Umayyad state of Córdoba

6043:"The rate of conversion is slow until the tenth century (less than one-quarter of the eventual total number of converts had been converted); the explosive period coincides closely with the reign of 'Abd al-Rahman III (912–961); the process is completed (eighty percent converted) by around 1100. The curve, moreover, makes possible a reasonable estimate of the religious distribution of the population. Assuming that there were seven million Hispano-Romans in the peninsula in 711 and that the numbers of this segment of the population remained level through the eleventh century (with population growth balancing out Christian migration to the north), then by 912 there would have been approximately 2.8 million indigenous Muslims (muwalladûn) plus Arabs and Berbers. At this point Christians still vastly outnumbered Muslims. By 1100, however, the number of indigenous Muslims would have risen to a majority of 5.6 million." 3670: 8556: 3265:, considered a very prized commodity. The latter were an integral part of Umayyad palace society and played an important role in courtly politics, including in the matter of dynastic succession, where they often allied with the women whose sons were potential candidates for the throne. All the mothers of Umayyad emirs and caliphs were also originally slaves. In the context of elite society, slave origins held no social stigma and women could become very powerful in the household and the court. Slave girls that were considered particularly prized or gifted were usually given an extensive education in arts and literature, as was also common in the court of the Abbasid caliphs. Black African slaves, known as 3947: 6907: 61: 3710: 3737: 3654: 3686: 3698: 2977:, indigenous converts to Islam, indigenous Christians, and Jews. The Andalusis of Arab origin were a minority but they had formed the ruling elites since the Muslim conquest in the early 8th century. Berbers, who had made up the majority of the conquering army, were a larger group, relatively powerful but less so than the Arab elites. The indigenous population were the majority, but the proportion of Christians among them decreased over time as many of them converted to Islam. The indigenous Muslim converts were known as 852: 984: 3061: 12071: 2582:, in 961. Al-Hakam II continued his father's policy toward Christian kings and North African rebels. Al-Hakam's relied on his advisers more than his father because the caliphate was less prosperous, and there was less money to go around. This style of rulership suited Al-Hakam II since he was more interested in his scholarly and intellectual pursuits than ruling the caliphate. The caliphate reached an intellectual and scholarly peak under Al-Hakam II. 3916: 3309:

promoted a higher standard of living, which in turn attracted more skilled labour to the country. Córdoba also drew revenues from tributes collected from the Christian kingdoms to the north, which provided silver and slaves. One historical source reports that the state's total revenues at the end of Abd al-Rahman III's reign amounted to six and a half million dinars – though it's unclear what this figure means precisely in terms of

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convert likely became stronger and the process became self-reinforcing. Indigenous elites had been among the first to convert as a way to preserve their status. As Christian institutions weakened and the Islamic presence became clearly more permanent, a steady drift towards Islam likely took place in the rest of the Christian population seeking improved social status and economic opportunities.

2992:, "Despite the withdrawal of substantial numbers during the drought and famine of the 750s, fresh Berber migration from North Africa was a constant feature of Andalusi history, increasing in tempo in the tenth century. Hispano-Romans who converted to Islam, numbering six or seven millions, comprised the majority of the population and also occupied the lowest rungs on the social ladder." 3168:'Arabized'). The term "Mozarab" has been used by historians in various ways since the 19th century and can refer to either the Christian population living under Muslim rule – who did not call themselves by this name – or to the Arabized Christians that emigrated from al-Andalus to the Christian kingdoms in northern Iberia. The term "Mozarabic" is also used to refer to the 3348:(a type of waterwheel) – meant that agricultural output was greater, more consistent, and took place during a longer part of the year. This ensured that the population was healthier and less vulnerable to famine, encouraging demographic growth, while farmers reaped higher incomes and were able to further diversify their production. Some crops, such as figs, were cultivated as 3286: 3205:

roughly 50% towards 950, and around 75% by 1000, after which conversion slowed. Half of the population in Córdoba is reported to have been Muslim by the 10th century, with an increase to 70 percent by the 11th century, though this was due less to local conversion than to Muslim immigration from the rest of the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa.

5403:, p. 125: "Normalmente participaban en sus aceifas doce mil hombres de a caballo, inscritos en la escalilla militar y a los que, además de la acostumbrada soldada, se les proporcionaban una caballería con sus arreos, armas, alojamiento, pagas y gratificaciones para diversos gastos, y forraje para las caballerías, según su categoría." 3251:

and especially at the royal court, but little is known of what role they may have played in industries such as agriculture and mining. Most slaves of this period were captured during Muslim raids on the Christian kingdoms in the northern Iberian Peninsula or were imported from other European markets. These European slaves were known as

3095:) were common, but the Umayyads themselves promoted the former. One reason for this might be that Hanafism was seen as too closely associated with the Abbasids, whom the Umayyads considered enemies. Maliki dominance solidified under the reign of Abd ar-Rahman II in the 9th century, though during the reign of his son, Muhammad I, the 2988:) and became very numerous in later generations. Some of them were descended from the former Visigothic and Hispano-Roman landholding elites that existed prior to the Muslim conquest and who had retained much of their status after the conquest. Jews were present in smaller numbers relative to the other groups. According to 3184:

Jewish communities in al-Andalus before the 10th century, though they must have been an important presence. Historical records attest that they were present in Córdoba in the 9th century. During the caliphal period, some Jews entered into the circles of the caliph's court, of whom the most influential was

2699:, chroniclers record Almanzor leading 12,000 African horsemen, five thousand al-Andalusi horsemen, and 40,000 infantry. Stories of Almanzor's last campaign record forty-six thousand horsemen, six hundred forces guarding the train, 26,000 infantry, two hundred scouts or 'police', and one hundred and thirty 8378:

Ambrosio, Beatriz; Hernández, Candela; Novelletto, Andrea; Dugoujon, Jean M.; Rodríguez, Juan N.; Cuesta, Pedro; Fortes-Lima, César; Calderón, Rosario (December 2010). "Searching the peopling of the Iberian Peninsula from the perspective of two andalusian subpopulations: a study based on Y-chromosome

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The state also benefited greatly from trade with the rest of the Islamic world to the east. In addition to exporting crafted goods (primarily silk cloth), it provided raw materials to North Africa and the Middle East, regions that were poorer in natural resources than al-Andalus. This trade advantage

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Almanzor abolished the system of tribal units with their own commanders. This system had been in decline due to a lack of Arab recruits and the pseudo-feudalistic institutions on the frontiers. A new system of mixed units without clear loyalty under orders from Administration officials replaced it.

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Almanzor continued the military reforms by Al-Hakam and his predecessors. He professionalized the regular army, which guaranteed his military power in the capital and ensured the availability of forces for numerous campaigns. Professionalization de-emphasized levies and other non-professional troops,

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Some upper-class women also had the resources to receive education and participate in high culture in the domains of poetry and even religion. Examples include 'Aisha ibn Ahmad, who was born from a noble family and wrote poetry, copied the Qur'an, and founded libraries. Lubna, a slave in the service

2999:

s were largely organized into family-based social structures, the Arabs and Berbers were organized into a more complex mix of family and tribe loyalties. "Arab" identity in general was largely tied to the assertion of Arab ancestry. This lineage was perceived as inherited through the father, meaning

3316:

Some of the most prominent merchants of the caliphate were Jews. Jewish merchants had extensive networks of trade that stretched the length of the Mediterranean Sea. Since there was no international banking system at the time, payments relied on a high level of trust, and this level of trust could

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in the Western Mediterranean, particularly in the 10th century when the caliphate played a major role in international trade. Merchants of many backgrounds (Jewish, Muslim, and Christian) participated in this trade. Historical sources attest that slaves were commonly employed in wealthy households

3196:

The Muslim proportion of al-Andalus's population grew during Umayyad rule as native Iberians converted to Islam. As in many other lands in the early Islamic era, conversion to Islam was likely motivated primarily by social and economic considerations. As the number of converts grew, the reasons to

2920:

Colmeiro estimated in a pre-industrial society, for every million inhabitants, ten thousand soldiers could be mustered. Even assuming the chronicles exaggerated tenfold the real numbers – these speak of eight hundred thousand soldiers – the caliphate could have had eight million inhabitants. Those

2816:

Almanzor eliminated figures who could have opposed his reforms, such as killing Ghalib. Almanzor also replaced the governor of Zaragoza after he collaborated with his eldest son to replace him with a member of the same clan, the Banu Tujib. The admiral of the fleet was also poisoned in January 980

3183:

While Christians saw their status decline from their rule under the Visigoths, the status of Jews improved. While Jews were persecuted under the Visigoths, Jewish communities benefited from Umayyad rule by obtaining more freedom, affluence and a higher social standing. Not much is known about the

3560:

In the 10th century, the caliph's official workshops, such as those at Madinat al-Zahra, fabricated luxury products for use at court or as gifts for guests, allies, and diplomats, which stimulated artistic production. Many objects produced in the caliph's workshops later made their way into the

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has put forward a possible model of this process. It suggests that by the beginning of the 9th century only some 8% of the indigenous population had converted but that the curve of conversion increased in the second half of the 9th century, resulting in about 25% conversion around the year 900,

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in al-Andalus was partially integrated with the Umayyad regime and its leaders collaborated with the Arab-Muslim elites. Bishops often acted as administrators and political envoys and their appointment was overseen by the Umayyad state. While the Catholic Church retained its internal unity, the

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The title of caliph became symbolic, without power or influence. Almanzor's temporal power increased the importance of the military, both as a symbol of the power of Almanzor and an instrument to guarantee the payment of taxes. The chamberlain's court also rivaled that of the caliph. Almanzor's

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The present-day Albolafia's origin is uncertain and historians differ on the most likely date of its construction. While one hypothesis attributes it the 9th century around the time of Abd al-Rahman II, other hypotheses have attributed its origin to the 10th century, the 12th century under the

4000:

was issued). The minaret, with a square floor plan, set another precedent that was followed in the architecture of other mosques in the region. Abd ar Rahman III's cultured successor, al-Hakam II, further expanded the mosque's prayer hall, starting in 962. He endowed it with some of its most

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was one of the most well-known Jewish figures of this time. In addition to serving in the caliph's court and being highly versed in Arabic culture, Hasdai was also a patron of Hebrew scholarship. He was determined to establish the Jewish community of al-Andalus as independent from the Jewish

3441:

In the 10th century, Córdoba became one of the centers of culture and high society in the Islamic world. Al-Andalus's prosperity and the caliph's patronage attracted travelers, diplomats and scholars. Advances in science, history, geography, philosophy, and language also occurred during the

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argues the Almanzor's armies were between 35,000 and 70–75,000 soldiers. It is likely that the leader's armies may not have exceeded twenty thousand men. Until the eleventh century no Muslim army on campaign exceeded thirty thousand troops, while during the eighth century the trans-Pyrenean

2669:

The increase in military forces and their partial professionalization led to an increase in financial expenses, and incentivized campaigning so troops could be paid with loot and land. Lands handed over to the soldiers were subject to tribute and ceased to operate under a system of border

2715:

The main weapon of the peninsular campaigns, which required speed and surprise, was the light cavalry. To try to counteract them, the Castilians created the role of "villain knights" by ennobling those free men who were willing to keep a horse to increase the mounted units through the

3389:

and North Africa. He also founded an academy for arts, music, and fashion which lasted for several generations. The legacy of Ziryab and figures like him was continued into the 9th century by bringing in new styles of art, music, and literature from the eastern Islamic world.

2686:

Contemporary figures on the size of the army are contradictory. Some accounts claim that their armies numbered two hundred thousand horsemen and six hundred thousand foot soldiers, while others talk about twelve thousand horsemen, three thousand mounted Berbers and two thousand

3931:(also spelled and pronounced today as "Medina Azahara"), located just outside Córdoba. Construction began in 936–940 and continued in multiple phases throughout his reign and the reign of his son, Al-Hakam II (r. 961–976). The new city included ceremonial reception halls, a 2820:

Land transport routes were dotted with strongholds, and dignitaries controlled communications. Messengers were bought in and specially trained to handle Almanzor's messages and to transmit the official reports that his foreign ministries wrote about the annual campaigns.

2960:

continued to be spoken in rural lower classes but Arabic had become the language of the middle and upper classes. By the end of the century, even the Christian population was so widely Arabized that their clergy were required to translate religious texts into Arabic.

3512:. The Latin language was retained in liturgy. However, Andalusi Christians did journey to and from the Christian-controlled territories to the north and in the rest of Europe, contributing to the transmission of knowledge from al-Andalus to the rest of Europe. 2691:, African light infantry. Christian chroniclers record that "ordinarily the Saracen armies amount to 30, 40, 50 or 60,000 men, even when in serious occasions they reach 100, 160, 300 and even 600,000 fighters" in the time of Almanzor. In the campaign that swept 3317:

only be cemented through personal or family bonds, such as marriage. Jews from al-Andalus, Cairo, and the Levant all intermarried across borders. Therefore, Jewish merchants in the caliphate had counterparts abroad that were willing to do business with them.

6657:

The Bayt al-Ḥikmah ("House of Wisdom"), founded in AD 830 in Baghdad, contained a public library with a large collection of materials on a wide range of subjects, and the 10th-century library of Caliph al-Ḥakam in Cordova, Spain, boasted more than 400,000

2916:

The Iberian Christian states comprised 160,000 square kilometers and 500,000 people. By comparison, at the time of the Muslim invasion, Iberia had an estimated four million inhabitants. Other historians estimate higher at around seven or eight million.

2683:, or "country of jihad". It attracted many zealous volunteers, who made up a small but important portion of the total army. Almanzor's personal guard was made up of Christian mercenaries who also participated in his campaigns in Christian territories. 3495:). These histories also provided information on the land and its people. Many ideas and myths concerning the history of al-Andalus – including stories about its initial Muslim conquest in the 8th century – began to appear in this period. 2830:

reforms also divided the population into two unequal groups: a large mass of civilian taxpayers and a small professional military caste, generally from outside the peninsula and not particularally loyal to the polity.

2734:

In contrast to the role the navy played under Abd al-Rahman III, under Almanzor, it served as a means of transporting ground troops, such as between the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula. This was also seen with

2706:

Other modern studies found the army was between 50,000 and 90,000 under Almanzor. Scholars have argued Almanzor's armies could muster 600,000 laborers and 200,000 horses "drawn from all provinces of the empire".

2568:. Abd al-Rahman III also brought the Christian kingdoms of the north under his direct influence through military force. The size of the Caliphal army under Abd al-Rahman III was between 30,000 and 50,000 troops. 3669: 3498:

Christians and Jews contributed to the intellectual and cultural spheres of al-Andalus, although this required that they publicly respect the higher status of the Arabic language and of the Islamic religion.

2552:

recognized the caliphate, but refused to allow them to occupy Tangier. The Umayyads besieged Tangier in 949 and defeated Abul-Aish, forcing him to retreat, and then occupied the rest of northern Morocco.

4082:

mosques in Fes and the addition of their square-shafted minarets, carried out under the sponsorship of Abd al-Rahman III and following the example of the minaret he built for the Great Mosque of Córdoba.

4069:

In the 10th century much of northern Morocco also came directly within the sphere of influence of the Córdoban Caliphate, with competition from the Fatimid Caliphate further east. Early contributions to

2575:, higher than previous administrations. Wealth was budgeted into three parts: the payment of the salaries and maintenance of the army, the preservation of public buildings, and the needs of the caliph. 2597:

had to recognise the Fatimids. The Umayyads sent their general, Ghalib, to invade Idrisid Morocco in 973. By 974, Al-Hassan II was taken to Córdoba, and the remaining Idrisids recognized Umayyad rule.

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estimated that circa 1000 CE, Córdoba held around 450,000 people. Around the same year, the caliphate occupied four hundred thousand square kilometers and was populated by around three million people.

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The massive incorporation of North African horsemen relegated the infantry to sieges and fortress garrisons. This reform led to entire tribes, particularly Berber riders, being moved to the peninsula.

3003:

Beyond the heartland of Cordoba, the makeup of the population varied depending on the region. The northern limit of Muslim settlement generally extended along a frontier that ran to the north of the

3000:

that children of Arab men and non-Arab women were still considered Arabs, although the lineage of the mother, if she came from another noble or elite background, could still be seen as prestigious.

3903:), which preserves minor remains of the mosque. In Mérida, following a violent revolt, Abd al-Rahman II also built a fortress, now known as the Alcazaba of Mérida, which was later re-used by the 3047:

s. Among the latter were powerful families who dominated the area's politics throughout the Islamic period. The hills and mountains to the north were generally still inhabited by Christians.

2436:. Real control was always in question, particularly over the marches along the Christian border, where power depended on the competence of the individual emir. For example, the power of emir 3516:

of al-Hakam II, served as one of the caliph's scribes (or secretaries) and a librarian. Although religious domains were still dominated by men, Fatima bint Yahya al-Maghami was a well-known

6144:

Monferrer-Sala, Juan Pedro (2023). "The Arabicized Christians in Cordoba: Social Context and Literary Production". In Monferrer-Sala, Juan Pedro; Monterroso-Checa, Antonio (eds.).

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Military industry flourished in factories around Córdoba. The city was said to produce 1,000 bows and 20,000 arrows monthly, and 1,300 shields and 3,000 campaign stores annually.

2673:

The nucleus of the new army was formed by Maghrebi Berber forces. Arabs, Berbers, and Slavs within the army were played off against one another by Almanzor to maintain his power.

3608:. While the production of ivory and silk objects largely stopped after the Caliphate's collapse, production in other mediums like leather and ceramic continued in later periods. 2330:. The Umayyads had previously conducted small raids on the southern tip of Iberia against the Visigoths, but full-scale conquest did not begin until April of 711. An army led by 3031:

s. The region along the central frontier, near Toledo, also known as the Middle March, was again only sparsely inhabited by Arabs. The city and local politics were dominated by

2897:

progressed significantly in al-Andalus. In the long-term, these were to comprise the two major aspects of Andalusi identity and eventually characterized most of the population.

2859:. Córdoban forces were also joined in the civil war by contingents of Christian mercenaries. Beset by factionalism, the caliphate crumbled in 1031 into a number of independent 2809:

tried to raise an army to help but several flotillas of Berber pirates threatened their coasts, forcing them to stay to defend their lands. In 997 the al-Andalusi fleet hit the

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that occurred in al-Andalus following the arrival of the Arabs and Berbers was of major importance to both society and the economy. The combination of new crops – including

2844:. While Abd al-Rahman was leading a raid on the Christian north, a revolt tore through Córdoba and deposed him, and he was killed when he tried to restore himself to power. 3709: 3103:

schools were also introduced. Malikism eventually became another core characteristic of Andalusi identity and its spread contributed to the Islamization of the country.

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Marble was also carved for decorative elements in some buildings, such as wall paneling and window grilles. One of the most prolific types of marble craftsmanship were

420: 395: 381: 2747:

to the detriment of native officials. The fleet was reinforced with a network of ports and a new base in the Atlantic, in Alcácer do Sal, which protected the city of

2751:, recovered in the 980s. It served as start of a campaign against Santiago. On the Mediterranean shore, the naval defense was centered at the base of al-Mariya, now 2455: 11820: 2529:

and more legitimate than the Abbasids, even though the Caliphate of Córdoba's legitimacy was not accepted outside of al-Andalus and its North African affiliates.

12167: 11702: 4888: 3366:, a kind of etiquette common to al-Andalus and other Islamic societies at the time. Women, such as royal concubines, were sometimes sent abroad to be trained in 3223:). They were largely Arab, though they were also joined by individuals of non-Arab origin who climbed through the political ranks. Among the latter were various 2766:

Initially, the maritime defense of the Caliphate was led by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Rumahis, a veteran admiral who had served Al-Hakam II and was Qadi of

2432:

For the next century and a half, his descendants continued as emirs of Córdoba, with nominal control over the rest of al-Andalus and sometimes parts of western

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by the end of the 8th century, but it wasn't until the 10th century that both gold and silver coins were minted, thanks in large part to the flow of gold from

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Following Almanzor's death in 1002, the institutions he created stagnated under internal divisions from military and political factions competing for power.

6940: 3023:. Ethnic Arabs were (at least during the early Emirate period) sparse here and the Muslim population consisted mostly of Berbers, probably semi-nomadic or 5796:

García Sanjuán, Alejandro (2017). "al- Andalus, political history". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

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and can be found in later buildings across the region built under the Almoravids and Almohads. Another notable example is a marble basin, now kept at the

3597: 2494:

An Umayyad expedition helmed by ʿIṣām al-Ḫawlānī occupied the Balearic Islands (the 'Eastern Islands') and incorporated them to Cordobese rule under emir

12088: 11687: 7243: 2790:. In April 973, he transported the army of Ghalib from Algeciras to subdue the rebellious tribes of the Maghreb and end Fatimid ambitions in that area. 6969: 3468: 3588:

textiles, ceramics, and leatherwork. Metalwork objects were also produced, of which the most famous surviving piece is the so-called "Córdoba Stag", a

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collections of museums and Christian cathedrals in Europe. Among the most famous objects of this period are ivory boxes which are carved with vegetal,

2291: 3453:, who served as court poet for Abd al-Rahman III, Al-Hakam II, and Almanzor. Other poets, such as Yusuf al-Ramadi, composed works on nature and love. 2786:), in the west of al-Andalus in mid-971. When there was another invasion later that year, the admiral left Almería and defeated them off the coast of 3243:

in al-Andalus typically implied an elite status. Some powerful Berber leaders and scholars were also able to join the ranks of the political elites.

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advent of Islamic rule weakened its monopoly on religious authority over the Christian communities in al-Andalus, resulting in many deviations from

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in the city. He and his successors built and continuously developed the Alcázar into the official royal residence and seat of power in Al-Andalus.

818: 3697: 8183:

Historia de los vikingos en España: ataques e incursiones contra los reinos cristianos y musulmanes de la Península Ibérica en los siglos IX–XI

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in 836, who preserved the original design while extending its dimensions. The mosque was again embellished with new features by his successors

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was a "major trendsetter of his time" creating trends in fashion, hairstyles, and hygiene. His students took these trends with them throughout

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The population of the capital city, Córdoba, most likely surpassed 100,000 in the 10th century, making it the largest city in Europe alongside

2728:

who obtained privileged military status by fighting against the Córdobans armed on horseback – after losing their capital in the fall of 985.

9517: 7828:. Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, Agencia Espyearla de Cooperación Internacional, Instituto de Cooperación con el Mundo Árabe. p. 654. 2648:

and Berbers. He also created new units, outside the regular army of the Caliphate, that were loyal to him and served to control the capital.

2284: 2525:

in 929, challenging the Fatimids in their claim to religious authority. Internally, the Spanish Umayyads considered themselves as closer to

12182: 12137: 7549: 3237:), or "clients" sponsored by powerful families. These were often Muslim converts and, unlike its connotations in the Middle East, the term 11717: 8763: 3305:. A new mint was established at Madinat al-Zahra circa 947 CE (336 AH), though it was moved back to Córdoba circa 975–976 CE (365 AH). 3843:), dates from the 9th century expansion and is often noted as an important prototype of later Moorish architectural forms and motifs. 3467:, grew more popular during this period. Writers also began to compose histories devoted to the Umayyad dynasty of Al-Andalus, such as 2632:. Almanzor then sent out a powerful reinforcement under his son Abd al-Malik, whose armies clashed near Tangier. The Umayyads entered 2386:

and became an independent emir of Córdoba. He had been on the run for six years after the Umayyads had lost the position of caliph in

2346:, the last king of the Visigoths, was killed, leaving an open path into Hispania. The Umayyads established the Iberian Peninsula as a 12127: 11791: 11707: 3442:

Caliphate. During the reign of al-Hakam II, the royal library possessed an estimated 400,000 to 500,000 volumes. For comparison, the

11808: 4480: 2948:

The adoption of the Arabic language was a wide-reaching phenomenon of long-term importance. It was spearheaded by the promotion of

2521:. The Fatimid's claim of Caliph challenged the legitmacy of the Abbasids' religious authority. Abd al-Rahman III took the title of 2468:. After the revolt's suppression, the inhabitants were expelled. Some settled in Fez or Alexandria, while others ended forming the 2317: 3776:

earlier that century. After a failed plot against him in 784, Abd al-Rahman I moved his residence definitively to the site of the

2703:. The garrison of Córdoba was recorded at 10,500 horsemen, while other forces kept the northern border in dispersed detachments. 11771: 11692: 3601: 8067:

Tomo IV. Espasa-Calpe. Edición de Ramón Menéndez Pidal & Leopoldo Torres-Balbás. Traducción de Emilio García Gómez. p.

60: 11712: 10660: 8713: 8689: 4381: 4317: 3427: 3128:. Their religious practices were tolerated but conspicuous displays of faith, such as bells and processions, were discouraged. 2712:

expeditions totaled ten thousand men and those carried out against Christians in the north of the peninsula were even smaller.

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became fashionable, and his reign is considered a high point of culture and patronage during the Emirate period. The musician

2625:

from Africa to migrate to al-Andalus to increase his base of support. While Hisham II was caliph, he was merely a figurehead.

522:. The polity then flourished for the best part of three centuries, before disintegrating in the early 11th century during the 11722: 11679: 10470: 9852: 8360: 8332: 8313: 8294: 8266: 8247: 8228: 8190: 8133: 8095: 8032: 7985: 7966: 7928: 7907: 7869: 7765: 7725: 7706: 7687: 7561: 7475: 6548: 6384: 6350: 6242: 6185: 6155: 6004: 5970: 5844: 4621: 3777: 3505: 3035:

s, while the rural highlands were generally the domain of Berber tribes. To the northeast, the Upper March, centered around

2556:

Abd al-Rahman III increased diplomatic relations with the Berber tribes in North Africa, Christian kingdoms from the north,

17: 8978: 2354:) of their empire. The rulers of this province established their capital in Córdoba and received the administrative titles 12192: 10376: 7522: 7254:. Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Departamento de Ciencias de la Antigüedad y Edad Media, Universidad de Córdoba: 149–190. 2606:

The death of Al-Hakam II in 976 marked the beginning of the end of Caliphal power. Al-Hakam wa succeeded by his only son,

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carved in brick. Other monuments from the Caliphate period in al-Andalus include several of Toledo's old city gates, the

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basin and dedicated to 'Abd al-Malik, the son of al-Mansur, before being shipped to Morocco and re-used in new buildings.

2940:, all above 15,000. This contrasted sharply with the Christian north of the peninsula, which lacked large urban centers. 961: 811: 3410:. The emir Abd al-Rahman II sent emissaries to the Abbasid and Byzantine courts to bring back books on subjects such as 12157: 10522: 9522: 8435: 8171: 8152: 8114: 8076: 8051: 8013: 7947: 7888: 7833: 7744: 7668: 7649: 7532: 6686: 4739: 4685: 3180:, a fusion of Christian and Islamic artistic styles brought by Christian emigrants from al-Andalus to northern Iberia. 2644:

or Maghrebis – and freed Córdoban subjects from military service. Almanzor expanded recruitment of the

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on the lower tier) composed of alternating red brick and light-colored stone. The mosque was subsequently expanded by

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in the east. The region along the western frontier, known as the Lower March and including the modern-day province of

549:

The period was characterized by an expansion of trade and culture, including the construction of well-known pieces of

11574: 11528: 11188: 11182: 9166: 7786: 7448: 7348: 7202: 7134: 7017:

Rosser-Owen, Mariam (2014). "Andalusi Spolia in Medieval Morocco: "Architectural Politics, Political Architecture"".

6829: 6512: 6116: 5805: 5017: 3784:

was responsible for improving the water supply for both the city and the palace gardens. He may have also built the

11445: 11301: 10836: 10732: 8460: 5959:"The Social Structure of al-Andalus during the Muslim Occupation (711–55) and the Founding of the Umayyad Monarchy" 3896: 8555: 7045: 4611: 11929: 11745: 10148: 6932: 6881: 4556: 4327: 4307: 3550:

In the 9th century, Abd al-Rahman II established a workshop that produced official embroidered textiles known as

1250: 9310: 4522:

Not to be confused with the later Almohad Great Mosque (12th century) which was subsequently converted into the

2855:, with rivals claiming to be the new caliph, violence sweeping the caliphate, and intermittent invasions by the 2708: 2571:

The caliphate became very profitable during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III, with public revenue up to 6,245,000

11994: 11552: 11450: 8756: 8455: 8408: 8308:. Fundación Santa María La Real, Centro Estudios del Románico, Monasterio de Santa María la Real. p. 160. 8209: 7805: 7604: 7505: 7373: 7321: 7296: 6891: 4898: 4455: 3867: 3177: 3122:

or "protected non-Muslims". In exchange for the state's protection, they were required to pay a tax called the

2721: 2437: 1930: 804: 7978:

Más allá del legado pirata. Historia y leyenda de la piratería. La fabulosa aventura de los bandoleros del mar

6147:

A Companion to Late Antique and Medieval Islamic Cordoba: Capital of Roman Baetica and Caliphate of al-Andalus

3398:

Córdoba was the cultural and intellectual centre of al-Andalus, with translations of ancient Greek texts into

2621:, the mother and regent of Hisham II. Almanzor isolated Hisham in Córdoba, eradicated opposition, and allowed 11362: 11121: 10856: 10586: 6961: 3508:

in the region. By contrast, Latin culture within Al-Andalus declined as local Christians became increasingly

719: 3927:

Abd al-Rahman III marked his political ascendancy with the creation of a vast and lavish palace-city called

2628:

In 996, Almanzor sent an invasion force to Morocco. After three months of struggle, his forces retreated to

1495: 11914: 11891: 11511: 11367: 11357: 11263: 10974: 10581: 10465: 7192: 3321: 571: 3530:) who taught both men and women. Under al-Hakam II, some female slaves could also receive an education in 12177: 12172: 12142: 12016: 11881: 11697: 11465: 11258: 10693: 10591: 9628: 9118: 4075: 3605: 3373:

Al-Andalus was subject to eastern cultural influences, with Abd al-Rahman I likely having an interest in

2356: 2743:

in 997. As in the army Almanzor recruited Berbers faithful to him. In its administration he favored the

11776: 11659: 11176: 10653: 9128: 9123: 9098: 9083: 4031: 2487:, a palatine guard of 3,000 riders and 2,000 infantry was created made up of Slavic slaves. Under Emir 677: 8707: 7415: 4357: 3946: 2483:

for a permanent army of 40,000 to end the conflicts that had plagued the emirate. In the time of Emir

12147: 11856: 11557: 11386: 11082: 10862: 10825: 10549: 9697: 9261: 9103: 9088: 8993: 8749: 8510: 7390: 4079: 4043: 3172:

that was spoken by Christians in al-Andalus, to the Mozarabic liturgy that was a continuation of the

8644: 7680:

Al-Mansur y la dawla 'amiriya: una dinámica de poder y legitimidad en el occidente musulmán medieval

7218: 4237: 3213:

The elite political and social circles that formed around the Umayyads in Córdoba were known as the

591: 12011: 11740: 11564: 11337: 10875: 10507: 10482: 10332: 9991: 9986: 9113: 8772: 6231:

Wasserstein, David J. (2020). "Christians, Jews, and the Dhimma Status". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.).

4038:, which features a variety of ribbed domes resting on horseshoe arches and an exterior façade with 3438:

of this period who brought back technical and scientific knowledge back with him from the east.

3200:

Historical sources provide little data on which to estimate the rate of conversion, but a study by

2837: 2174: 596: 8719: 8599: 8594: 4401: 4169: 3828: 3824: 2488: 540:. In 1031, after years of infighting, the caliphate fractured into a number of independent Muslim 251: 11874: 10748: 10574: 10455: 9996: 9949: 9892: 9591: 9535: 9283: 9133: 8675: 8525: 8500: 4610:

Albarrán, Javier (2018). "Al-Andalus". In Fitz, Francisco García; Monteiro, João Gouveia (eds.).

4297: 3631:) in a distinctive style associated with the caliphal period. These capitals later became prized 3111:

As elsewhere in the historic Islamic world, Jews and Christians were considered by Muslims to be

2848: 2841: 2657: 2611: 2460: 2335: 1920: 954: 640: 537: 10902: 8875: 8619: 8068: 8062: 6908:"Cervatillo de Madinat al-Zahra – Obras Singulares – Museo arqueológico y etnológico de Córdoba" 5528: 2969:

The early population of al-Andalus at the outset of Umayyad rule had several main constituents:

899: 12026: 11955: 11924: 11864: 10846: 10841: 10759: 10596: 10497: 10492: 10180: 10128: 10048: 9981: 9885: 9870: 9763: 9530: 9484: 9325: 9212: 9078: 8428: 6640: 4465: 3612: 3485: 3450: 3247: 2952:

as an administrative and literary language, followed by the development of a native vernacular

2740: 2025: 1970: 8604: 8579: 6372: 3832: 2495: 11972: 11950: 10769: 10646: 10527: 10487: 10300: 10175: 9239: 9229: 9188: 9159: 9022: 8696: 8682: 8659: 8649: 8064:

Historia de España: España musulmana hasta la caída del califato de Córdoba: 711–1031 de J.C.

7757:

Infidel Kings and Unholy Warriors: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusade and Jihad

7640:

Allen, William Edward David; ʻAbd al-Raḥmān ʻAlī Ḥajjī (2002). Mariano González Campo (ed.).

5958: 5768: 4267: 4247: 4179: 4159: 4071: 3932: 2015: 1985: 550: 10415: 8870: 8564: 6990: 4807: 4460: 4063: 4055: 2802: 2429:" until the mid-10th century and recognized the religious authority of the Abbasid Caliphs. 11639: 11546: 11491: 10620: 10450: 10420: 10295: 10226: 10197: 10116: 9450: 9288: 9278: 8815: 8540: 8515: 6783: 4430: 3808: 3726: 3043:

valley, contained more cities and a more diverse population, including Arabs, Berbers, and

2806: 2565: 2159: 2040: 761: 10400: 8893: 5993:

Coope, Jessica A. (2020). "Arabs, Berbers, and Local Converts". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.).

5770:

Infidel Kings and Unholy Wars: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusades and Jihad

3850:) which was raised over the street between them, allowing the caliph direct access to the 2491:, the army reached 35,000 to 40,000 combatants, half of them Syrian military contingents. 2394:

of the area who had defied Umayyad and Abbasid rule. Abd al-Rahman I united various local

691: 8: 11869: 11750: 11644: 11460: 10957: 10754: 10312: 10192: 10158: 10060: 9880: 9875: 9687: 9406: 9342: 9217: 9202: 9068: 9049: 8998: 8989: 8943: 8905: 8881: 7843:

De Bordejé Morencos, Federico Fernando (1992). "El Islam, la España musulmana y la mar".

7312:

Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (1992). "The Great Mosque of Córdoba". In Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (ed.).

4440: 3888:, also known as the Ibn Addabas Mosque, was either built or enlarged by Abd al-Rahman II 3660: 3600:. Two other bronze examples of similar craftsmanship, shaped like deers, are kept at the 3570: 3566: 3443: 3302: 2852: 2767: 2640:

which were replaced with taxes to support the professional troops – often

2594: 2339: 2249: 1260: 919: 728: 649: 586: 523: 10028: 10018: 7622:

Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman

7554:

Revisiting al-Andalus: perspectives on the material culture of Islamic Iberia and beyond

3285: 2866: 2614:, pronounced the 10-year-old boy caliph and swore an swore an oath of obedience to him. 1565: 12031: 11945: 11796: 11732: 11540: 11516: 11193: 11171: 11131: 11021: 10934: 10885: 10851: 10742: 10425: 10405: 10388: 10339: 10204: 10013: 9964: 9897: 9815: 9756: 9751: 9746: 9702: 9672: 9564: 9462: 9330: 9305: 9093: 9044: 9007: 9002: 8964: 8952: 8911: 8827: 8803: 7173: 7168: 7151: 7107: 6416: 4573: 4445: 4435: 4047: 3736: 3500: 3464: 3271:, were also purchased and imported to al-Andalus, but they were less numerous than the 3185: 3112: 2379: 2323: 1955: 1720: 1605: 1465: 1190: 1125: 947: 866: 741: 682: 519: 8947: 5834: 3344:, and more – and new and more widespread irrigation techniques – including the use of 3246:

Slavery was also a regular feature of Andalusi society and al-Andalus was a center of

1545: 12006: 12001: 11906: 11896: 11886: 11569: 11455: 11407: 11250: 11161: 10922: 10912: 10907: 10897: 10892: 10725: 10534: 10430: 10366: 10361: 10290: 10187: 9902: 9830: 9825: 9667: 9596: 9579: 9574: 9569: 9369: 9320: 9035: 9012: 8957: 8899: 8887: 8865: 8832: 8786: 8629: 8609: 8470: 8421: 8404: 8388: 8356: 8328: 8309: 8290: 8262: 8243: 8224: 8205: 8186: 8167: 8148: 8129: 8110: 8091: 8072: 8047: 8028: 8009: 7981: 7962: 7943: 7924: 7903: 7884: 7865: 7848: 7829: 7801: 7782: 7761: 7740: 7721: 7702: 7683: 7664: 7645: 7600: 7557: 7528: 7501: 7471: 7444: 7369: 7344: 7317: 7292: 7198: 7177: 7130: 7111: 6887: 6825: 6682: 6544: 6508: 6380: 6346: 6238: 6181: 6151: 6112: 6000: 5966: 5840: 5801: 5524: 5013: 4894: 4822: 4745: 4735: 4691: 4681: 4617: 4523: 4506: 4207: 4189: 4024: 3904: 3691:

The "Stag of Córdoba", a bronze fountain spout from Madinat al-Zahra (10th century)

3096: 2957: 2874: 2586: 2510: 2506: 2383: 2327: 2065: 1910: 1515: 1155: 1145: 1135: 1020: 909: 904: 881: 876: 871: 782: 704: 662: 635: 500: 476: 238: 201: 8278:

Almería musulmana: hasta la conquista de Almería por Alfonso VII (711–1147 de J. C.)

5479: 5477: 3846:

The palaces and the Great Mosque in Cordoba were linked via a high covered passage (

2736: 2421:

Despite the realm's independence from Baghdad, the emirate's rulers used the title "

492: 74: 12036: 12021: 11781: 11486: 11208: 11146: 11136: 11126: 11111: 10917: 10820: 10792: 10680: 10383: 10170: 10165: 10121: 10108: 10038: 10006: 10001: 9865: 9860: 9842: 9803: 9736: 9719: 9660: 9650: 9645: 9586: 9542: 9512: 9472: 9455: 9438: 9401: 9152: 9031: 8985: 8968: 8731: 8669: 8589: 7163: 7099: 7026: 4565: 4510: 4450: 4425: 4368: 4288: 4277: 4149: 4051: 4030:

A much smaller but historically notable work from the late caliphate period is the

4020: 3928: 3820: 3781: 3628: 3616: 3431: 3411: 3310: 3169: 2949: 2910: 2870: 2856: 2590: 2469: 2219: 2215: 2204: 2185: 1850: 1830: 1810: 1730: 1525: 1405: 1330: 1320: 1270: 1200: 1100: 1050: 914: 484: 97: 92: 7340:

Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800

3020: 11962: 11669: 11614: 11414: 11100: 11060: 11011: 10963: 10737: 10601: 10569: 10442: 10410: 10393: 10349: 10344: 10322: 10317: 10275: 10268: 10243: 10103: 10098: 9939: 9820: 9714: 9709: 9677: 9502: 9492: 9386: 9379: 9374: 9359: 9315: 9197: 9183: 9073: 9039: 8702: 8574: 8444: 7918: 7776: 7755: 7465: 7338: 6340: 6232: 6175: 5994: 5474: 4475: 4392: 4347: 4338: 4119: 4102: 4039: 4001:

significant architectural flourishes and innovations, which included interlacing

3961: 3936: 3773: 3772:

chieftain named Razin al-Burnusi who accompanied the original Muslim invasion by

3741: 3574: 3476: 3460: 3407: 3201: 3173: 3132: 3008: 2989: 2953: 2810: 2549: 2545: 2476: 2390:

in 750 to the Abbasids. Intent on regaining a position of power, he defeated the

2375: 2331: 2155: 2125: 1890: 1880: 1790: 1770: 1660: 1595: 1555: 1535: 1445: 1370: 1360: 1350: 1310: 1280: 1220: 1210: 1090: 1040: 630: 601: 515: 511: 472: 400: 277: 188: 106: 87: 10023: 5570: 3815:

hall composed of rows of columns connected by double tiers of arches (including

851: 12074: 11801: 11654: 11496: 11198: 10544: 10539: 10502: 10477: 10460: 10371: 10356: 10327: 10285: 10133: 10093: 10088: 10043: 9969: 9929: 9919: 9909: 9724: 9603: 9497: 9364: 9246: 9108: 8490: 4547: 4059: 4002: 3920: 3816: 3715:

Marble basin crafted for 'Abd al-Malik (son of al-Mansur) between 1002 and 1007

3562: 3415: 3374: 3341: 2906: 2692: 2618: 2230: 2140: 2084: 1860: 1750: 1680: 1380: 756: 413: 8280:. Tomo II. Almería: Monte de Piedad y Caja de Ahorros de Almería. p. 512. 8223:. Tomo II. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe. Edición de José María Blázquez. p. 630. 7030: 2696: 12121: 12103: 12090: 11977: 11814: 11664: 11203: 11166: 11141: 11026: 10625: 10512: 10307: 10280: 10253: 10231: 10209: 9976: 9959: 9944: 9788: 9741: 9729: 9655: 9547: 9421: 9416: 9391: 9273: 8664: 8480: 7852: 4826: 4749: 4695: 4035: 3935:, administrative and government offices, aristocratic residences, gardens, a 3643:, which was crafted at Madinat al-Zahra between 1002 and 1007 to serve as an 3419: 3100: 3085: 3081: 3080:(judges) played the most important social role. In the 9th century, both the 2925: 2622: 2403: 2110: 1615: 1475: 153: 10053: 10033: 6782:

Sidik, Roziah; Sidek, Mat; Suryani Arshad, Izziah; Abu Bakar, Kaseh (2013).

4569: 4551: 983: 12064: 11989: 11649: 11501: 11379: 11095: 10999: 10987: 10701: 10517: 10258: 10248: 10214: 10143: 10138: 10065: 9855: 9837: 9798: 9793: 9773: 9768: 9640: 9633: 9623: 9618: 9613: 9507: 9445: 9426: 9411: 9347: 8741: 8392: 5894: 5892: 3797: 3676: 3578: 3362: 3298: 3147:

The Arabized Christians of the Iberian Peninsula were later referred to as

3141: 3024: 2894: 2633: 2561: 2557: 2114: 1585: 1340: 937: 488: 134: 8401:

Al-Andalus: Estructura antropológica de una sociedad islámica en Occidente

8353:

El Poema de mio Cid: el patriarca Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar trasmite sus genes

4815:

Bolletí de la Societat Arqueològica Lul·liana: Revista d'Estudis Històrics

4552:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" 3752:

Upon rising to power, Abd al-Rahman I initially resided in several palace-

11626: 11116: 11055: 10982: 10869: 10236: 10221: 10070: 9783: 9692: 9682: 9608: 9256: 9251: 8931: 8634: 8530: 6448:

Peace Be Upon You: The Story of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish Coexistence

6206:

Peace Be Upon You: The Story of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish Coexistence

4470: 4372: 4217: 3975: 3878: 3793: 3765: 3636: 3531: 3509: 3449:

Poets sought the patronage of the caliph's court, as with the example of

3016: 3004: 2890: 2579: 1974: 1740: 1650: 1435: 1290: 1240: 792: 787: 766: 7737:

Geoestrategia en la España musulmana: las campañas militares de Almanzor

6420: 5889: 518:

prince who fled the defeat and persecution of the Umayyad clan amid the

11919: 11016: 10991: 10263: 10080: 9954: 9914: 9847: 8852: 8584: 8505: 7642:

Al-Ghazal y la embajada hispano-musulmana a los vikingos en el siglo IX

7103: 7090:

Forcada, Miquel (2019). "The garden in Umayyad society in al-Andalus".

4577: 4139: 3504:

academies of Baghdad and the Middle East, which helped bring about the

3455: 3337: 3329: 3040: 2878: 2798: 2514: 2484: 2465: 2338:. After the crossing, Tariq's troops defeated Visigothic forces at the 2260: 1900: 1870: 1700: 1505: 1070: 564: 480: 7219:"Albolafia (2 o 2) - Alcazar of the Christian Monarchs | Virtual Tour" 6784:"The Role And Contribution Of Women In Andalusian Muslim Civilization" 6177:

Mozarabs in Medieval and Early Modern Spain: Identities and Influences

5012:(in Spanish). Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Valencia: Anubar Ediciones. 2752: 2326:

had ruled Iberia for over two centuries when it was overthrown by the

11634: 11065: 10880: 10153: 9924: 9808: 9778: 9559: 9433: 9224: 8798: 8654: 8639: 8545: 8535: 7942:. Nerea. Traducido por Javier Sánchez García-Gutiérrez. p. 248. 6339:

Marín, Manuela (2020). "Women and slaves". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.).

5464: 5462: 4257: 4227: 3915: 3812: 3785: 3640: 3620: 3535: 3423: 3349: 3137: 2921:

who use more bullish criteria estimate between seven and 10 million.

2607: 2415: 2245: 2200: 2170: 2095: 2080: 1485: 1455: 1300: 1060: 1000: 834: 527: 504: 438: 7527:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 152–153. 7244:"La noria fluvial en la provincia de Córdoba. Historia y tecnología" 5647: 5645: 5240: 5238: 5236: 5223: 5221: 5184: 5182: 5068: 5066: 5064: 5062: 4734:. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Maritime. p. 111. 3060: 2978: 2937: 11967: 11473: 11331: 11283: 11077: 11031: 10995: 10720: 9554: 9337: 9295: 9234: 8520: 8495: 8377: 7826:

El islam de Al-Ándalus: historia y estructura de su realidad social

7441:

Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History

5384: 5382: 5380: 5378: 4129: 3966: 3852: 3768:

or a Roman-Visigothic estate which was taken over and adapted by a

3539: 3435: 3252: 3148: 3036: 3012: 2933: 2794: 2756: 2641: 2526: 2411: 2407: 2387: 2029: 1800: 1760: 1710: 1670: 1575: 1230: 1180: 1080: 451: 156: 8413: 8123: 6377:

Occident and Orient: A Tribute to the Memory of Alexander Scheiber

6373:"The 'abid under the Umayyads of Cordova and the muluk al-tawa'if" 5576: 5483: 5459: 5447: 5169: 5167: 5165: 5098: 5096: 4808:"Documentación feudal y arqueología andalusí: el caso de Mallorca" 3518: 2454:

in 806. In 818, the inhabitants of the al-Rabad suburb of Córdoba

11982: 11588: 11276: 11156: 11048: 11041: 11036: 10778: 9467: 9396: 9352: 9207: 8485: 6781: 5708: 5642: 5233: 5218: 5206: 5179: 5059: 3993: 3885: 3769: 3378: 3089: 2974: 2929: 2787: 2783: 2771: 2760: 2748: 2700: 2629: 2541: 2533: 2451: 2433: 2399: 2391: 2347: 2343: 2189: 2099: 2069: 2004: 1840: 1820: 1780: 1690: 1625: 1415: 1030: 606: 496: 447: 386: 138: 9268: 8124:

Martínez Enamorado, Virgilio; Torremocha Silva, Antonio (2001).

8006:

España estratégica: guerra y diplomacia en la historia de España

5630: 5375: 5363: 4789: 4787: 4785: 4783: 11506: 11480: 11439: 11400: 11317: 11230: 11151: 11006: 10952: 10947: 10714: 10638: 9300: 9175: 8822: 8126:

Almanzor y su época: al-Ándalus en la segunda mitad del siglo X

6122: 5836:

Four thousand years of urban growth : an historical census

5657: 5435: 5316: 5162: 5093: 5010:

Annotated Spanish translation: A. Huici Miranda, Rawd el-Qirtas

4591: 4011: 3956: 3951: 3940: 3703:

Example of a marble capital from Madinat al-Zahra, 10th century

3632: 3589: 3523: 3399: 3386: 3382: 3333: 3262: 3116: 3076: 2651: 2532:

Fatimid invasions were thwarted when Abd al-Rahman III secured

2522: 2426: 2264: 2144: 2000: 1010: 352: 102: 7125:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Córdoba".

6820:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Córdoba".

6677:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Córdoba".

6503:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Córdoba".

5916: 5582: 2836:

The power of the chamberlain was retained by Almanzor's sons,

11755: 11580: 11534: 11522: 11324: 11310: 11269: 10942: 10799: 10785: 10706: 10669: 9934: 8810: 6459: 6457: 6062: 5669: 5534: 5394: 4780: 4016: 3997: 3858: 3789: 3753: 3675:

Vegetal motifs and figurative imagery carved in ivory on the

3663:, a carved ivory casket made at Madinat al-Zahra dated to 968 3552: 3403: 3377:

culture. During the reign of Abd al-Rahman II the culture of

3345: 3290: 3224: 3124: 3070: 2970: 2861: 2572: 2537: 2518: 2234: 1989: 1959: 542: 532: 455: 297: 127: 8346:. Barcelona: Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona. p. 508. 8107:

Sociedad, política y protesta popular en la España musulmana

8044:

Muslim Spain and Portugal: a political history of al-Andalus

7316:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 11–26. 6541:

1001 inventions & awesome facts from Muslim civilization

5681: 5594: 5558: 5279: 5277: 2661:. The chamberlain carried out wide-ranging military reforms. 11421: 11393: 11343: 11290: 11235: 10806: 8240:

Introducción a la cultura hispánica: Historia, arte, música

6543:. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic. 2012. p. 18. 6407:

Hébert, Raymond J. (1991). "The Coinage of Islamic Spain".

5877: 5489: 4635: 4633: 4006: 3984: 3644: 3593: 3584:

The caliphal workshops also produced fine silks, including

3527: 3360:

In high society, both men and women were expected to learn

3325: 2924:

Under Almanzor, the realm also had other large cities like

2636:

on 13 October 998 once the gates of the city were opened.

2422: 2395: 2362: 2129: 282: 9144: 8143:

Matés Baco, Juan Manuel; Agustín González, Enciso (2006).

8142: 7819:. Tomo I. Madrid: Imprenta de Cipriano López. p. 508. 7624:. Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition. 7194:

Water Architecture in the Lands of Syria: The Water-wheels

6850: 6760: 6707: 6454: 6311: 6263: 6251: 6050: 5898: 5523:. No. 2. Saint Léger-Vauban: Zodiaque, p. 55. En francés. 5083: 5081: 3261:) and were highly valued. Some were castrated and sold as 7862:

Historia de los musulmanes de España. Las guerras civiles

6726: 6724: 6722: 6574: 6572: 5698: 5696: 5413: 5411: 5409: 5341: 5339: 5337: 5335: 5333: 5331: 5274: 5128: 5126: 5113: 5111: 5049: 5047: 5045: 5043: 5041: 4943: 4941: 4939: 4937: 4924: 4922: 2589:

invasion of Morocco occurred in 958, led by the general,

8327:. Madrid: Mapfre. Edición de Elena Romero. p. 351. 6933:"Fountain spout – Discover Islamic Art – Virtual Museum" 6608: 6584: 6521: 6481: 6089: 6079: 6077: 5963:

The Formation of al-Andalus, Part 1: History and Society

5933: 5931: 5618: 5501: 5294: 5292: 4630: 3596:

which was made at Madinat al-Zahra and preserved by the

2763:

in 944. The fleet also maintained a significant budget.

2578:

Abd al-Rahman III was succeeded by his 46-year-old son,

2334:

crossed into Southern Hispania from North Africa across

6469: 6427: 6287: 5744: 5732: 5138: 5078: 5026: 4977: 4953: 4034:(later known as the Church of San Cristo de la Luz) in 442: 7552:. In Anderson, Glaire D.; Rosser-Owen, Mariam (eds.). 7269:. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques. pp. 134–182. 7127:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

7079:. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques. pp. 153–154. 6822:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

6801: 6748: 6736: 6719: 6695: 6679:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

6569: 6505:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

6212: 6013: 5865: 5853: 5814: 5720: 5693: 5406: 5351: 5328: 5250: 5194: 5150: 5123: 5108: 5038: 4934: 4919: 4645: 3019:, was largely rural with the exception of the city of 475:

from 756 to 1031. Its territory comprised most of the

8261:. Vol. I. Madrid: Ediciones Rialp. p. 729. 7550:"Madinat Al-Zahra; Transformation of a Caliphal City" 6962:"Qantara – Spout of a fountain in the form of a stag" 6838: 6620: 6596: 6557: 6299: 6275: 6074: 5928: 5904: 5289: 3756:

on the outskirts of Cordoba, most notably one called

3615:, which continued the general configuration of Roman 3144:

which co-existed alongside official church doctrine.

8289:. Barcelona; Buenos Aires: Parkstone International. 7997:

Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages

7661:

Historia de España. España Musulmana: siglos VIII–XV

6025: 5546: 5423: 4989: 4965: 4907: 4845: 4833: 4680:. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 108. 3490: 3272: 3266: 3238: 3232: 3225: 3214: 3152: 7842: 7241: 5606: 5468: 5453: 5304: 4768: 4756: 4711: 4657: 3835:. One of the western gates of the mosque, known as 7878: 7800:. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press. 7467:Baroque Seville: Sacred Art in a Century of Crisis 7282: 7280: 7278: 7276: 5714: 5651: 5244: 5227: 5212: 5188: 5072: 3919:The excavated and partly reconstructed remains of 3446:in Switzerland contained just over 100 volumes. 2720:of 974. For similar reasons, the Barcelonan count 2450:Raids increased the emirate's size such as one to 8344:Estudios sobre la historia de la ciencia medieval 8164:La España medieval: sociedades, estados, culturas 8025:Los nuestros: cien vidas en la historia de España 7814: 7778:Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain 7734: 6498: 6496: 5839:(2nd ed.). Edwen Mellen Press. p. 129. 5636: 5441: 5388: 5369: 5173: 5102: 4678:Muslim identities : an introduction to Islam 3877:) for security reasons and was later replaced by 3459:, a form of Andalusi vernacular poetry combining 12119: 8256: 8022: 8003: 7495: 7363: 7357: 7286: 7124: 7070: 7068: 7066: 6819: 6791:Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 6676: 6533: 6502: 5663: 5588: 5322: 5262: 5007: 4871:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 119. 3277:and mostly trained to serve as military troops. 526:, a civil war between the descendants of caliph 8161: 7408: 7273: 7152:"Early Arab Water Technology in Southern Spain" 6937:Discover Islamic Art – Museum With No Frontiers 6813: 5922: 5519:Crespi, Gabriele (1982). "L'Europe Musulmane". 4866: 4805: 3569:motifs. Notable surviving examples include the 3140:practice and the emergence of both old and new 3011:in the center, and before the foothills of the 2402:. The campaigns to unify al-Andalus went into 12168:States and territories established in the 750s 8322: 8180: 8060: 7823: 7682:. Edicions Universitat Barcelona. p. 27. 7597:A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period 7547: 7258: 7143: 7118: 7050:Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers 7043: 6493: 6143: 5795: 5773:. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. p. 30. 5675: 5600: 5577:Martínez Enamorado & Torremocha Silva 2001 5540: 5484:Martínez Enamorado & Torremocha Silva 2001 5400: 4890:A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period 4793: 2932:, which were all around 30,000; and Zaragoza, 296:• Disintegrated into several independent 12153:States and territories disestablished in 1031 10654: 9160: 8757: 8429: 8275: 8242:. Barcelona: Publisher Crítica. p. 361. 8238:Russell, Peter Edward; Carr, Raymond (1982). 7063: 5564: 3939:, workshops, barracks, service quarters, and 3856:area of the mosque via a corridor behind the 3807:, one of the most important monuments of the 3393: 2509:ascended to the throne in 912, and faced the 2418:and took over twenty-five years to complete. 2292: 955: 812: 12133:11th-century disestablishments in al-Andalus 10617:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 8771: 8341: 8185:. Madrid: Miraguano Ediciones. p. 238. 8147:. Barcelona: publisher Ariel. p. 1020. 8104: 7644:. Madrid: Miraguano ediciones. p. 238. 7496:Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992). 7457: 7432: 7364:Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992). 7287:Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992). 6886:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 5883: 5495: 4382:Yaḥya ibn ʿAli ibn Ḥammud al-Muʿtali bi-llāh 4318:Yaḥya ibn ʿAli ibn Ḥammud al-Muʿtali bi-llāh 2382:, refused to recognize the authority of the 838: 8929: 8237: 7619: 7330: 7305: 7016: 6230: 5283: 4540: 4074:from this period include expansions to the 3163: 2995:While the indigenous Jews, Christians, and 10661: 10647: 9167: 9153: 8764: 8750: 8436: 8422: 8109:. Universidad de Costa Rica. p. 611. 7864:. Madrid: Biblioteca Turner. p. 464. 7817:Historia de la economía política en España 7235: 7211: 2299: 2285: 962: 948: 819: 805: 59: 8850: 8303: 8221:Historia de España: Edad Media (711–1500) 8204:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8128:. Málaga: publisher Sarriá. p. 197. 7677: 7599:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7594: 7343:. Yale University Press. pp. 17–21. 7167: 7149: 6173: 5956: 5791: 5789: 5787: 5785: 5783: 5781: 5779: 5687: 5624: 5507: 5144: 5087: 5032: 4893:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4886: 4546: 3809:architecture of the western Islamic world 2655:Almanzor's troops, as represented in the 2601: 471:, was an Arab Islamic state ruled by the 321:600,000 km (230,000 sq mi) 8085: 8008:. Madrid: Sílex ediciones. p. 501. 7956: 7937: 7916: 7897: 6672: 6670: 6668: 6666: 6638: 6475: 6463: 6450:. New York: Albert A. Knopf. p. 70. 6445: 6433: 6317: 6293: 6269: 6208:. New York: Albert A. Knopf. p. 70. 6203: 6169: 6167: 6019: 5871: 5859: 5832: 5702: 5345: 5132: 4947: 4928: 4882: 4880: 4878: 4609: 4481:Muslim conquest of Mediterranean islands 4208:ʿAbd al-Rahmān III al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh 4190:ʿAbd al-Rahmān III al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh 3945: 3914: 3735: 3556:, a custom that also existed in the east 3284: 3059: 2650: 2447:) did not extend beyond Córdoba itself. 2318:Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula 10441: 8218: 8041: 7696: 7579: 7575: 7573: 7520: 7491: 7489: 7487: 7264: 7197:. L'Erma di Bretschneider. p. 55. 7190: 7089: 7074: 6875: 6873: 6871: 6869: 6867: 6865: 6370: 6342:The Routledge Handbook of Muslim Iberia 6334: 6332: 6330: 6328: 6326: 6234:The Routledge Handbook of Muslim Iberia 6199: 6197: 6139: 6137: 6095: 6083: 6068: 5996:The Routledge Handbook of Muslim Iberia 5910: 5820: 5726: 5417: 5357: 5298: 5256: 5200: 5156: 5117: 5053: 4729: 4639: 3923:, outside Córdoba, Spain (10th century) 3602:National Archeological Museum in Madrid 3592:fountain spout carved in the form of a 2900: 14: 12120: 8355:. Kassel: Reichenberger. p. 172. 8350: 8199: 7795: 7774: 7753: 7739:. Ministerio de Defensa. p. 199. 7715: 7463: 7438: 7388: 7223:alcazardelosreyescristianos.cordoba.es 7012: 7010: 6856: 6844: 6807: 6777: 6775: 6766: 6754: 6742: 6730: 6713: 6701: 6626: 6614: 6602: 6590: 6578: 6563: 6527: 6487: 6406: 6402: 6400: 6398: 6396: 6366: 6364: 6362: 6305: 6281: 6257: 6218: 6128: 6056: 5988: 5986: 5984: 5982: 5952: 5950: 5948: 5946: 5937: 5899:Matés Baco & Agustín González 2006 5776: 5750: 5738: 5429: 5008:Abi Zar, Ibn; al-Qirtas, Rawd (1964). 4995: 4983: 4971: 4959: 4913: 4851: 4839: 4717: 4675: 4663: 4651: 4613:War in the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1600 4597: 3897:Collegiate Church of the Divine Savior 3811:. The mosque was notable for its vast 3293:of Hisham II, dated 396 AH (1006–7 AD) 3106: 11841: 11609: 11225: 10642: 9148: 8784: 8745: 8417: 7994: 7975: 7798:Muslim Spain: Its History and Culture 7639: 7588: 7336: 7311: 7242:Córdoba de la Llave, Ricardo (1997). 6879: 6663: 6338: 6164: 6044: 6031: 5992: 5763: 5761: 5759: 5612: 5552: 4875: 4862: 4860: 4348:ʿAbd al-Rahmān V al-Mustaẓhir bi-llāh 4298:ʿAli ibn Ḥammud al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh 3881:when the latter expanded the mosque. 3434:was among the most notable poets and 2964: 2679:At that time al-Andalus was known as 27:State in Islamic Iberia (756–1031 CE) 11610: 11226: 8284: 7859: 7701:. Editorial Nerea, S.A. p. 28. 7658: 7613: 7584:. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques. 7570: 7484: 7314:Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain 6930: 6883:Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain 6862: 6639:Slamecka, Vladimir (9 August 2018). 6323: 6194: 6134: 5310: 5268: 4774: 4762: 4278:ʿAbd al-Raḥmān IV al-Murtaḍā bi-llāh 3803:In 785, Abd al-Rahman I founded the 3068:In matters of Islamic religion, the 2851:in 1009 marked the beginning of the 977:Historical Arab states and dynasties 556: 12183:Former countries in Spanish history 12138:Former Islamic monarchies in Europe 8443: 8306:Almanzor y los terrores del milenio 8304:Fernández, Fernando Valdés (1999). 8259:Historia de España: Antigua y Media 8027:. Barcelona: Planeta. p. 437. 8023:Jiménez Losantos, Federico (1999). 7582:L'architecture musulmane d'Occident 7267:L'architecture musulmane d'Occident 7077:L'architecture musulmane d'Occident 7007: 6772: 6439: 6393: 6359: 5979: 5943: 4509:, or to the 14th century under the 3480: 3473:History of the Rulers of al-Andalus 3297:The economy of al-Andalus had been 3258: 3220: 3158: 2985: 839: 213: 163: 24: 8823:(Eastern) Roman Province of Spania 8371: 8276:Tapia Garrido, José Ángel (1976). 8086:Aizpurúa, Juan Pablo Fusi (2012). 7980:. Barcelona: Ediciones Robinbook. 7923:. University of California Press. 7815:Colmeiro y Penido, Manuel (1863). 7169:10.1111/j.1747-6593.2004.tb00519.x 5756: 4857: 3910: 3764:Ruṣāfa may have originally been a 2617:Almanzor had great influence over 65:Caliphate of Córdoba circa 1000 AD 25: 12204: 8866:Province of the Umayyad Caliphate 8061:Lévi Provençal, Évariste (1957). 7498:Moorish architecture in Andalusia 7470:. Penn State Press. p. 127. 7366:Moorish architecture in Andalusia 7289:Moorish architecture in Andalusia 6880:Dodds, Jerrilynn D., ed. (1992). 4086: 3731: 2739:'s ships in the campaign against 12128:1031 disestablishments in Europe 12070: 12069: 12058: 11589:Schools of islamic jurisprudence 10837:Timeline of the history of Islam 10668: 8554: 8323:Vallvé Bermejo, Joaquín (1992). 8181:Morales Romero, Eduardo (2004). 8162:Mitre Fernández, Emilio (1979). 7961:. Editorial NEREA. p. 213. 7883:. Silex Ediciones. p. 272. 7881:Almanzor: un califa en la sombra 7879:Echevarría Arsuaga, Ana (2011). 7735:Castellanos Gómez, Juan (2002). 7663:. Tomo III. Labor. p. 558. 7548:Vallejo Triano, Antonio (2007). 7541: 7514: 7382: 7184: 7083: 7037: 6983: 6954: 6924: 6900: 6632: 6224: 6180:. Routledge. pp. ix–xviii. 6101: 4516: 4498: 4358:Muhammad III al-Mustakfi bi-llāh 4218:Al-Ḥakam II al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh 3982:He also expanded the courtyard ( 3708: 3696: 3684: 3668: 3652: 3208: 1398:Western dynasties and caliphates 982: 931: 850: 418: 393: 379: 11930:List of ex-Muslim organisations 9094:Monarchs of Barcelona/Catalonia 8257:Suárez Fernández, Luis (1976). 8166:. Ediciones Akal. p. 392. 8004:González Batista, Juan (2007). 7824:Cruz Hernández, Miguel (1992). 7632: 6972:from the original on 2021-04-19 6943:from the original on 2020-11-26 6345:. Routledge. pp. 228–248. 6237:. Routledge. pp. 208–228. 6037: 5999:. Routledge. pp. 189–207. 5957:Hernandez, Miguel Cruz (2016). 5826: 5513: 5001: 4799: 4723: 4557:International Studies Quarterly 4062:of Córdoba, and, possibly, the 3872: 3720: 3598:Archeological Museum of Córdoba 2877:. The last Córdoban Caliph was 2797:. During the Catalan campaign, 2759:of the fleet had been built in 900:Umayyad Caliphate in al-Andalus 8403:. Barcelona: Barral Editores. 8105:Marín Guzmán, Roberto (2006). 7760:. Farrar, Strauss and Giroux. 7524:Islamic Gardens and Landscapes 7521:Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2008). 6647:. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc 6109:A History of the Islamic World 4702: 4669: 4603: 4456:List of Sunni Muslim dynasties 3866:was built by the Umayyad emir 3178:Mozarabic art and architecture 2793:In 985, the fleet ravaged the 2438:Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi 495:. From 756 it was ruled as an 13: 1: 8697:Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud 8683:Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud 7938:Fletcher, Richard A. (1999). 7917:Fletcher, Richard A. (1992). 7156:Water and Environment Journal 6931:Llorente, Margarita Sánchez. 5965:. Routledge. pp. 54–55. 5798:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 4486: 4395:Caliphs of Córdoba (Restored) 4341:Caliphs of Córdoba (Restored) 4328:Al-Ma'mun al-Qāsim ibn Ḥammud 4308:Al-Ma'mun al-Qāsim ibn Ḥammud 4258:Hishām II al-Muʾayyad bi-llāh 4228:Hishām II al-Muʾayyad bi-llāh 3901:Iglesia Colegial del Salvador 3889: 3884:The original Great Mosque of 3744:in the oldest section of the 3542:, or various other sciences. 3412:Islamic religious scholarship 3191: 3074:(religious scholars) and the 2441: 2311: 720:Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa 11915:Apostasy in Islam by country 11792:Liberalism and progressivism 8145:Historia económica de España 7191:Miranda, Adriana de (2007). 4806:Rosselló Bordoy, G. (2007). 4730:Stanton, Charles D. (2015). 4533: 4402:Hisham III al-Muʿtad bi-llāh 4268:Sulaymān al-Mustaʿin bi'llāh 4248:Sulaymān al-Mustaʿin bi'llāh 4238:Muhammad II al-Mahdī bi'llāh 3974:, in the extension added by 3907:and remains standing today. 3895:. It is now occupied by the 3619:but were deeply carved with 3506:Golden Age of Jewish culture 3370:and other forms of culture. 3064:Exterior of the Great Mosque 2501: 2380:deposed Umayyad royal family 7: 9174: 8342:Vernet Ginés, Juan (1979). 8200:Reilly, Bernard F. (1993). 7902:. Oxford University Press. 7620:Le Tourneau, Roger (1949). 7443:. Oxford University Press. 7337:Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). 7291:. Taschen. pp. 39–49. 7129:. Oxford University Press. 7044:El Khatib-Boujibar, Naima. 6824:. Oxford University Press. 6681:. Oxford University Press. 6507:. Oxford University Press. 6379:. Brill. pp. 229–238. 6174:Hitchcock, Richard (2016). 6150:. Brill. pp. 353–377. 5961:. In Marin, Manuela (ed.). 4869:A History of Medieval Spain 4867:O'Callaghan, J. F. (1983). 4419: 3491: 3465:vernacular Romance language 3273: 3267: 3239: 3233: 3226: 3215: 3170:Andalusi dialect of Romance 3153: 3050: 2943: 2824: 1118:Arab empires and caliphates 10: 12209: 12188:11th century in al-Andalus 12163:10th century in al-Andalus 11842: 7995:Glick, Thomas F. (2005) . 7957:Fletcher, Richard (2000). 7898:Fletcher, Richard (1991). 7860:Dozy, Reinhart P. (2010). 7678:Ballestín, Xavier (2004). 6446:Karabell, Zachary (2007). 6204:Karabell, Zachary (2007). 5833:Chandler, Tertius (1987). 4600:, pp. 36 (and after). 4009:, and a richly-ornamented 3724: 3606:Islamic Art Museum in Doha 3394:Literature and scholarship 3355: 3280: 3115:who took on the status of 3088:legal schools of thought ( 2884: 2724:created the figure of the 2610:. Al-Hakam's top advisor, 2369: 2315: 530:and the successors of his 12158:9th century in al-Andalus 12053: 11938: 11905: 11855: 11851: 11837: 11764: 11731: 11703:Geography and cartography 11678: 11625: 11621: 11605: 11431: 11353: 11300: 11249: 11245: 11221: 11091: 10973: 10933: 10816: 10768: 10692: 10688: 10677: 10610: 10562: 10079: 9483: 9182: 9064: 8994:Principality of Catalonia 8939: 8928: 8924: 8861: 8849: 8845: 8794: 8783: 8779: 8728: 8618: 8563: 8552: 8469: 8451: 8088:Historia mínima de España 7999:. The Netherlands: Brill. 7845:Revista de historia naval 7796:Chejne, Anwar G. (1974). 7781:. New York: Basic Books. 7775:Catlos, Brian A. (2018). 7754:Catlos, Brian A. (2014). 7595:Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). 7580:Marçais, Georges (1954). 7391:"El sabat de la Mezquita" 7389:Fatima (7 October 2014). 7265:Marçais, Georges (1954). 7150:Headworth, H. G. (2004). 7075:Marçais, Georges (1954). 7031:10.1163/15700674-12342164 5767:Catlos, Brain A. (2014). 4887:Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). 4732:Medieval maritime warfare 4676:Hughes, Aaron W. (2013). 4410: 4390: 4366: 4336: 4286: 4100: 4093: 4046:(and later monastery) of 3992:and built its first true 2479:had used Berbers and the 840: 510:The state was founded by 434: 358: 348: 344: 334: 330: 325: 317: 312: 308: 294: 274: 270: 262: 258: 245: 232: 228: 212: 208: 195: 182: 178: 162: 149: 116: 80: 70: 58: 53: 32: 12193:Ummayad state of Córdoba 12012:Islamic view of miracles 8773:Spain in the Middle Ages 8714:Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali 8690:Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali 8381:Collegium Antropologicum 8219:Ríu Ríu, Manuel (1988). 8046:. Longman. p. 342. 6912:www.museosdeandalucia.es 6641:"Information processing" 6375:. In Dán, Robert (ed.). 6371:Handler, Andrew (2023). 6131:, pp. 107–108, 157. 5469:De Bordejé Morencos 1992 5454:De Bordejé Morencos 1992 4491: 3996:(a tower from which the 3748:in Spain, founded in 785 3055: 3007:in the west, around the 2840:, who died in 1008, and 2838:Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar 2517:Islamic empire based in 2513:, a rival North African 1426:Umayyad state of Córdoba 616:Umayyad state of Córdoba 11777:Creationism (evolution) 8932:Feudal Christian realms 8676:Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir 8090:. Turner. p. 304. 7976:Frers, Ernesto (2008). 7697:Bariani, Laura (2003). 7464:Wunder, Amanda (2017). 7368:. Taschen. p. 70. 5715:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 5652:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 5284:Russell & Carr 1982 5245:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 5228:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 5213:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 5189:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 5073:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 4570:10.1111/0020-8833.00053 4015:(niche symbolizing the 3972:Great Mosque of Cordoba 3805:Great Mosque of Cordoba 3746:Great Mosque of Cordoba 3545: 3492:Akhbār mulūk al-Andalus 3322:agricultural revolution 2849:Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo 2842:Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo 2774:. He repulsed raids by 2709:Évariste Lévi-Provençal 2658:Cantigas de Santa Maria 2336:the Strait of Gibraltar 641:Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir 12027:Persecution of Muslims 11925:List of former Muslims 10842:Succession to Muhammad 9079:Monarchs of al-Andalus 8379:haplogroups J and E". 8325:El Califato de Córdoba 8042:Kennedy, Hugh (1996). 7720:. Palgrave Macmillan. 7716:Barton, Simon (2004). 7439:Arnold, Felix (2017). 7416:"The andalusi Alcazar" 6071:, pp. 54–58, 126. 5637:Castellanos Gómez 2002 5442:Castellanos Gómez 2002 5389:Colmeiro y Penido 1863 5370:Colmeiro y Penido 1863 5174:Castellanos Gómez 2002 5103:Castellanos Gómez 2002 4466:Timeline of Septimania 3979: 3924: 3749: 3621:Islamic vegetal motifs 3430:, and other sciences. 3294: 3065: 2956:. In the 9th century, 2741:Santiago de Compostela 2662: 2602:Reforms under Almanzor 2392:existing Muslim rulers 491:, with its capital in 11821:Conversion to mosques 11688:Alchemy and chemistry 10587:Medieval great powers 8399:Guichard, P. (1976). 8351:Weiner, Jack (2001). 8285:Vara, Carlos (2012). 7659:Arié, Rachel (1984). 7397:(in European Spanish) 7092:Early Medieval Europe 6107:Fred J. Hill et al., 5664:Suárez Fernández 1976 5589:Jiménez Losantos 1999 5521:Les Formes de la nuit 5323:González Batista 2007 4180:Abdallah ibn Muhammad 4072:Moroccan architecture 3949: 3933:congregational mosque 3918: 3841:Puerta de San Esteban 3739: 3725:Further information: 3451:Ibn Darraj al-Qastali 3288: 3063: 2782:('men of the north', 2654: 2016:Sultanate of Zanzibar 1931:Mutawakkilite Kingdom 565:History of Al-Andalus 551:Andalusi architecture 503:adopted the title of 479:(known to Muslims as 81:Common languages 11547:Ma malakat aymanukum 11122:Association football 10597:European colonialism 10582:Ancient great powers 9129:Monarchs of Valencia 9089:Monarchs of Asturias 8876:Caliphate of Córdoba 8816:Kingdom of the Suebi 8665:Abd Allah al-Mu'ayti 7900:The Quest for El Cid 7556:. Brill. p. 3. 6059:, pp. 190, 192. 5923:Mitre Fernández 1979 4431:History of Gibraltar 4412:End of the Caliphate 4371:Caliphs of Córdoba ( 4058:(near Seville), the 4032:Bab al-Mardum Mosque 4005:, decorative ribbed 3727:Moorish architecture 3131:The local Christian 2901:Population estimates 2889:Under Umayyad rule, 2718:Fuero de Castrojeriz 2566:the Byzantine Empire 2544:in 951. In 948, the 2398:into an independent 762:Battle of the Strait 469:Caliphate of Córdoba 42:Caliphate of Córdoba 12100: / 10592:Modern great powers 9124:Monarchs of Navarre 9119:Monarchs of Majorca 9109:Monarchs of Granada 9104:Monarchs of Galicia 9099:Monarchs of Castile 9069:Visigothic monarchs 9050:Kingdom of Valencia 9018:Kingdom of Artajona 8999:Kingdom of Pamplona 8990:County of Barcelona 8944:Kingdom of Asturias 8471:Caliphs of Damascus 8287:Las Navas de Tolosa 8202:The Medieval Spains 7019:Medieval Encounters 6859:, pp. 139–141. 6769:, pp. 166–167. 6716:, pp. 165–166. 6260:, pp. 151–157. 5690:, pp. 153–154. 5676:Lévi Provençal 1957 5601:Lévi Provençal 1957 5541:Morales Romero 2004 5401:Vallvé Bermejo 1992 4794:Cruz Hernández 1992 4441:History of Portugal 4040:Arabic inscriptions 4017:direction of prayer 3905:Knights of Santiago 3679:, made in 1004–1005 3661:Pyxis of al-Mughira 3617:Corinthian capitals 3571:Pyxis of al-Mughira 3444:Abbey of Saint Gall 3303:trans-Saharan trade 3107:Christians and Jews 2853:Fitna of al-Andalus 2340:Battle of Guadalete 993:Ancient Arab states 920:Sharifian Caliphate 894:Parallel caliphates 692:Second Taifa period 587:Battle of Guadalete 524:Fitna of al-Andalus 12178:929 establishments 12173:756 establishments 12143:Former Arab states 12032:Quran and miracles 11946:Criticism of Islam 11660:Geometric patterns 11512:Gender segregation 11083:Non-denominational 9084:Monarchs of Aragon 9045:Kingdom of Majorca 9008:Kingdom of Viguera 9003:Kingdom of Navarre 8965:Kingdom of Castile 8953:Kingdom of Galicia 8912:Emirate of Granada 8871:Emirate of Córdoba 8828:Duchy of Cantabria 8804:Visigothic Kingdom 8620:Caliphs of Córdoba 7718:A History of Spain 7104:10.1111/emed.12347 5565:Tapia Garrido 1976 4642:, pp. 30–129. 4550:(September 1997). 4461:Martyrs of Córdoba 4446:History of Morocco 4436:History of Algeria 4291:Caliphs of Córdoba 4056:Baños de la Encina 4048:Almonaster la Real 3980: 3925: 3798:Guadalquivir River 3750: 3637:Dar Si Said Museum 3501:Hasdai ibn Shaprut 3481:أخبار ملوك الأندلس 3295: 3186:Hasdai ibn Shaprut 3113:People of the Book 3066: 3009:Cordillera Central 2965:Ethnic composition 2663: 2378:, a prince of the 2324:Visigothic Kingdom 2058:Current monarchies 1721:Sharifate of Mecca 1191:Emirate of Tbilisi 1181:Emirate of Armenia 1031:Kingdom of Osroene 867:Rashidun Caliphate 742:Emirate of Granada 729:Third Taifa period 683:Battle of Sagrajas 650:First Taifa period 597:Battle of Toulouse 536:(court official), 520:Abbasid Revolution 465:Emirate of Córdoba 34:Emirate of Córdoba 18:Emirate of Córdoba 12083: 12082: 12049: 12048: 12045: 12044: 12017:Domestic violence 12007:Islamic terrorism 12002:Islamic extremism 11833: 11832: 11829: 11828: 11601: 11600: 11597: 11596: 11387:Marriage contract 11217: 11216: 11177:Political aspects 10964:Story of Prophets 10733:Prophets of Islam 10636: 10635: 10558: 10557: 10523:Polish–Lithuanian 9698:Gurjara-Pratihara 9142: 9141: 9060: 9059: 9036:Kingdom of Aragon 9013:Kingdom of Najera 8979:Kingdom of Toledo 8958:County of Castile 8920: 8919: 8900:Almohad Caliphate 8888:Almoravid Emirate 8841: 8840: 8833:Duchy of Vasconia 8787:Early Middle Ages 8739: 8738: 8630:Abd al-Rahman III 8610:Abd al-Rahman III 8362:978-3-935004-38-1 8334:978-8-47100-406-2 8315:978-84-89483-09-5 8296:978-84-350-4582-7 8268:978-84-321-1882-1 8249:978-84-7423-186-1 8230:978-84-239-5090-4 8192:978-84-7813-270-6 8135:978-84-95129-55-0 8097:978-84-7506-677-6 8034:978-84-08-03304-2 7987:978-84-7927-963-9 7968:978-84-89569-40-9 7930:978-0-520-24840-3 7909:978-0-19-506955-6 7871:978-84-7506-941-8 7767:978-0-374-53532-2 7727:978-0-333-63257-4 7708:978-84-89569-85-0 7689:978-84-475-2772-4 7563:978-90-04-16227-3 7477:978-0-271-07941-7 7046:"Ablutions basin" 6617:, pp. 94–95. 6593:, pp. 40–41. 6550:978-1-4263-1258-8 6530:, pp. 89–99. 6490:, pp. 89–95. 6466:, pp. 62–64. 6386:978-90-04-67117-1 6352:978-1-317-23354-1 6320:, pp. 36–38. 6272:, pp. 35–36. 6244:978-1-317-23354-1 6187:978-1-317-09373-2 6157:978-90-04-52415-6 6098:, pp. 57–58. 6006:978-1-317-23354-1 5972:978-1-351-88960-5 5884:Marín Guzmán 2006 5846:978-0-88946-207-6 5753:, pp. 87–89. 5741:, pp. 42–43. 5496:Vernet Ginés 1979 4986:, pp. 38–40. 4962:, pp. 37–38. 4654:, pp. 43–49. 4623:978-1-351-77886-2 4524:Seville Cathedral 4417: 4416: 4105:rulers of Córdoba 4095:Rulers of Córdoba 4023:-influenced gold 3960:(center) and the 3742:two-tiered arches 3489: 3461:vernacular Arabic 3167: 2958:Romance languages 2875:Taifa of Zaragoza 2511:Fatimid Caliphate 2507:Abd al-Rahman III 2384:Abbasid Caliphate 2328:Umayyad Caliphate 2309: 2308: 2274: 2273: 2049: 2048: 2041:Tippu Tip's State 1939: 1938: 1911:Emirate of Beihan 1643:Arabian Peninsula 1634: 1633: 1389: 1388: 1173:Eastern dynasties 1164: 1163: 1109: 1108: 1021:Nabataean Kingdom 1011:Kingdom of Lihyan 972: 971: 910:Almohad Caliphate 905:Fatimid Caliphate 882:Ottoman Caliphate 877:Abbasid Caliphate 872:Umayyad Caliphate 829: 828: 783:Iberian Peninsula 636:Abd al-Rahman III 557:Political history 501:Abd al-Rahman III 477:Iberian Peninsula 461: 460: 430: 429: 426: 425: 406: 405: 336:• 1000 est. 247:• 1026–1031 239:Abd al-Rahman III 202:Abd al-Rahman III 16:(Redirected from 12200: 12148:Gharb Al-Andalus 12115: 12114: 12112: 12111: 12110: 12105: 12104:37.883°N 4.767°W 12101: 12098: 12097: 12096: 12093: 12073: 12072: 12065:Islam portal 12063: 12062: 12061: 11853: 11852: 11845: 11839: 11838: 11680:Medieval science 11623: 11622: 11613: 11607: 11606: 11264:Economic history 11247: 11246: 11223: 11222: 11209:Islam by country 11042:Bektashi Alevism 10690: 10689: 10681:Outline of Islam 10663: 10656: 10649: 10640: 10639: 10439: 10438: 10104:Austro-Hungarian 9804:Chagatai Khanate 9169: 9162: 9155: 9146: 9145: 9114:Monarchs of León 9032:County of Aragon 9026: 8986:Catalan counties 8969:Crown of Castile 8926: 8925: 8847: 8846: 8781: 8780: 8766: 8759: 8752: 8743: 8742: 8670:Abd al-Rahman IV 8590:Abd ar-Rahman II 8565:Emirs of Córdoba 8558: 8438: 8431: 8424: 8415: 8414: 8396: 8387:(4): 1215–1228. 8366: 8347: 8338: 8319: 8300: 8281: 8272: 8253: 8234: 8215: 8196: 8177: 8158: 8139: 8120: 8101: 8082: 8057: 8038: 8019: 8000: 7991: 7972: 7953: 7934: 7913: 7894: 7875: 7856: 7839: 7820: 7811: 7792: 7771: 7750: 7731: 7712: 7693: 7674: 7655: 7626: 7625: 7617: 7611: 7610: 7592: 7586: 7585: 7577: 7568: 7567: 7545: 7539: 7538: 7518: 7512: 7511: 7493: 7482: 7481: 7461: 7455: 7454: 7436: 7430: 7429: 7427: 7426: 7412: 7406: 7405: 7403: 7402: 7386: 7380: 7379: 7361: 7355: 7354: 7334: 7328: 7327: 7309: 7303: 7302: 7284: 7271: 7270: 7262: 7256: 7255: 7239: 7233: 7232: 7230: 7229: 7215: 7209: 7208: 7188: 7182: 7181: 7171: 7147: 7141: 7140: 7122: 7116: 7115: 7087: 7081: 7080: 7072: 7061: 7060: 7058: 7056: 7041: 7035: 7034: 7014: 7005: 7004: 7002: 7001: 6987: 6981: 6980: 6978: 6977: 6958: 6952: 6951: 6949: 6948: 6928: 6922: 6921: 6919: 6918: 6904: 6898: 6897: 6877: 6860: 6854: 6848: 6842: 6836: 6835: 6817: 6811: 6805: 6799: 6798: 6788: 6779: 6770: 6764: 6758: 6752: 6746: 6740: 6734: 6728: 6717: 6711: 6705: 6699: 6693: 6692: 6674: 6661: 6660: 6654: 6652: 6636: 6630: 6624: 6618: 6612: 6606: 6600: 6594: 6588: 6582: 6576: 6567: 6561: 6555: 6554: 6537: 6531: 6525: 6519: 6518: 6500: 6491: 6485: 6479: 6473: 6467: 6461: 6452: 6451: 6443: 6437: 6431: 6425: 6424: 6415:(1/2): 117–119. 6404: 6391: 6390: 6368: 6357: 6356: 6336: 6321: 6315: 6309: 6303: 6297: 6291: 6285: 6279: 6273: 6267: 6261: 6255: 6249: 6248: 6228: 6222: 6216: 6210: 6209: 6201: 6192: 6191: 6171: 6162: 6161: 6141: 6132: 6126: 6120: 6105: 6099: 6093: 6087: 6081: 6072: 6066: 6060: 6054: 6048: 6047:, pp. 23–24 6041: 6035: 6029: 6023: 6017: 6011: 6010: 5990: 5977: 5976: 5954: 5941: 5935: 5926: 5920: 5914: 5908: 5902: 5896: 5887: 5881: 5875: 5869: 5863: 5857: 5851: 5850: 5830: 5824: 5818: 5812: 5811: 5793: 5774: 5765: 5754: 5748: 5742: 5736: 5730: 5724: 5718: 5712: 5706: 5700: 5691: 5685: 5679: 5673: 5667: 5661: 5655: 5649: 5640: 5634: 5628: 5622: 5616: 5610: 5604: 5598: 5592: 5586: 5580: 5574: 5568: 5562: 5556: 5550: 5544: 5538: 5532: 5517: 5511: 5505: 5499: 5493: 5487: 5481: 5472: 5466: 5457: 5451: 5445: 5439: 5433: 5427: 5421: 5415: 5404: 5398: 5392: 5386: 5373: 5367: 5361: 5355: 5349: 5343: 5326: 5320: 5314: 5308: 5302: 5296: 5287: 5281: 5272: 5266: 5260: 5254: 5248: 5242: 5231: 5225: 5216: 5210: 5204: 5198: 5192: 5186: 5177: 5171: 5160: 5154: 5148: 5142: 5136: 5130: 5121: 5115: 5106: 5100: 5091: 5085: 5076: 5070: 5057: 5051: 5036: 5030: 5024: 5023: 5005: 4999: 4993: 4987: 4981: 4975: 4969: 4963: 4957: 4951: 4945: 4932: 4926: 4917: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4884: 4873: 4872: 4864: 4855: 4849: 4843: 4837: 4831: 4830: 4812: 4803: 4797: 4791: 4778: 4772: 4766: 4760: 4754: 4753: 4727: 4721: 4715: 4709: 4706: 4700: 4699: 4673: 4667: 4661: 4655: 4649: 4643: 4637: 4628: 4627: 4607: 4601: 4595: 4589: 4588: 4586: 4584: 4544: 4527: 4520: 4514: 4502: 4451:History of Spain 4426:History of Islam 4150:Abd al-Rahman II 4091: 4090: 4054:, the Castle of 4052:Castle of Tarifa 4003:multifoil arches 3929:Madinat al-Zahra 3921:Madinat al-Zahra 3894: 3891: 3876: 3874: 3862:wall. The first 3839:(today known as 3821:Abd al-Rahman II 3817:horseshoe arches 3782:Abd al-Rahman II 3740:The columns and 3712: 3700: 3688: 3672: 3656: 3494: 3484: 3482: 3432:Abbas ibn Firnas 3311:purchasing power 3276: 3270: 3260: 3242: 3236: 3229: 3222: 3218: 3165: 3162: 3160: 3156: 2987: 2950:Classical Arabic 2911:Tertius Chandler 2871:Taifa of Seville 2867:Taifa of Córdoba 2865:, including the 2857:Hammudid dynasty 2726:homes of paratge 2470:Emirate of Crete 2464: 2446: 2443: 2301: 2294: 2287: 2062: 2061: 2026:Nabahani dynasty 1971:Nabahani dynasty 1956:Makhzumi dynasty 1952: 1951: 1647: 1646: 1402: 1401: 1201:Emirate of Crete 1177: 1176: 1122: 1121: 1101:Kingdom of Kinda 1051:Kingdom of Hatra 1001:Kingdom of Qedar 997: 996: 986: 974: 973: 964: 957: 950: 938:Islam portal 936: 935: 934: 915:Sokoto Caliphate 854: 845: 844: 842: 831: 830: 821: 814: 807: 775:Related articles 749: 748: 736: 735: 712: 711: 699: 698: 670: 669: 657: 656: 623: 622: 592:Siege of Córdoba 579: 578: 561: 560: 485:Balearic Islands 467:, from 929, the 422: 421: 410: 409: 397: 396: 383: 382: 376: 375: 360: 359: 221: 220: 171: 170: 98:Berber languages 93:Andalusi Romance 63: 48: 47: 40: 39: 30: 29: 21: 12208: 12207: 12203: 12202: 12201: 12199: 12198: 12197: 12118: 12117: 12108: 12106: 12102: 12099: 12094: 12091: 12089: 12087: 12086: 12084: 12079: 12059: 12057: 12041: 11963:Cultural Muslim 11934: 11901: 11857:Other religions 11847: 11843: 11825: 11760: 11727: 11674: 11617: 11615:Islamic studies 11611: 11593: 11427: 11372: 11349: 11296: 11241: 11240: 11213: 11162:Moral teachings 11105: 11087: 11061:Nation of Islam 11022:Twelver Shi'ism 10969: 10935:Religious texts 10929: 10847:Early conquests 10830: 10812: 10764: 10684: 10673: 10667: 10637: 10632: 10621:American Empire 10606: 10602:African empires 10554: 10437: 10129:Central African 10075: 9893:Romano-Germanic 9479: 9213:Middle Assyrian 9186: 9178: 9173: 9143: 9138: 9134:Military orders 9074:Suebic monarchs 9056: 9040:Crown of Aragon 9020: 8948:Kingdom of León 8935: 8916: 8857: 8837: 8790: 8775: 8770: 8740: 8735: 8724: 8703:Abd al-Rahman V 8622: 8614: 8575:Abd al-Rahman I 8567: 8559: 8550: 8473: 8465: 8447: 8445:Umayyad dynasty 8442: 8374: 8372:Further reading 8369: 8363: 8335: 8316: 8297: 8269: 8250: 8231: 8212: 8193: 8174: 8155: 8136: 8117: 8098: 8079: 8054: 8035: 8016: 7988: 7969: 7950: 7931: 7910: 7891: 7872: 7836: 7808: 7789: 7768: 7747: 7728: 7709: 7690: 7671: 7652: 7635: 7630: 7629: 7618: 7614: 7607: 7593: 7589: 7578: 7571: 7564: 7546: 7542: 7535: 7519: 7515: 7508: 7494: 7485: 7478: 7462: 7458: 7451: 7437: 7433: 7424: 7422: 7414: 7413: 7409: 7400: 7398: 7395:Arte en Córdoba 7387: 7383: 7376: 7362: 7358: 7351: 7335: 7331: 7324: 7310: 7306: 7299: 7285: 7274: 7263: 7259: 7240: 7236: 7227: 7225: 7217: 7216: 7212: 7205: 7189: 7185: 7148: 7144: 7137: 7123: 7119: 7088: 7084: 7073: 7064: 7054: 7052: 7042: 7038: 7015: 7008: 6999: 6997: 6989: 6988: 6984: 6975: 6973: 6960: 6959: 6955: 6946: 6944: 6929: 6925: 6916: 6914: 6906: 6905: 6901: 6894: 6878: 6863: 6855: 6851: 6843: 6839: 6832: 6818: 6814: 6806: 6802: 6786: 6780: 6773: 6765: 6761: 6753: 6749: 6741: 6737: 6729: 6720: 6712: 6708: 6700: 6696: 6689: 6675: 6664: 6650: 6648: 6637: 6633: 6625: 6621: 6613: 6609: 6601: 6597: 6589: 6585: 6577: 6570: 6562: 6558: 6551: 6539: 6538: 6534: 6526: 6522: 6515: 6501: 6494: 6486: 6482: 6474: 6470: 6462: 6455: 6444: 6440: 6432: 6428: 6409:Islamic Studies 6405: 6394: 6387: 6369: 6360: 6353: 6337: 6324: 6316: 6312: 6304: 6300: 6292: 6288: 6280: 6276: 6268: 6264: 6256: 6252: 6245: 6229: 6225: 6217: 6213: 6202: 6195: 6188: 6172: 6165: 6158: 6142: 6135: 6127: 6123: 6106: 6102: 6094: 6090: 6082: 6075: 6067: 6063: 6055: 6051: 6042: 6038: 6030: 6026: 6018: 6014: 6007: 5991: 5980: 5973: 5955: 5944: 5936: 5929: 5921: 5917: 5909: 5905: 5897: 5890: 5882: 5878: 5870: 5866: 5858: 5854: 5847: 5831: 5827: 5819: 5815: 5808: 5794: 5777: 5766: 5757: 5749: 5745: 5737: 5733: 5725: 5721: 5713: 5709: 5701: 5694: 5686: 5682: 5674: 5670: 5662: 5658: 5650: 5643: 5635: 5631: 5623: 5619: 5611: 5607: 5599: 5595: 5587: 5583: 5575: 5571: 5563: 5559: 5551: 5547: 5539: 5535: 5518: 5514: 5506: 5502: 5494: 5490: 5482: 5475: 5467: 5460: 5452: 5448: 5440: 5436: 5428: 5424: 5416: 5407: 5399: 5395: 5387: 5376: 5368: 5364: 5356: 5352: 5344: 5329: 5321: 5317: 5309: 5305: 5297: 5290: 5282: 5275: 5267: 5263: 5255: 5251: 5243: 5234: 5226: 5219: 5211: 5207: 5199: 5195: 5187: 5180: 5172: 5163: 5155: 5151: 5143: 5139: 5131: 5124: 5116: 5109: 5101: 5094: 5086: 5079: 5071: 5060: 5052: 5039: 5031: 5027: 5020: 5006: 5002: 4994: 4990: 4982: 4978: 4970: 4966: 4958: 4954: 4946: 4935: 4927: 4920: 4912: 4908: 4901: 4885: 4876: 4865: 4858: 4850: 4846: 4838: 4834: 4810: 4804: 4800: 4792: 4781: 4773: 4769: 4761: 4757: 4742: 4728: 4724: 4716: 4712: 4707: 4703: 4688: 4674: 4670: 4662: 4658: 4650: 4646: 4638: 4631: 4624: 4608: 4604: 4596: 4592: 4582: 4580: 4548:Taagepera, Rein 4545: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4530: 4521: 4517: 4503: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4476:Sara al-Qutiyya 4422: 4120:Abd al-Rahman I 4089: 3988:) of Córdoba's 3913: 3911:Caliphal period 3892: 3871: 3774:Tariq ibn Ziyad 3734: 3729: 3723: 3716: 3713: 3704: 3701: 3692: 3689: 3680: 3673: 3664: 3657: 3575:Pyxis of Zamora 3548: 3396: 3358: 3283: 3248:the slave trade 3211: 3202:Richard Bulliet 3194: 3174:Visigothic rite 3133:Catholic Church 3109: 3058: 3053: 2967: 2954:Andalusi Arabic 2946: 2903: 2887: 2827: 2778:(idolaters) or 2604: 2550:Abul-Aish Ahmad 2504: 2498:circa 902–903. 2477:Abd al-Rahman I 2458: 2444: 2376:Abd al-Rahman I 2372: 2332:Tariq ibn Ziyad 2320: 2314: 2305: 2276: 2275: 2059: 2051: 2050: 1986:Mahdali dynasty 1949: 1941: 1940: 1881:Muscat and Oman 1651:Imamate of Oman 1644: 1636: 1635: 1399: 1391: 1390: 1174: 1166: 1165: 1119: 1111: 1110: 1041:Emesene Dynasty 994: 968: 932: 930: 925: 924: 895: 887: 886: 862: 861:Main caliphates 837: 825: 746: 745: 744: 733: 732: 731: 709: 708: 707: 696: 695: 694: 667: 666: 665: 654: 653: 652: 631:Abd al-Rahman I 620: 619: 618: 602:Battle of Tours 576: 575: 574: 572:Muslim conquest 559: 512:Abd al-Rahman I 487:, and parts of 473:Umayyad dynasty 454: 450: 446: 419: 401:Idrisid dynasty 394: 380: 337: 301: 287: 278:Abd al-Rahman I 248: 235: 234:• 929–961 218: 217: 216: 198: 197:• 912–929 189:Abd al-Rahman I 185: 184:• 756–788 168: 167: 166: 145: 133: 126: 112: 107:Medieval Hebrew 88:Andalusi Arabic 66: 49: 45: 44: 43: 41: 37: 36: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12206: 12196: 12195: 12190: 12185: 12180: 12175: 12170: 12165: 12160: 12155: 12150: 12145: 12140: 12135: 12130: 12109:37.883; -4.767 12081: 12080: 12078: 12077: 12067: 12054: 12051: 12050: 12047: 12046: 12043: 12042: 12040: 12039: 12034: 12029: 12024: 12019: 12014: 12009: 12004: 11999: 11998: 11997: 11987: 11986: 11985: 11980: 11975: 11965: 11960: 11959: 11958: 11953: 11942: 11940: 11939:Related topics 11936: 11935: 11933: 11932: 11927: 11922: 11917: 11911: 11909: 11903: 11902: 11900: 11899: 11894: 11889: 11884: 11879: 11878: 11877: 11872: 11861: 11859: 11849: 11848: 11835: 11834: 11831: 11830: 11827: 11826: 11824: 11823: 11818: 11811: 11806: 11805: 11804: 11794: 11789: 11784: 11779: 11774: 11768: 11766: 11762: 11761: 11759: 11758: 11753: 11748: 11743: 11737: 11735: 11729: 11728: 11726: 11725: 11720: 11715: 11710: 11705: 11700: 11695: 11690: 11684: 11682: 11676: 11675: 11673: 11672: 11667: 11662: 11657: 11652: 11647: 11642: 11637: 11631: 11629: 11619: 11618: 11603: 11602: 11599: 11598: 11595: 11594: 11592: 11591: 11586: 11585: 11584: 11572: 11570:Sources of law 11567: 11562: 11561: 11560: 11550: 11543: 11538: 11531: 11526: 11519: 11514: 11509: 11504: 11499: 11494: 11489: 11484: 11477: 11470: 11469: 11468: 11463: 11458: 11448: 11443: 11435: 11433: 11429: 11428: 11426: 11425: 11418: 11411: 11404: 11397: 11390: 11383: 11375: 11373: 11371: 11370: 11365: 11360: 11354: 11351: 11350: 11348: 11347: 11340: 11335: 11328: 11321: 11314: 11306: 11304: 11298: 11297: 11295: 11294: 11287: 11280: 11273: 11266: 11261: 11255: 11253: 11243: 11242: 11239: 11238: 11233: 11227: 11219: 11218: 11215: 11214: 11212: 11211: 11206: 11201: 11196: 11194:Social welfare 11191: 11186: 11179: 11174: 11169: 11164: 11159: 11154: 11149: 11144: 11139: 11134: 11129: 11124: 11119: 11114: 11108: 11106: 11104: 11103: 11098: 11092: 11089: 11088: 11086: 11085: 11080: 11075: 11074: 11073: 11063: 11058: 11053: 11052: 11051: 11046: 11045: 11044: 11034: 11029: 11024: 11014: 11009: 11004: 11003: 11002: 10979: 10977: 10971: 10970: 10968: 10967: 10960: 10955: 10950: 10945: 10939: 10937: 10931: 10930: 10928: 10927: 10926: 10925: 10920: 10915: 10910: 10905: 10900: 10895: 10890: 10878: 10873: 10866: 10859: 10857:Historiography 10854: 10849: 10844: 10839: 10833: 10831: 10829: 10828: 10823: 10817: 10814: 10813: 10811: 10810: 10803: 10796: 10789: 10782: 10774: 10772: 10766: 10765: 10763: 10762: 10757: 10752: 10745: 10740: 10735: 10730: 10729: 10728: 10718: 10711: 10710: 10709: 10698: 10696: 10686: 10685: 10678: 10675: 10674: 10666: 10665: 10658: 10651: 10643: 10634: 10633: 10631: 10630: 10629: 10628: 10623: 10614: 10612: 10608: 10607: 10605: 10604: 10599: 10594: 10589: 10584: 10579: 10578: 10577: 10566: 10564: 10560: 10559: 10556: 10555: 10553: 10552: 10547: 10542: 10537: 10532: 10531: 10530: 10520: 10515: 10510: 10505: 10500: 10495: 10490: 10485: 10480: 10475: 10474: 10473: 10468: 10458: 10453: 10447: 10445: 10436: 10435: 10434: 10433: 10428: 10423: 10418: 10413: 10403: 10398: 10397: 10396: 10386: 10381: 10380: 10379: 10374: 10369: 10359: 10354: 10353: 10352: 10347: 10337: 10336: 10335: 10330: 10325: 10320: 10315: 10305: 10304: 10303: 10298: 10288: 10283: 10278: 10273: 10272: 10271: 10266: 10261: 10256: 10251: 10241: 10240: 10239: 10234: 10224: 10219: 10218: 10217: 10212: 10202: 10201: 10200: 10195: 10185: 10184: 10183: 10178: 10168: 10163: 10162: 10161: 10156: 10151: 10146: 10141: 10131: 10126: 10125: 10124: 10119: 10111: 10106: 10101: 10096: 10091: 10085: 10083: 10077: 10076: 10074: 10073: 10068: 10063: 10058: 10057: 10056: 10051: 10046: 10041: 10036: 10031: 10026: 10016: 10011: 10010: 10009: 10004: 9999: 9994: 9989: 9984: 9974: 9973: 9972: 9967: 9962: 9957: 9947: 9942: 9937: 9932: 9927: 9922: 9917: 9912: 9907: 9906: 9905: 9900: 9890: 9889: 9888: 9883: 9878: 9873: 9868: 9863: 9850: 9845: 9840: 9835: 9834: 9833: 9828: 9823: 9813: 9812: 9811: 9806: 9801: 9796: 9786: 9781: 9776: 9771: 9766: 9761: 9760: 9759: 9754: 9749: 9744: 9734: 9733: 9732: 9727: 9722: 9717: 9707: 9706: 9705: 9700: 9695: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9670: 9665: 9664: 9663: 9658: 9653: 9643: 9638: 9637: 9636: 9631: 9626: 9621: 9616: 9611: 9601: 9600: 9599: 9594: 9584: 9583: 9582: 9577: 9572: 9567: 9557: 9552: 9551: 9550: 9540: 9539: 9538: 9533: 9525: 9520: 9515: 9510: 9505: 9500: 9495: 9489: 9487: 9485:Post-classical 9481: 9480: 9478: 9477: 9476: 9475: 9465: 9460: 9459: 9458: 9453: 9443: 9442: 9441: 9431: 9430: 9429: 9424: 9419: 9414: 9409: 9404: 9394: 9389: 9384: 9383: 9382: 9377: 9372: 9367: 9357: 9356: 9355: 9350: 9340: 9335: 9334: 9333: 9328: 9323: 9318: 9313: 9303: 9298: 9293: 9292: 9291: 9286: 9284:Middle Kingdom 9281: 9271: 9266: 9265: 9264: 9259: 9254: 9244: 9243: 9242: 9240:Neo-Babylonian 9237: 9232: 9230:Old Babylonian 9222: 9221: 9220: 9215: 9205: 9200: 9194: 9192: 9180: 9179: 9172: 9171: 9164: 9157: 9149: 9140: 9139: 9137: 9136: 9131: 9126: 9121: 9116: 9111: 9106: 9101: 9096: 9091: 9086: 9081: 9076: 9071: 9065: 9062: 9061: 9058: 9057: 9055: 9054: 9053: 9052: 9047: 9029: 9028: 9027: 9015: 9010: 8996: 8983: 8982: 8981: 8962: 8961: 8960: 8955: 8940: 8937: 8936: 8922: 8921: 8918: 8917: 8915: 8914: 8909: 8902: 8897: 8890: 8885: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8862: 8859: 8858: 8843: 8842: 8839: 8838: 8836: 8835: 8830: 8825: 8820: 8819: 8818: 8808: 8807: 8806: 8795: 8792: 8791: 8777: 8776: 8769: 8768: 8761: 8754: 8746: 8737: 8736: 8729: 8726: 8725: 8723: 8722: 8717: 8710: 8705: 8700: 8693: 8686: 8679: 8672: 8667: 8662: 8657: 8652: 8647: 8642: 8637: 8632: 8626: 8624: 8616: 8615: 8613: 8612: 8607: 8602: 8597: 8592: 8587: 8582: 8577: 8571: 8569: 8561: 8560: 8553: 8551: 8549: 8548: 8543: 8538: 8533: 8528: 8523: 8518: 8513: 8508: 8503: 8498: 8493: 8488: 8483: 8477: 8475: 8467: 8466: 8464: 8463: 8458: 8452: 8449: 8448: 8441: 8440: 8433: 8426: 8418: 8412: 8411: 8397: 8373: 8370: 8368: 8367: 8361: 8348: 8339: 8333: 8320: 8314: 8301: 8295: 8282: 8273: 8267: 8254: 8248: 8235: 8229: 8216: 8210: 8197: 8191: 8178: 8173:978-8470900945 8172: 8159: 8154:978-8434445345 8153: 8140: 8134: 8121: 8116:978-9968936965 8115: 8102: 8096: 8083: 8078:978-8423948000 8077: 8058: 8053:978-0582495159 8052: 8039: 8033: 8020: 8015:978-8477371830 8014: 8001: 7992: 7986: 7973: 7967: 7959:La España mora 7954: 7949:978-8489569294 7948: 7935: 7929: 7914: 7908: 7895: 7890:978-8477374640 7889: 7876: 7870: 7857: 7847:(39): 97–114. 7840: 7835:978-8472326354 7834: 7821: 7812: 7806: 7793: 7787: 7772: 7766: 7751: 7746:978-8478239672 7745: 7732: 7726: 7713: 7707: 7694: 7688: 7675: 7670:978-8433594235 7669: 7656: 7651:978-8478132706 7650: 7636: 7634: 7631: 7628: 7627: 7612: 7605: 7587: 7569: 7562: 7540: 7534:978-0812207286 7533: 7513: 7506: 7483: 7476: 7456: 7449: 7431: 7407: 7381: 7374: 7356: 7349: 7329: 7322: 7304: 7297: 7272: 7257: 7234: 7210: 7203: 7183: 7162:(3): 161–165. 7142: 7135: 7117: 7098:(3): 349–373. 7082: 7062: 7036: 7025:(2): 152–198. 7006: 6995:www.mia.org.qa 6982: 6953: 6923: 6899: 6892: 6861: 6849: 6837: 6830: 6812: 6810:, p. 167. 6800: 6771: 6759: 6757:, p. 169. 6747: 6745:, p. 168. 6735: 6733:, p. 166. 6718: 6706: 6704:, p. 165. 6694: 6688:978-0195309911 6687: 6662: 6631: 6619: 6607: 6595: 6583: 6581:, p. 164. 6568: 6556: 6549: 6532: 6520: 6513: 6492: 6480: 6468: 6453: 6438: 6426: 6392: 6385: 6358: 6351: 6322: 6310: 6298: 6286: 6274: 6262: 6250: 6243: 6223: 6221:, p. 150. 6211: 6193: 6186: 6163: 6156: 6133: 6121: 6100: 6088: 6073: 6061: 6049: 6036: 6034:, p. 202. 6024: 6012: 6005: 5978: 5971: 5942: 5940:, p. 104. 5927: 5925:, p. 134. 5915: 5903: 5888: 5886:, p. 109. 5876: 5864: 5852: 5845: 5825: 5823:, p. 107. 5813: 5806: 5775: 5755: 5743: 5731: 5729:, p. 119. 5719: 5717:, p. 119. 5707: 5692: 5688:Ballestín 2004 5680: 5678:, p. 431. 5668: 5666:, p. 354. 5656: 5654:, p. 135. 5641: 5639:, p. 100. 5629: 5627:, p. 152. 5625:Ballestín 2004 5617: 5605: 5593: 5581: 5569: 5567:, p. 166. 5557: 5555:, p. 130. 5545: 5543:, p. 195. 5533: 5512: 5510:, p. 153. 5508:Ballestín 2004 5500: 5498:, p. 403. 5488: 5486:, p. 146. 5473: 5471:, p. 113. 5458: 5456:, p. 111. 5446: 5434: 5422: 5420:, p. 140. 5405: 5393: 5391:, p. 173. 5374: 5372:, p. 172. 5362: 5360:, p. 138. 5350: 5327: 5325:, p. 116. 5315: 5313:, p. 137. 5303: 5288: 5273: 5261: 5259:, p. 118. 5249: 5247:, p. 134. 5232: 5230:, p. 133. 5217: 5215:, p. 129. 5205: 5203:, p. 134. 5193: 5191:, p. 130. 5178: 5161: 5159:, p. 131. 5149: 5145:Fernández 1999 5137: 5122: 5120:, p. 126. 5107: 5092: 5088:Fernández 1999 5077: 5075:, p. 128. 5058: 5056:, p. 117. 5037: 5033:Fernández 1999 5025: 5018: 5000: 4988: 4976: 4964: 4952: 4933: 4918: 4906: 4899: 4874: 4856: 4844: 4832: 4798: 4796:, p. 326. 4779: 4777:, p. 124. 4767: 4765:, p. 239. 4755: 4741:978-1473856431 4740: 4722: 4710: 4701: 4687:978-0231531924 4686: 4668: 4656: 4644: 4629: 4622: 4602: 4590: 4538: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4529: 4528: 4515: 4496: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4484: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4421: 4418: 4415: 4414: 4408: 4407: 4404: 4398: 4397: 4388: 4387: 4384: 4378: 4377: 4364: 4363: 4360: 4354: 4353: 4350: 4344: 4343: 4334: 4333: 4330: 4324: 4323: 4320: 4314: 4313: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4300: 4294: 4293: 4284: 4283: 4280: 4274: 4273: 4270: 4264: 4263: 4260: 4254: 4253: 4250: 4244: 4243: 4240: 4234: 4233: 4230: 4224: 4223: 4220: 4214: 4213: 4210: 4204: 4203: 4200: 4196: 4195: 4192: 4186: 4185: 4182: 4176: 4175: 4172: 4166: 4165: 4162: 4156: 4155: 4152: 4146: 4145: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4122: 4116: 4115: 4112: 4108: 4107: 4098: 4097: 4088: 4087:List of rulers 4085: 4060:Caliphal Baths 3998:call to prayer 3964:arches of the 3912: 3909: 3875: 888–912 3837:Bab al-Wuzara' 3733: 3732:Emirate period 3730: 3722: 3719: 3718: 3717: 3714: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3695: 3693: 3690: 3683: 3681: 3674: 3667: 3665: 3658: 3651: 3547: 3544: 3416:Arabic grammar 3395: 3392: 3357: 3354: 3282: 3279: 3210: 3207: 3193: 3190: 3151:, from Arabic 3108: 3105: 3057: 3054: 3052: 3049: 2966: 2963: 2945: 2942: 2928:, Almería and 2907:Constantinople 2902: 2899: 2886: 2883: 2826: 2823: 2817:and replaced. 2780:al-Urdumaniyun 2737:Alcácer do Sal 2670:colonization. 2603: 2600: 2503: 2500: 2371: 2368: 2313: 2310: 2307: 2306: 2304: 2303: 2296: 2289: 2281: 2278: 2277: 2272: 2271: 2268: 2257: 2256: 2253: 2242: 2241: 2238: 2227: 2226: 2223: 2212: 2211: 2208: 2197: 2196: 2193: 2182: 2181: 2178: 2167: 2166: 2163: 2152: 2151: 2148: 2137: 2136: 2133: 2122: 2121: 2118: 2107: 2106: 2103: 2092: 2091: 2088: 2085:Ras al Khaymah 2077: 2076: 2073: 2060: 2057: 2056: 2053: 2052: 2047: 2046: 2043: 2037: 2036: 2033: 2022: 2021: 2018: 2012: 2011: 2008: 2001:Mazrui dynasty 1997: 1996: 1993: 1982: 1981: 1978: 1967: 1966: 1963: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1943: 1942: 1937: 1936: 1933: 1927: 1926: 1923: 1917: 1916: 1913: 1907: 1906: 1903: 1897: 1896: 1893: 1887: 1886: 1883: 1877: 1876: 1873: 1867: 1866: 1863: 1857: 1856: 1853: 1847: 1846: 1843: 1837: 1836: 1833: 1827: 1826: 1823: 1817: 1816: 1813: 1807: 1806: 1803: 1797: 1796: 1793: 1787: 1786: 1783: 1777: 1776: 1773: 1767: 1766: 1763: 1757: 1756: 1753: 1747: 1746: 1743: 1737: 1736: 1733: 1727: 1726: 1723: 1717: 1716: 1713: 1707: 1706: 1703: 1697: 1696: 1693: 1687: 1686: 1683: 1677: 1676: 1673: 1667: 1666: 1663: 1657: 1656: 1653: 1645: 1642: 1641: 1638: 1637: 1632: 1631: 1628: 1622: 1621: 1618: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1602: 1601: 1598: 1592: 1591: 1588: 1582: 1581: 1578: 1572: 1571: 1568: 1562: 1561: 1558: 1552: 1551: 1548: 1542: 1541: 1538: 1532: 1531: 1528: 1522: 1521: 1518: 1512: 1511: 1508: 1502: 1501: 1498: 1492: 1491: 1488: 1482: 1481: 1478: 1472: 1471: 1468: 1462: 1461: 1458: 1452: 1451: 1448: 1442: 1441: 1438: 1432: 1431: 1428: 1422: 1421: 1418: 1416:Fihrid Emirate 1412: 1411: 1408: 1400: 1397: 1396: 1393: 1392: 1387: 1386: 1383: 1377: 1376: 1373: 1367: 1366: 1363: 1357: 1356: 1353: 1347: 1346: 1343: 1337: 1336: 1333: 1327: 1326: 1323: 1317: 1316: 1313: 1307: 1306: 1303: 1297: 1296: 1293: 1287: 1286: 1283: 1277: 1276: 1273: 1267: 1266: 1263: 1257: 1256: 1253: 1247: 1246: 1243: 1237: 1236: 1233: 1227: 1226: 1223: 1217: 1216: 1213: 1207: 1206: 1203: 1197: 1196: 1193: 1187: 1186: 1183: 1175: 1172: 1171: 1168: 1167: 1162: 1161: 1158: 1152: 1151: 1148: 1142: 1141: 1138: 1132: 1131: 1128: 1120: 1117: 1116: 1113: 1112: 1107: 1106: 1103: 1097: 1096: 1093: 1087: 1086: 1083: 1077: 1076: 1073: 1067: 1066: 1063: 1057: 1056: 1053: 1047: 1046: 1043: 1037: 1036: 1033: 1027: 1026: 1023: 1017: 1016: 1013: 1007: 1006: 1003: 995: 992: 991: 988: 987: 979: 978: 970: 969: 967: 966: 959: 952: 944: 941: 940: 927: 926: 923: 922: 917: 912: 907: 902: 896: 893: 892: 889: 888: 885: 884: 879: 874: 869: 863: 860: 859: 856: 855: 847: 846: 827: 826: 824: 823: 816: 809: 801: 798: 797: 796: 795: 790: 785: 777: 776: 772: 771: 770: 769: 764: 759: 757:Nasrid dynasty 751: 750: 738: 737: 725: 724: 723: 722: 714: 713: 701: 700: 688: 687: 686: 685: 680: 672: 671: 663:Almoravid rule 659: 658: 646: 645: 644: 643: 638: 633: 625: 624: 612: 611: 610: 609: 604: 599: 594: 589: 581: 580: 568: 567: 558: 555: 459: 458: 436: 432: 431: 428: 427: 424: 423: 416: 414:Taifa kingdoms 407: 404: 403: 398: 390: 389: 384: 372: 371: 366: 356: 355: 350: 346: 345: 342: 341: 338: 335: 332: 331: 328: 327: 323: 322: 319: 315: 314: 310: 309: 306: 305: 302: 295: 292: 291: 288: 275: 272: 271: 268: 267: 264: 260: 259: 256: 255: 249: 246: 243: 242: 236: 233: 230: 229: 226: 225: 222: 210: 209: 206: 205: 199: 196: 193: 192: 186: 183: 180: 179: 176: 175: 172: 160: 159: 151: 147: 146: 144: 143: 142: 141: 130: 120: 118: 114: 113: 111: 110: 100: 95: 90: 84: 82: 78: 77: 72: 68: 67: 64: 56: 55: 51: 50: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12205: 12194: 12191: 12189: 12186: 12184: 12181: 12179: 12176: 12174: 12171: 12169: 12166: 12164: 12161: 12159: 12156: 12154: 12151: 12149: 12146: 12144: 12141: 12139: 12136: 12134: 12131: 12129: 12126: 12125: 12123: 12116: 12113: 12076: 12068: 12066: 12056: 12055: 12052: 12038: 12035: 12033: 12030: 12028: 12025: 12023: 12020: 12018: 12015: 12013: 12010: 12008: 12005: 12003: 12000: 11996: 11993: 11992: 11991: 11988: 11984: 11981: 11979: 11978:Post-Islamism 11976: 11974: 11971: 11970: 11969: 11966: 11964: 11961: 11957: 11954: 11952: 11949: 11948: 11947: 11944: 11943: 11941: 11937: 11931: 11928: 11926: 11923: 11921: 11918: 11916: 11913: 11912: 11910: 11908: 11904: 11898: 11895: 11893: 11890: 11888: 11885: 11883: 11880: 11876: 11875:Protestantism 11873: 11871: 11868: 11867: 11866: 11863: 11862: 11860: 11858: 11854: 11850: 11840: 11836: 11822: 11819: 11817: 11816: 11812: 11810: 11807: 11803: 11800: 11799: 11798: 11795: 11793: 11790: 11788: 11785: 11783: 11780: 11778: 11775: 11773: 11770: 11769: 11767: 11763: 11757: 11754: 11752: 11749: 11747: 11744: 11742: 11739: 11738: 11736: 11734: 11730: 11724: 11721: 11719: 11718:Ophthalmology 11716: 11714: 11711: 11709: 11706: 11704: 11701: 11699: 11696: 11694: 11691: 11689: 11686: 11685: 11683: 11681: 11677: 11671: 11668: 11666: 11663: 11661: 11658: 11656: 11653: 11651: 11648: 11646: 11643: 11641: 11638: 11636: 11633: 11632: 11630: 11628: 11624: 11620: 11616: 11608: 11604: 11590: 11587: 11583: 11582: 11578: 11577: 11576: 11573: 11571: 11568: 11566: 11563: 11559: 11556: 11555: 11554: 11551: 11549: 11548: 11544: 11542: 11539: 11537: 11536: 11532: 11530: 11527: 11525: 11524: 11520: 11518: 11515: 11513: 11510: 11508: 11505: 11503: 11500: 11498: 11495: 11493: 11490: 11488: 11485: 11483: 11482: 11478: 11476: 11475: 11471: 11467: 11466:Death penalty 11464: 11462: 11459: 11457: 11454: 11453: 11452: 11449: 11447: 11444: 11442: 11441: 11437: 11436: 11434: 11432:Other aspects 11430: 11424: 11423: 11419: 11417: 11416: 11412: 11410: 11409: 11405: 11403: 11402: 11398: 11396: 11395: 11391: 11389: 11388: 11384: 11382: 11381: 11377: 11376: 11374: 11369: 11366: 11364: 11361: 11359: 11356: 11355: 11352: 11346: 11345: 11341: 11339: 11336: 11334: 11333: 11329: 11327: 11326: 11322: 11320: 11319: 11315: 11313: 11312: 11308: 11307: 11305: 11303: 11299: 11293: 11292: 11288: 11286: 11285: 11281: 11279: 11278: 11274: 11272: 11271: 11267: 11265: 11262: 11260: 11257: 11256: 11254: 11252: 11248: 11244: 11237: 11236:Jurisprudence 11234: 11232: 11229: 11228: 11224: 11220: 11210: 11207: 11205: 11202: 11200: 11197: 11195: 11192: 11190: 11187: 11185: 11184: 11180: 11178: 11175: 11173: 11170: 11168: 11165: 11163: 11160: 11158: 11155: 11153: 11150: 11148: 11145: 11143: 11140: 11138: 11135: 11133: 11130: 11128: 11125: 11123: 11120: 11118: 11115: 11113: 11110: 11109: 11107: 11102: 11099: 11097: 11094: 11093: 11090: 11084: 11081: 11079: 11076: 11072: 11069: 11068: 11067: 11064: 11062: 11059: 11057: 11054: 11050: 11047: 11043: 11040: 11039: 11038: 11035: 11033: 11030: 11028: 11025: 11023: 11020: 11019: 11018: 11015: 11013: 11010: 11008: 11005: 11001: 10997: 10993: 10989: 10986: 10985: 10984: 10981: 10980: 10978: 10976: 10975:Denominations 10972: 10966: 10965: 10961: 10959: 10956: 10954: 10951: 10949: 10946: 10944: 10941: 10940: 10938: 10936: 10932: 10924: 10921: 10919: 10916: 10914: 10911: 10909: 10906: 10904: 10901: 10899: 10896: 10894: 10891: 10889: 10888: 10884: 10883: 10882: 10879: 10877: 10874: 10872: 10871: 10867: 10865: 10864: 10860: 10858: 10855: 10853: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10843: 10840: 10838: 10835: 10834: 10832: 10827: 10824: 10822: 10819: 10818: 10815: 10809: 10808: 10804: 10802: 10801: 10797: 10795: 10794: 10790: 10788: 10787: 10783: 10781: 10780: 10776: 10775: 10773: 10771: 10767: 10761: 10760:Holiest sites 10758: 10756: 10755:Judgement Day 10753: 10751: 10750: 10746: 10744: 10741: 10739: 10736: 10734: 10731: 10727: 10724: 10723: 10722: 10719: 10717: 10716: 10712: 10708: 10705: 10704: 10703: 10700: 10699: 10697: 10695: 10691: 10687: 10683: 10682: 10676: 10671: 10664: 10659: 10657: 10652: 10650: 10645: 10644: 10641: 10627: 10626:Soviet empire 10624: 10622: 10619: 10618: 10616: 10615: 10613: 10611:Miscellaneous 10609: 10603: 10600: 10598: 10595: 10593: 10590: 10588: 10585: 10583: 10580: 10576: 10573: 10572: 10571: 10568: 10567: 10565: 10561: 10551: 10548: 10546: 10543: 10541: 10538: 10536: 10533: 10529: 10526: 10525: 10524: 10521: 10519: 10516: 10514: 10511: 10509: 10506: 10504: 10501: 10499: 10496: 10494: 10491: 10489: 10486: 10484: 10481: 10479: 10476: 10472: 10469: 10467: 10464: 10463: 10462: 10459: 10457: 10454: 10452: 10449: 10448: 10446: 10444: 10440: 10432: 10429: 10427: 10424: 10422: 10419: 10417: 10414: 10412: 10409: 10408: 10407: 10404: 10402: 10399: 10395: 10392: 10391: 10390: 10387: 10385: 10382: 10378: 10375: 10373: 10370: 10368: 10365: 10364: 10363: 10360: 10358: 10355: 10351: 10348: 10346: 10343: 10342: 10341: 10338: 10334: 10331: 10329: 10326: 10324: 10321: 10319: 10316: 10314: 10311: 10310: 10309: 10306: 10302: 10299: 10297: 10294: 10293: 10292: 10289: 10287: 10284: 10282: 10279: 10277: 10274: 10270: 10267: 10265: 10262: 10260: 10257: 10255: 10252: 10250: 10247: 10246: 10245: 10242: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10229: 10228: 10225: 10223: 10220: 10216: 10213: 10211: 10210:German Empire 10208: 10207: 10206: 10203: 10199: 10196: 10194: 10191: 10190: 10189: 10186: 10182: 10179: 10177: 10174: 10173: 10172: 10169: 10167: 10164: 10160: 10157: 10155: 10152: 10150: 10147: 10145: 10142: 10140: 10137: 10136: 10135: 10132: 10130: 10127: 10123: 10120: 10118: 10115: 10114: 10112: 10110: 10107: 10105: 10102: 10100: 10097: 10095: 10092: 10090: 10087: 10086: 10084: 10082: 10078: 10072: 10069: 10067: 10064: 10062: 10059: 10055: 10052: 10050: 10047: 10045: 10042: 10040: 10037: 10035: 10032: 10030: 10027: 10025: 10022: 10021: 10020: 10017: 10015: 10012: 10008: 10005: 10003: 10000: 9998: 9995: 9993: 9990: 9988: 9985: 9983: 9980: 9979: 9978: 9975: 9971: 9968: 9966: 9963: 9961: 9958: 9956: 9953: 9952: 9951: 9950:Turco-Persian 9948: 9946: 9943: 9941: 9938: 9936: 9933: 9931: 9928: 9926: 9923: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9913: 9911: 9908: 9904: 9901: 9899: 9896: 9895: 9894: 9891: 9887: 9884: 9882: 9879: 9877: 9874: 9872: 9869: 9867: 9864: 9862: 9859: 9858: 9857: 9854: 9851: 9849: 9846: 9844: 9841: 9839: 9836: 9832: 9829: 9827: 9824: 9822: 9819: 9818: 9817: 9814: 9810: 9807: 9805: 9802: 9800: 9797: 9795: 9792: 9791: 9790: 9787: 9785: 9782: 9780: 9777: 9775: 9772: 9770: 9767: 9765: 9762: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9750: 9748: 9745: 9743: 9740: 9739: 9738: 9735: 9731: 9728: 9726: 9723: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9712: 9711: 9708: 9704: 9701: 9699: 9696: 9694: 9691: 9690: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9676: 9674: 9671: 9669: 9666: 9662: 9659: 9657: 9654: 9652: 9649: 9648: 9647: 9644: 9642: 9639: 9635: 9632: 9630: 9627: 9625: 9622: 9620: 9617: 9615: 9612: 9610: 9607: 9606: 9605: 9602: 9598: 9595: 9593: 9590: 9589: 9588: 9585: 9581: 9578: 9576: 9573: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9562: 9561: 9558: 9556: 9553: 9549: 9546: 9545: 9544: 9541: 9537: 9534: 9532: 9529: 9528: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9519: 9516: 9514: 9511: 9509: 9506: 9504: 9501: 9499: 9496: 9494: 9491: 9490: 9488: 9486: 9482: 9474: 9471: 9470: 9469: 9466: 9464: 9461: 9457: 9454: 9452: 9449: 9448: 9447: 9444: 9440: 9437: 9436: 9435: 9432: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9399: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9390: 9388: 9385: 9381: 9378: 9376: 9373: 9371: 9368: 9366: 9363: 9362: 9361: 9358: 9354: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9345: 9344: 9341: 9339: 9336: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9312: 9309: 9308: 9307: 9304: 9302: 9299: 9297: 9294: 9290: 9287: 9285: 9282: 9280: 9277: 9276: 9275: 9272: 9270: 9267: 9263: 9260: 9258: 9255: 9253: 9250: 9249: 9248: 9245: 9241: 9238: 9236: 9233: 9231: 9228: 9227: 9226: 9223: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9210: 9209: 9206: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9195: 9193: 9190: 9185: 9181: 9177: 9170: 9165: 9163: 9158: 9156: 9151: 9150: 9147: 9135: 9132: 9130: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9120: 9117: 9115: 9112: 9110: 9107: 9105: 9102: 9100: 9097: 9095: 9092: 9090: 9087: 9085: 9082: 9080: 9077: 9075: 9072: 9070: 9067: 9066: 9063: 9051: 9048: 9046: 9043: 9042: 9041: 9037: 9033: 9030: 9024: 9019: 9016: 9014: 9011: 9009: 9006: 9005: 9004: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8991: 8987: 8984: 8980: 8977: 8976: 8974: 8970: 8966: 8963: 8959: 8956: 8954: 8951: 8950: 8949: 8945: 8942: 8941: 8938: 8934: 8933: 8927: 8923: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8907: 8903: 8901: 8898: 8896: 8895: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8883: 8879: 8877: 8874: 8872: 8869: 8867: 8864: 8863: 8860: 8855: 8854: 8848: 8844: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8817: 8814: 8813: 8812: 8809: 8805: 8802: 8801: 8800: 8797: 8796: 8793: 8789: 8788: 8782: 8778: 8774: 8767: 8762: 8760: 8755: 8753: 8748: 8747: 8744: 8733: 8727: 8721: 8718: 8716: 8715: 8711: 8709: 8706: 8704: 8701: 8699: 8698: 8694: 8692: 8691: 8687: 8685: 8684: 8680: 8678: 8677: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8651: 8648: 8646: 8643: 8641: 8638: 8636: 8633: 8631: 8628: 8627: 8625: 8621: 8617: 8611: 8608: 8606: 8603: 8601: 8598: 8596: 8593: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8572: 8570: 8566: 8562: 8557: 8547: 8544: 8542: 8539: 8537: 8534: 8532: 8529: 8527: 8524: 8522: 8519: 8517: 8514: 8512: 8509: 8507: 8504: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8492: 8489: 8487: 8484: 8482: 8479: 8478: 8476: 8472: 8468: 8462: 8459: 8457: 8454: 8453: 8450: 8446: 8439: 8434: 8432: 8427: 8425: 8420: 8419: 8416: 8410: 8406: 8402: 8398: 8394: 8390: 8386: 8382: 8376: 8375: 8364: 8358: 8354: 8349: 8345: 8340: 8336: 8330: 8326: 8321: 8317: 8311: 8307: 8302: 8298: 8292: 8288: 8283: 8279: 8274: 8270: 8264: 8260: 8255: 8251: 8245: 8241: 8236: 8232: 8226: 8222: 8217: 8213: 8207: 8203: 8198: 8194: 8188: 8184: 8179: 8175: 8169: 8165: 8160: 8156: 8150: 8146: 8141: 8137: 8131: 8127: 8122: 8118: 8112: 8108: 8103: 8099: 8093: 8089: 8084: 8080: 8074: 8070: 8066: 8065: 8059: 8055: 8049: 8045: 8040: 8036: 8030: 8026: 8021: 8017: 8011: 8007: 8002: 7998: 7993: 7989: 7983: 7979: 7974: 7970: 7964: 7960: 7955: 7951: 7945: 7941: 7936: 7932: 7926: 7922: 7921: 7920:Moorish Spain 7915: 7911: 7905: 7901: 7896: 7892: 7886: 7882: 7877: 7873: 7867: 7863: 7858: 7854: 7850: 7846: 7841: 7837: 7831: 7827: 7822: 7818: 7813: 7809: 7803: 7799: 7794: 7790: 7788:9780465055876 7784: 7780: 7779: 7773: 7769: 7763: 7759: 7758: 7752: 7748: 7742: 7738: 7733: 7729: 7723: 7719: 7714: 7710: 7704: 7700: 7695: 7691: 7685: 7681: 7676: 7672: 7666: 7662: 7657: 7653: 7647: 7643: 7638: 7637: 7623: 7616: 7608: 7602: 7598: 7591: 7583: 7576: 7574: 7565: 7559: 7555: 7551: 7544: 7536: 7530: 7526: 7525: 7517: 7509: 7503: 7499: 7492: 7490: 7488: 7479: 7473: 7469: 7468: 7460: 7452: 7450:9780190624552 7446: 7442: 7435: 7421: 7420:ArqueoCordoba 7417: 7411: 7396: 7392: 7385: 7377: 7371: 7367: 7360: 7352: 7350:9780300218701 7346: 7342: 7341: 7333: 7325: 7319: 7315: 7308: 7300: 7294: 7290: 7283: 7281: 7279: 7277: 7268: 7261: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7238: 7224: 7220: 7214: 7206: 7204:9788882654337 7200: 7196: 7195: 7187: 7179: 7175: 7170: 7165: 7161: 7157: 7153: 7146: 7138: 7136:9780195309911 7132: 7128: 7121: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7101: 7097: 7093: 7086: 7078: 7071: 7069: 7067: 7051: 7047: 7040: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7013: 7011: 6996: 6992: 6986: 6971: 6967: 6963: 6957: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6927: 6913: 6909: 6903: 6895: 6889: 6885: 6884: 6876: 6874: 6872: 6870: 6868: 6866: 6858: 6853: 6847:, p. 91. 6846: 6841: 6833: 6831:9780195309911 6827: 6823: 6816: 6809: 6804: 6797:(4): 323–327. 6796: 6792: 6785: 6778: 6776: 6768: 6763: 6756: 6751: 6744: 6739: 6732: 6727: 6725: 6723: 6715: 6710: 6703: 6698: 6690: 6684: 6680: 6673: 6671: 6669: 6667: 6659: 6646: 6642: 6635: 6629:, p. 42. 6628: 6623: 6616: 6611: 6605:, p. 94. 6604: 6599: 6592: 6587: 6580: 6575: 6573: 6566:, p. 97. 6565: 6560: 6552: 6546: 6542: 6536: 6529: 6524: 6516: 6514:9780195309911 6510: 6506: 6499: 6497: 6489: 6484: 6478:, p. 63. 6477: 6476:Fletcher 1992 6472: 6465: 6464:Fletcher 1992 6460: 6458: 6449: 6442: 6436:, p. 62. 6435: 6434:Fletcher 1992 6430: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6403: 6401: 6399: 6397: 6388: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6367: 6365: 6363: 6354: 6348: 6344: 6343: 6335: 6333: 6331: 6329: 6327: 6319: 6318:Fletcher 1992 6314: 6308:, p. 68. 6307: 6302: 6296:, p. 36. 6295: 6294:Fletcher 1992 6290: 6284:, p. 67. 6283: 6278: 6271: 6270:Fletcher 1992 6266: 6259: 6254: 6246: 6240: 6236: 6235: 6227: 6220: 6215: 6207: 6200: 6198: 6189: 6183: 6179: 6178: 6170: 6168: 6159: 6153: 6149: 6148: 6140: 6138: 6130: 6125: 6118: 6117:0-7818-1015-9 6114: 6110: 6104: 6097: 6092: 6086:, p. 56. 6085: 6080: 6078: 6070: 6065: 6058: 6053: 6046: 6040: 6033: 6028: 6022:, p. 25. 6021: 6020:Fletcher 1992 6016: 6008: 6002: 5998: 5997: 5989: 5987: 5985: 5983: 5974: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5953: 5951: 5949: 5947: 5939: 5934: 5932: 5924: 5919: 5913:, p. 66. 5912: 5907: 5901:, p. 48. 5900: 5895: 5893: 5885: 5880: 5874:, p. 49. 5873: 5872:Aizpurúa 2012 5868: 5862:, p. 50. 5861: 5860:Aizpurúa 2012 5856: 5848: 5842: 5838: 5837: 5829: 5822: 5817: 5809: 5807:9789004161658 5803: 5799: 5792: 5790: 5788: 5786: 5784: 5782: 5780: 5772: 5771: 5764: 5762: 5760: 5752: 5747: 5740: 5735: 5728: 5723: 5716: 5711: 5705:, p. 40. 5704: 5703:Fletcher 1999 5699: 5697: 5689: 5684: 5677: 5672: 5665: 5660: 5653: 5648: 5646: 5638: 5633: 5626: 5621: 5615:, p. 66. 5614: 5609: 5603:, p. 62. 5602: 5597: 5591:, p. 78. 5590: 5585: 5579:, p. 93. 5578: 5573: 5566: 5561: 5554: 5549: 5542: 5537: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5516: 5509: 5504: 5497: 5492: 5485: 5480: 5478: 5470: 5465: 5463: 5455: 5450: 5444:, p. 93. 5443: 5438: 5432:, p. 15. 5431: 5426: 5419: 5414: 5412: 5410: 5402: 5397: 5390: 5385: 5383: 5381: 5379: 5371: 5366: 5359: 5354: 5348:, p. 77. 5347: 5346:Fletcher 2000 5342: 5340: 5338: 5336: 5334: 5332: 5324: 5319: 5312: 5307: 5301:, p. 72. 5300: 5295: 5293: 5286:, p. 70. 5285: 5280: 5278: 5270: 5265: 5258: 5253: 5246: 5241: 5239: 5237: 5229: 5224: 5222: 5214: 5209: 5202: 5197: 5190: 5185: 5183: 5176:, p. 45. 5175: 5170: 5168: 5166: 5158: 5153: 5147:, p. 14. 5146: 5141: 5135:, p. 95. 5134: 5133:Fletcher 2000 5129: 5127: 5119: 5114: 5112: 5105:, p. 46. 5104: 5099: 5097: 5090:, p. 15. 5089: 5084: 5082: 5074: 5069: 5067: 5065: 5063: 5055: 5050: 5048: 5046: 5044: 5042: 5035:, p. 37. 5034: 5029: 5021: 5019:84-7013-007-2 5015: 5011: 5004: 4998:, p. 23. 4997: 4992: 4985: 4980: 4974:, p. 30. 4973: 4968: 4961: 4956: 4950:, p. 39. 4949: 4948:Fletcher 1999 4944: 4942: 4940: 4938: 4931:, p. 23. 4930: 4929:Fletcher 1991 4925: 4923: 4916:, p. 35. 4915: 4910: 4902: 4896: 4892: 4891: 4883: 4881: 4879: 4870: 4863: 4861: 4854:, p. 84. 4853: 4848: 4842:, p. 38. 4841: 4836: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4809: 4802: 4795: 4790: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4776: 4771: 4764: 4759: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4737: 4733: 4726: 4720:, p. 37. 4719: 4714: 4705: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4683: 4679: 4672: 4666:, p. 29. 4665: 4660: 4653: 4648: 4641: 4636: 4634: 4625: 4619: 4616:. Routledge. 4615: 4614: 4606: 4599: 4594: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4558: 4553: 4549: 4543: 4539: 4525: 4519: 4512: 4508: 4501: 4497: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4423: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4389: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4370: 4365: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4355: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4335: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4325: 4321: 4319: 4316: 4315: 4311: 4309: 4306: 4305: 4301: 4299: 4296: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4285: 4281: 4279: 4276: 4275: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4265: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4255: 4251: 4249: 4246: 4245: 4241: 4239: 4236: 4235: 4231: 4229: 4226: 4225: 4221: 4219: 4216: 4215: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4205: 4201: 4198: 4197: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4187: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4177: 4173: 4171: 4168: 4167: 4163: 4161: 4158: 4157: 4153: 4151: 4148: 4147: 4143: 4141: 4138: 4137: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4127: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4117: 4113: 4110: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4099: 4096: 4092: 4084: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4067: 4065: 4064:Baths of Jaen 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4044:former mosque 4041: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4013: 4008: 4004: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3986: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3968: 3963: 3959: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3922: 3917: 3908: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3887: 3882: 3880: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3860: 3855: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3801: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3747: 3743: 3738: 3728: 3711: 3706: 3699: 3694: 3687: 3682: 3678: 3671: 3666: 3662: 3655: 3650: 3649: 3648: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3609: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3582: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3559: 3555: 3554: 3543: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3528:jurisprudence 3525: 3521: 3520: 3513: 3511: 3507: 3502: 3496: 3493: 3487: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3469:Ahmad al-Razi 3466: 3462: 3458: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3445: 3439: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3391: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3369: 3365: 3364: 3353: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3318: 3314: 3312: 3306: 3304: 3300: 3292: 3287: 3278: 3275: 3269: 3264: 3256: 3255: 3249: 3244: 3241: 3235: 3230: 3228: 3217: 3209:Social status 3206: 3203: 3198: 3189: 3187: 3181: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3155: 3150: 3145: 3143: 3139: 3134: 3129: 3127: 3126: 3121: 3119: 3114: 3104: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3092: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3078: 3073: 3072: 3062: 3048: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3001: 2998: 2993: 2991: 2983: 2981: 2976: 2972: 2962: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2941: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2912: 2908: 2898: 2896: 2892: 2882: 2881:(1027–1031). 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2863: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2847:The death of 2845: 2843: 2839: 2834: 2831: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2791: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2764: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2732: 2729: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2713: 2710: 2704: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2684: 2682: 2677: 2674: 2671: 2667: 2660: 2659: 2653: 2649: 2647: 2643: 2637: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2624: 2620: 2615: 2613: 2609: 2599: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2581: 2576: 2574: 2569: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2554: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2499: 2497: 2492: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2473: 2472:in the 820s. 2471: 2467: 2462: 2457: 2453: 2448: 2439: 2435: 2430: 2428: 2424: 2419: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2367: 2365: 2364: 2359: 2358: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2319: 2302: 2297: 2295: 2290: 2288: 2283: 2282: 2280: 2279: 2269: 2266: 2262: 2259: 2258: 2254: 2251: 2247: 2244: 2243: 2239: 2236: 2232: 2229: 2228: 2224: 2221: 2217: 2214: 2213: 2209: 2206: 2202: 2199: 2198: 2194: 2191: 2187: 2184: 2183: 2179: 2176: 2175:Umm al-Quwain 2172: 2169: 2168: 2164: 2161: 2157: 2154: 2153: 2149: 2146: 2142: 2139: 2138: 2134: 2131: 2127: 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52: 31: 19: 12085: 11990:Islamophobia 11865:Christianity 11813: 11746:Contemporary 11640:Architecture 11579: 11545: 11533: 11521: 11479: 11472: 11438: 11420: 11415:Nikah mut'ah 11413: 11406: 11399: 11392: 11385: 11378: 11342: 11330: 11323: 11316: 11309: 11289: 11282: 11275: 11268: 11181: 10962: 10886: 10868: 10861: 10805: 10798: 10791: 10784: 10777: 10770:Five Pillars 10747: 10713: 10702:God in Islam 10679: 10377:Contemporary 10227:Indo-Persian 10215:Nazi Germany 10159:Contemporary 10061:Vijayanagara 9960:Great Seljuk 9871:Thessalonica 9799:Golden Horde 9439:Carthaginian 9218:Neo-Assyrian 9203:Neo-Sumerian 8973:Castile-León 8972: 8930: 8904: 8894:Second Taifa 8892: 8880: 8851: 8785: 8712: 8708:Muhammad III 8695: 8688: 8681: 8674: 8501:Abd al-Malik 8400: 8384: 8380: 8352: 8343: 8324: 8305: 8286: 8277: 8258: 8239: 8220: 8201: 8182: 8163: 8144: 8125: 8106: 8087: 8063: 8043: 8024: 8005: 7996: 7977: 7958: 7939: 7919: 7899: 7880: 7861: 7844: 7825: 7816: 7797: 7777: 7756: 7736: 7717: 7698: 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Retrieved 4561: 4555: 4542: 4518: 4500: 4411: 4391: 4367: 4337: 4287: 4262:1010 – 1013 4101: 4094: 4080:Andalusiyyin 4068: 4029: 4010: 3990:Great Mosque 3983: 3981: 3965: 3955: 3926: 3900: 3883: 3863: 3857: 3851: 3847: 3845: 3840: 3836: 3802: 3796:) along the 3761: 3757: 3751: 3721:Architecture 3677:Leyre Casket 3624: 3610: 3585: 3583: 3579:Leyre Casket 3557: 3551: 3549: 3517: 3514: 3497: 3472: 3454: 3448: 3440: 3397: 3372: 3367: 3361: 3359: 3319: 3315: 3307: 3296: 3253: 3245: 3212: 3199: 3195: 3182: 3146: 3142:heterodoxies 3130: 3123: 3117: 3110: 3090: 3075: 3069: 3067: 3044: 3032: 3028: 3002: 2996: 2994: 2990:Thomas Glick 2979: 2968: 2947: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2904: 2895:Islamization 2888: 2860: 2846: 2835: 2832: 2828: 2819: 2815: 2792: 2779: 2775: 2765: 2744: 2733: 2730: 2725: 2717: 2714: 2705: 2688: 2685: 2680: 2678: 2675: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2656: 2645: 2638: 2627: 2616: 2605: 2595:Al-Hassan II 2584: 2577: 2570: 2562:East Francia 2558:West Francia 2555: 2540:in 931, and 2531: 2505: 2493: 2480: 2474: 2456:rose against 2449: 2431: 2420: 2373: 2361: 2355: 2351: 2321: 2270:1921–present 2255:1900–present 2240:1868–present 2225:1833–present 2210:1810–present 2195:1783–present 2180:1775–present 2165:1761–present 2150:1752–present 2135:1749–present 2120:1744–present 2115:Saudi Arabia 2105:1727–present 2090:1727–present 2075:1631–present 1425: 1085:300s–500s AD 705:Almohad rule 615: 548: 546:(kingdoms). 541: 531: 509: 489:North Africa 468: 464: 462: 369:Succeeded by 368: 363: 281: 135:Christianity 12107: / 11765:Other areas 11756:Theological 11751:Eschatology 11708:Mathematics 11645:Calligraphy 11575:Theological 11529:Inheritance 11446:Cleanliness 10876:Shi'a Imams 10870:Ahl al-Bayt 9965:Khwarezmian 9898:Carolingian 9703:Rashtrakuta 9407:Shaishunaga 9306:Hellenistic 9289:New Kingdom 9279:Old Kingdom 9021: [ 8906:Third Taifa 8882:First Taifa 8645:Muhammad II 8635:Al-Hakam II 8531:Al-Walid II 8491:Mu'awiya II 8456:Family tree 7500:. Taschen. 6991:"Doha Hind" 6966:Qantara-med 6857:Catlos 2018 6845:Catlos 2018 6808:Catlos 2018 6767:Catlos 2018 6755:Catlos 2018 6743:Catlos 2018 6731:Catlos 2018 6714:Catlos 2018 6702:Catlos 2018 6627:Barton 2004 6615:Catlos 2018 6603:Catlos 2018 6591:Barton 2004 6579:Catlos 2018 6564:Catlos 2018 6528:Catlos 2018 6488:Catlos 2018 6306:Catlos 2018 6282:Catlos 2018 6258:Catlos 2018 6219:Catlos 2018 6129:Catlos 2018 6057:Catlos 2018 5938:Catlos 2018 5751:Reilly 1993 5739:Chejne 1974 5430:Weiner 2001 4996:Catlos 2014 4984:Chejne 1974 4972:Catlos 2014 4960:Chejne 1974 4914:Chejne 1974 4852:Reilly 1993 4840:Barton 2004 4718:Barton 2004 4708:Barton, 37. 4664:Catlos 2018 4652:Chejne 1974 4598:Catlos 2018 4583:7 September 4471:Reconquista 4373:Interregnum 4232:976 – 1009 4124:756 – 788 3976:al-Hakam II 3962:interlacing 3954:-decorated 3879:al-Hakam II 3794:waterwheels 3766:Roman villa 3532:calligraphy 3524:Islamic law 3522:(expert on 3338:watermelons 3159:مُسْتَعْرَب 3025:transhumant 3017:Extremadura 3005:Tagus River 2891:Arabization 2801:, Count of 2580:Al-Hakam II 2459: [ 1975:Pate Island 1948:East Africa 1741:Sulaymanids 1681:Ukhaidhirds 1466:Sulaymanids 1436:Muhallabids 1341:Munqidhites 1241:Shirvanshah 1095:300s–602 AD 1065:196–1100 AD 1055:100s–241 AD 793:Convivencia 788:Reconquista 767:Granada War 747:(1232–1492) 734:(1232–1287) 710:(1147–1238) 697:(1140–1203) 668:(1085–1145) 655:(1009–1110) 364:Preceded by 286:of Córdoba 280:proclaimed 12122:Categories 11920:Ex-Muslims 11815:Shu'ubiyya 11809:Psychology 11797:Literature 11787:Inventions 11733:Philosophy 11541:Leadership 11517:Honorifics 11172:Philosophy 11027:Isma'ilism 10992:Maturidism 10881:Caliphates 10852:Golden Age 10743:Revelation 10535:Portuguese 10416:Revival Le 10406:Vietnamese 10049:Later Tran 10019:Vietnamese 9915:Singhasari 9903:Holy Roman 9527:Bulgarian 9463:Satavahana 9434:Phoenician 9370:Achaemenid 9331:Indo-Greek 9311:Macedonian 9225:Babylonian 8856:(711-1492) 8853:Al-Andalus 8730:indicates 8720:Hisham III 8623:(929–1031) 8600:al-Mundhir 8595:Muhammad I 8585:Al-Hakam I 8506:Al-Walid I 8481:Mu'awiya I 8409:8421120166 8211:0521394368 7807:0816606889 7606:0521337674 7507:3822876348 7425:2020-10-08 7401:2020-10-06 7375:3822876348 7323:0870996371 7298:3822876348 7228:2021-02-20 7000:2021-11-16 6976:2021-11-16 6947:2021-11-16 6917:2021-11-16 6893:0870996371 6645:Britannica 6045:Glick 2005 6032:Glick 2005 5613:Frers 2008 5553:Allen 2002 4900:0521337674 4564:(3): 495. 4511:Castilians 4507:Almoravids 4487:References 4406:1026–1031 4386:1025–1026 4362:1024–1025 4352:1023–1024 4322:1021–1023 4312:1018–1021 4302:1016–1018 4272:1013–1016 4252:1009–1010 4222:961 – 976 4212:929 – 961 4194:912 – 929 4184:888 – 912 4174:886 – 888 4170:al-Mundhir 4164:852 – 886 4160:Muhammad I 4154:822 – 852 4144:796 – 822 4140:al-Hakam I 4134:788 – 796 4076:Qarawiyyin 3893: 830 3829:Al-Mundhir 3825:Muhammad I 3788:and other 3623:(known as 3577:, and the 3567:epigraphic 3563:figurative 3456:Muwashshah 3350:cash crops 3330:hard wheat 3192:Conversion 3041:Ebro River 2879:Hisham III 2807:Roussillon 2799:Gausfred I 2722:Borrell II 2489:Muhammad I 2485:Al-Hakam I 2466:Al-Hakam I 2445: 900 2316:See also: 2312:Background 2261:Hashemites 2216:Al Maktoum 2186:Al Khalifa 1871:Upper Yafa 1861:Ya'arubids 1701:Qarmatians 1586:Sumadihids 1075:220–638 AD 1071:Ghassanids 621:(756–1031) 481:al-Andalus 340:10,000,000 326:Population 252:Hisham III 219:(929–1031) 150:Government 46:(929–1031) 12037:Symbolism 11995:Incidents 11973:Criticism 11870:Mormonism 11772:Astrology 11698:Cosmology 11693:Astronomy 11635:Arabesque 11502:Etiquette 11461:Blasphemy 11251:Economics 11066:Ahmadiyya 11000:Mu'tazili 10988:Ash'arism 10528:Couronian 10166:Ethiopian 10154:Manchukuo 10109:Brazilian 9955:Ghaznavid 9925:Srivijaya 9876:Trebizond 9861:Byzantine 9843:North Sea 9838:Norwegian 9826:Almoravid 9809:Ilkhanate 9779:Majapahit 9752:Muromachi 9661:Solomonic 9646:Ethiopian 9560:Caliphate 9493:Aragonese 9321:Ptolemaic 8799:Visigoths 8655:Hisham II 8640:Hisham II 8568:(756–929) 8546:Marwan II 8536:Yazid III 8474:(661–750) 7853:0212-467X 7178:108444717 7112:202373296 6651:5 October 5800:. Brill. 5529:0763-7608 5311:Arié 1984 5269:Vara 2012 4827:0212-7458 4775:Arié 1984 4763:Dozy 2010 4750:905696269 4696:833763900 4534:Citations 4021:Byzantine 3978:after 962 3813:hypostyle 3786:Albolafia 3758:ar-Ruṣāfa 3645:ablutions 3641:Marrakesh 3625:ataurique 3536:astronomy 3486:romanized 3436:polymaths 3424:astrology 3299:monetized 3257:(Arabic: 3219:(Arabic: 3176:, and to 3157:(Arabic: 3154:must'arab 3027:, and of 2984:(Arabic: 2757:dockyards 2745:saqalibas 2681:Dar Jihad 2608:Hisham II 2502:Caliphate 2416:Barcelona 2246:Al Sharqi 2201:Al Nuaimi 2171:Al Mualla 2160:Abu Dhabi 2156:Al Nahyan 2096:Al Qasimi 2081:Al Qasimi 2045:1860–1887 2035:1858–1895 2020:1856–1964 2010:1746–1828 1995:1277–1495 1980:1203–1894 1935:1926–1970 1925:1906–1934 1915:1903–1967 1905:1858–1967 1901:Qu'aitids 1895:1836–1921 1891:Rashidids 1885:1820–1970 1875:1800–1967 1865:1624–1742 1855:1597–1872 1845:1463–1521 1835:1454–1526 1825:1395–1967 1821:Kathirids 1815:1305–1487 1811:Jarwanids 1805:1253–1320 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11451:Criminal 11363:Marriage 11332:Tayammum 11284:Murabaha 11157:Madrasas 11147:Holidays 11137:Clothing 11132:Children 11127:Calendar 11078:Quranism 11032:Alawites 10996:Atharism 10887:Rashidun 10726:In Islam 10721:Muhammad 10508:Japanese 10471:Scottish 10451:American 10443:Colonial 10372:Imperial 10340:Moroccan 10276:Japanese 10254:Afsharid 10113:Burmese 10099:Austrian 10054:Later Le 10029:Early Le 10014:Venetian 9940:Tiwanaku 9853:Hellenic 9816:Moroccan 9747:Kamakura 9737:Japanese 9720:Saffarid 9673:Georgian 9587:Chalukya 9565:Rashidun 9555:Calakmul 9523:Bruneian 9402:Haryanka 9380:Sasanian 9375:Parthian 9326:Bactrian 9316:Seleucid 9296:Goguryeo 9274:Egyptian 9208:Assyrian 9198:Akkadian 9189:Colonies 8734:usurpers 8732:Hammudid 8660:Sulayman 8650:Sulayman 8605:Abdullah 8580:Hisham I 8521:Yazid II 8511:Sulayman 8496:Marwan I 8393:21874703 7699:Almanzor 7248:Meridies 6970:Archived 6941:Archived 6421:20840029 4420:See also 4369:Hammudid 4289:Hammudid 4199:Caliphs 4130:Hisham I 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Umayyad state of Córdoba

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