18257: 18254: 18253: 18251: 18250: 18243: 18236: 18229: 18222: 18214: 18212: 18208: 18207: 18205: 18204: 18197: 18190: 18183: 18176: 18169: 18162: 18154: 18152: 18145: 18141: 18140: 18138: 18137: 18129: 18121: 18113: 18105: 18097: 18089: 18081: 18073: 18065: 18057: 18049: 18041: 18033: 18025: 18017: 18009: 18005:Meet Your Meat 18001: 17993: 17985: 17977: 17968: 17966: 17962: 17961: 17959: 17958: 17950: 17942: 17934: 17926: 17918: 17910: 17902: 17894: 17886: 17878: 17870: 17862: 17854: 17846: 17838: 17830: 17822: 17814: 17806: 17802:The New Ethics 17798: 17790: 17782: 17774: 17766: 17758: 17750: 17742: 17733: 17731: 17723: 17722: 17712: 17711: 17708: 17707: 17704: 17703: 17701: 17700: 17694: 17692: 17688: 17687: 17685: 17684: 17678: 17672: 17666: 17660: 17654: 17648: 17642: 17636: 17633:Animals' Party 17630: 17624: 17618: 17612: 17605: 17603: 17599: 17598: 17595: 17594: 17592: 17591: 17586: 17580: 17575: 17569: 17567: 17563: 17562: 17560: 17559: 17554: 17549: 17544: 17539: 17534: 17529: 17524: 17519: 17514: 17509: 17504: 17499: 17494: 17489: 17484: 17479: 17474: 17469: 17464: 17459: 17454: 17449: 17444: 17439: 17434: 17429: 17424: 17419: 17414: 17409: 17404: 17402:AnimaNaturalis 17399: 17394: 17389: 17384: 17379: 17374: 17372:Animal Justice 17369: 17364: 17359: 17353: 17351: 17344: 17336: 17335: 17322: 17321: 17318: 17317: 17314: 17313: 17310: 17309: 17307: 17306: 17304:Gretchen Wyler 17301: 17296: 17291: 17286: 17281: 17276: 17271: 17266: 17261: 17256: 17251: 17246: 17241: 17236: 17234:Lewis Gompertz 17231: 17226: 17224:Emarel Freshel 17221: 17216: 17214:Muriel Dowding 17211: 17206: 17201: 17196: 17191: 17186: 17181: 17176: 17171: 17165: 17163: 17159: 17158: 17156: 17155: 17150: 17148:Gary Yourofsky 17145: 17140: 17135: 17130: 17125: 17120: 17115: 17110: 17105: 17100: 17095: 17090: 17085: 17080: 17075: 17070: 17065: 17063:Ingrid Newkirk 17060: 17055: 17050: 17045: 17040: 17035: 17030: 17025: 17020: 17015: 17010: 17005: 17003:Charlotte Laws 17000: 16995: 16990: 16985: 16980: 16975: 16970: 16965: 16960: 16955: 16950: 16945: 16940: 16935: 16930: 16928:Yves Bonnardel 16925: 16920: 16915: 16910: 16905: 16903:Martin Balluch 16900: 16895: 16890: 16884: 16882: 16875: 16871: 16870: 16867: 16866: 16864: 16863: 16858: 16853: 16851:Steven M. Wise 16848: 16843: 16838: 16833: 16828: 16823: 16818: 16813: 16808: 16803: 16798: 16796:Bernard Rollin 16793: 16788: 16783: 16778: 16773: 16768: 16763: 16758: 16756:Leonard Nelson 16753: 16748: 16743: 16738: 16733: 16728: 16723: 16718: 16713: 16708: 16703: 16698: 16693: 16688: 16683: 16678: 16673: 16668: 16663: 16661:Herman Daggett 16658: 16653: 16651:Priscilla Cohn 16648: 16643: 16638: 16633: 16628: 16626:Jeremy Bentham 16622: 16620: 16616: 16615: 16613: 16612: 16607: 16602: 16597: 16592: 16587: 16582: 16577: 16572: 16567: 16562: 16557: 16552: 16547: 16542: 16540:Jessica Pierce 16537: 16532: 16527: 16522: 16517: 16512: 16507: 16502: 16497: 16492: 16487: 16482: 16477: 16472: 16470:Kyle Johannsen 16467: 16462: 16457: 16452: 16447: 16442: 16437: 16432: 16427: 16422: 16417: 16412: 16407: 16402: 16397: 16395:David DeGrazia 16392: 16387: 16382: 16377: 16372: 16367: 16362: 16357: 16352: 16347: 16342: 16337: 16335:Carol J. Adams 16331: 16329: 16322: 16312: 16311: 16298: 16297: 16294: 16293: 16290: 16289: 16287: 16286: 16281: 16276: 16271: 16265: 16263: 16259: 16258: 16256: 16255: 16250: 16244: 16242: 16238: 16237: 16235: 16234: 16229: 16224: 16219: 16214: 16209: 16207:Pit of despair 16204: 16199: 16194: 16189: 16183: 16181: 16177: 16176: 16173: 16172: 16170: 16169: 16164: 16159: 16154: 16149: 16144: 16139: 16137:Abandoned pets 16133: 16131: 16127: 16126: 16124: 16123: 16118: 16113: 16108: 16103: 16098: 16093: 16088: 16083: 16077: 16075: 16069: 16068: 16066: 16065: 16060: 16055: 16049: 16047: 16041: 16040: 16038: 16037: 16032: 16027: 16022: 16017: 16012: 16007: 16002: 15997: 15992: 15986: 15984: 15982:Animal welfare 15978: 15977: 15975: 15974: 15969: 15964: 15959: 15957:Model organism 15954: 15949: 15944: 15939: 15934: 15929: 15924: 15918: 15916: 15914:Animal testing 15910: 15909: 15907: 15906: 15901: 15896: 15891: 15889:Working animal 15886: 15881: 15879:Slaughterhouse 15876: 15871: 15866: 15861: 15856: 15854:Insect farming 15851: 15846: 15841: 15836: 15831: 15826: 15821: 15816: 15814:Animal product 15810: 15808: 15799: 15795: 15794: 15792: 15791: 15786: 15781: 15776: 15771: 15769:Sentiocentrism 15766: 15761: 15756: 15751: 15746: 15741: 15736: 15731: 15726: 15721: 15716: 15711: 15706: 15701: 15694: 15689: 15684: 15679: 15677:Animal welfare 15674: 15669: 15664: 15659: 15654: 15649: 15644: 15639: 15633: 15631: 15627: 15626: 15624: 15623: 15618: 15613: 15608: 15603: 15598: 15593: 15588: 15583: 15578: 15573: 15568: 15563: 15557: 15555: 15547: 15546: 15536: 15535: 15528: 15527: 15520: 15513: 15505: 15496: 15495: 15493: 15492: 15486: 15480: 15474: 15468: 15462: 15456: 15454: 15450: 15449: 15447: 15446: 15441: 15436: 15431: 15426: 15424:Ingrid Newkirk 15421: 15416: 15411: 15405: 15403: 15397: 15396: 15394: 15393: 15388: 15383: 15378: 15373: 15368: 15363: 15358: 15353: 15348: 15343: 15338: 15333: 15328: 15323: 15318: 15313: 15308: 15303: 15298: 15293: 15288: 15283: 15277: 15275: 15269: 15268: 15266: 15265: 15260: 15255: 15250: 15245: 15240: 15235: 15230: 15224: 15222: 15218: 15217: 15215: 15214: 15207: 15202: 15200:Pit of despair 15197: 15192: 15187: 15182: 15176: 15174: 15168: 15167: 15165: 15164: 15159: 15154: 15149: 15144: 15139: 15134: 15132:Animal welfare 15129: 15123: 15121: 15117: 15116: 15114: 15113: 15108: 15103: 15098: 15093: 15088: 15082: 15080: 15076: 15075: 15068: 15066: 15064: 15063: 15058: 15053: 15048: 15043: 15038: 15033: 15028: 15023: 15018: 15013: 15008: 15003: 14998: 14993: 14987: 14985: 14981: 14980: 14977:Animal testing 14973: 14972: 14965: 14958: 14950: 14944: 14943: 14940:Animal testing 14931: 14928:Animal testing 14917: 14916:External links 14914: 14912: 14911: 14908:Yahoo! Finance 14901: 14895: 14882: 14871: 14867: 14866: 14861: 14855: 14854: 14850:Animal testing 14843: 14842: 14840: 14837: 14836: 14835: 14821: 14806: 14803: 14800: 14799: 14788:. NC3Rs.org.uk 14777: 14765: 14753: 14734: 14715: 14703: 14677: 14651: 14625: 14576: 14562: 14551:on 7 June 2015 14532: 14483: 14434: 14411: 14389: 14338: 14311: 14262: 14221: 14195: 14179: 14163: 14156: 14138: 14117: 14099: 14084:Mason, Peter. 14077: 14050: 14026: 14010: 13989: 13968: 13944: 13926: 13902: 13888: 13868: 13854: 13834: 13813: 13754: 13703: 13646: 13589: 13527: 13467: 13424: 13407: 13390: 13376:Evers, Marco. 13369: 13356: 13333: 13316: 13290: 13271: 13258: 13241: 13225: 13202: 13157: 13114: 13097: 13084: 13072: 13055: 13008: 12991: 12970: 12927: 12878: 12829: 12778: 12760: 12738: 12726:sciencemag.org 12712: 12686: 12637: 12586: 12535: 12476: 12435: 12394: 12353: 12336: 12311: 12278: 12269: 12246: 12223: 12181:(4): 285–304. 12158: 12128: 12098: 12087:on 13 May 2015 12062: 12030: 12005: 11989: 11965: 11948: 11925: 11914:. Boston Globe 11902: 11891:on 9 July 2015 11875: 11852: 11830: 11811: 11785: 11756: 11734: 11712: 11682: 11656: 11630: 11607: 11581: 11574: 11546: 11539: 11517: 11482: 11468: 11454: 11428: 11408: 11389: 11371: 11366:The World Post 11352: 11326: 11314: 11257: 11206: 11187:(2): 191–206. 11171: 11136: 11114: 11063: 11051: 11032: 10989: 10970:(6): 493–515. 10954: 10942: 10910: 10898: 10841: 10816: 10797:(3): 289–301. 10781: 10754: 10684: 10668: 10644: 10627: 10603: 10559: 10518: 10497:(13): 204–20. 10474: 10423: 10404: 10382: 10333: 10303: 10260: 10241:(1–2): 67–77. 10225: 10182: 10141: 10100: 10059: 10001: 9960: 9936: 9923: 9903: 9876: 9831: 9796: 9753: 9704: 9663: 9620: 9590: 9575: 9551: 9486: 9466: 9425: 9410: 9397: 9378: 9348: 9297: 9278:(2): 159–163. 9258: 9199: 9181: 9161: 9135: 9113: 9088: 9053: 9010: 8994: 8981: 8972: 8937: 8902: 8887: 8867: 8848: 8834: 8820: 8808: 8796: 8780: 8767: 8746: 8726: 8707: 8688: 8668: 8619: 8601: 8582: 8541: 8516: 8490: 8467: 8444: 8433:on 7 June 2015 8408: 8357: 8330: 8307: 8293: 8276: 8264: 8251: 8197: 8186:. 19 June 2017 8171: 8140: 8109: 8060: 8027: 7984: 7975: 7924: 7894: 7864: 7831: 7819: 7807: 7798: 7766: 7757: 7728: 7707: 7663: 7645: 7588: 7545: 7502: 7475: 7455: 7444:on 4 July 2017 7425: 7399: 7387: 7328: 7271: 7212: 7198: 7184: 7171:UK Home Office 7148: 7091: 7054: 7042: 6985: 6964:10.1038/ng.147 6941: 6906: 6885:10.1038/ncb437 6856: 6821:(5419): 1463. 6805: 6778: 6719: 6667: 6605: 6561: 6532:(7): 3833–41. 6512: 6469: 6426: 6383: 6340: 6317: 6299: 6288: 6277: 6252: 6198: 6159:(4): 1250–54. 6139: 6090: 6041: 6030: 6012: 5985: 5958: 5945: 5934: 5907: 5876: 5827: 5814: 5771: 5736: 5709: 5698:(9): 1333–39. 5682: 5664: 5655: 5634: 5593: 5581: 5553: 5529: 5505: 5483: 5459: 5404: 5367:(4): 146–172. 5347: 5310:(5): 476–483. 5290: 5245:(5): 345–361. 5225: 5168: 5113: 5076:(6): 526–530. 5056: 5042: 5020: 5011: 5004: 4983: 4969: 4909: 4855: 4801: 4780: 4753:(7): 827–831. 4734: 4732: 4731: 4719: 4709: 4692: 4682: 4667: 4638:(5): 353–367. 4627: 4618: 4592: 4562: 4502: 4467: 4424: 4405:(2): 116–124. 4389: 4366: 4325: 4310: 4290: 4274: 4258: 4244: 4228: 4212: 4196: 4180: 4164: 4160:Br J Pharmacol 4148: 4127: 4106: 4085: 4071: 4052: 4041:. Nobel Web AB 4027: 4016:. Nobel Web AB 4002: 3992: 3963: 3961: 3960: 3951: 3936: 3933:breakthroughs. 3926: 3900: 3890: 3860: 3830:(5): 353–367. 3811: 3800: 3770: 3744: 3685: 3658:(12): 850–62. 3628: 3605: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3597: 3594: 3592: 3591: 3586: 3581: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3546: 3541: 3536: 3531: 3529:Bateson's cube 3525: 3523: 3520: 3453:Wyss Institute 3446:" are guiding 3436:Main article: 3433: 3430: 3391:Charles Darwin 3344:Claude Bernard 3336:Edmund O'Meara 3320:Claude Bernard 3312: 3309: 3272: 3269: 3247: 3244: 3224:modus operandi 3167: 3164: 3114:from an adult 2990:Bernard Rollin 2964: 2963: 2961: 2960: 2953: 2946: 2938: 2935: 2934: 2933: 2932: 2917: 2916: 2913: 2912: 2907: 2902: 2897: 2896: 2895: 2885: 2879: 2877:Related topics 2876: 2875: 2872: 2871: 2868: 2867: 2862: 2860:Sentiocentrism 2857: 2852: 2847: 2842: 2836: 2833: 2832: 2829: 2828: 2825: 2824: 2823: 2822: 2817: 2807: 2806: 2805: 2800: 2795: 2785: 2784: 2783: 2776:Animal testing 2773: 2772: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2751: 2750: 2749: 2744: 2739: 2734: 2724: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2703: 2700: 2699: 2696: 2695: 2692: 2691: 2686: 2685: 2684: 2679: 2668: 2663: 2662: 2659: 2658: 2655: 2654: 2653: 2652: 2645:Primate rights 2642: 2637: 2632: 2630:Animal cruelty 2627: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2610:Animal welfare 2606: 2603: 2602: 2599: 2598: 2590: 2589: 2581: 2580: 2549:Animal welfare 2544: 2541: 2495: 2492: 2443: 2440: 2384: 2381: 2380: 2379: 2364: 2350: 2337:, which gauge 2332: 2292: 2289: 2249:Main article: 2246: 2243: 2241:fluorescence. 2234:false positive 2223:teratogenicity 2169: 2164:acute toxicity 2157:subcutaneously 2134:food additives 2089:Acute toxicity 2073:Main article: 2070: 2067: 2029:Main article: 2026: 2023: 2022: 2021: 2013: 1970: 1938: 1908:drug discovery 1899: 1896: 1895: 1894: 1850: 1839: 1832:gene targeting 1794: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1733:carbon dioxide 1693: 1690: 1647:Bernard Rollin 1639:René Descartes 1573: 1570: 1568:into the U.S. 1468: 1465: 1452: 1451: 1448:animal welfare 1444: 1441: 1430:Main article: 1427: 1424: 1388: 1385: 1331: 1328: 1327: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1314: 1311: 1310: 1307: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1290: 1287: 1286: 1283: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1266: 1254: 1252: 1251: 1244: 1237: 1229: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1179:Xenopus laevis 1153: 1150: 1131:rhesus macaque 1124:stereotypyical 1102:spider monkeys 1044:Main article: 1041: 1038: 1002: 999: 954: 951: 903:Main article: 900: 897: 820:Main article: 817: 814: 811:Model organism 809:Main article: 806: 803: 745:whooping cough 668:In the 1940s, 524:to prove that 440:Main article: 437: 434: 405:but different 384: 381: 346:European Union 264:common descent 245:whooping cough 123:Animal testing 118: 117: 114: 110: 109: 102: 98: 97: 91: 58: 36: 30: 27: 25: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 19268: 19257: 19254: 19252: 19249: 19247: 19244: 19242: 19239: 19237: 19234: 19232: 19229: 19227: 19224: 19222: 19219: 19217: 19214: 19213: 19211: 19194: 19191: 19190: 19189: 19186: 19182: 19179: 19177: 19176:Whale worship 19174: 19172: 19169: 19167: 19164: 19163: 19161: 19159: 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18795: 18793: 18789: 18783: 18782:Vaccine trial 18780: 18778: 18777:Seeding trial 18775: 18773: 18770: 18768: 18765: 18763: 18760: 18758: 18755: 18753: 18750: 18748: 18745: 18744: 18742: 18738: 18730: 18726: 18722: 18718: 18714: 18710: 18706: 18702: 18698: 18694: 18692: 18688: 18684: 18680: 18676: 18672: 18668: 18666: 18662: 18658: 18654: 18650: 18646: 18642: 18638: 18634: 18630: 18628: 18624: 18620: 18616: 18612: 18608: 18604: 18600: 18598: 18594: 18591: 18589: 18585: 18579: 18576: 18574: 18571: 18569: 18566: 18563: 18559: 18556: 18552: 18549: 18547: 18546:Retrospective 18544: 18543: 18542: 18539: 18537: 18533: 18529: 18526: 18525: 18523: 18520: 18515: 18511: 18503: 18500: 18499: 18498: 18495: 18491: 18488: 18486: 18483: 18481: 18478: 18477: 18476: 18473: 18472: 18470: 18467: 18466:EBM I to II-1 18462: 18458: 18452: 18449: 18447: 18444: 18442: 18439: 18437: 18434: 18432: 18429: 18425: 18422: 18420: 18417: 18416: 18415: 18412: 18411: 18409: 18405: 18401: 18397: 18390: 18385: 18383: 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17217: 17215: 17212: 17210: 17207: 17205: 17202: 17200: 17197: 17195: 17192: 17190: 17187: 17185: 17182: 17180: 17177: 17175: 17174:Henry B. Amos 17172: 17170: 17167: 17166: 17164: 17160: 17154: 17151: 17149: 17146: 17144: 17143:Louise Wallis 17141: 17139: 17136: 17134: 17131: 17129: 17126: 17124: 17121: 17119: 17116: 17114: 17111: 17109: 17108:Kim Stallwood 17106: 17104: 17103:Jasmin Singer 17101: 17099: 17098:Nathan Runkle 17096: 17094: 17091: 17089: 17086: 17084: 17083:David Olivier 17081: 17079: 17076: 17074: 17071: 17069: 17066: 17064: 17061: 17059: 17056: 17054: 17051: 17049: 17046: 17044: 17041: 17039: 17036: 17034: 17031: 17029: 17026: 17024: 17021: 17019: 17016: 17014: 17011: 17009: 17006: 17004: 17001: 16999: 16996: 16994: 16991: 16989: 16986: 16984: 16981: 16979: 16976: 16974: 16971: 16969: 16966: 16964: 16963:John Feldmann 16961: 16959: 16956: 16954: 16951: 16949: 16946: 16944: 16941: 16939: 16938:Aymeric Caron 16936: 16934: 16931: 16929: 16926: 16924: 16921: 16919: 16916: 16914: 16911: 16909: 16908:Carole Baskin 16906: 16904: 16901: 16899: 16896: 16894: 16891: 16889: 16886: 16885: 16883: 16879: 16876: 16872: 16862: 16859: 16857: 16854: 16852: 16849: 16847: 16844: 16842: 16839: 16837: 16834: 16832: 16829: 16827: 16824: 16822: 16819: 16817: 16814: 16812: 16811:Laurids Smith 16809: 16807: 16804: 16802: 16799: 16797: 16794: 16792: 16789: 16787: 16784: 16782: 16781:James Rachels 16779: 16777: 16774: 16772: 16769: 16767: 16764: 16762: 16759: 16757: 16754: 16752: 16749: 16747: 16744: 16742: 16739: 16737: 16734: 16732: 16729: 16727: 16726:John Lawrence 16724: 16722: 16719: 16717: 16714: 16712: 16709: 16707: 16704: 16702: 16699: 16697: 16694: 16692: 16689: 16687: 16684: 16682: 16679: 16677: 16674: 16672: 16669: 16667: 16664: 16662: 16659: 16657: 16654: 16652: 16649: 16647: 16644: 16642: 16639: 16637: 16636:Brigid Brophy 16634: 16632: 16629: 16627: 16624: 16623: 16621: 16617: 16611: 16608: 16606: 16603: 16601: 16600:Tatjana Višak 16598: 16596: 16593: 16591: 16590:David Sztybel 16588: 16586: 16585:Cass Sunstein 16583: 16581: 16578: 16576: 16573: 16571: 16568: 16566: 16563: 16561: 16558: 16556: 16553: 16551: 16550:Mark Rowlands 16548: 16546: 16545:Evelyn Pluhar 16543: 16541: 16538: 16536: 16533: 16531: 16528: 16526: 16523: 16521: 16518: 16516: 16513: 16511: 16508: 16506: 16503: 16501: 16500:Andrew Linzey 16498: 16496: 16493: 16491: 16488: 16486: 16485:Will Kymlicka 16483: 16481: 16478: 16476: 16473: 16471: 16468: 16466: 16465:Dale Jamieson 16463: 16461: 16458: 16456: 16453: 16451: 16448: 16446: 16445:Valéry Giroux 16443: 16441: 16440:Robert Garner 16438: 16436: 16433: 16431: 16428: 16426: 16423: 16421: 16418: 16416: 16413: 16411: 16408: 16406: 16405:Sue Donaldson 16403: 16401: 16398: 16396: 16393: 16391: 16388: 16386: 16385:J. M. Coetzee 16383: 16381: 16378: 16376: 16373: 16371: 16368: 16366: 16363: 16361: 16358: 16356: 16353: 16351: 16350:Tom Beauchamp 16348: 16346: 16343: 16341: 16338: 16336: 16333: 16332: 16330: 16326: 16323: 16317: 16313: 16308: 16303: 16299: 16285: 16282: 16280: 16277: 16275: 16272: 16270: 16267: 16266: 16264: 16260: 16254: 16253:Hunt sabotage 16251: 16249: 16246: 16245: 16243: 16241:Methodologies 16239: 16233: 16230: 16228: 16225: 16223: 16220: 16218: 16215: 16213: 16210: 16208: 16205: 16203: 16200: 16198: 16195: 16193: 16190: 16188: 16185: 16184: 16182: 16178: 16168: 16165: 16163: 16160: 16158: 16155: 16153: 16150: 16148: 16145: 16143: 16140: 16138: 16135: 16134: 16132: 16128: 16122: 16119: 16117: 16114: 16112: 16109: 16107: 16104: 16102: 16099: 16097: 16094: 16092: 16089: 16087: 16086:Hare coursing 16084: 16082: 16079: 16078: 16076: 16074: 16070: 16064: 16061: 16059: 16056: 16054: 16051: 16050: 16048: 16046: 16042: 16036: 16033: 16031: 16028: 16026: 16023: 16021: 16018: 16016: 16013: 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15665: 15663: 15660: 15658: 15657:Animal ethics 15655: 15653: 15650: 15648: 15645: 15643: 15640: 15638: 15635: 15634: 15632: 15628: 15622: 15619: 15617: 15614: 15612: 15609: 15607: 15604: 15602: 15599: 15597: 15594: 15592: 15589: 15587: 15584: 15582: 15579: 15577: 15574: 15572: 15569: 15567: 15564: 15562: 15559: 15558: 15556: 15552: 15548: 15541: 15537: 15533: 15532:Animal rights 15526: 15521: 15519: 15514: 15512: 15507: 15506: 15503: 15490: 15487: 15484: 15481: 15478: 15475: 15472: 15469: 15466: 15463: 15461: 15458: 15457: 15455: 15451: 15445: 15442: 15440: 15439:Simon Festing 15437: 15435: 15432: 15430: 15427: 15425: 15422: 15420: 15417: 15415: 15412: 15410: 15407: 15406: 15404: 15398: 15392: 15389: 15387: 15384: 15382: 15379: 15377: 15374: 15372: 15369: 15367: 15364: 15362: 15359: 15357: 15354: 15352: 15349: 15347: 15344: 15342: 15339: 15337: 15334: 15332: 15329: 15327: 15324: 15322: 15319: 15317: 15314: 15312: 15309: 15307: 15304: 15302: 15299: 15297: 15294: 15292: 15289: 15287: 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CRC Press. 4702: 4698: 4693: 4690: 4685: 4679: 4675: 4674: 4668: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4628: 4625: 4621: 4615: 4611: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4599: 4597: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4569: 4567: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4509: 4507: 4499: 4494: 4492: 4490: 4488: 4486: 4484: 4482: 4480: 4478: 4476: 4474: 4472: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4428: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4393: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4370: 4362: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4329: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4307: 4303: 4302: 4294: 4287: 4281: 4279: 4271: 4270:Br J Exp Path 4265: 4263: 4255: 4251: 4249: 4241: 4235: 4233: 4225: 4219: 4217: 4209: 4203: 4201: 4193: 4187: 4185: 4177: 4171: 4169: 4161: 4155: 4153: 4146: 4142: 4139: 4134: 4132: 4125: 4121: 4118: 4113: 4111: 4104: 4100: 4097: 4092: 4090: 4083: 4078: 4076: 4069: 4065: 4059: 4057: 4040: 4034: 4032: 4015: 4009: 4007: 3999: 3995: 3989: 3985: 3980: 3979: 3970: 3968: 3958: 3954: 3948: 3944: 3943: 3937: 3934: 3929: 3923: 3919: 3918: 3912: 3911: 3907: 3905: 3897: 3894:. 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3145: 3141: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3119: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3084: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3044: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3029: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3018:randomization 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2994:Donald Watson 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2978:animal rights 2974: 2970: 2959: 2954: 2952: 2947: 2945: 2940: 2939: 2937: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2921: 2920: 2919: 2918: 2911: 2908: 2906: 2903: 2901: 2898: 2894: 2891: 2890: 2889: 2886: 2884: 2883:Cultured meat 2881: 2880: 2874: 2873: 2866: 2863: 2861: 2858: 2856: 2853: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2841: 2838: 2837: 2831: 2830: 2821: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2812: 2811: 2808: 2804: 2801: 2799: 2796: 2794: 2791: 2790: 2789: 2786: 2782: 2779: 2778: 2777: 2774: 2770: 2767: 2765: 2762: 2760: 2757: 2756: 2755: 2752: 2748: 2745: 2743: 2740: 2738: 2735: 2733: 2730: 2729: 2728: 2725: 2723: 2720: 2718: 2715: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2705: 2704: 2698: 2697: 2690: 2687: 2683: 2680: 2678: 2675: 2674: 2673: 2670: 2669: 2666: 2661: 2660: 2651: 2648: 2647: 2646: 2643: 2641: 2640:Vegetarianism 2638: 2636: 2633: 2631: 2628: 2626: 2623: 2621: 2618: 2616: 2613: 2611: 2608: 2607: 2601: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2591: 2588: 2586:Animal rights 2583: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2573: 2568: 2563: 2558: 2554: 2553:Animal rights 2550: 2540: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2524:Animal rights 2521: 2517: 2513: 2512:Royal Society 2509: 2505: 2501: 2491: 2488: 2486: 2482: 2477: 2473: 2468: 2464: 2463:combat medics 2460: 2455: 2453: 2449: 2439: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2420:circuit board 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2400: 2398: 2392: 2390: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2362: 2361:dose-response 2358: 2354: 2351: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2333: 2330: 2329:transdermally 2326: 2322: 2321:intravenously 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2299: 2298: 2297: 2288: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2272: 2270: 2266: 2265:phototoxicity 2257: 2252: 2242: 2238: 2235: 2231: 2226: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2210: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2186: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2165: 2160: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2149:intravenously 2145: 2143: 2139: 2138:air freshener 2135: 2131: 2127: 2122: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2076: 2066: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2032: 2018: 2014: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1939: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1913: 1912: 1911: 1909: 1905: 1904:animal models 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1869:advantage of 1867: 1863: 1862: 1857: 1856: 1851: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1820: 1815: 1814: 1813:embryogenesis 1809: 1808: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1793:Pure research 1785: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1774:Electrocution 1770: 1769:Captive bolts 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1749:intravenously 1747:can be given 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1724: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1703: 1699: 1689: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1674: 1672: 1667: 1665: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1643:consciousness 1640: 1635: 1631: 1629: 1625: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1604: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1569: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1546: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1527: 1525: 1515: 1511: 1509: 1508:knockout mice 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1478: 1474: 1464: 1462: 1456: 1449: 1445: 1442: 1439: 1438: 1437: 1433: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1413: 1412: 1407: 1403: 1397: 1395: 1384: 1382: 1377: 1374: 1370: 1365: 1361: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1313: 1312: 1308: 1300: 1297: 1289: 1288: 1284: 1276: 1273: 1265: 1264: 1260: 1259: 1250: 1245: 1243: 1238: 1236: 1231: 1230: 1227: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1195: 1191: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1180: 1175: 1174: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1152:Other species 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1136: 1132: 1127: 1125: 1122: 1117: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1067: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1047: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1020: 1015: 1011: 1007: 998: 994: 992: 988: 984: 983:endocrinology 980: 971: 967: 964: 960: 950: 947: 943: 939: 930: 926: 922: 917: 912: 906: 896: 893: 892: 887: 881: 879: 875: 874:immune system 871: 870:immune system 866: 862: 858: 854: 853: 848: 847: 838: 834: 829: 823: 816:Invertebrates 812: 802: 800: 795: 790: 786: 784: 783: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 733: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 686: 683: 679: 678:polio vaccine 675: 671: 666: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 640: 635: 633: 628: 625:isolated the 624: 619: 616: 615:Abbie Lathrop 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 591: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 557: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 530:Louis Pasteur 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 510:Moorish Spain 507: 503: 499: 498: 493: 489: 485: 481: 473: 469: 464: 458: 457:Joseph Wright 454: 453: 448: 443: 433: 431: 427: 424: 419: 416: 412: 408: 404: 401:have similar 400: 397:testing, and 396: 395: 390: 380: 378: 373: 369: 365: 359: 357: 353: 352: 347: 343: 340:to non-human 339: 336:animals—from 335: 330: 328: 327: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 289: 285: 281: 277: 274:pathways and 273: 272:developmental 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 248: 246: 242: 238: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 213: 212: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 178: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 159:pure research 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 137: 132: 128: 124: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 89: 84: 81: 78: 71: 67: 62: 48: 44: 40: 33: 28: 19: 19143:Seal hunting 19041:Bear hunting 19036:Bear-baiting 18946:Draft animal 18882: 18875: 18868: 18756: 18657:Hazard ratio 18541:Cohort study 18320: 18301: 18293: 18285: 18277: 18269: 18245: 18238: 18231: 18224: 18217: 18199: 18192: 18185: 18178: 18171: 18164: 18157: 18131: 18123: 18115: 18107: 18099: 18091: 18083: 18075: 18067: 18059: 18051: 18043: 18035: 18027: 18019: 18011: 18003: 17995: 17987: 17979: 17971: 17952: 17944: 17936: 17928: 17920: 17912: 17904: 17896: 17888: 17880: 17872: 17864: 17856: 17848: 17840: 17832: 17824: 17816: 17808: 17800: 17792: 17784: 17776: 17768: 17760: 17752: 17744: 17736: 17589:Oxford Group 17457:Every Animal 17350:Contemporary 17299:Andrew Tyler 17289:Nell Shipman 17229:André Géraud 17138:Jerry Vlasak 17113:Lynda Stoner 17088:Alex Pacheco 17018:Evanna Lynch 17013:Howard Lyman 16998:Wayne Hsiung 16958:Chris DeRose 16948:Rod Coronado 16881:Contemporary 16821:Thomas Tryon 16741:Mary Midgley 16736:Jean Meslier 16716:Soame Jenyns 16706:John Hildrop 16701:Arthur Helps 16666:Richard Dean 16641:Peter Buchan 16580:Gary Steiner 16575:Peter Singer 16570:Jérôme Segal 16535:David Pearce 16525:Clare Palmer 16515:David Nibert 16505:Clair Linzey 16415:Joan Dunayer 16340:Aysha Akhtar 16328:Contemporary 16197:McLibel case 16152:Animal trial 16111:Seal hunting 16073:Wild animals 16058:Fishing bait 16020:Pain in fish 15913: 15839:Fish farming 15819:Battery cage 15739:Meat paradox 15696: 15637:Abolitionism 15434:Jerry Vlasak 15419:Gill Langley 15209: 14976: 14942:at Wikiquote 14886: 14849: 14812: 14790:. Retrieved 14780: 14768: 14756: 14737: 14718: 14706: 14694:. Retrieved 14690:the original 14680: 14668:. Retrieved 14664: 14654: 14642:. Retrieved 14638: 14628: 14593: 14589: 14579: 14565: 14553:. Retrieved 14549:the original 14544: 14535: 14500: 14496: 14486: 14451: 14447: 14437: 14425:. Retrieved 14414: 14402:. Retrieved 14392: 14355: 14351: 14341: 14324: 14320: 14314: 14279: 14275: 14265: 14238: 14234: 14224: 14212:. Retrieved 14208:the original 14198: 14190: 14182: 14172: 14166: 14147: 14141: 14125: 14120: 14109: 14102: 14086: 14080: 14063: 14059: 14053: 14045: 14029: 14021: 14013: 13997: 13992: 13984: 13955: 13947: 13939: 13913: 13891: 13880: 13871: 13857: 13846: 13837: 13825:. Retrieved 13816: 13771: 13768:PLOS Biology 13767: 13757: 13716: 13712: 13706: 13663: 13659: 13649: 13606: 13602: 13592: 13549: 13545: 13487: 13483: 13440:(2): 89–96. 13437: 13433: 13427: 13419: 13410: 13403:The Guardian 13402: 13393: 13385: 13372: 13359: 13351: 13336: 13328: 13319: 13307:. 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Retrieved 7743: 7731: 7722:The Observer 7720: 7710: 7683: 7680:ILAR Journal 7679: 7661:, 2004, p. 1 7605: 7601: 7591: 7558: 7554: 7548: 7515: 7511: 7505: 7493:. Retrieved 7488: 7478: 7470: 7446:. Retrieved 7442:the original 7437: 7428: 7416:. Retrieved 7411: 7402: 7390: 7345: 7341: 7331: 7288: 7284: 7274: 7229: 7225: 7215: 7201: 7187: 7175:. Retrieved 7170: 7111:(2): 18701. 7108: 7104: 7094: 7067: 7057: 7045: 7002: 6998: 6988: 6955: 6951: 6944: 6922:(2): 96–97. 6919: 6915: 6909: 6876: 6872: 6818: 6814: 6808: 6736: 6732: 6722: 6687: 6683: 6625: 6621: 6581: 6577: 6529: 6525: 6515: 6482: 6478: 6472: 6439: 6435: 6429: 6396: 6392: 6386: 6353: 6349: 6343: 6331:FDA Consumer 6330: 6320: 6314:. June 1981. 6311: 6302: 6291: 6280: 6268:. Retrieved 6264: 6255: 6214: 6210: 6156: 6152: 6142: 6107: 6103: 6093: 6058: 6054: 6044: 6033: 6015: 6002:. Retrieved 5998:the original 5988: 5975:. Retrieved 5971:the original 5961: 5953: 5948: 5937: 5920: 5916: 5910: 5898:. 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Many 3249: 3229: 3223: 3209: 3172: 3169: 3120: 3116:somatic cell 3092:single-fiber 3087: 3079: 3072:: the first 3051: 3045: 3030: 3002:Peter Singer 2975: 2971: 2967: 2900:Deep ecology 2840:Abolitionism 2759:Bullfighting 2722:Wild animals 2701:Animal abuse 2497: 2489: 2456: 2445: 2436:neuroscience 2401: 2393: 2386: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2352: 2334: 2300: 2294: 2291:Drug testing 2273: 2262: 2239: 2227: 2215:mutagenicity 2211: 2205: 2201: 2187: 2161: 2146: 2123: 2106: 2100: 2052: 2034: 2008:, and later 1997: 1980:, or giving 1901: 1891:sticklebacks 1859: 1853: 1842: 1817: 1811: 1796: 1782:air embolism 1757:decapitation 1745:barbiturates 1725: 1705: 1686:alternatives 1675: 1670: 1668: 1654: 1636: 1632: 1621: 1586:Pain in fish 1549: 1547: 1528: 1523: 1520: 1480: 1457: 1453: 1435: 1426:The Three Rs 1420: 1416: 1409: 1398: 1390: 1378: 1372: 1366: 1362: 1348: 1344: 1338: 1255: 1192: 1177: 1171: 1169: 1128: 1118: 1071: 1023: 1004: 995: 976: 966: 934: 889: 885: 882: 864: 860: 850: 844: 842: 787: 780: 775:, and other 765:tuberculosis 734: 687: 682:Albert Sabin 667: 651:John Macleod 636: 620: 606: 598: 588: 569:neuroscience 565:biochemistry 558: 546:tuberculosis 516:'s use of a 495: 488:Erasistratus 477: 472:saliva-catch 450: 422: 420: 414: 407:connotations 392: 388: 386: 360: 351:Mus musculus 349: 331: 324: 319:, and other 309:tuberculosis 249: 209: 190:neuroscience 186:biochemistry 179: 165:, including 135: 134: 130: 126: 122: 121: 80: 61: 46: 37:This is the 31: 18976:Pack animal 18951:Fur farming 18851:Null result 18810:Replication 18705:Infectivity 18627:Association 18578:Case report 18568:Case series 18551:Prospective 18144:Periodicals 18021:The Meatrix 17997:The Witness 17611:(Australia) 17585:(1891–1919) 17467:Faunalytics 17294:Henry Spira 17284:Hans Ruesch 17274:Jill Phipps 17269:Norm Phelps 17249:Barry Horne 17209:Royal Dixon 17204:Karen Davis 17184:Ernest Bell 17078:Ric O'Barry 17073:Jack Norris 17038:Dan Mathews 16943:Jake Conroy 16913:Barbi Twins 16888:James Aspey 16826:Gary Varner 16816:John Styles 16656:Henry Crowe 16605:Paul Waldau 16595:Michael Tye 16490:Renan Larue 16475:Melanie Joy 16460:Oscar Horta 16455:John Hadley 16425:Catia Faria 16420:Mylan Engel 16390:Alice Crary 16360:Steven Best 16355:Marc Bekoff 16321:and writers 16262:Observances 16167:Live export 16101:Ivory trade 15972:Vivisection 15947:Green Scare 15844:Fur farming 15749:Open rescue 15744:Nonviolence 15453:Legislation 15400:Writers and 15173:experiments 14805:Works cited 14742:EPAA – Home 14214:16 December 13386:Der Spiegel 13354:, Fall 2002 11804:10 November 10791:Xenobiotica 10439:(1): 5–18. 9944:Festing, M. 9724:(1): 6–14. 9521:11336/88084 9194:ori.hhs.gov 9101:www.apa.org 9026:(1): 5–18. 8778:L.A. Times. 8639:(1): 9–13. 8190:10 December 7518:(1): 1–15. 7348:: 7046927. 7050:Dog profile 5900:19 December 5847:(11): e83. 5825:, chapter 5 4286:Br. Med. J. 4240:Arch. Surg. 3699:Heart Views 3494:comparative 3487:human brain 3478:Microdosing 3425:, in 1966. 3415:Henry Bergh 3334:physiology 3260:thalidomide 3006:utilitarian 2998:vivisection 2820:Abandonment 2815:Puppy mills 2803:Oceanariums 2754:Bloodsports 2727:Consumption 2682:Vegetarians 2650:in research 2404:cockroaches 2309:metabolized 2269:ultraviolet 2190:Draize test 2166:tests. The 2130:medications 2081:Draize test 2002:pallidotomy 1982:neurotoxins 1883:adaptations 1875:comparative 1826:into their 1824:transposons 1810:Studies on 1802:through to 1765:irradiation 1741:anesthetics 1664:New Zealand 1188:Draize test 1173:Danio rerio 1166:Draize test 1114:chimpanzees 837:Fruit flies 799:Thalidomide 741:antibiotics 603:Eric Kandel 595:chromosomes 593:identified 550:Ivan Pavlov 542:Robert Koch 526:respiration 522:calorimeter 497:post-mortem 430:vivisection 403:denotations 399:vivisection 383:Definitions 286:as needed. 241:antibiotics 220:Eric Kandel 216:chromosomes 214:identified 101:Description 77:Vivisection 19210:Categories 19136:Orangutans 19046:Teddy bear 18653:Odds ratio 18645:Risk ratio 18611:Prevalence 18597:Occurrence 18573:Case study 18133:Seaspiracy 18037:Earthlings 17677:(Portugal) 17651:DierAnimal 17566:Historical 17362:Animal Aid 17254:Marie Huot 17199:Joan Court 17179:Bob Barker 17162:Historical 17048:Luísa Mell 17028:Keith Mann 17023:Bill Maher 17008:Ronnie Lee 16978:Tal Gilboa 16953:Karen Dawn 16893:Greg Avery 16771:Rod Preece 16686:T. Forster 16646:Mona Caird 16619:Historical 16480:Hilda Kean 16450:Lori Gruen 15784:Vegaphobia 15774:Speciesism 15667:Animal law 15414:Carl Cohen 15311:Boyd Group 15272:Groups and 15079:Testing on 14358:(2): 114. 12657:(8): 981. 12319:George R. 12216:4 December 12003:2004, p. 2 11778:9 November 11447:14 October 11345:5 December 11129:30 January 9317:(4): 154. 9154:25 January 9128:23 January 8900:April 2007 7872:Harden G. 5884:Pillai S. 5752:: 647–71. 5424:: 113944. 5133:: 105470. 5035:24 January 4194:16: p. 231 4178:14: p. 246 3596:References 3505:dissection 3448:principles 3352:toxicology 3324:toxicology 3033:great apes 3014:controlled 2865:Speciesism 2717:Mutilation 2543:Viewpoints 2500:euthanized 2467:mannequins 2416:electrodes 2397:InterNICHE 2389:fetal pigs 2285:Luxembourg 2175:population 2126:pesticides 2113:, because 2111:anesthesia 1959:Armadillos 1955:narcolepsy 1925:, such as 1887:morphology 1881:) produce 1847:enrichment 1804:armadillos 1698:Euthanasia 1692:Euthanasia 1618:and death. 1616:anesthesia 1614:to induce 1608:chloroform 1461:GM animals 1402:vertebrate 1207:See also: 957:See also: 909:See also: 861:C. elegans 826:See also: 789:Toxicology 743:, and the 690:Soviet dog 670:Jonas Salk 627:diphtheria 599:Drosophila 561:physiology 540:in sheep. 518:guinea pig 411:dissection 387:The terms 334:vertebrate 284:physiology 247:vaccine. 243:, and the 182:physiology 177:courses. 175:psychology 163:toxicology 144:, such as 106:vertebrate 75:See also: 19226:Bioethics 19103:Kangaroos 19073:Elephants 18971:Livestock 18713:Morbidity 18701:Virulence 18603:Incidence 18287:Manifesto 18226:Bite Back 18211:Magazines 18085:Vegucated 17683:(Germany) 17681:V-Partei³ 17659:(Germany) 17653:(Belgium) 17629:(Finland) 17452:Equanimal 17058:Morrissey 17033:Jim Mason 16988:Mark Gold 16923:Gene Baur 16898:Matt Ball 16874:Activists 16786:Tom Regan 16565:Jeff Sebo 16510:Dan Lyons 16319:Academics 16307:Advocates 16162:Live food 15962:Nafovanny 15869:Livestock 15849:Fur trade 15824:Bile bear 15759:Personism 15554:Overviews 15444:Tipu Aziz 15402:activists 15274:campaigns 15258:Nafovanny 15221:Companies 13790:1545-7885 13733:0003-4819 13680:0959-8138 13623:0959-8138 13566:0141-0768 13504:1449-1907 13454:1574-8871 13254:LA Weekly 13175:CiteSeerX 11825:USA Today 11743:"Welcome" 11638:Shine N. 11619:. Science 11556:Dresser R 11277:: 33922. 11220:PLOS Biol 9530:0953-816X 9292:0952-8369 9235:2076-2615 8757:, Zebra, 8479:. Haaretz 8350:16 August 8104:196613886 7725:. London. 7364:2314-6141 7305:1532-1827 7248:1179-1322 7125:2000-9666 7037:211261775 7021:0261-1929 6485:: 59–71. 6442:: 36–58. 6004:23 August 5809:141344843 5454:259915886 5438:1873-6351 5399:226204296 5383:0261-1929 5326:1600-0625 5285:221621465 5269:1474-1784 5202:1369-1600 5163:260938742 5147:1096-0295 5090:1469-221X 4964:211261775 4948:0261-1929 4602:Sources: 4384:785558800 4288:2: p. 454 3766:medicine. 3721:1995-705X 3705:(1): 42. 3680:206268293 3601:Citations 3472:in silico 3466:testing. 3048:cenotaphs 2982:Tom Regan 2910:Welfarism 2855:Personism 2788:Captivity 2672:Advocates 2428:Bluetooth 2383:Education 2020:compound. 1974:pathology 1855:evolution 1800:sea slugs 1737:Sedatives 1717:suffering 1628:suffering 1531:Minnesota 1492:Nafovanny 1098:marmosets 1074:neurology 1033:Zebrafish 1006:Zebrafish 1001:Zebrafish 949:science. 773:heartworm 720:into the 663:halothane 655:John Cade 484:Aristotle 338:zebrafish 317:heartworm 280:evolution 268:metabolic 260:unethical 232:halothane 19193:Werewolf 19126:Gorillas 19122:Simians 18877:Glossary 18870:Category 18747:In vitro 18588:Measures 18407:Overview 18350:Category 18219:Arkangel 18151:Journals 18125:Dominion 18061:The Cove 17691:Activism 17635:(Sweden) 17623:(Canada) 17617:(Europe) 17331:Movement 16861:Voltaire 15779:Veganism 15729:Ethology 15630:Concepts 15361:Pro-Test 15263:Shamrock 15180:Britches 15096:Primates 15056:Three Rs 14831:57138138 14745:Archived 14726:Archived 14620:19918375 14527:20836040 14478:17255608 14384:29466319 14333:14671703 14306:25015151 14298:15656775 14257:12513669 14091:Archived 14038:Archived 13954:(2000). 13882:Fox News 13808:34129637 13749:34932997 13741:11827510 13698:17175568 13641:14988196 13584:19297654 13522:23372426 13462:18474018 13344:Archived 13303:BBC News 13282:Archived 13214:Archived 13197:17021020 13144:18536673 12957:10998635 12824:26159256 12771:Archived 12673:12894144 12632:11500691 12624:16136111 12581:20361020 12549:PLOS Med 12530:24906117 12490:PLOS ONE 12471:17204689 12430:18635842 12389:12782533 12328:Archived 12303:Archived 12292:Archived 12235:. Gallup 12203:18620094 12195:16937023 12141:Pcrm.org 12018:Peta.org 11977:Archived 11772:BBC News 11699:Archived 11512:17199490 11309:27653274 11252:26018957 11166:11395155 11101:19587762 11027:24972694 11019:16954791 10984:11425356 10734:16281001 10658:Archived 10615:Archived 10598:22668776 10590:17488384 10554:16131605 10513:17981539 10469:72941995 10415:Archived 10396:Archived 10377:14988196 10328:10480640 10298:32489790 10290:11107448 10255:16678276 10212:17687385 10177:17401426 10155:Oncogene 10136:15787657 10095:17712222 10046:11780061 9996:16252286 9871:18050439 9845:WormBook 9826:10203825 9748:23492348 9740:10333399 9699:14761310 9658:21184903 9650:15738961 9615:15025339 9546:51865025 9538:30058230 9389:Archived 9373:12098013 9343:30970545 9253:38003070 9244:10668729 9040:14658059 8859:Archived 8738:Archived 8718:Archived 8699:Archived 8684:Newsweek 8663:18872015 8655:17218247 8593:Archived 8577:20075493 8403:24987170 8340:27347928 8239:46187262 8231:25717142 8096:18662096 8022:33314019 8014:11474086 7970:26486777 7791:6 August 7702:17712221 7640:18488016 7583:11209082 7540:19980505 7532:12766938 7382:30643816 7323:20502460 7266:33758544 7143:23882369 7086:12388850 7029:32090616 6980:22522876 6972:18443588 6893:17762889 6851:10122407 6843:10383321 6773:18838673 6714:17400503 6662:21829642 6622:PLOS ONE 6600:14975532 6556:15972468 6499:15199954 6464:21541043 6456:15199953 6421:31002250 6413:15738962 6378:12923468 6370:17549065 6134:16614253 6022:Archived 5871:21061734 5821:Kohler, 5766:11544370 5731:17106533 5704:16155644 5629:10089552 5446:37453475 5391:33119417 5334:29356091 5277:32913334 5220:33331099 5155:37591329 5108:17545991 4956:32090616 4904:39309990 4896:14671310 4794:Archived 4775:45108486 4660:13857842 4652:17440532 4587:16299672 4557:26525327 4549:15686976 4540:10911555 4462:41443542 4454:17495877 4419:19275547 4361:29281160 4345:(1): 1. 4320:11754940 4242:34, 1105 4192:J. Urol. 4141:Archived 4120:Archived 4099:Archived 3878:(1988). 3852:13857842 3844:17440532 3807:animals. 3788:(1988). 3739:21731811 3672:28756735 3522:See also 3464:in vitro 3459:in vitro 3444:Three Rs 3271:Activism 3156:Virginia 3123:Britches 3088:in vitro 3056:Japanese 3026:blinding 2905:Humanism 2798:Circuses 2781:Cosmetic 2665:Movement 2635:Veganism 2625:Timeline 2604:Overview 2577:a series 2575:Part of 2408:antennae 2313:excreted 2202:in vitro 2119:detoxify 2059:Novartis 2006:levodopa 1943:leukemia 1931:diabetes 1861:genetics 1843:behavior 1836:homeobox 1753:tricaine 1743:such as 1560:, or by 1539:Oklahoma 1524:bunching 1343:and the 1121:abnormal 1094:macaques 1078:genetics 1019:leukemia 1014:neoplasm 929:shocking 888:and the 878:waxworms 857:nematode 782:in vitro 757:glanders 706:genetics 643:diabetes 502:Avenzoar 342:primates 326:in vitro 301:glanders 150:behavior 113:Subjects 43:reviewed 19166:Whaling 19162:Whales 19158:Weasels 19098:Jaguars 19082:Horses 19058:Coyotes 18956:Hunting 18752:In vivo 17665:(Italy) 17647:(Spain) 17641:(Italy) 17602:Parties 16091:Hunting 16045:Fishing 15704:Carnism 15106:Rodents 15101:Rabbits 14792:6 April 14786:"NC3Rs" 14696:6 April 14611:2777271 14518:3157287 14469:1782004 14423:. Wired 14404:6 April 14375:5852610 14072:1775539 13827:8 March 13799:8205157 13689:1781970 13575:2746847 13513:3558708 13309:13 July 13152:8006958 13050:3952503 13030:Bibcode 13022:Science 12965:3477585 12922:3872938 12913:1192851 12873:5921536 12864:1357553 12816:4939977 12796:Bibcode 12753:13 July 12681:9892510 12604:Bibcode 12572:2846855 12521:4048216 12498:Bibcode 12151:6 April 12121:6 April 12091:6 April 12055:6 April 12023:6 April 12014:"About" 11937:. Patch 11749:6 April 11727:6 April 11705:9 April 11675:6 April 11300:5031998 11279:Bibcode 11243:4446337 11201:3051142 11081:Bibcode 10935:6 April 10893:9599698 10884:1533392 10875:3433801 10811:2336839 10776:2760837 10742:4422086 10714:Bibcode 10461:9928201 10441:Bibcode 10402:, BUAV. 10220:6490409 10054:4304296 10026:Bibcode 9862:4780964 9847:: 1–4. 9791:8577843 9771:Bibcode 9461:8938617 9334:6523187 9311:Animals 9213:Animals 9083:9464883 9048:8650837 8967:1808193 8932:1808195 8509:23 July 8394:4071700 8053:13 July 7994:Science 7961:4494267 7938:Animals 7857:14 June 7750:13 July 7631:2652570 7610:Bibcode 7563:Bibcode 7555:Science 7373:6311269 7314:2883160 7257:7979343 7177:23 July 7134:3714061 6924:Bibcode 6901:4472227 6823:Bibcode 6815:Science 6764:2572985 6741:Bibcode 6705:1974785 6653:3148234 6630:Bibcode 6547:1168613 6507:7395057 6270:8 April 6247:4260518 6239:9039911 6219:Bibcode 6193:4364530 6161:Bibcode 6125:1471987 6085:7242665 6063:Bibcode 5977:20 June 5956:19, 323 5929:9285027 5862:2966381 5801:3309839 5342:3378256 5211:9252265 5099:2002542 4876:Bibcode 4868:Science 4850:4370797 4842:8152486 4822:Bibcode 4767:9662375 4272:10, 226 4162:11, 394 4045:20 June 4020:20 June 3730:3123518 3621:13 July 3490:in vivo 3332:Galenic 3179:macaque 3148:Covance 3052:Ireisai 2893:Radical 2850:Carnism 2769:Fishing 2764:Hunting 2712:Killing 2620:History 2442:Defense 2277:L'Oreal 2017:placebo 1967:bacilli 1963:leprosy 1828:genomes 1778:Pithing 1562:Covance 1484:Covance 1467:Sources 1387:Numbers 1373:Science 1322:Unknown 1110:baboons 1010:cancers 979:beagles 899:Rodents 763:(FIV), 753:anthrax 718:simians 702:leprosy 647:insulin 538:anthrax 466:One of 436:History 423:in vivo 394:in vivo 307:(FIV), 297:anthrax 252:disease 228:insulin 171:biology 138:testing 136:in vivo 19188:Wolves 19153:Tigers 19108:Koalas 18934:Topics 18352: 18325:(2003) 18306:(2014) 18298:(2014) 18290:(2008) 18282:(1991) 18274:(1987) 18262:Albums 18136:(2021) 18128:(2018) 18120:(2016) 18112:(2013) 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13520: 13510: 13502: 13460: 13452: 13382:Part 2 13195: 13177: 13150: 13142: 13095:, CNN. 13048: 12985: 12963: 12955: 12920: 12910: 12871: 12861: 12822: 12814: 12788:Nature 12731:7 July 12705:7 July 12679: 12671: 12630: 12622: 12596:Nature 12579: 12569: 12528: 12518: 12469: 12449:Stroke 12428: 12408:Stroke 12387: 12347: 12262:7 July 12239:7 July 12201: 12193: 11959: 11941:7 July 11918:7 July 11895:7 July 11649:7 July 11623:7 July 11600:7 July 11572: 11537: 11510: 11307: 11297: 11250: 11240: 11199: 11164: 11109:851143 11107: 11099: 11073:Nature 11025: 11017: 10982: 10891: 10881: 10873: 10834:23 May 10809: 10774: 10740: 10732: 10706:Nature 10596: 10588: 10552: 10511: 10467: 10459: 10375: 10368:351856 10365: 10326: 10296: 10288: 10253: 10218: 10210: 10175: 10134: 10093: 10052: 10044: 10018:Nature 9994: 9918: 9869: 9859: 9824: 9789: 9746: 9738: 9697: 9656: 9648: 9613: 9544: 9536: 9528: 9480: 9459: 9371: 9341: 9331: 9290: 9251: 9241: 9233: 9175: 9150:. 2011 9081: 9046: 9038: 8965: 8930: 8761: 8661: 8653: 8575: 8534:7 July 8483:7 July 8460:7 July 8437:7 July 8401: 8391: 8338: 8328: 8244:7 July 8237: 8229: 8102: 8094: 8020: 8012: 7968: 7958: 7917:7 July 7887:7 July 7746:. 2004 7700: 7638: 7628: 7602:Nature 7581: 7538: 7530: 7495:9 July 7448:9 July 7418:9 July 7380: 7370: 7362: 7321: 7311: 7303: 7264: 7254: 7246: 7173:. 2017 7141: 7131: 7123: 7084: 7035: 7027: 7019: 6978: 6970: 6899: 6891: 6849: 6841: 6771: 6761: 6712: 6702: 6660: 6650: 6598: 6554: 6544: 6505: 6497: 6462: 6454: 6419: 6411: 6376: 6368: 6245: 6237: 6211:Nature 6191: 6184:388203 6181: 6132: 6122: 6083: 6055:Nature 5927: 5869: 5859: 5807: 5799: 5764: 5729: 5702: 5649: 5627: 5477: 5452: 5444: 5436: 5397: 5389: 5381: 5340: 5332: 5324: 5283: 5275: 5267: 5218: 5208: 5200: 5161: 5153: 5145: 5106: 5096: 5088: 5002: 4962: 4954: 4946: 4902: 4894: 4848: 4840: 4814:Nature 4773: 4765: 4707: 4680: 4658: 4650: 4616: 4585: 4555: 4547: 4537: 4460: 4452: 4417: 4382: 4359: 4318: 4308: 3990: 3949: 3924: 3888: 3850: 3842: 3798: 3737: 3727: 3719: 3678: 3670: 3492:, and 3370:crime. 3150:'s, a 3112:cloned 3024:, and 2747:Cattle 2737:Horses 2689:Groups 2677:Vegans 2555:, and 2508:pounds 2494:Ethics 2412:thorax 2363:curve. 2317:orally 2107:Nature 2095:, and 1978:stroke 1935:cancer 1866:inbred 1596:, and 1541:, and 1502:; the 1318: 1316: 1305: 1303: 1294: 1292: 1281: 1279: 1270: 1268: 1219:, and 1184:Albino 1164:, and 1104:, and 1096:; but 1080:, and 749:rabies 730:cloned 722:genome 649:(with 480:Greeks 468:Pavlov 293:rabies 133:, and 19181:Orcas 19113:Lions 19078:Foxes 19031:Bears 19019:Types 18691:Other 18247:Satya 17965:Films 17730:Books 17552:Viva! 16180:Cases 16130:Other 15371:SPEAK 15296:AALAS 15086:Frogs 15036:IACUC 14352:Genes 14321:ALTEX 14302:S2CID 13745:S2CID 13148:S2CID 12961:S2CID 12820:S2CID 12677:S2CID 12628:S2CID 12331:(PDF) 12324:(PDF) 12210:(PDF) 12199:S2CID 12171:(PDF) 12085:(PDF) 12074:(PDF) 12049:(PDF) 12042:(PDF) 11105:S2CID 11023:S2CID 10929:(PDF) 10922:(PDF) 10871:JSTOR 10749:(PDF) 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US 6243:S2CID 5805:S2CID 5574:5 May 5546:5 May 5524:(PDF) 5517:(PDF) 5450:S2CID 5395:S2CID 5338:S2CID 5281:S2CID 5159:S2CID 4960:S2CID 4900:S2CID 4846:S2CID 4771:S2CID 4656:S2CID 4553:S2CID 4458:S2CID 4357:S2CID 3848:S2CID 3676:S2CID 3648:(PDF) 3406:(now 3108:Dolly 3074:clone 2834:Ideas 2536:cruel 2459:goats 2374:, or 2339:acute 2327:, or 2155:, or 1879:niche 1709:RSPCA 1349:Guide 1347:(the 959:Laika 942:genes 694:Laika 674:polio 520:in a 492:Galen 254:when 19118:Pigs 19068:Deer 19063:Dogs 19053:Cats 19026:Bats 18530:vs. 18398:and 17492:L214 16212:SHAC 15491:(EU) 15485:(US) 15479:(NZ) 15473:(UK) 15366:SHAC 15326:PETA 15291:AAAS 14891:ISBN 14876:ISBN 14827:OCLC 14817:ISBN 14794:2015 14698:2015 14672:2015 14646:2015 14616:PMID 14557:2015 14523:PMID 14474:PMID 14429:2015 14406:2015 14380:PMID 14329:PMID 14294:PMID 14253:PMID 14216:2018 14152:ISBN 14130:ISBN 14068:PMID 14002:ISBN 13960:ISBN 13918:ISBN 13829:2022 13804:PMID 13786:ISSN 13737:PMID 13729:ISSN 13694:PMID 13676:ISSN 13637:PMID 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