El Niño–Southern Oscillation

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commodity-dependent poor countries that primarily rely on imported food. A University of Cambridge Working Paper shows that while Australia, Chile, Indonesia, India, Japan, New Zealand and South Africa face a short-lived fall in economic activity in response to an El Niño shock, other countries may actually benefit from an El Niño weather shock (either directly or indirectly through positive spillovers from major trading partners), for instance, Argentina, Canada, Mexico and the United States. Furthermore, most countries experience short-run inflationary pressures following an El Niño shock, while global energy and non-fuel commodity prices increase. The IMF estimates a significant El Niño can boost the GDP of the United States by about 0.5% (due largely to lower heating bills) and reduce the GDP of Indonesia by about 1.0%.

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islands. During an El Niño event the trade winds weaken and sometimes blow from west to east, which causes the Equatorial current to weaken, raising surface water temperatures and decreasing nutrients in waters surrounding the Galápagos. El Niño causes a trophic cascade which impacts entire ecosystems starting with primary producers and ending with critical animals such as sharks, penguins, and seals. The effects of El Niño can become detrimental to populations that often starve and die back during these years. Rapid evolutionary adaptations are displayed amongst animal groups during El Niño years to mitigate El Niño conditions.

1914:. Tehuantepecers primarily occur during the cold season months for the region in the wake of cold fronts, between October and February, with a summer maximum in July caused by the westward extension of the Azores-Bermuda high pressure system. Wind magnitude is greater during El Niño years than during La Niña years, due to the more frequent cold frontal incursions during El Niño winters. Tehuantepec winds reach 20 knots (40 km/h) to 45 knots (80 km/h), and on rare occasions 100 knots (190 km/h). The wind's direction is from the north to north-northeast. It leads to a localized acceleration of the 1556:

the ENSO events in 1972–73, 1982–83, 1997–98 and, more recently, in 2015–16. In particular, increased surface seawater temperatures in 1982-83 also lead to the probable extinction of two hydrocoral species in Panamá, and to a massive mortality of kelp beds along 600 km of coastline in Chile, from which kelps and associated biodiversity slowly recovered in the most affected areas even after 20 years. All these findings enlarge the role of ENSO events as a strong climatic force driving ecological changes all around the world – particularly in tropical forests and coral reefs.

2407: 752: 482: 12069:(It is nevertheless necessary, with regard to this general rule, to announce an exception which, in some circumstances, might shorten the sailing. One said above that the breeze was sometimes quite fresh , and that then the counter-current, which bore southward along the land, stretched some miles in length; it is obvious that one will have to tack in this counter-current, whenever the wind's force will permit it and whenever one will not have gone past the port of one's destination by more than 2 or 3 leagues; ...) 13365: 7902: 1198: 2306: 10987: 989:(ENFEN), ENSO Costero, or ENSO Oriental, is the name given to the phenomenon where the sea-surface temperature anomalies are mostly focused on the South American coastline, especially from Peru and Ecuador. Studies point many factors that can lead to its occurrence, sometimes accompanying, or being accompanied, by a larger EP ENSO occurrence, or even displaying opposite conditions from the observed ones in the other Niño regions when accompanied by Modoki variations. 605: 592: 1428: 15828: 14253: 7866: 15816: 14274: 282: 15852: 15840: 2581: 579: 60: 51: 921: 13354: 140:. La Niña has roughly the reverse pattern: high pressure over the central and eastern Pacific and lower pressure through much of the rest of the tropics and subtropics. The two phenomena last a year or so each and typically occur every two to seven years with varying intensity, with neutral periods of lower intensity interspersed. El Niño events can be more intense but La Niña events may repeat and last longer. 1372:

cyclones. A change in the location of where tropical cyclones form also occurs within the Southern Pacific Ocean between 135°E and 120°W, with tropical cyclones more likely to occur within the Southern Pacific basin than the Australian region. As a result of this change tropical cyclones are 50% less likely to make landfall on Queensland, while the risk of a tropical cyclone is elevated for island nations like

14263: 1260:, but the layout of the ocean was significantly different from now. So far, there is no definitive evidence indicating changes in ENSO behaviour, and the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report concluded that it is "virtually certain that the ENSO will remain the dominant mode of interannual variability in a warmer world." Consequently, the 2022 assessment no longer includes it in the list of likely tipping elements. 2489: 640: 1012: 1532:

vegetation, since declines in insect populations were observed after extreme drought and terrible fires during El Niño 2015–16. Declines in habitat-specialist and disturbance-sensitive bird species and in large-frugivorous mammals were also observed in Amazonian burned forests, while temporary extirpation of more than 100 lowland butterfly species occurred at a burned forest site in Borneo.

427:. Although these associated changes in the ocean and atmosphere often occur together, the state of the atmosphere may resemble a different ENSO phase than the state of the ocean or vice versa. Because their states are closely linked, the variations of ENSO may arise from changes in both the ocean and atmosphere and not necessarily from an initial change of exclusively one or the other. 496: 163:

and droughts in others. El Niño events cause short-term (approximately 1 year in length) spikes in global average surface temperature while La Niña events cause short term surface cooling. Therefore, the relative frequency of El Niño compared to La Niña events can affect global temperature trends on timescales of around ten years. The countries most affected by ENSO are

2441:. Unlike a standing pattern like the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Madden–Julian oscillation is a traveling pattern that propagates eastward, at approximately 4 to 8 m/s (14 to 29 km/h; 9 to 18 mph), through the atmosphere above the warm parts of the Indian and Pacific oceans. This overall circulation pattern manifests itself most clearly as 1134:. For example, recent scholarship (since about 2019) has found that climate change is increasing the frequency of extreme El Niño events. Previously there was no consensus on whether climate change will have any influence on the strength or duration of El Niño events, as research alternately supported El Niño events becoming stronger and weaker, longer and shorter. 403:

and a warmer East Pacific, leading to a shift of cloudiness and rainfall towards the East Pacific. This situation is called El Niño. The opposite occurs if trade winds are stronger than average, leading to a warmer West Pacific and an cooler East Pacific. This situation is called La Niña and is associated with increased cloudiness and rainfall over the West Pacific.

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over cooler sea surface temperatures in the east. During El Niño, as the sea surface temperatures change so does the Walker Circulation. Warming in the eastern tropical Pacific weakens or reverses the downward branch, while cooler conditions in the west lead to less rain and downward air, so the Walker Circulation first weakens and may reverse.

12253: : 275–332. From p. 283: "There is also a slight tendency two quarters later towards an increase of pressure in S. America and of Peninsula rainfall, and a decrease of pressure in Australia : this is part of the main oscillation described in the previous paper* which will in future be called the 'southern' oscillation." Available at: 1127:

phenomenon of more frequent and stronger El Niño events occurs only in the initial phase of the global warming, and then (e.g., after the lower layers of the ocean get warmer, as well), El Niño will become weaker. It may also be that the stabilizing and destabilizing forces influencing the phenomenon will eventually compensate for each other.

7248: 1363:, vertical wind shear is increased, which inhibits tropical cyclone genesis and intensification, by causing the westerly winds to be stronger. The atmosphere over the Atlantic Ocean can also be drier and more stable during El Niño events, which can inhibit tropical cyclone genesis and intensification. Within the 4152:. In Valérie Masson-Delmotte; Panmao Zhai; Anna Pirani; Sarah L. Connors; C. Péan; Sophie Berger; Nada Caud; Y. Chen; Leah Goldfarb; Melissa I. Gomis; Mengtian Huang; Katherine Leitzell; Elisabeth Lonnoy; J. B. Robin Matthews; Thomas K. Maycock; Tim Waterfield; Özge Yelekçi; R. Yu; Botao Zhou (eds.). 2455:

There is strong year-to-year (interannual) variability in Madden–Julian oscillation activity, with long periods of strong activity followed by periods in which the oscillation is weak or absent. This interannual variability of the MJO is partly linked to the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.

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in Vanuatu coral records, indication of shoaling of thermocline, is analyzed for Sr/Ca and U/Ca content, from which temperature is regressed. The temperature variability shows that during the mid-Holocene, changes in the position of the anticyclonic gyre produced average to cold (La Niña) conditions,

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to the east Pacific, it takes the rain with it, causing extensive drought in the western Pacific and rainfall in the normally dry eastern Pacific. Singapore experienced the driest February in 2010 since records began in 1869, with only 6.3 mm of rain falling in the month. The years 1968 and 2005

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Most critically, global mass bleaching events were recorded in 1997-98 and 2015–16, when around 75-99% losses of live coral were registered across the world. Considerable attention was also given to the collapse of Peruvian and Chilean anchovy populations that led to a severe fishery crisis following

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experiences a change in the location of where tropical cyclones form during El Niño events, with tropical cyclone formation shifting eastward, without a major change in how many develop each year. As a result of this change, Micronesia is more likely, and China less likely, to be affected by tropical

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If the temperature variation from climatology is within 0.5 °C (0.9 °F), ENSO conditions are described as neutral. Neutral conditions are the transition between warm and cold phases of ENSO. Sea surface temperatures (by definition), tropical precipitation, and wind patterns are near average

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who discovered the Southern Oscillation during the early twentieth century. The Walker circulation is an east-west overturning circulation in the vicinity of the equator in the Pacific. Upward air is associated with high sea temperatures, convection and rainfall, while the downward branch occurs

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explaining how ENSO operates generally accept the Bjerknes feedback hypothesis. However, ENSO would perpetually remain in one phase if Bjerknes feedback were the only process occurring. Several theories have been proposed to explain how ENSO can change from one state to the next, despite the positive

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phase. However, the tropical Pacific experiences occasional shifts away from these average conditions. If trade winds are weaker than average, the effect of upwelling in the East Pacific and the flow of warmer ocean surface waters towards the West Pacific lessen. This results in a cooler West Pacific

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A negative phase exists when atmospheric pressure over Indonesia and the west Pacific is abnormally high and pressure over the east Pacific is abnormally low, during El Niño episodes, and a positive phase is when the opposite occurs during La Niña episodes, and pressure over Indonesia is low and over

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The El Niño–Southern Oscillation is a single climate phenomenon that periodically fluctuates between three phases: Neutral, La Niña or El Niño. La Niña and El Niño are opposite phases in the oscillation which are deemed to occur when specific ocean and atmospheric conditions are reached or exceeded.

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Each country that monitors the ENSO has a different threshold for what constitutes an El Niño or La Niña event, which is tailored to their specific interests. El Niño and La Niña affect the global climate and disrupt normal weather patterns, which as a result can lead to intense storms in some places

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of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales (meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades). There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity (meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters

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In the late winter and spring during El Niño events, drier than average conditions can be expected in Hawaii. On Guam during El Niño years, dry season precipitation averages below normal, but the probability of a tropical cyclone is more than triple what is normal, so extreme short duration rainfall

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During an El Niño event, New Zealand tends to experience stronger or more frequent westerly winds during their summer, which leads to an elevated risk of drier than normal conditions along the east coast. There is more rain than usual though on New Zealand's West Coast, because of the barrier effect

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During El Niño events, the shift in rainfall away from the Western Pacific may mean that rainfall across Australia is reduced. Over the southern part of the continent, warmer than average temperatures can be recorded as weather systems are more mobile and fewer blocking areas of high pressure occur.

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that end and reverse the abnormal state of the tropical Pacific. This perspective implies that the processes that lead to El Niño and La Niña also eventually bring about their end, making ENSO a self-sustaining process. Other theories view the state of ENSO as being changed by irregular and external

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triggered by an MJO event during late May. Further, changes in the structure of the MJO with the seasonal cycle and ENSO might facilitate more substantial impacts of the MJO on ENSO. For example, the surface westerly winds associated with active MJO convection are stronger during advancement toward

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alongside considerable wet periods that cause major floods. There exist three phases — El Niño, La Niña, and Neutral, which help to account for the different states of ENSO. Since 1900, there have been 28 El Niño and 19 La Niña events in Australia including the current 2023 El Niño event, which was

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Sea surface temperatures off the west and south coasts of South Africa are affected by ENSO via changes in surface wind strength. During El Niño the south-easterly winds driving upwelling are weaker which results in warmer coastal waters than normal, while during La Niña the same winds are stronger

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The effects of El Niño on rainfall in southern Africa differ between the summer and winter rainfall areas. Winter rainfall areas tend to get higher rainfall than normal and summer rainfall areas tend to get less rain. The effect on the summer rainfall areas is stronger and has led to severe drought

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to become unusually large in summer. Occasionally, El Niño's effect on the Atlantic Walker circulation over South America strengthens the easterly trade winds in the western equatorial Atlantic region. As a result, an unusual cooling may occur in the eastern equatorial Atlantic in spring and summer

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El Niño phases are known to happen at irregular intervals of two to seven years, and lasts nine months to two years. The average period length is five years. When this warming occurs for seven to nine months, it is classified as El Niño "conditions"; when its duration is longer, it is classified as

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The El Niño–Southern Oscillation is a single climate phenomenon that quasi-periodically fluctuates between three phases: Neutral, La Niña or El Niño. La Niña and El Niño are opposite phases which require certain changes to take place in both the ocean and the atmosphere before an event is declared.

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Fiji generally experiences drier than normal conditions during an El Niño, which can lead to drought becoming established over the Islands. However, the main impacts on the island nation is felt about a year after the event becomes established. Within the Samoan Islands, below average rainfall and

1003:, nor always being accompanied by proportional Southern Oscillation responses. According to the Coastal Niño Index (ICEN), strong El Niño Costero events include 1957, 1982–83, 1997–98 and 2015–16, and La Niña Costera ones include 1950, 1954–56, 1962, 1964, 1966, 1967–68, 1970–71, 1975–76 and 2013. 928:

The first ENSO pattern to be recognised, called Eastern Pacific (EP) ENSO, to distinguish if from others, involves temperature anomalies in the eastern Pacific. However, in the 1990s and 2000s, variations of ENSO conditions were observed, in which the usual place of the temperature anomaly (Niño 1

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across the eastern equatorial part of the central Pacific Ocean will be lower than normal by 3–5 °C (5.4–9 °F). The phenomenon occurs as strong winds blow warm water at the ocean's surface away from South America, across the Pacific Ocean towards Indonesia. As this warm water moves west,

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is almost the same in the western and east Pacific. Because the warmer waters of the upper ocean are slightly less dense than the cooler deep ocean, the thicker layer of warmer water in the western Pacific means the thermocline there must be deeper. The difference in weight must be enough to drive

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are a chain of volcanic islands, nearly 600 miles west of Ecuador, South America. in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. These islands support a wide diversity of terrestrial and marine species. The ecosystem is based on the normal trade winds which influence upwelling of cold, nutrient rich waters to the

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Because El Niño's warm pool feeds thunderstorms above, it creates increased rainfall across the east-central and eastern Pacific Ocean, including several portions of the South American west coast. The effects of El Niño in South America are direct and stronger than in North America. An El Niño is

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During the 1982–83, 1997–98 and 2015–16 ENSO events, large extensions of tropical forests experienced a prolonged dry period that resulted in widespread fires, and drastic changes in forest structure and tree species composition in Amazonian and Bornean forests. Their impacts do not restrict only

1256:. The threshold for tipping was estimated to be between 3.5 °C (6.3 °F) and 7 °C (13 °F) of global warming in 2016. After tipping, the system would be in a more permanent El Niño state, rather than oscillating between different states. This has happened in Earth's past, in the 1117:

La Niña impacts the global climate and disrupts normal weather patterns, which can lead to intense storms in some places and droughts in others. El Niño events cause short-term (approximately 1 year in length) spikes in global average surface temperature while La Niña events cause short term

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Likewise, following the asymmetric nature of the warm and cold phases of ENSO, some studies could not identify similar variations for La Niña, both in observations and in the climate models, but some sources could identify variations on La Niña with cooler waters on central Pacific and average or

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summarized the scientific knowledge in 2021 for the future of ENSO as follows: "In the long term, it is very likely that the precipitation variance related to El Niño–Southern Oscillation will increase". The scientific consensus is also that "it is very likely that rainfall variability related to

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higher than normal temperatures are recorded during El Niño events, which can lead to droughts and forest fires on the islands. Other impacts include a decrease in the sea level, possibility of coral bleaching in the marine environment and an increased risk of a tropical cyclone affecting Samoa.

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Over North America, the main temperature and precipitation impacts of El Niño generally occur in the six months between October and March. In particular, the majority of Canada generally has milder than normal winters and springs, with the exception of eastern Canada where no significant impacts

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ENSO is linked to rainfall over Puerto Rico. During an El Niño, snowfall is greater than average across the southern Rockies and Sierra Nevada mountain range, and is well-below normal across the Upper Midwest and Great Lakes states. During a La Niña, snowfall is above normal across the Pacific

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There is also a scientific debate on the very existence of this "new" ENSO. A number of studies dispute the reality of this statistical distinction or its increasing occurrence, or both, either arguing the reliable record is too short to detect such a distinction, finding no distinction or trend

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The recent discovery of ENSO Modoki has some scientists believing it to be linked to global warming. However, comprehensive satellite data go back only to 1979. More research must be done to find the correlation and study past El Niño episodes. More generally, there is no scientific consensus on

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The first recorded El Niño that originated in the central Pacific and moved toward the east was in 1986. Recent Central Pacific El Niños happened in 1986–87, 1991–92, 1994–95, 2002–03, 2004–05 and 2009–10. Furthermore, there were "Modoki" events in 1957–59, 1963–64, 1965–66, 1968–70, 1977–78 and

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going back to the 1800s, its reliability is limited due to the latitudes of both Darwin and Tahiti being well south of the Equator, so that the surface air pressure at both locations is less directly related to ENSO. To overcome this effect, a new index was created, named the Equatorial Southern

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The major 1982–83 El Niño led to an upsurge of interest from the scientific community. The period 1990–95 was unusual in that El Niños have rarely occurred in such rapid succession. An especially intense El Niño event in 1998 caused an estimated 16% of the world's reef systems to die. The event

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and resulting extreme weather events. For example, an increase in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño events have triggered warmer than usual temperatures over the Indian Ocean, by modulating the Walker circulation. This has resulted in a rapid warming of the Indian Ocean, and consequently a

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Observations of ENSO events since 1950 show that impacts associated with such events depend on the time of year. While certain events and impacts are expected to occur, it is not certain that they will happen. The impacts that generally do occur during most El Niño events include below-average

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Study of more recent weather events over California and the southwestern United States indicate that there is a variable relationship between El Niño and above-average precipitation, as it strongly depends on the strength of the El Niño event and other factors. Though it has been historically

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Studies of historical data show the recent El Niño variation is most likely linked to global warming. For example, some results, even after subtracting the positive influence of decadal variation, are shown to be possibly present in the ENSO trend, the amplitude of the ENSO variability in the

12139:"Australian and Indian Weather" : "Comparing our records with those of India, I find a close correspondence or similarity of seasons with regard to the prevalence of drought, and there can be little or no doubt that severe droughts occur as a rule simultaneously over the two countries." 2557:

form at preferred locations both in the North and South Pacific Ocean, and the teleconnection pattern is established within 2–6 weeks. ENSO driven patterns modify surface temperature, humidity, wind, and the distribution of clouds over the North Pacific that alter surface heat, momentum, and

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episode. Strong events in the Madden–Julian oscillation over a series of months in the western Pacific can speed the development of an El Niño or La Niña but usually do not in themselves lead to the onset of a warm or cold ENSO event. However, observations suggest that the 1982-1983 El Niño

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Major ENSO events were recorded in the years 1790–93, 1828, 1876–78, 1891, 1925–26, 1972–73, 1982–83, 1997–98, 2014–16, and 2023–24. During strong El Niño episodes, a secondary peak in sea surface temperature across the far eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean sometimes follows the initial peak.

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There is no sign that there are actual changes in the ENSO physical phenomenon due to climate change. Climate models do not simulate ENSO well enough to make reliable predictions. Future trends in ENSO are uncertain as different models make different predictions. It may be that the observed

159:(an east-west overturning circulation in the atmosphere) and even weaker trade winds. Ultimately the warm waters in the western tropical Pacific are depleted enough so that conditions return to normal. The exact mechanisms that cause the oscillation are unclear and are being studied. 1694:

in tropical Australia is delayed by two to six weeks, which as a consequence means that rainfall is reduced over the northern tropics. The risk of a significant bushfire season in south-eastern Australia is higher following an El Niño event, especially when it is combined with a positive

1633:, conversely, tends to become colder with more sea ice during El Niño. The exact opposite heating and atmospheric pressure anomalies occur during La Niña. This pattern of variability is known as the Antarctic dipole mode, although the Antarctic response to ENSO forcing is not ubiquitous. 1456:

More generally, El Niño can affect commodity prices and the macroeconomy of different countries. It can constrain the supply of rain-driven agricultural commodities; reduce agricultural output, construction, and services activities; increase food prices; and may trigger social unrest in

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events. Although no strong correlation was found with the Atlantic Ocean, it is suggested that the insolation influence probably affected both oceans, although the Pacific Ocean seems to have the most influence on teleconnection in annual, millennial and semi-precessional timescales.

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Oscillation Index (EQSOI). To generate this index, two new regions, centered on the Equator, were defined. The western region is located over Indonesia and the eastern one over the equatorial Pacific, close to the South American coast. However, data on EQSOI goes back only to 1949.

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that depend on their own agriculture and fishing, particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean, are usually most affected by El Niño conditions. In this phase of the Oscillation, the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest in late December.

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The West Pacific is typically warmer than the East Pacific. The warmer waters lead to more cloudiness, rainfall, and low air pressure over the West Pacific. The buildup of warm waters towards the west also leads to a thicker layer of warm ocean water that lowers the depth of the

2117:. The increasing intensity and duration of El Niño events were associated with active volcanism, which resulted in the dieback of vegetation, an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, a significant warming and disturbances in the circulation of air masses. 1867:

due to a more northerly storm track. During La Niña events, the storm track shifts far enough northward to bring wetter than normal winter conditions (in the form of increased snowfall) to the Midwestern states, as well as hot and dry summers. During the El Niño portion of

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El Niño has the most direct impacts on life in the equatorial Pacific, its effects propagate north and south along the coast of the Americas, affecting marine life all around the Pacific. Changes in chlorophyll-a concentrations are visible in this animation, which compares

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across much of the Earth. The tropical Pacific is said to be in one of three states of ENSO (also called "phases") depending on the atmospheric and oceanic conditions. When the tropical Pacific roughly reflects the average conditions, the state of ENSO is said to be in the

1805:'s southern and eastern regions. Meanwhile, precipitation in the southwestern and southeastern states, as well as southern California, is below average. This also allows for the development of many stronger-than-average hurricanes in the Atlantic and fewer in the Pacific. 597:

El Niño phase: Warm water pool approaches the South American coast. The absence of cold upwelling increases warming. Warm water and atmospheric convection move eastwards. In strong El Niños the deeper thermocline off South America means upwelled water is warm and nutrient

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close to the Mediterranean shows 2–7 year variability, closely related to ENSO periodicity. Model simulations show that there is more correlation with ENSO than NAO, and that there is a strong teleconnection with the Mediterranean due to lower gradients of temperature.

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El Niño and the surface easterly winds associated with the suppressed convective phase are stronger during advancement toward La Niña. Globally, the interannual variability of the MJO is most determined by atmospheric internal dynamics, rather than surface conditions.

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1979–80. Some sources say that the El Niños of 2006-07 and 2014-16 were also Central Pacific El Niños. Recent years when La Niña Modoki events occurred include 1973–1974, 1975–1976, 1983–1984, 1988–1989, 1998–1999, 2000–2001, 2008–2009, 2010–2011, and 2016–2017.

1505:—MVE), occur in temperate south-east Australia after heavy rainfall and flooding, which are associated with La Niña events. A severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever occurred after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia during the 1997–98 El Niño. 1660:

position, shifts westward across the western Pacific Ocean, which increases the landfall threat in China. In March 2008, La Niña caused a drop in sea surface temperatures over Southeast Asia by 2 °C (3.6 °F). It also caused heavy rains over the

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La Niña events have been observed for hundreds of years, and occurred on a regular basis during the early parts of both the 17th and 19th centuries. Since the start of the 20th century, La Niña events have occurred during the following years:

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The cool phase of ENSO is La Niña, with SST in the eastern Pacific below average, and air pressure high in the eastern Pacific and low in the western Pacific. The ENSO cycle, including both El Niño and La Niña, causes global changes in temperature and rainfall.

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In the spring of 2022, La Niña caused above-average precipitation and below-average temperatures in the state of Oregon. April was one of the wettest months on record, and La Niña effects, while less severe, were expected to continue into the summer.

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In seasonally dry tropical forests, which are more drought tolerant, researchers found that El Niño induced drought increased seedling mortality. In a research published in October 2022, researchers studied seasonally dry tropical forests in a national park in

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A study of climate records has shown that El Niño events in the equatorial Pacific are generally associated with a warm tropical North Atlantic in the following spring and summer. About half of El Niño events persist sufficiently into the spring months for the

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Core shows warm events with periodicities of 2–8 years, which become more frequent over the Holocene until about 1,200 years ago, and then decline, on top of which there are periods of low and high ENSO-related events, possibly due to changes in insolation.

1523:, having analyzed data from 1950 to 2004, suggest ENSO may have had a role in 21% of all civil conflicts since 1950, with the risk of annual civil conflict doubling from 3% to 6% in countries affected by ENSO during El Niño years relative to La Niña years. 8448: 2106:

archives, showing different triggering methods, feedbacks and environmental responses to the geological, atmospheric and oceanographic characteristics of the time. These paleorecords can be used to provide a qualitative basis for conservation practices.

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also uses a several month period to determine ENSO state. When this warming or cooling occurs for only seven to nine months, it is classified as El Niño/La Niña "conditions"; when it occurs for more than that period, it is classified as El Niño/La Niña

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The basin core shows light and dark layers, related to summer/autumn transition where more/less productivity is expected. The core shows thicker or thinner layers, with periodicities of 12, 6–7 and 2–3 years, related to ENSO, North Atlantic Oscillation

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to replace the near-surface water. This process cools the East Pacific because the thermocline is closer to the ocean surface, leaving relatively little separation between the deeper cold water and the ocean surface. Additionally, the northward-flowing

9001: 423:(the ocean or atmosphere) tend to reinforce changes in the other. For example, during El Niño, the reduced contrast in ocean temperatures across the Pacific results in weaker trade winds, further reinforcing the El Niño state. This process is known as 11436:

Seillès, Brice; Sánchez Goñi, Maria Fernanda; Ledru, Marie-Pierre; Urrego, Dunia H; Martinez, Philippe; Hanquiez, Vincent; Schneider, Ralph (April 2016). "Holocene land–sea climatic links on the equatorial Pacific coast (Bay of Guayaquil, Ecuador)".

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Across most of the continent, El Niño and La Niña have more impact on climate variability than any other factor. There is a strong correlation between the strength of La Niña and rainfall: the greater the sea surface temperature and

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researchers found that climate change may have increased by two times the likelihood of strong El Niño events and nine times the likelihood of strong La Niña events. The study stated it found a consensus between different models and experiments.

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that Peruvian sailors named the warm south-flowing current "El Niño" because it was most noticeable around Christmas. Although pre-Columbian societies were certainly aware of the phenomenon, the indigenous names for it have been lost to history.

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Galeotti, Simone; von der Heydt, Anna; Huber, Matthew; Bice, David; Dijkstra, Henk; Jilbert, Tom; Lanci, Luca; Reichart, Gert-Jan (May 2010). "Evidence for active El Niño Southern Oscillation variability in the Late Miocene greenhouse climate".

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any deep water return flow. Consequently, the thermocline is tilted across the tropical Pacific, rising from an average depth of about 140 m (450 ft) in the West Pacific to a depth of about 30 m (90 ft) in the East Pacific.

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Turney, Chris S. M.; Kershaw, A. Peter; Clemens, Steven C.; Branch, Nick; Moss, Patrick T.; Fifield, L. Keith (2004). "Millennial and orbital variations of El Niño/Southern Oscillation and high-latitude climate in the last glacial period".

1367:: El Niño events contribute to decreased easterly vertical wind shear and favor above-normal hurricane activity. However, the impacts of the ENSO state in this region can vary and are strongly influenced by background climate patterns. The 907:. Significant episodes, known as Trans-Niño, are measured by the Trans-Niño index (TNI). Examples of affected short-time climate in North America include precipitation in the Northwest US and intense tornado activity in the contiguous US. 584:

Neutral phase: Equatorial winds gather warm water pool toward the west. Warm pool in the west drives deep atmospheric convection. In the east local winds cause nutrient-rich cold water to upwell at the Equator and along the South American

2499:(PDO) is a robust, recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin. The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean, north of 20°N. Over the past century, the 1859:, La Niña events lead to drier than normal conditions, while El Niño events do not have a correlation towards dry or wet conditions. During El Niño events, increased precipitation is expected in California due to a more southerly, zonal, 9978: 686:

in the western Pacific and lower in the eastern Pacific, with rainfall reducing over Indonesia, India and northern Australia, while rainfall and tropical cyclone formation increases over the tropical Pacific Ocean. The low-level surface

2992:

Emily Becker (2016). "How Much Do El Niño and La Niña Affect Our Weather? This fickle and influential climate pattern often gets blamed for extreme weather. A closer look at the most recent cycle shows that the truth is more subtle".

7864:

Cai, Wenju; Ng, Benjamin; Geng, Tao; Jia, Fan; Wu, Lixin; Wang, Guojian; Liu, Yu; Gan, Bolan; Yang, Kai; Santoso, Agus; Lin, Xiaopei; Li, Ziguang; Liu, Yi; Yang, Yun; Jin, Fei-Fei; Collins, Mat; McPhaden, Michael J. (June 2023).

535:, and a reduction in rainfall over eastern and northern Australia. La Niña episodes are defined as sustained cooling of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, thus resulting in an increase in the strength of the Pacific 523:

El Niño episodes have negative SOI, meaning there is lower pressure over Tahiti and higher pressure in Darwin. La Niña episodes on the other hand have positive SOI, meaning there is higher pressure in Tahiti and lower in Darwin.

11370:

Yadong Sun; Alexander Farnsworth; Michael M. Joachimski; Paul B. Wignall; Leopold Krystyn; David P. G. Bond; Domenico C. G. Ravidà; Paul J. Valdes (September 12, 2024). "Mega El Niño instigated the end-Permian mass extinction".

763:

An especially strong Walker circulation causes La Niña, which is considered to be the cold oceanic and positive atmospheric phase of the broader El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) weather phenomenon, as well as the opposite of

195:

Southern Oscillation Index timeseries from 1876 to 2024. The Southern Oscillation is the atmospheric component of El Niño. This component is an oscillation in surface air pressure between the tropical eastern and the western

1943:

events are possible. On American Samoa during El Niño events, precipitation averages about 10 percent above normal, while La Niña events are associated with precipitation averaging about 10 percent below normal.

1086: 940:

The effects of the CP ENSO are different from those of the EP ENSO. The El Niño Modoki is associated with more hurricanes more frequently making landfall in the Atlantic. La Niña Modoki leads to a rainfall increase over

2267:

site 847 and 806 show that the Pliocene warm period presented permanent El Niño-like conditions, possibly related to changes in the mean state of extratropical regions or changes in ocean heat transport resulting from

1852:

associated with high rainfall in California, the effects of El Niño depend more strongly on the "flavor" of El Niño than its presence or absence, as only "persistent El Niño" events lead to consistently high rainfall.

1926:. The effects can last from a few hours to six days. Between 1942 and 1957, La Niña had an impact that caused isotope changes in the plants of Baja California, and that had helped scientists to study his impact. 1048:. The most recent three-month average for the area is computed, and if the region is more than 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) above (or below) normal for that period, then an El Niño (or La Niña) is considered in progress. 4140:

Sergey K. Gulev; Peter W. Thorne; Jinho Ahn; Frank J. Dentener; Catia M. Domingues; Sebastian Gerland; Daoyi Gong; Darrell S. Kaufman; Hyacinth C. Nnamchi; Johannes Quaas; Juan Antonio Rivera; Shubha Sathyendranath;

2618:(SST); and the reverse during its negative state. This coupling develops during the winter months and spreads southwestward towards the equator and the central and western Pacific during spring, until it reaches the 11490:

Rodbell, Donald T.; Seltzer, Geoffrey O.; Anderson, David M.; Abbott, Mark B.; Enfield, David B.; Newman, Jeremy H. (22 January 1999). "An ~15,000-Year Record of El Niño-Driven Alluviation in Southwestern Ecuador".

11400:

Corrège, Thierry; Delcroix, Thierry; Récy, Jacques; Beck, Warren; Cabioch, Guy; Le Cornec, Florence (August 2000). "Evidence for stronger El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Events in a Mid-Holocene massive coral".

1597:-pressure system, and changes to the pattern of westerly winds further south. There are other influences not known to be related to ENSO of similar importance. Some ENSO events do not lead to the expected changes. 8455: 996:, and increased temperatures over the northern Chilean coast, and cold phases leading to droughts on the peruvian coast, and increased rainfall and decreased temperatures on its mountainous and jungle regions. 8993: 1043:

stretches from the 120th to 170th meridians west longitude astride the equator five degrees of latitude on either side, are monitored. It is approximately 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) to the southeast of

1228:. Every two to seven years, the winds weaken due to pressure changes and the air and water in the middle of the Pacific warms up, causing changes in wind movement patterns around the globe. This is known as 7842: 1296:

2023's June-July-August season was the warmest on record globally by a large margin, as El Niño conditions continued to develop. 1998—a very strong El Niño year—also experienced a global temperature spike.

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declared on 17th of September in 2023. The events usually last for 9 to 12 months, but some can persist for two years, though the ENSO cycle generally operates over a time period from one to eight years.

808:

A timeline of all La Niña episodes between 1900 and 2023. Note that each forecast agency has a different criteria for what constitutes a La Niña event, which is tailored to their specific interests.

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La Niña is a complex weather pattern that occurs every few years, often persisting for longer than five months. El Niño and La Niña can be indicators of weather changes across the globe.

2041:

also experience wetter than normal conditions during El Niño years, but mainly during the spring and early summer. Central Chile receives a mild winter with large rainfall, and the Peruvian-Bolivian

1727:, and are one of the main climate drivers of the country. Associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world, Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences extensive 1284:. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation has been linked to variability in longer-term global average temperature increase, with El Niño years usually corresponding to annual global temperature increases. 999:

Because they don't influence the global climate as much as the other types, these events present lesser and weaker correlations to other significant ENSO features, neither always being triggered by

11542:

Moy, Christopher M.; Seltzer, Geoffrey O.; Rodbell, Donald T.; Anderson, David M. (2002). "Variability of El Niño/Southern Oscillation activity at millennial timescales during the Holocene epoch".

6659:"El Niño, La Niña, ENSO, ENOS, El Niño Modoki, El Niño Canónico, El Niño Extraordinario, El Niño Godzilla, El Niño Costero, El Niño Oriental ¿En qué consisten realmente y cómo afectan al Ecuador?" 1137:

Over the last several decades, the number of El Niño events increased, and the number of La Niña events decreased, although observation of ENSO for much longer is needed to detect robust changes.

1062:

declares that an ENSO event has started when the average five month sea surface temperature deviation for the Niño 3 region is over 0.5 °C (0.90 °F) for six consecutive months or longer.

10231: 780:

The movement of so much heat across a quarter of the planet, and particularly in the form of temperature at the ocean surface, can have a significant effect on weather across the entire planet.

11688:

Muñoz, Arsenio; Ojeda, Jorge; Sánchez-Valverde, Belén (2002). "Sunspot-like and ENSO/NAO-like periodicities in lacustrinelaminated sediments of the Pliocene Villarroya Basin (La Rioja,Spain)".

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In Canada, La Niña will, in general, cause a cooler, snowier winter, such as the near-record-breaking amounts of snow recorded in the La Niña winter of 2007–2008 in eastern Canada.

929:

and 2) is not affected, but an anomaly also arises in the central Pacific (Niño 3.4). The phenomenon is called Central Pacific (CP) ENSO, "dateline" ENSO (because the anomaly arises near the

7051: 2913: 2030:

areas. Other conditions provide further complications, such as the government of Chile in 1991 creating restrictions on the fishing areas for self-employed fishermen and industrial fleets.

977:

warmer water temperatures on both eastern and western Pacific, also showing eastern Pacific Ocean currents going to the opposite direction compared to the currents in traditional La Niñas.

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The possibility that the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a tipping element had attracted attention in the past. Normally strong winds blow west across the South Pacific Ocean from

512:

waters. The strength of the Southern Oscillation is measured by the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). The SOI is computed from fluctuations in the surface air pressure difference between

10290: 382:

and has less upwelling as the trade winds are usually weaker than in the East Pacific, allowing the West Pacific to reach warmer temperatures. These warmer waters provide energy for the

8661: 1163:"There is medium confidence that both ENSO amplitude and the frequency of high-magnitude events since 1950 are higher than over the period from 1850 and possibly as far back as 1400". 314:

near the equator push water away from the East Pacific and towards the West Pacific. This water is slowly warmed by the Sun as it moves west along the equator. The ocean surface near

4517: 3287:"Los marinos paiteños que navegan frecuentemente cerca de la costa y en embarcaciones pequeñas, ya al norte ó al sur de Paita, conocen esta corriente y la denomination Corriente del 531:

over the warm water. El Niño episodes are defined as sustained warming of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, thus resulting in a decrease in the strength of the Pacific

2110:

Scientists have also found chemical signatures of warmer sea surface temperatures and increased rainfall caused by El Niño in coral specimens that are around 13,000 years old.

10203: 10036: 1160:"It is very likely that rainfall variability related to changes in the strength and spatial extent of ENSO teleconnections will lead to significant changes at regional scale". and 937:

for "similar, but different"). There are variations of ENSO additional to the EP and CP types, and some scientists argue that ENSO exists as a continuum, often with hybrid types.

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events will be associated with a weakening, or even a setback, of the prevailing trade winds, and this, results in reduced atmospheric moisture in the country. Many of the worst

1585:

La Niña results in wetter-than-normal conditions in southern Africa from December to February, and drier-than-normal conditions over equatorial east Africa over the same period.

1448:

and the reduction in easterly trade winds limits upwelling of cold nutrient-rich deep water, and its economic effect on local fishing for an international market can be serious.

11645:

Beaufort, Luc; Garidel-Thoron, Thibault de; Mix, Alan C.; Pisias, Nicklas G. (28 September 2001). "ENSO-like Forcing on Oceanic Primary Production During the Late Pleistocene".

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declares that a ENSO Costero is under way if the sea surface temperature deviation in the Niño 1+2 regions equal or exceed 0.4 °C (0.72 °F) for at least three months.

540: 9700:

Nazemosadat, M. J., and A. R. Ghasemi, 2004: Quantifying the ENSO-related shifts in the intensity and probability of drought and wet periods in Iran. J. Climate, 17, 4005–4018

1771:

are controversial, complex and difficult to analyze, as it is one of several factors that influence the weather over the continent and other factors can overwhelm the signal.

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noted the same in 1904. An El Niño connection with flooding was reported in 1894 by Victor Eguiguren (1852–1919) and in 1895 by Federico Alfonso Pezet (1859–1929). In 1924,

623:

conditions during this phase. Close to half of all years are within neutral periods. During the neutral ENSO phase, other climate anomalies/patterns such as the sign of the

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industry and other enterprises that depend on biological productivity of the sea. It is recorded that as early as 1822, cartographer Joseph Lartigue, of the French frigate

1951:

The effects of El Niño in South America are direct and strong. An El Niño is associated with warm and very wet weather months in April–October along the coasts of northern

9728:

Wu, M. C.; Chang, W. L.; Leung, W. M. (2004). "Impacts of El Niño–Southern Oscillation events on tropical cyclone landfalling activity in the western north Pacific".

6760: 1971:, causing major flooding whenever the event is strong or extreme. The effects during the months of February, March, and April may become critical along the west coast of 10670: 9961: 1565:

rainfall over Indonesia and northern South America, and above average rainfall in southeastern South America, eastern equatorial Africa, and the southern United States.

9499: 6349:

Hanna Na; Bong-Geun Jang; Won-Moon Choi; Kwang-Yul Kim (2011). "Statistical simulations of the future 50-year statistics of cold-tongue El Niño and warm-pool El Niño".

4212: 4186: 1201:

Earlier (2008) list of tipping elements in the climate system. When compared to later lists, the major differences are that in 2008 ENSO, Indian summer monsoon, Arctic

10092: 2505: 924:

Map showing Niño/Niña 1 to 4 regions, 3 and 4 being west and far west and much larger than 1 and 2 a coastal Peruvian/Ecuadorian zone differing subtly north–south

8483:

Wu, M. C.; Chang, W. L.; Leung, W. M. (2004). "Impacts of El Niño–Southern Oscillation Events on Tropical Cyclone Landfalling Activity in the Western North Pacific".

4263: 2022:

have increased in the region during warm events. Shifting locations and types of fish due to changing conditions create challenges for the fishing industry. Peruvian

15728: 7379: 3947:

Yang, Song; Li, Zhenning; Yu, Jin-Yi; Hu, Xiaoming; Dong, Wenjie; He, Shan (1 November 2018). "El Niño–Southern Oscillation and its impact in the changing climate".

508:

The Southern Oscillation is the atmospheric component of ENSO. This component is an oscillation in surface air pressure between the tropical eastern and the western

12053: 10114: 5162:

Kennedy, Adam M.; D. C. Garen; R. W. Koch (2009). "The association between climate teleconnection indices and Upper Klamath seasonal streamflow: Trans-Niño Index".

4154:

Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. The contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

2418:

showing the MJO. Time increases from top to bottom in the figure, so contours that are oriented from upper-left to lower-right represent movement from west to east.

1645:, during the region's November–April rainy season, there is increased precipitation in the El Niño phase and reduced precipitation in the La Niña phase on average. 97:. Those variations have an irregular pattern but do have some semblance of cycles. The occurrence of ENSO is not predictable. It affects the climate of much of the 15396: 14853: 12067:"Il est néanmoins nécessaire, au sujet de cette règle générale, de faire part d'une exception ... dépassé le port de sa destination de plus de 2 ou 3 lieues; ... " 10267: 9447: 7834: 6941: 5082: 4372: 3586: 2938: 1209:

were all listed as tipping points. Labrador-Irminger circulation, mountain glaciers and East Antarctic ice however were not included. This 2008 list also includes

6817: 4996: 4834: 1540:

in Thailand for 7 years and observed that El Niño increased seedling mortality even in seasonally dry tropical forests and may impact entire forests in long run.

1130:

The consequences of ENSO in terms of the temperature anomalies and precipitation and weather extremes around the world are clearly increasing and associated with

9284:

França, Filipe; Ferreira, J; Vaz-de-Mello, FZ; Maia, LF; Berenguer, E; Palmeira, A; Fadini, R; Louzada, J; Braga, R; Oliveira, VH; Barlow, J (10 February 2020).

4808: 4428: 4118: 2885:

Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

2847: 2724: 10578: 9691:

Barlow, M., H. Cullen, and B. Lyon, 2002: Drought in central and southwest Asia: La Niña, the warm pool, and Indian Ocean precipitation. J. Climate, 15, 697–700

4603: 3543: 1190: 1055:

looks at the trade winds, Southern Oscillation Index, weather models and sea surface temperatures in the Niño 3 and 3.4 regions, before declaring an ENSO event.

1039:, the tropical Pacific atmosphere and forecasts that NOAA's Oceanic Niño Index will equal or exceed .5 °C (0.90 °F) for several seasons in a row. The 806: 701: 557:(SSH) changes up or down by several centimeters in Pacific equatorial region with the ESNO: El Niño causes a positive SSH anomaly (raised sea level) because of 10331: 4569: 11107: 6267: 1274: 15569: 10761: 9874: 8635: 4349: 4157: 2879:

Trenberth, K.E.; P.D. Jones; P. Ambenje; R. Bojariu; D. Easterling; A. Klein Tank; D. Parker; F. Rahimzadeh; J.A. Renwick; M. Rusticucci; B. Soden; P. Zhai.

310:

averages around 28–30 °C (82–86 °F). SSTs in the East Pacific off the western coast of South America are closer to 20 °C (68 °F). Strong

251:

time. However, over time the term has evolved and now refers to the warm and negative phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The original phrase,

9710: 5583: 5482:

Kim, Hye-Mi; Webster, Peter J.; Curry, Judith A. (3 July 2009). "Impact of Shifting Patterns of Pacific Ocean Warming on North Atlantic Tropical Cyclones".

3293:(The sailors Paita who sail often near the coast and in small boats, to the north or the south of Paita, know this current and call it "the current of the 3149: 992:

ENSO Costero events usually present more localized effects, with warm phases leading to increased rainfall over the coast of Ecuador, northern Peru and the

949:, rather than over the eastern portion of the country as in a conventional EP La Niña. Also, La Niña Modoki increases the frequency of cyclonic storms over 10478: 9776: 7539: 7198:

Guilyardi, E.; Wittenberg, Andrew; Fedorov, Alexey; Collins, Mat; Wang, Chunzai; Capotondi, Antonietta; Van Oldenborgh, Geert Jan; Stockdale, Tim (2009).

3037:"Regions of significant influence on unforced global mean surface air temperature variability in climate models: Origin of global temperature variability" 15005: 14826: 8942: 8606: 6998: 4074: 3444: 9895: 8056: 1356:

activity in the Pacific Ocean, compared to La Niña years favoring above average hurricane development in the Atlantic and less so in the Pacific basin.

1028: 15000: 10227: 9590:

Nhesvure, B. (2020). Impacts of ENSO on coastal South African sea surface temperatures. Faculty of Science, Department of Oceanography. Retrieved from

10914: 6017: 5059: 4733: 3406: 1998:

reduction. The fisheries were previously the world's largest, however, this collapse led to the decline of these fisheries. During the 1982–83 event,

1019:

Currently, each country has a different threshold for what constitutes an El Niño event, which is tailored to their specific interests, for example:

378:. The combination of the Humboldt Current and upwelling maintains an area of cooler ocean waters off the coast of Peru. The West Pacific lacks a cold 147:

in 1969) in which the atmospheric changes alter the sea temperatures that in turn alter the atmospheric winds in a positive feedback. Weaker easterly

14868: 13993: 12984: 11796:

Fedorov, Alexey V.; Brierley, Christopher M.; Emanuel, Kerry (February 2010). "Tropical cyclones and permanent El Niño in the early Pliocene epoch".

9384:

França, FM; Benkwitt, CE; Peralta, G; Robinson, JPW; Graham, NAJ; Tylianakis, JM; Berenguer, E; Lees, AC; Ferreira, J; Louzada, J; Barlow, J (2020).

628: 12152: 5816: 4700: 2624:

The PMM is not the same thing as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), but there is evidence that PMM events can trigger ENSO events, especially

2537:

ENSO can influence the global circulation pattern thousands of kilometers away from the equatorial Pacific through the "atmospheric bridge". During

11027: 9061: 9031: 8687: 2373:

temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 °C, compared to the usual increase of 0.25 °C associated with El Niño events. Since then, mass

1337:

tend to experience many fewer September–November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years. During El Niño years, the break in the

547: 14800: 13983: 13042: 12797: 10892: 8895: 7047: 6966: 5989: 5028: 5004: 4956: 4547: 3483: 2909: 1303:

El Niño affects the global climate and disrupts normal weather patterns, which can lead to intense storms in some places and droughts in others.

15918: 10308: 6041:

Yeh, Sang-Wook; Kug, Jong-Seong; Dewitte, Boris; Kwon, Min-Ho; Kirtman, Ben P.; Jin, Fei-Fei (September 2009). "El Niño in a changing climate".

4487: 4297: 3757: 3233: 12839: 12274: 12221: 12198: 12179: 10455: 10282: 8657: 7553:

Collins, Mat; An, Soon-Il; Cai, Wenju; Ganachaud, Alexandre; Guilyardi, Eric; Jin, Fei-Fei; Jochum, Markus; Lengaigne, Matthieu; Power, Scott;

7024: 6791: 3512:. Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project / Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 24 March 2008. 3267: 10737: 8130:

Lenton, Timothy M.; Held, Hermann; Kriegler, Elmar; Hall, Jim W; Lucht, Wolfgang; Rahmstorf, Stefan; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim (2008-02-12).

5923: 4320: 3279: 3258: 2320:. A recent study suggests a strong El Niño effect between 1789 and 1793 caused poor crop yields in Europe, which in turn helped touch off the 1118:

cooling. Therefore, the relative frequency of El Niño compared to La Niña events can affect global temperature trends on decadal timescales.

349:. Along the western coast of South America, water near the ocean surface is pushed westward due to the combination of the trade winds and the 14509: 10777: 6539: 5709: 4114: 2851: 2147:

which were probably interrupted by strong warm events (El Niño), which might have produced the bleaching, associated to decadal variability.

1820:

occur. Within the United States, the impacts generally observed during the six-month period include wetter-than-average conditions along the

10843: 10818: 9333: 7127: 5635: 4637: 2967: 345:

Cooler deep ocean water takes the place of the outgoing surface waters in the East Pacific, rising to the ocean surface in a process called

14742: 9547:

Brugnara, Yuri; Brönnimann, Stefan; Grab, Stefan; Steinkopf, Jessica; Burgdorf, Angela-Maria; Wilkinson, Clive; Allan, Rob (October 2023).

8965: 4513: 2216:

9 deep cores in the equatorial Indian and Pacific show variations in primary productivity, related to glacial-interglacial variability and

2113:

In a paleoclimate study published in 2024, the authors suggest that El Niños had a strong influence on Earth's hothouse climate during the

11290:"How can a knowledge of the past help to conserve the future? Biodiversity conservation and the relevance of long-term ecological studies" 11245:

Carrè, Matthieu; et al. (2005). "Strong El Niño events during the early Holocene: stable isotope evidence from Peruvian sea shells".

5880: 14626: 12257: 10936: 2504:

within the region) of the oscillation occurring around 1925, 1947, and 1977; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in

2166:, which both depend on ENSO frequency and amplitude variability. Three different regimes of ENSO influence are found in the marine core. 12470: 10870: 10797: 10210: 10028: 8873: 3315: 3138: 784:

visible on sea surface temperature maps, showing a tongue of colder water, are often present during neutral or La Niña conditions.

14890: 14843: 6959: 5740: 4234: 4036: 2425:(MJO) is the largest element of the intraseasonal (30- to 90-day) variability in the tropical atmosphere. It was discovered in 1971 by 11288:

Willis, Katherine J; Araújo, Miguel B; Bennett, Keith D; Figueroa-Rangel, Blanca; Froyd, Cynthia A; Myers, Norman (28 February 2007).

9117: 8433: 2880: 1090:

This image shows three examples of internal climate variability measured between 1950 and 2012: the El Niño–Southern oscillation, the

15769: 14885: 14465: 12312: 11076: 8917: 7807: 10412: 6762:

PREDICCIÓN DEL FENÓMENO EL NIÑO MEDIANTE ÍNDICES OCEÁNICOS E INFLUENCIA DE LA ZONA DE CONVERGENCIA INTERTROPICAL EN EL NORTE PERUANO

5768: 3513: 15888: 15100: 14816: 14534: 14311: 10209:. Climate Prediction Center (Report) (update ed.). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-02-28. Archived from 4860: 4454: 2754: 2434: 1512:

incidence in Japan and the west coast of the United States, via the linkage to tropospheric winds across the north Pacific Ocean.

15456: 15245: 14408: 13899: 12408:

Trenberth, K. E.; et al. (2002). "Evolution of El Niño – Southern Oscillation and global atmospheric surface temperatures".

10582: 10161: 4980: 2313:

ENSO conditions have occurred at two- to seven-year intervals for at least the past 300 years, but most of them have been weak.

1738:

years the eastern seaboard of Australia records above-average rainfall usually creating damaging floods due to stronger easterly

903:

Transitional phases at the onset or departure of El Niño or La Niña can also be important factors on global weather by affecting

9286:"El Niño impacts on human-modified tropical forests: Consequences for dung beetle diversity and associated ecological processes" 6933: 6325: 1593:

and cause colder coastal waters. These effects on the winds are part of large scale influences on the tropical Atlantic and the

72:

during El Niño (left) and La Niña (right). The top two maps are for December to February, the bottom two are for June to August.

15105: 15068: 14922: 14907: 14821: 14470: 14414: 14266: 13314: 13082: 11340: 10666: 10432: 9141:

Rodó, Xavier; Joan Ballester; Dan Cayan; Marian E. Melish; Yoshikazu Nakamura; Ritei Uehara; Jane C. Burns (10 November 2011).

4321:"Climate Change 2007: Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis: 3.7 Changes in the Tropics and Subtropics, and the Monsoons" 3622: 3487: 2329: 1214: 1157:"In the long term, it is very likely that the precipitation variance related to El Niño–Southern Oscillation will increase" and 10181: 9469: 8404: 7076: 6394:"Linear trends in sea surface temperature of the tropical Pacific Ocean and implications for the El Niño-Southern Oscillation" 5081:. Climate Prediction Center / NCEP / NWS and the International Research Institute for Climate and Society. 10 September 2020. 4402: 4007: 2460:

episode, but is virtually absent during the maxima of some El Niño episodes, while MJO activity is typically greater during a

15764: 14902: 12464: 12132: 11916: 10997: 9491: 8852: 7608:

Trenberth, Kevin E.; Hoar, Timothy J. (January 1996). "The 1990–1995 El Niño–Southern Oscillation event: Longest on record".

5619: 5217:"Is there an optimal ENSO pattern that enhances large-scale atmospheric processes conducive to tornado outbreaks in the U.S?" 4680: 4208: 3983: 3814: 3711: 2827: 11976: 10085: 8530:"The Impact of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation and Atlantic Meridional Mode on Seasonal Atlantic Tropical Cyclone Activity" 4960: 4182: 15786: 14737: 14732: 13546: 12363:

Trenberth, Kevin E.; Hoar, Timothy J. (January 1996). "The 1990–95 El Niño–Southern Oscillation event: Longest on record".

12020: 7586: 6470: 5886:(in Portuguese). Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais/Centro de Previsão de Tempo e Estudos Climáticos. Archived from 5024: 4259: 3204: 2718: 720:

events among the strongest on record. Since 2000, El Niño events have been observed in 2002–03, 2004–05, 2006–07, 2009–10,

7371: 2344: 1015:

The various "Niño regions" where sea surface temperatures are monitored to determine the current ENSO phase (warm or cold)

15893: 15267: 15045: 14863: 14790: 14780: 14763: 14670: 14477: 13035: 12929: 11164:

Edgar (2010). "El Niño, grazers and fisheries interact to greatly elevate extinction risk for Galapagos marine species".

10118: 10050:

Ineson, S.; Scaife, A. A. (7 December 2008). "The role of the stratosphere in the European climate response to El Niño".

8658:"Southwest Pacific Tropical Cyclone Outlook: El Niño expected to produce severe tropical storms in the Southwest Pacific" 2317: 1548:

Following the El Nino event in 1997 – 1998, the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory attributes the first large-scale

1406:

following El Niño peaks in winter. Cases of El Niño-type events in both oceans simultaneously have been linked to severe

1352:(ACE), El Niño years usually result in less active hurricane seasons in the Atlantic Ocean, but instead favor a shift to 1280:

Colored bars show how El Niño years (red, regional warming) and La Niña years (blue, regional cooling) relate to overall

14795: 10259: 9439: 8577: 5075: 4376: 3578: 2946: 1573: 183:

changes in the strength and spatial extent of ENSO teleconnections will lead to significant changes at regional scale".

15913: 15898: 15696: 15557: 15514: 15010: 14141: 13568: 13456: 12832: 10556: 8081:

Roxy, Mathew Koll; Ritika, Kapoor; Terray, Pascal; Murtugudde, Raghu; Ashok, Karumuri; Goswami, B. N. (November 2015).

5008: 4923: 4830: 2194:

Moisture variability in the Australian core shows dry periods related to frequent warm events (El Niño), correlated to

2072:, Bolivia. Such flooding is documented from 1853, 1865, 1872, 1873, 1886, 1895, 1896, 1907, 1921, 1928, 1929 and 1931. 7924:

Lenton, T. M.; Held, H.; Kriegler, E.; Hall, J. W.; Lucht, W.; Rahmstorf, S.; Schellnhuber, H. J. (12 February 2008).

7400:

Wang, Bin; Luo, Xiao; Yang, Young-Min; Sun, Weiyi; Cane, Mark A.; Cai, Wenju; Yeh, Sang-Wook; Liu, Jian (2019-11-05).

4804: 4424: 4110: 3861: 2855: 1872:, increased precipitation falls along the Gulf coast and Southeast due to a stronger than normal, and more southerly, 432:

feedback. These explanations broadly fall under two categories. In one view, the Bjerknes feedback naturally triggers

15903: 15623: 15499: 15316: 14514: 13988: 13259: 12919: 12904: 12889: 11988: 10586: 10137: 9995: 4599: 4003: 3654: 3535: 3336: 2114: 1111: 973:

using other statistical approaches, or that other types should be distinguished, such as standard and extreme ENSO.

527:

Low atmospheric pressure tends to occur over warm water and high pressure occurs over cold water, in part because of

10323: 2531: 691:, which normally blow from east to west along the equator, either weaken or start blowing from the other direction. 15856: 15494: 15474: 15421: 15373: 14430: 13446: 13406: 11099: 10695: 1502: 1469:

diseases. For example, the El Niño cycle is associated with increased risks of some of the diseases transmitted by

12624: 12593: 10352:

Lee, Sang-Ki; Lopez, Hosmay; Chung, Eui-Seok; DiNezio, Pedro; Yeh, Sang-Wook; Wittenberg, Andrew T. (2018-01-28).

9870: 8631: 6234: 4345: 4146: 3156:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2391 pp. doi:10.1017/9781009157896. 208:

An early recorded mention of the term "El Niño" ("The Boy" in Spanish) to refer to climate occurred in 1892, when

15613: 15564: 14990: 14952: 14897: 14362: 14176: 13162: 10544: 9714: 9362: 6687: 6092:

Nicholls, N. (2008). "Recent trends in the seasonal and temporal behaviour of the El Niño Southern Oscillation".

5587: 4882:

Druffel, Ellen R. M.; Griffin, Sheila; Vetter, Desiree; Dunbar, Robert B.; Mucciarone, David M. (16 March 2015).

4094: 2707: 2060:

During a time of La Niña, drought affects the coastal regions of Peru and Chile. From December to February,

1821: 1368: 1364: 659:

strengthens, leading to the development of a band of warm ocean water in the central and east-central equatorial

12517: 12492: 10521: 10496: 10475: 9784: 9761: 8514: 7531: 5135: 3391: 3366: 1360: 15883: 15681: 14965: 14717: 14256: 13849: 13028: 12341: 12208:(Finally, the period in which the El Niño current is present is the same as that of the rains in that region .) 7309: 5140: 3147:

Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

2736: 2619: 2159: 1991: 1923: 1103: 171: 8938: 8602: 6994: 4066: 3436: 2799: 2788: 2760: 2713: 890: 879: 411:

The close relationship between ocean temperatures and the strength of the trade winds was first identified by

209: 15923: 15878: 15791: 15326: 14858: 12944: 12825: 12206:"Finalmente, la época en que se presenta la corriente de Niño, es la misma de las lluvias en aquella región." 10937:"Changes in the marine biota coincident with the 1982-83 El Niño in the northeastern subarctic Pacific Ocean" 9649:

Yuan, Xiaojun (2004). "ENSO-related impacts on Antarctic sea ice: a synthesis of phenomenon and mechanisms".

8584:. United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Hurricane Research Division. Archived from 8017: 7072: 4398: 3171:

Collins, M.; An, S-I; Cai, W.; Ganachaud, A.; Guilyardi, E.; Jin, F-F; Jochum, M.; Lengaigne, M.; Power, S.;

2793: 2777: 2742: 2647: 2640:

has a PMM-like mode known as the "South Pacific Meridional Mode" (SPMM) that also influences the ENSO cycle.

2422: 2399: 2384:

made landfall in Peru, he noted rainfall in the deserts, the first written record of the impacts of El Niño.

1501:

have now been linked to El Niño. Outbreaks of another mosquito-transmitted disease, Australian encephalitis (

1312: 438: 386:. As a result, the warm West Pacific has on average more cloudiness and rainfall than the cool East Pacific. 12245:

Walker, G. T. (1924) "Correlation in seasonal variations of weather. IX. A further study of world weather,"

11735:; Delaney, Margaret L. (29 July 2005). "Permanent El Niño-Like Conditions During the Pliocene Warm Period". 2365:

is named) coined the term "Southern Oscillation". He and others (including Norwegian-American meteorologist

15774: 15446: 14975: 14970: 14875: 14747: 14304: 13304: 12909: 12124:"Droughts in Australia: Their causes, duration, and effect: The views of three government astronomers ," 10906: 6769: 6009: 4888: 2655: 2553:

that propagate poleward and eastward and are subsequently refracted back from the pole to the tropics. The

2195: 1402: 1290: 1150: 179: 12083: 9206:

Hsiang, S. M.; Meng, K. C.; Cane, M. A. (2011). "Civil conflicts are associated with the global climate".

8382: 8279:"Tipping the ENSO into a permanent El Niño can trigger state transitions in global terrestrial ecosystems" 6435:"Contrasting the termination of moderate and extreme El Niño events in coupled general circulation models" 2783: 2772: 2643: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 644: 14985: 14833: 12974: 12149: 11031: 10117:. Climate Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 5 June 2014. Archived from 7753:

Zhang, Qiong; Guan, Yue; Yang, Haijun (2008). "ENSO Amplitude Change in Observation and Coupled Models".

4633: 2651: 2496: 2481: 2430: 2415: 1173: 1107: 1059: 109:) to higher-latitude regions of the world. The warming phase of the sea surface temperature is known as " 13364: 12279:

Presidential Symposium on the History of the Atmospheric Sciences: People, Discoveries, and Technologies

9522:"Southern Africa: El Niño, Positive Indian Ocean Dipole Forecast and Humanitarian Impact (October 2023)" 9053: 9023: 8711:"Tropical Atlantic sea surface temperature variability and its relation to El Niño–Southern Oscillation" 8683: 5812: 4757:"Second peak in the far eastern Pacific sea surface temperature anomaly following strong El Niño events" 4696: 3727: 2045:

is sometimes exposed to unusual winter snowfall events. Drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the

393:

change of both oceanic and atmospheric conditions over the tropical Pacific Ocean. These changes affect

35: 15844: 15608: 15411: 15368: 15141: 15063: 14917: 13501: 12989: 12959: 12864: 12104:

A Directory for the Navigation of the Pacific Ocean -- Part II. The Islands, Etc., of the Pacific Ocean

10410:

WESTERN REGION TECHNICAL ATTACHMENT NO. 97-37 NOVEMBER 21, 1997: El Niño and California Precipitation.

9962:"La Niña, 3 years in a row: a climate scientist on what flood-weary Australians can expect this summer" 8578:"Subject: G2) How does El Niño-Southern Oscillation affect tropical cyclone activity around the globe?" 8083:"Drying of Indian subcontinent by rapid Indian Ocean warming and a weakening land-sea thermal gradient" 7977:"Role of the strengthened El Niño teleconnection in the May 2015 floods over the southern Great Plains" 5611:

Our Affair with El Niño: How We Transformed an Enchanting Peruvian Current Into a Global Climate Hazard

2685: – Theory to explain the periodical variation of the sea surface temperature and thermocline depth 2676: 2358: 2239: 1990:

The local fishing industry along the affected coastline can suffer during long-lasting El Niño events.

1873: 1436:

in January and July 1998. Since then, scientists have improved both the collection and presentation of

1349: 1281: 1095: 781: 624: 517: 487:

The regions where the air pressure are measured and compared to generate the Southern Oscillation Index

464: 442: 10495:

Romero-Centeno, Rosario; Zavala-Hidalgo, Jorge; Gallegos, Artemio; O'Brien, James J. (1 August 2003).

10304: 5978: 4884:"Identification of frequent La Niña events during the early 1800s in the east equatorial Pacific" 4539: 15713: 15388: 15363: 15336: 15298: 15215: 15033: 14880: 14838: 14588: 14357: 14352: 14347: 14036: 13441: 13401: 12964: 12793: 12631: 12597: 10471: 10452: 10157: 9926: 9911: 7101: 6955: 6792:"Cómo afecta El Niño costero a Chile, el fenómeno que ha dejado a más de 60 mil damnificados en Perú" 4476: 4106: 2843: 2158:

Pollen records show changes in precipitation, possibly related to variability of the position of the

1024: 15228: 12562: 12430: 12282: 12218: 12195: 12176: 11757: 9752: 8660:(Press release). New Zealand National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. 14 October 2015. 8505: 7775: 7175: 5184: 4570:"Here comes El Nino: It's early, likely to be big, sloppy and add even more heat to a warming world" 3843: 2224:. There is also indication that the equatorial areas can be early responders to insolation forcing. 1141:

observed data still increases, by as much as 60% in the last 50 years. A study published in 2023 by

15908: 15723: 15718: 15708: 15649: 15489: 14995: 14960: 14848: 14775: 14616: 14445: 14381: 14342: 14166: 13541: 13531: 13471: 13107: 13077: 12884: 12385: 10726: 7835:"Global heating has likely made El Niños and La Niñas more 'frequent and extreme', new study shows" 7630: 7020: 5916: 5281: 5259:

Kao, Hsun-Ying; Jin-Yi Yu (2009). "Contrasting Eastern-Pacific and Central-Pacific Types of ENSO".

4324: 3276: 3255: 2730: 2347:, noted the "counter-current" and its usefulness for traveling southward along the Peruvian coast. 1790: 1578: 1465:

Extreme weather conditions related to the El Niño cycle correlate with changes in the incidence of

1032: 946: 683: 12108: 11369: 10774: 7808:"El Niño and La Niña have become more extreme and frequent because of climate change, study finds" 7123: 6492: 5662: 2963: 745: 265:

La Niña ("The Girl" in Spanish) is the colder counterpart of El Niño, as part of the broader ENSO

15832: 15754: 15664: 15406: 15378: 15058: 14712: 14690: 14297: 14203: 14186: 14023: 13516: 13381: 13319: 13309: 13202: 12979: 12653:"Analysis of a Reconstructed Oceanic Kelvin Wave Dynamic Height Dataset for the Period 1974–2005" 10839: 10814: 9325: 8844: 8838: 8396: 4672: 4666: 4625: 2615: 2587: 2573: 2546: 769: 664: 648: 303: 291: 269:. In the past, it was also called an anti-El Niño and El Viejo, meaning "the old man." 122: 90: 9083:

Ballester, Joan; Jane C. Burns; Dan Cayan; Yosikazu Nakamura; Ritei Uehara; Xavier Rodó (2013).

8976: 8791:

Latif, M.; Grötzner, A. (2000). "The equatorial Atlantic oscillation and its response to ENSO".

8405:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer" 5639: 15431: 15251: 15193: 15110: 15095: 14980: 14621: 14567: 14562: 14557: 14552: 14547: 14542: 14198: 14136: 13563: 13249: 12557: 12425: 12380: 11752: 9747: 8500: 7770: 7625: 7200:"Understanding El Nino in Ocean-Atmosphere General Circulation Models: Progress and Challenges" 7170: 5887: 5276: 5179: 2888: 2438: 2350: 2264: 2217: 1963:

associated with warm and very wet weather months in April–October along the coasts of northern

1911: 1910:

of Mexico in the wake of an advancing cold front, which causes winds to accelerate through the

1907: 1751: 1252:

affecting over 60 million people. El Niño-induced droughts may increase the likelihood of

1210: 930: 383: 12254: 11908: 11902: 10964: 6137:"El Niño and its relationship to changing background conditions in the tropical Pacific Ocean" 3676: 2512:. This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from 2456:

In the Pacific, strong MJO activity is often observed 6 to 12 months prior to the onset of an

708:

It is thought that there have been at least 30 El Niño events between 1900 and 2024, with the

15820: 15466: 15343: 15151: 14606: 14529: 14031: 14013: 13521: 13416: 13051: 12874: 12869: 12809: 12789: 12043: 10866: 10794: 9984: 9899: 8869: 3256:"Disertación sobre las corrientes oceánicas y estudios de la correinte Peruana ó de Humboldt" 3135: 2695: 1716: 1182: 1052: 327: 295: 39: 9711:"channelnewsasia.com - February 2010 is driest month for S'pore since records began in 1869" 6713:

Hu, Zeng-Zhen; Huang, Bohua; Zhu, Jieshun; Kumar, Arun; McPhaden, Michael J. (6 June 2018).

4238: 3791: 3307: 2406: 15659: 15537: 15198: 14768: 14695: 14218: 14051: 13754: 13611: 13476: 13187: 12746: 12705: 12664: 12549: 12504: 12417: 12372: 12150:"The behavior of the short-period atmospheric pressure variation over the Earth's surface," 11941: 11867: 11805: 11744: 11732: 11697: 11654: 11603: 11551: 11500: 11446: 11410: 11254: 11173: 11138: 10948: 10508: 10365: 10059: 9819: 9739: 9658: 9612: 9560: 9297: 9215: 9154: 9099: 9084: 8834: 8800: 8763: 8722: 8541: 8492: 8429: 8381:

Arias, Paola A.; Bellouin, Nicolas; Coppola, Erika; Jones, Richard G.; et al. (2021).

8347: 8290: 8205: 8194:"Interacting tipping elements increase risk of climate domino effects under global warming" 8143: 8094: 8032: 7988: 7975:

Simon Wang, S.-Y.; Huang, Wan-Ru; Hsu, Huang-Hsiung; Gillies, Robert R. (16 October 2015).

7878: 7762: 7711: 7666: 7617: 7570: 7484: 7413: 7343: 7285: 7214: 7162: 6855: 6625: 6576: 6507: 6446: 6405: 6358: 6307: 6249: 6197: 6148: 6101: 6050: 5955: 5851: 5840:"Different types of La Niña events and different responses of the tropical atmosphere" 5733: 5677: 5546: 5491: 5446: 5405: 5361: 5317: 5268: 5228: 5171: 5122: 4897: 4768: 4662: 3378: 3188: 3094: 2748: 2701: 2186: 1903: 942: 655:

El Niño conditions are established when the Walker circulation weakens or reverses and the

178:

are uncertain, although climate change exacerbates the effects of droughts and floods. The

17: 12734: 12304: 11068: 8909: 8192:

Wunderling, Nico; Donges, Jonathan F.; Kurths, Jürgen; Winkelmann, Ricarda (3 June 2021).

7402:"Historical change of El Niño properties sheds light on future changes of extreme El Niño" 3265:(Dissertation on the ocean currents and studies of the Peruvian, or Humboldt's, current), 2411: 2081: 1656:

During La Niña years, the formation of tropical cyclones, along with the subtropical

751: 8: 15676: 15451: 14680: 14675: 14213: 14098: 14093: 13819: 13491: 13451: 13167: 12949: 12939: 12848: 10409: 8016:

Roxy, Mathew Koll; Ritika, Kapoor; Terray, Pascal; Masson, Sébastien (15 November 2014).

6293:"Natural variability of the central Pacific El Niño event on multi-centennial timescales" 5764: 5054: 4728: 4070: 3509: 2682: 2637: 2442: 1798: 1755: 1696: 1657: 1594: 1520: 1516: 1342: 1153:

summarized the state of the art of research in 2021 into the future of ENSO as follows:

1066: 756: 668: 446: 155:. In turn, this leads to warmer sea surface temperatures (called El Niño), a weaker 12750: 12709: 12668: 12553: 12508: 12454: 12421: 12376: 12102: 11945: 11871: 11809: 11748: 11701: 11658: 11607: 11555: 11504: 11450: 11414: 11258: 11177: 11142: 10952: 10512: 10369: 10063: 9823: 9743: 9662: 9616: 9564: 9301: 9219: 9158: 9103: 8804: 8767: 8726: 8545: 8496: 8351: 8294: 8209: 8147: 8098: 8036: 7992: 7882: 7766: 7715: 7670: 7621: 7574: 7488: 7417: 7347: 7289: 7218: 7166: 6859: 6818:"¿Se viene La Niña en Perú? Enfen explica lo que podría suceder en los siguientes meses" 6629: 6580: 6511: 6450: 6409: 6362: 6311: 6253: 6201: 6152: 6105: 6054: 5959: 5855: 5681: 5550: 5495: 5450: 5409: 5365: 5321: 5272: 5232: 5175: 5126: 4901: 4856: 4772: 4450: 4206: 3382: 3297:", undoubtedly because it becomes more visible and palpable after the Christmas season.) 3192: 3098: 2966:. New Zealand's National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. 27 February 2007. 151:

result in a surge of warm surface waters to the east and reduced ocean upwelling on the

15504: 15436: 15353: 15203: 15168: 15125: 15120: 15115: 14685: 14156: 13869: 13859: 13824: 13724: 13709: 13606: 12879: 12575: 12088:

Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress: Held in London, 1895, Volume 6

11957: 11883: 11839: 11778: 11713: 11627: 11575: 11524: 11472: 11314: 11289: 11270: 11189: 10669:. New Zealand's National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. 19 October 2015. 10526: 10391: 10185: 9845: 9730: 9674: 9628: 9410: 9385: 9239: 9183: 9142: 8816: 8316: 8231: 8166: 8131: 8048: 7952: 7925: 7894: 7788: 7735: 7684: 7507: 7472: 7444: 7401: 7301: 7240: 6913:(in Spanish). Comité Multisectorial Encargado del Estudio Nacional del Fenómeno El Niño 6889: 6734: 6594: 6531: 6462: 6374: 6215: 6166: 6117: 6074: 5701: 5515: 5464: 5197: 4915: 4833:. Climate Prediction Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 4786: 3831: 3291:, sin duda porque ella se hace mas visible y palpable después de la Pascua de Navidad." 2658:, PMM activity is likely to increase, and some scientists have proposed that a loss of 2362: 2353:, in 1888, suggested droughts in India and Australia tended to occur at the same time; 1995: 1720: 1618: 1610: 1449: 1091: 789: 656: 554: 458: 358: 164: 156: 129: 11220: 9808:"The Predictability of Interdecadal Changes in ENSO Activity and ENSO Teleconnections" 5911:

For evidence of La Niña Modoki, and identification of La Niña Modoki year:

5350:"Different types of La Niña events and different responses of the tropical atmosphere" 4976: 3006: 2064:

is wetter than normal. La Niña causes higher than normal rainfall in the central

481: 15738: 15401: 15146: 14912: 14700: 14663: 14450: 14404: 14238: 14228: 14171: 14151: 13834: 13799: 13734: 13714: 13704: 13586: 13274: 13132: 13009: 12522: 12460: 11984: 11961: 11912: 11887: 11831: 11770: 11717: 11670: 11619: 11567: 11516: 11476: 11373: 11319: 11274: 11224: 11185: 10993: 10886: 10383: 9837: 9780: 9678: 9632: 9415: 9231: 9188: 9170: 8889: 8848: 8820: 8686:(Press release). Tonga Ministry of Information and Communications. 11 November 2015. 8363: 8320: 8308: 8235: 8223: 8171: 8112: 7957: 7898: 7727: 7552: 7512: 7449: 7431: 7305: 6893: 6881: 6738: 6378: 6292: 6121: 6066: 5988:. Australian Government Cotton Research and Development Corporation. pp. 34–35. 5615: 5609: 5564: 5507: 5306:"On the definition of El Niño and associated seasonal average U.S. Weather anomalies" 4919: 4790: 4676: 3979: 3810: 3707: 3010: 2823: 2659: 2629: 2381: 2321: 1864: 1841: 1802: 1724: 1482: 1338: 1318: 993: 934: 793: 558: 433: 416: 12579: 11782: 11528: 11348: 11193: 10530: 10429: 10395: 9849: 9386:"Climatic and local stressor interactions threaten tropical forests and coral reefs" 8052: 7792: 7688: 7244: 6535: 6466: 6219: 5917:"Extreme La Niña 2010/11 and the vigorous flood at the north-east of Australia" 5705: 5519: 5468: 5201: 4139: 4064: 3615: 3475: 2636:

oceans and alter precipitation on the continents surrounding the Pacific Ocean. The

2102:

epoch 10,000 years ago. Different modes of ENSO-like events have been registered in

1325:, then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the 239:

applied to an annual weak warm ocean current that ran southwards along the coast of

167:

that are bordering the Pacific Ocean and are dependent on agriculture and fishing.

15781: 15348: 15331: 15272: 15163: 14927: 14646: 14519: 14455: 14193: 14161: 14131: 13940: 13925: 13794: 13729: 13621: 13536: 13466: 13391: 13172: 13142: 13072: 13067: 12754: 12713: 12672: 12567: 12512: 12435: 12390: 11949: 11875: 11843: 11821: 11813: 11762: 11705: 11662: 11631: 11611: 11579: 11559: 11508: 11462: 11454: 11418: 11382: 11309: 11301: 11262: 11216: 11181: 11146: 10956: 10643: 10516: 10373: 10189: 10067: 9991: 9827: 9757: 9666: 9620: 9568: 9461: 9405: 9397: 9305: 9266: 9243: 9223: 9178: 9162: 9107: 8808: 8771: 8730: 8549: 8510: 8355: 8298: 8278: 8213: 8193: 8161: 8151: 8102: 8040: 7996: 7947: 7937: 7886: 7780: 7739: 7719: 7674: 7635: 7578: 7502: 7492: 7439: 7421: 7351: 7293: 7230: 7222: 7180: 6871: 6863: 6726: 6633: 6598: 6584: 6523: 6515: 6454: 6413: 6366: 6315: 6257: 6205: 6170: 6156: 6109: 6078: 6058: 5963: 5859: 5792: 5693: 5685: 5554: 5499: 5454: 5413: 5369: 5325: 5286: 5236: 5189: 5130: 4905: 4776: 3999: 3956: 3927: 3802: 3386: 3196: 3102: 3058: 3048: 3002: 2163: 1979:

populations, which in turn sustain abundant sea birds, whose droppings support the

1794: 1509: 1377: 1353: 1253: 1233: 428: 390: 363: 331: 12129: 11666: 10015: 7723: 6910: 2679: – Physical mechanism affecting sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean 2437:(NCAR). It is a large-scale coupling between atmospheric circulation and tropical 2377:

has become common worldwide, with all regions having suffered "severe bleaching".

2324:. The extreme weather produced by El Niño in 1876–77 gave rise to the most deadly 2269: 2242:) and Quasi-biennial Oscillation (QBO), and possibly also insolation variability ( 15733: 15654: 15618: 15547: 15521: 15509: 15426: 15358: 15233: 15090: 14707: 14658: 14636: 13998: 13894: 13844: 13809: 13769: 13661: 13631: 13481: 13431: 13341: 13299: 13232: 13157: 13117: 12969: 12261: 12225: 12202: 12183: 12156: 12136: 11994: 11512: 11150: 10801: 10781: 10482: 10459: 10436: 10416: 10168: 7702:

Fedorov, Alexey V.; Philander, S. George (16 June 2000). "Is El Niño Changing?".

7554: 7473:"Arctic sea-ice loss is projected to lead to more frequent strong El Niño events" 7126:. New Zealand: National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. 2007-02-27. 4948: 4142: 3283: 3262: 3172: 3153: 3142: 2607: 2542: 2374: 2210: 2143: 2069: 2061: 2054: 1975:, El Niño reduces the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water that sustains large 1845: 1549: 1249: 561:

while La Niña causes a negative SSH anomaly (lowered sea level) via contraction.

528: 463:

The three phases of ENSO relate to the Walker circulation, which was named after

394: 354: 350: 266: 12493:"Detection of a 40–50 Day Oscillation in the Zonal Wind in the Tropical Pacific" 12016: 11028:"La Niña follows El Niño, the GLOBE El Niño Experiment continues" 9082: 8327: 8123: 7558: 6434: 6348: 5032: 3806: 3176: 15686: 15542: 15484: 15479: 15321: 15210: 14942: 14937: 14932: 14785: 14722: 14460: 14440: 14399: 14320: 14108: 14103: 14008: 14003: 13839: 13779: 13774: 13506: 13396: 13217: 13152: 13127: 10494: 9806:

Power, Scott; Haylock, Malcolm; Colman, Rob; Wang, Xiangdong (1 October 2006).

8335: 7890: 7497: 7468: 5797: 3976:

Chapter 12: El Niño. In: The changing flow of energy through the climate system

3032: 2366: 2354: 1648:

During El Niño years: As warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the

1206: 1177: 1131: 966: 904: 420: 412: 367: 175: 144: 137: 106: 13353: 12805: 12694:"The Association of the Evolution of Intraseasonal Oscillations to ENSO Phase" 11709: 11266: 11207:

Holmgren (2001). "El Niño effects on the dynamics of terrestrial ecosystems".

9981:

By Peter Hannam and Laura Chung. The Sydney Morning Herald. November 25, 2021.

9942: 9670: 8554: 8529: 8044: 7784: 7297: 6867: 6730: 6458: 6418: 6393: 6370: 5864: 5839: 5459: 5434: 5374: 5349: 5241: 5216: 4095:

https://eospso.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/ElNino-LaNina_508.pdf

3790:

Wang, Chunzai; Deser, Clara; Yu, Jin-Yi; DiNezio, Pedro; Clement, Amy (2017).

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This warming causes a shift in the atmospheric circulation, leading to higher

15872: 15759: 15691: 15416: 15238: 15223: 15158: 15053: 14278: 14126: 14046: 13935: 13854: 13829: 13764: 13694: 13601: 13496: 13373: 13294: 13254: 13227: 13137: 13087: 12914: 12894: 12526: 12050:

Description of the Coast of Peru, Between 19° and 16° 20' South Latitude, ...

11458: 10648: 10627: 10387: 10131: 9841: 9174: 8585: 8367: 8312: 8227: 7435: 6885: 5568: 3888: 2887:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 235–336. Archived from 2595: 2509: 2426: 2103: 1972: 1891: 1885: 1786: 1445: 1433: 1221: 1217:), which was left out of the 2022 list, but included in some subsequent ones. 950: 672: 660: 509: 379: 225: 197: 94: 69: 11766: 11386: 10960: 10548: 8840:

Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World

8303: 8277:

Duque-Villegas, Mateo; Salazar, Juan Fernando; Rendón, Angela Maria (2019).

8218: 8156: 7942: 7466: 7426: 6876: 6843: 6714: 5503: 4938: 4883: 4668:

Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World

2068:, which in turn causes catastrophic flooding on the Llanos de Mojos of 1197: 15644: 15441: 15085: 15075: 14727: 14611: 14524: 14233: 14181: 14121: 14072: 13950: 13945: 13920: 13904: 13879: 13596: 13486: 13426: 13212: 13122: 13097: 12994: 12718: 12693: 11835: 11774: 11674: 11623: 11571: 11323: 11305: 11228: 9419: 9401: 9235: 9192: 9140: 8334:

Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim; Rahmstorf, Stefan; Winkelmann, Ricarda (2016).

8272: 8270: 8187: 8185: 8175: 8116: 7961: 7731: 7516: 7453: 7226: 6589: 6564: 6070: 5511: 5290: 3014: 2663: 2591: 2554: 2550: 2545:

and heat transfer to the troposphere is enhanced over the anomalously warm

2257: 2046: 1919: 1691: 1649: 1642: 1614: 1478: 1389: 1191:

Tipping points in the climate system § Formerly considered tipping elements

954: 375: 338: 334:, is pushed downwards in the West Pacific due to this water accumulation. 299: 221: 133: 12814:

Provides current phase of ENSO according to the Australian interpretation.

12113:

M. Lartigue is among the first who noticed a counter or southerly current.

12045:

Description de la Côte Du Pérou, Entre 19° et 16° 20' de Latitude Sud, ...

11520: 10133: 10086:"La Niña is coming. Here's what that means for winter weather in the U.S." 9270: 8812: 5944:"Anomalous tropical ocean circulation associated with La Niña Modoki" 4650:

El Niño conditions are considered to be present in the equatorial Pacific.

4207:

International Research Institute for Climate and Society (February 2002).

3344: 2580: 1785:

La Niña causes mostly the opposite effects of El Niño: above-average

15671: 15188: 15180: 14435: 14223: 13955: 13884: 13749: 13689: 13656: 13646: 13641: 13526: 13461: 13421: 13411: 13386: 13269: 13242: 13222: 13182: 13147: 13004: 12759: 12571: 12439: 11422: 11129:

Vargas (2006). "Biological effects of El Niño on the Galápagos penguin".

10734:

Samoa Meteorology Division, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

10378: 10353: 8776: 8751: 8359: 8001: 7976: 7679: 7654: 7356: 7331: 6638: 6613: 6519: 6320: 6262: 6210: 6186:"El Niño variability in simple ocean data assimilation (SODA), 1871–2008" 6185: 6161: 6136: 6113: 5979:"Introducing La Niña Modoki: She's 'similar but different' ..." 5968: 5943: 5881:"Influência dos ENOS Canônico e Modoki na precipitação da América do Sul" 5689: 5559: 5534: 5418: 5393: 5330: 5305: 4910: 4318: 3960: 3932: 3915: 3107: 3082: 3053: 3036: 2878: 2611: 2599: 2559: 2558:

freshwater fluxes and thus induce sea surface temperature, salinity, and

2466: 2221: 2204: 1860: 1662: 1630: 1437: 1427: 1000: 987:

Comité Multisectorial Encargado del Estudio Nacional del Fenómeno El Niño

688: 536: 532: 323: 311: 148: 13020: 12735:"Atmospheric bridge, oceanic tunnel, and global climate teleconnections" 11826: 11817: 11615: 11563: 10706: 10283:"With El Niño likely, what climate impacts are favored for this summer?" 9603:

Turner, John (2004). "The El Niño–Southern Oscillation and Antarctica".

9227: 8267: 8182: 7559:"The impact of global warming on the tropical Pacific Ocean and El Niño" 6565:"Two types of El Niño events: Cold Tongue El Niño and Warm Pool El Niño" 6527: 6062: 5697: 5050:"La Niña calls it quits. Is El Niño paying us a return visit?" 3177:"The impact of global warming on the tropical Pacific Ocean and El Niño" 2316:

El Niño may have led to the demise of the Moche and other pre-Columbian

1746:

towards Australia, thus increasing moisture in the country. Conversely,

15703: 15080: 14041: 13889: 13864: 13759: 13739: 13666: 13651: 13636: 13626: 13591: 13511: 13331: 13326: 13289: 13284: 13279: 13177: 12899: 12817: 12778:"Current map of sea surface temperature anomalies in the Pacific Ocean" 12677: 12652: 12601: 12052:] (in French). Paris, France: L'Imprimerie Royale. pp. 22–23. 11467: 9832: 9807: 9326:"El Niño increases seedling mortality even in drought-tolerant forests" 8107: 8082: 7184: 6795: 4180: 2598:. In its positive state, it is characterized by the coupling of weaker 2517: 2335:

The phenomenon had long been of interest because of its effects on the

1980: 1915: 1837: 1739: 1606: 1537: 1326: 1202: 1073: 797: 254: 102: 14273: 12394: 11294:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

9354: 9310: 9285: 9166: 9112: 8735: 8710: 7867:"Antropogenic impacts on twentieth - century ENSO variability changes" 7639: 7235: 4781: 4756: 3146: 3063: 2538: 2461: 2457: 1747: 1735: 1229: 604: 591: 14653: 14113: 13975: 13960: 13874: 13719: 13558: 13553: 13336: 13264: 13192: 13112: 13102: 13059: 12806:"ENSO Outlook – An alert system for the El Niño–Southern Oscillation" 12726: 11879: 10661: 10659: 10607:

Arnerich, Paul A. "Tehuantepecer Winds of the West Coast of Mexico".

10354:"On the Fragile Relationship Between El Niño and California Rainfall" 9591: 9573: 9548: 8752:"Why do some El Niños have no impact on tropical North Atlantic SST?" 6614:"Anomalous tropical ocean circulation associated with La Niña Modoki" 5193: 3978:. Cambridge New York, NY Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. 2500: 2283: 2042: 2038: 1984: 1899: 1712: 1666: 1490: 1237: 1225: 774: 676: 346: 315: 307: 248: 229: 12335: 10071: 9624: 8528:

Patricola, Christina M.; Saravanan, R.; Chang, Ping (15 July 2014).

8250:"Tipping Points: Why we might not be able to reverse climate change" 7582: 7273: 6844:"The very strong coastal El Niño in 1925 in the far-eastern Pacific" 5110: 3801:. Coral Reefs of the World. Vol. 8. Springer. pp. 85–106. 3728:"Wind Driven Surface Currents: Upwelling and Downwelling Background" 3200: 2155:

12000ya / Bay of Guayaquil, Ecuador / Pollen content of marine core

1625:

and increased poleward heat fluxes in these sectors, as well as the

639: 14208: 13930: 13789: 13681: 13671: 13616: 13092: 11904:

Floods, Famines and Emperors: El Niño and the Fate of Civilizations

10476:

El Niño (ENSO) Related Rainfall Patterns Over the Tropical Pacific.

10228:"If la Niña continues, what does that mean for Oregon this summer?" 10162:

ENSO Impacts on United States Winter Precipitation and Temperature.

9465: 9205: 8575: 6612:

Shinoda, Toshiaki; Hurlburt, Harley E.; Metzger, E. Joseph (2011).

6490: 6291:

Yeh, S.-W.; Kirtman, B.P.; Kug, J.-S.; Park, W.; Latif, M. (2011).

5942:

Shinoda, Toshiaki; Hurlburt, Harley E.; Metzger, E. Joseph (2011).

5765:

The Enhanced Drying Effect of Central Pacific El Niño on US Winters

5660: 5535:"La Niña Modoki impacts Australia autumn rainfall variability" 3407:"The Strongest El Nino in Decades Is Going to Mess With Everything" 2251: 2229: 2135: 2099: 2050: 2019: 2018:

moved southward, so some catches decreased while others increased.

1999: 1959:, causing major flooding whenever the event is strong or extreme. 1670: 1626: 1498: 1470: 1466: 1257: 501:

Southern Oscillation Index correlated with mean sea level pressure.

11953: 11932:

Grove, Richard H. (1998). "Global Impact of the 1789–93 El Niño".

11287: 10656: 7655:"Are historical records sufficient to constrain ENSO simulations?" 6491:

Takahashi, K.; Montecinos, A.; Goubanova, K.; Dewitte, B. (2011).

5661:

Takahashi, K.; Montecinos, A.; Goubanova, K.; Dewitte, B. (2011).

4944:

The following sources identified the listed "La Niña years":

4232: 2622:(ITCZ), which tends to shift north in response to a positive PMM. 262:

fishermen named the weather phenomenon after the newborn Christ.

14631: 14289: 14077: 14067: 13237: 13207: 12954: 12934: 10628:"Reconstruction of past climatic events using oxygen isotopes in 10448: 9143:"Association of Kawasaki disease with tropospheric wind patterns" 7197: 6821: 3797:. In Glynn, Peter W.; Manzello, Derek P.; Enochs, Ian C. (eds.). 2818:

Wald, Lucien (2021). "Definitions of time: from year to second".

2633: 2277: 2243: 2023: 2015: 2003: 1968: 1956: 1829: 1743: 1728: 1622: 1474: 1411: 1322: 920: 371: 244: 152: 98: 85:) is a global climate phenomenon that emerges from variations in 12228:(The counter-current "El Niño", on the northern coast of Peru), 8191: 7467:

Jiu,Liping; Song,Mirong; Zhu,Zhu; Horton, Radley M; Hu,Yongyun;

7274:"Future changes of El Niño in two global coupled climate models" 5879:

Tedeschi, Renata G.; Cavalcanti, Iracema F. A. (23 April 2014).

5076:"El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) diagnostic discussion" 4290:"What is the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in a nutshell?" 3758:"What is the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in a nutshell?" 3234:"What is the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in a nutshell?" 1781:

Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in the United States

1102:

In climate change science, ENSO is known as one of the internal

741: 578: 170:

In climate change science, ENSO is known as one of the internal

31: 30:"El Niño" and "ENSO" redirect here. For the Japanese motif, see 15639: 13784: 13197: 12999: 12586: 12533: 11644: 10543: 9546: 8430:"August Climate Bulletins / Summer 2023: the hottest on record" 8333: 6493:"ENSO regimes: Reinterpreting the canonical and Modoki El Niño" 5915:

Platonov, V.; Semenov, E.; Sokolikhina, E. (13 February 2014).

4375:. National Centers for Environmental Prediction. Archived from 2625: 2603: 2513: 2325: 2034: 2011: 1895: 1863:. During La Niña, increased precipitation is diverted into the 1856: 1833: 1768: 1758:, where they would tend to cause a warm, dry and windy climate. 1653:

had the next driest Februaries, when 8.4 mm of rain fell.

1605:

Many ENSO linkages exist in the high southern latitudes around

1494: 1407: 1385: 1241: 1045: 513: 12459:. Townsville, Qld.: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. 12084:"The Counter-Current "El Niño," on the Coast of Northern Peru" 11856: 11435: 10029:"What are the prospects for the weather in the coming winter?" 9283: 8249: 5394:"La Niña Modoki impacts Australia autumn rainfall variability" 4724:"La Niña calls it quits. Is El Niño paying us a return visit?" 2488: 2369:) are generally credited with identifying the El Niño effect. 1395: 1011: 804: 699: 318:

is typically around 0.5 m (1.5 ft) higher than near

143:

A key mechanism of ENSO is the Bjerknes feedback (named after

15553:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

14641: 14146: 13965: 13744: 13699: 11244: 10134:"The Local Impacts of ENSO across the Northeastern Caribbean" 9383: 9257:

Quirin Schiermeier (2011). "Climate cycles drive civil war".

7372:"Climate Change is Making El Niños More Intense, Study Finds" 7071: 4397: 4373:"ENSO FAQ: How often do El Niño and La Niña typically occur?" 2336: 2290: 2065: 2027: 1825: 1486: 1381: 1334: 1330: 1142: 86: 12622: 11489: 10132:

San Juan, Puerto Rico Weather Forecast Office (2010-09-02).

9549:"South African extreme weather during the 1877–1878 El Niño" 8966:"Fair Weather or Foul? The Macroeconomic Effects of El Niño" 8446: 5215:

Lee, Sang-Ki; R. Atlas; D. Enfield; C. Wang; H. Liu (2013).

5214: 5161: 4427:. United States Climate Prediction Center. 1 February 2019. 2098:

Evidence is also strong for El Niño events during the early

1754:

accompany ENSO events, and can be exacerbated by a positive

419:

system where the associated changes in one component of the

59: 50: 13578: 12518:

10.1175/1520-0469(1971)028<0702:DOADOI>2.0.CO;2

12452: 11057:. Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press. p. 10. 10522:

10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<2628:iotwca>2.0.co;2

9762:

10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<1419:ioenoe>2.0.co;2

8964:

Cashin, Paul; Mohaddes, Kamiar & Raissi, Mehdi (2014).

8515:

10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<1419:ioenoe>2.0.co;2

8276: 7100:. NOAA. Global Climate Dashboard > Climate Variability. 5136:

10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<1697:LIOENO>2.0.CO;2

4979:(Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 4040: 3895:. San Diego, California: University of California–San Diego 3542:. NOAA National Weather Service Climate Prediction Centre. 3392:

10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<2771:TDOENO>2.0.CO;2

2465:

developed rapidly during July 1982 in direct response to a

2449: 2309:

Average equatorial Pacific temperatures, published in 2009.

2007: 1976: 1964: 1952: 1935:

of the North Island mountain ranges and the Southern Alps.

1869: 1373: 1245: 1176:

in Earth's climate. Global warming can strengthen the ENSO

1006: 319: 298:

is roughly 8–10 °C (14–18 °F) cooler than in the

259: 240: 213: 12219:"La contra-corriente "El Niño", en la costa norte de Perú" 11687: 11592: 10307:. Environment and Climate Change Canada. 2 December 2015. 8080: 7097: 5914: 5586:. Society for Environmental Communications. Archived from 5109:

Trenberth, Kevin E.; Stepaniak, David P. (15 April 2001).

4881: 4514:"El Niño Conditions Strengthen, Could Last Through Summer" 4065:

International Research Institute for Climate and Society.

4037:"Why are there so many ENSO indexes, instead of just one?" 3683:. International Research Institute for Climate and Society 3536:"The Southern Oscillation and its Links to the ENSO Cycle" 2883:. In Solomon, S.; D. Qin; M. Manning; et al. (eds.). 1894:, a violent mountain-gap wind in between the mountains of 1167: 796:

can have different characteristics due to lower or higher

564: 495: 15729:

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

12128:(Melbourne, Victoria), 29 December 1888, pp. 1455–1456. 11541: 10497:"Isthmus of Tehuantepec Wind Climatology and ENSO Signal" 10136:. National Weather Service Southern Region Headquarters. 10088: 8380: 7974: 6954: 4370: 4105: 2842: 322:

because of the buildup of water in the West Pacific. The

281: 12407: 10625: 10579:"World Wind Regimes – Central America Gap Wind Tutorial" 8931: 8749: 8626: 8624: 8605:. United States Climate Prediction Center. 27 May 2015. 8603:"Background Information: East Pacific Hurricane Outlook" 7332:"Shifts in ENSO coupling processes under global warming" 7330:

Philip, Sjoukje; van Oldenborgh, Geert Jan (June 2006).

7149:

Merryfield, William J. (2006). "Changes to ENSO under CO

6960:"ENSO: Recent Evolution, Current Status and Predictions" 4823: 3437:"How the Pacific Ocean changes weather around the world" 2332:

alone in northern China killed up to 13 million people.

2010:

followed cooler water down the continental slope, while

1705:

Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in Australia

1686:

difference from normal, the larger the rainfall change.

1444:

When El Niño conditions last for many months, extensive

1029:

International Research Institute for Climate and Society

357:. Colder water from deeper in the ocean rises along the 12281:. American Meteorological Society (AMS). Archived from 11399: 11335: 11333: 10049: 9896:

The beasts to our east: What are El Ninos and La Ninas?

9871:"What is El Niño and what might it mean for Australia?" 9865: 9863: 9861: 9859: 8632:"What is El Niño and what might it mean for Australia?" 8527: 5258: 4346:"What is El Niño and what might it mean for Australia?" 4287: 4235:"Global Patterns – El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)" 4145:; Blair Trewin; Karina von Shuckmann; Russell S. Vose. 3649: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3231: 3081:

Trenberth, Kevin E.; Fasullo, John T. (December 2013).

1577:

Between 50,000 and 100,000 people died during the

953:, but decreases the occurrence of severe storms in the 11795: 10775:

Pacific ENSO Update: 4th Quarter, 2006. Vol. 12 No. 4.

9979:

What is La Nina and what does it mean for your summer?

9805: 9355:"FAQs | El Nino Theme Page – A comprehensive Resource" 8129: 8015: 7923: 7523: 6611: 6391: 5941: 4183:"Frequently Asked Questions about El Niño and La Niña" 4181:

Climate Prediction Center Internet Team (2012-04-26).

4111:"Frequently Asked Questions about El Niño and La Niña" 4000:"Climate glossary — Southern Oscilliation Index (SOI)" 3695: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3464: 3462: 2958: 2956: 2881:"Observations: Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change" 2848:"Frequently Asked Questions about El Niño and La Niña" 2234:

2.8 Mya / Spain / Lacustrine laminated sediments core

1264: 759:

in November 2007, showing La Niña conditions

224:, Jesus, because periodic warming in the Pacific near 191: 15570:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

12333: 12017:"Dimensions of need - People and populations at risk" 10626:

Martínez-Ballesté, Andrea; Ezcurra, Exequiel (2018).

10585:

Monterey, Marine Meteorology Division. Archived from

9992:"Climate glossary — Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)" 8914:

California Department of Fish and Game, Marine Region

8621: 8576:

Landsea, Christopher W; Dorst, Neal M (1 June 2014).

6842:

Takahashi, Ken; Martínez, Alejandra G. (2019-06-01).

5347: 4067:"Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) and Equatorial SOI" 3610: 3608: 3606: 3604: 3341:

California Department of Fish and Game, Marine Region

3170: 2987: 2985: 2874: 2872: 2126:

Age of archive / Location / Type of archive or proxy

1515:

ENSO may be linked to civil conflicts. Scientists at

610:

La Niña phase: Warm water is farther west than usual.

125:, which is coupled with the sea temperature change. 12732: 12540:

Zhang, Chidong (2005). "Madden-Julian Oscillation".

11330: 10690: 10688: 10632:

growing in three anthropic oases in Baja California"

10453:

La Nina could mean dry summer in Midwest and Plains.

10351: 9856: 8963: 7329: 5343: 5341: 4697:"Very strong 1997-98 Pacific warm episode (El Niño)" 4425:"Historical El Niño/La Niña episodes (1950–present)" 4338: 3880: 3640: 2584:

The SST and wind anomalies of the PMM positive phase

1081: 415:

in 1969. Bjerknes also hypothesized that ENSO was a

9085:"Kawasaki disease and ENSO-driven wind circulation" 8597: 8595: 7271: 6232: 5607: 4323:. World Meteorological Organization. Archived from 4185:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 3792:"El Niño and Southern Oscillation (ENSO): A Review" 3785: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3459: 2953: 2932: 2930: 2725:

2010–2013 Southern United States and Mexico drought

1417: 705:

Timeline of El Niño episodes between 1900 and 2024.

679:of cold water occurs less or not at all offshore. 546:Although the Southern Oscillation Index has a long 12623:Jon Gottschalck & Wayne Higgins (2008-02-16). 12275:"Who Discovered the El Niño-Southern Oscillation?" 10934: 10305:"El Niño: What are the El Niño impacts in Canada?" 9462:"Slow response to East Africa famine 'cost lives'" 9256: 8422: 8336:"Why the right climate target was agreed in Paris" 7557:; Vecchi, Gabe; Wittenberg, Andrew (23 May 2010). 6134: 5905: 5878: 5108: 4319:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007). 3789: 3601: 3364: 2982: 2869: 2654:have been attributed to positive PMM events. With 128:El Niño is associated with higher than normal air 13994:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System 12491:Madden, Roland A.; Julian, Paul R. (1971-07-01). 11730: 10721: 10719: 10685: 10280: 9586: 9584: 9437: 9390:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 7079:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 7077:"El Niño / Southern Oscillation (ENSO) June 2009" 6841: 6290: 6233:Newman, M.; Shin, S.-I.; Alexander, M.A. (2011). 6040: 5663:"Reinterpreting the Canonical and Modoki El Nino" 5338: 4405:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 4403:"El Niño / Southern Oscillation (ENSO) June 2009" 4364: 4283: 4281: 4237:. North Carolina State University. Archived from 3573: 3571: 3569: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3561: 15870: 15770:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 10274: 10253: 10251: 10249: 9777:"Recent heavy rain not caused by global warming" 9492:"La Niña weather likely to last for months" 8592: 8132:"Tipping elements in the Earth's climate system" 7926:"Tipping elements in the Earth's climate system" 7701: 6663:Instituto Oceanográfico de la Armada del Ecuador 5581: 3940: 3776: 3751: 3749: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3221: 3080: 2927: 2642:In the early 21st century, the intensity of the 13984:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis 12798:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 12356: 12247:Memoirs of the Indian Meteorological Department 10696:"ENSO Update, Weak La Nina Conditions Favoured" 9440:"How ENSO leads to a cascade of global impacts" 8402: 7930:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 7529: 7406:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 7272:Meehl, G. A.; Teng, H.; Branstator, G. (2006). 7207:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 7142: 7048:"El Niño, La Niña and the Southern Oscillation" 6967:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 6934:"How will we know when an El Niño has arrived?" 6712: 6432: 5922:. EGU General Assembly / Geophysical Research. 5791:Monitoring the Pendulum (Report). IOP Science. 5584:"El Nino, La Nina and the Indian sub-continent" 5481: 5029:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 5005:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 4957:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 4626:"El Niño Outlook ( June 2023 - December 2023 )" 4391: 3855: 3853: 3484:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 3371:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 3136:Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis 2910:"El Niño, La Niña and the Southern Oscillation" 2666:sea ice will induce future positive PMM events. 2549:, this ENSO-related tropical forcing generates 1711:Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in 1317:Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the 800:and cooler or warmer sea surface temperatures. 27:Climate phenomenon that periodically fluctuates 10869:. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 10716: 10324:"El Nino "flavors" affect California rainfall" 10035:. United Kingdom Met Office. 29 October 2015. 9581: 8872:. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 7601: 7399: 7191: 6392:L'Heureux, M.; Collins, D.; Hu, Z.-Z. (2012). 5303: 4371:Climate Prediction Center (19 December 2005). 4278: 3558: 2474: 1994:due to overfishing following the 1972 El Niño 1983:industry. The reduction in upwelling leads to 1345:, which would favor the Japanese archipelago. 14510:History of climate change policy and politics 14305: 13036: 12985:Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern 12833: 12691: 12650: 12594:"Madden-Julian oscillation forecast research" 12446: 12362: 10606: 10257: 10246: 10196: 10184:. Canada's top ten weather stories for 2008. 8790: 8571: 8569: 8567: 8565: 8018:"The Curious Case of Indian Ocean Warming*,+" 7752: 7607: 6931: 6135:McPhaden, M.J.; Lee, T.; McClurg, D. (2011). 4511: 4156:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 4115:National Centers for Environmental Prediction 3859: 3755: 3746: 3669: 3476:"What are "El Niño" and "La Niña"?" 3218: 2939:"December's ENSO Update: Close, but no cigar" 2936: 2852:National Centers for Environmental Prediction 1992:Peruvian fisheries collapsed during the 1970s 1609:. Specifically, El Niño conditions result in 629:Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern 186: 12790:"Southern Oscillation diagnostic discussion" 12490: 12453:Marshall, Paul; Schuttenberg, Heidi (2006). 10667:"El Niño's impacts on New Zealand's climate" 9727: 9644: 9642: 9433: 9431: 9429: 8709:Enfield, David B.; Mayer, Dennis A. (1997). 8708: 8482: 7863: 7695: 6759:ZENTENO, HERMOGENES EDGARD GONZALES (2022). 4859:(Report). Australian Bureau of Meteorology. 4754: 3850: 3701: 3166: 3164: 3162: 3041:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 2991: 2392: 1460: 740:"La Niña" redirects here. For the ship, see 671:), including the area off the west coast of 651:(SST) anomalies in the east tropical Pacific 14627:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 11900: 10928: 10891:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 10188:. 2008-12-29. number 3. Archived from 9949:. Bureau of Meteorology. 17 September 2023. 9596: 8894:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 8403:Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022). 7546: 7323: 6816:Blume, Daniela Valdivia (19 January 2024). 6706: 6010:"Are we heading for a La Niña Modoki?" 5734:Different Impacts of Various El Niño Events 5636:"Study Finds El Niños are Growing Stronger" 5435:"How Many ENSO Flavors Can We Distinguish?" 4443: 3799:Coral Reefs of the Eastern Tropical Pacific 3720: 3704:The El Niño-Southern Oscillation Phenomenon 3702:Sarachik, Edward S.; Cane, Mark A. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3390: 3268:Boletín de la Sociedad Geográfica de Lima 3159: 3106: 3062: 3052: 2093: 1879: 1832:, while drier conditions are observed in 1683: 1172:The ENSO is considered to be a potential 132:over Indonesia, Australia and across the 15101:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation 12847: 12733:Liu, Zhengyu; Alexander Michael (2007). 12041: 11363: 11206: 10600: 7460: 7116: 6905: 6903: 6562: 6183: 6091: 5532: 5526: 5391: 4451:"El Niño - Detailed Australian Analysis" 4260:"Australian Climate Influences: El Niño" 4233:State Climate Office of North Carolina. 4034: 4030: 4028: 4026: 4024: 3621:. Bureau of Meteorology. February 2005. 3115: 2811: 2755:2023 Auckland Anniversary Weekend floods 2628:events. 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London: Verso. p. 8555:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00687.1 8409:climatetippingpoints.info 8045:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00471.1 7785:10.1007/s00376-008-0361-5 7653:Wittenberg, A.T. (2009). 7298:10.1007/s00382-005-0098-0 7046:Met Office (2012-10-11). 6956:Climate Prediction Center 6868:10.1007/s00382-017-3702-1 6731:10.1007/s00382-018-4290-4 6459:10.1007/s00382-009-0562-3 6419:10.1007/s00382-012-1331-2 6371:10.1007/s13143-011-0011-1 5865:10.1007/s11434-012-5423-5 5460:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00649.1 5375:10.1007/s11434-012-5423-5 5242:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00128.1 4671:. London: Verso. p. 4107:Climate Prediction Center 3974:Trenberth, Kevin (2022). 3585:. Bureau of Meteorology. 3510:"What is "La Niña"?" 2844:Climate Prediction Center 2822:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 2506:salmon production regimes 2423:Madden–Julian oscillation 2400:Madden–Julian oscillation 2393:Madden–Julian oscillation 2328:of the 19th century. The 1762: 1568: 1461:Health and social impacts 1025:Climate Prediction Center 439:Madden–Julian oscillation 15904:Regional climate effects 15724:Global warming potential 15531:International agreements 15178:Preserving and enhancing 14617:Arctic methane emissions 14539:Years in climate change 14446:Greenhouse gas emissions 14343:Causes of climate change 14167:Ocean surface topography 13542:Thermohaline circulation 13532:Subsurface ocean current 13472:Hydrothermal circulation 13305:Wave–current interaction 13083:Boussinesq approximation 12910:Dansgaard–Oeschger event 12885:Atlantic Equatorial mode 11907:. Basic Books. pp. 11459:10.1177/0959683615612566 10992:. Rastogi Publications. 10865:WW2010 (28 April 1998). 10804:Retrieved on 2008-03-19. 10784:Retrieved on 2008-03-19. 10764:Retrieved on 2008-03-19. 10649:10.18268/BSGM2018v70n1a5 10577:Fett, Bob (2002-12-09). 10485:Retrieved on 2008-02-28. 10462:Retrieved on 2008-02-29. 10439:Retrieved on 2008-02-29. 10419:Retrieved on 2008-02-28. 10171:Retrieved on 2008-04-16. 9496:Scoop News (Scoop.co.nz) 8868:WW2010 (28 April 1998). 5844:Chinese Science Bulletin 5815:. The Western Producer. 5798:10.1088/1748-9326/aac53f 5354:Chinese Science Bulletin 3583:About Australian climate 2731:2011 East Africa drought 2616:sea surface temperatures 2282:5.92-5.32 Mya / Italy / 1579:2011 East Africa drought 1033:sea surface temperatures 695:an El Niño "episode". 91:sea surface temperatures 36:El Niño (disambiguation) 15755:Climate change scenario 15407:Disaster risk reduction 15059:Carbon emission trading 14869:U.S. insurance industry 14844:Civilizational collapse 14691:sea surface temperature 14204:Sea surface temperature 14187:Outline of oceanography 13382:Atmospheric circulation 13320:shallow water equations 13310:Waves and shallow water 13203:Significant wave height 12980:Pacific Meridional Mode 11981:Famine: A Short History 11767:10.1126/science.1112596 11710:10.1023/a:1020319923164 11387:10.1126/science.ado2030 11131:Biological Conservation 10989:Ecology And Environment 10961:10.1029/JC092iC13p14417 10553:Glossary of Meteorology 10182:"A never-ending winter" 9943:"Climate Driver Update" 9929:Bureau of Meteorology. 9914:Bureau of Meteorology. 9528:. OCHA. 16 October 2023 8304:10.5194/esd-10-631-2019 8219:10.5194/esd-12-601-2021 8157:10.1073/pnas.0705414105 7943:10.1073/pnas.0705414105 7427:10.1073/pnas.1911130116 5767:(Report). IOP Science. 5504:10.1126/science.1174062 5027:. Public Affairs. U.S. 4516:. The Weather Company. 4211:. Columbia University. 3949:National Science Review 3920:National Science Review 2800:2023–2024 El Niño event 2789:2014–2016 El Niño event 2761:2020–2023 La Niña event 2757:(attributed to La Niña) 2751:(attributed to La Niña) 2733:(attributed to La Niña) 2727:(attributed to La Niña) 2721:(attributed to La Niña) 2714:2010–2012 La Niña event 2710:(attributed to La Niña) 2704:(attributed to La Niña) 2698:(attributed to La Niña) 2626:Central Pacific El Niño 2588:Pacific Meridional Mode 2574:Pacific Meridional Mode 2567:Pacific Meridional Mode 2547:sea surface temperature 1987:off the shore of Peru. 1692:Indo-Australian Monsoon 1636: 1527:Ecological consequences 1485:. Cycles of malaria in 1232:and typically leads to 985:Coined by the Peruvian 770:sea surface temperature 768:weather pattern, where 665:International Date Line 649:sea surface temperature 520:(on the Indian Ocean). 304:sea surface temperature 210:Captain Camilo Carrillo 123:atmospheric oscillation 15748:Research and modelling 15432:Nature-based solutions 15252:Nature-based solutions 15194:Carbon dioxide removal 15111:Fossil fuel divestment 15096:Climate risk insurance 15006:Small island countries 14622:Arctic sea ice decline 14199:Sea surface microlayer 13564:Wind generated current 12719:10.1175/2008JCLI2389.1 12186:(The rains of Piura), 12177:"Las lluvias de Piura" 11306:10.1098/rstb.2006.1977 10907:"An El Niño Fish Tale" 9402:10.1098/rstb.2019.0116 7227:10.1175/2008BAMS2387.1 6590:10.1175/2008JCLI2624.1 5638:. NASA. Archived from 5291:10.1175/2008JCLI2309.1 4477:"El Niño in Australia" 2648:2018 Pacific hurricane 2646:and the highly active 2585: 2562:depth (MLD) anomalies. 2493: 2419: 2310: 2094:In geologic timescales 1912:Isthmus of Tehuantepec 1880:Isthmus of Tehuantepec 1752:bushfires in Australia 1621:Seas, causing reduced 1582: 1441: 1218: 1211:Antarctic bottom water 1099: 1016: 943:northwestern Australia 925: 760: 744:. For other uses, see 652: 631:exert more influence. 437:phenomena such as the 384:upward movement of air 337:The total weight of a 287: 201: 34:. For other uses, see 15884:Physical oceanography 15709:Earth's energy budget 15592:Background and theory 15480:Climate crisis (term) 15152:Fossil fuel phase-out 15046:Economics and finance 15011:by individual country 14953:By country and region 14928:Security and conflict 14923:Psychological impacts 14607:Abrupt climate change 14530:Charles David Keeling 14363:By country and region 14032:Deep scattering layer 14014:World Geodetic System 13522:Princeton Ocean Model 13402:Coriolis–Stokes force 13052:Physical oceanography 12875:Arctic dipole anomaly 12870:Antarctic oscillation 12810:Bureau of Meteorology 12739:Reviews of Geophysics 12260:18 March 2017 at the 11733:Ravelo, Ana Christina 11166:Global Change Biology 11073:Galapagos Conservancy 10328:www.earthmagazine.org 9947:Bureau of Meteorology 9900:Sydney Morning Herald 9271:10.1038/news.2011.501 8910:"El Niño Information" 8813:10.1007/s003820050014 8340:Nature Climate Change 8283:Earth System Dynamics 8198:Earth System Dynamics 8087:Nature Communications 7477:Nature Communications 7124:"El Niño and La Niña" 6969:. pp. 5, 19–20. 3540:www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov 3486:. February 10, 2020. 3480:oceanservice.noaa.gov 3337:"El Niño Information" 2964:"El Niño and La Niña" 2784:1997–98 El Niño event 2773:1982–83 El Niño event 2696:2000 Mozambique flood 2644:2014–16 El Niño event 2583: 2491: 2409: 2308: 1902:, is associated with 1767:El Niño's effects on 1576: 1430: 1369:Western Pacific basin 1365:Eastern Pacific basin 1200: 1089: 1072:The United Kingdom's 1053:Bureau of Meteorology 1014: 923: 777:near South America. 757:temperature anomalies 754: 746:Niña (disambiguation) 645:1997–98 El Niño event 642: 516:(in the Pacific) and 339:column of ocean water 300:tropical West Pacific 296:tropical East Pacific 284: 235:Originally, the term 194: 40:Enso (disambiguation) 15924:Climate oscillations 15879:Tropical meteorology 15538:Glasgow Climate Pact 15199:Carbon sequestration 14769:Mass mortality event 14052:Underwater acoustics 13612:Perigean spring tide 13477:Langmuir circulation 13188:Rossby-gravity waves 12849:Climate oscillations 12782:earth.nullschool.net 12760:10.1029/2005RG000172 12572:10.1029/2004RG000158 12440:10.1029/2000JD000298 12273:Cushman, Gregory T. 11975:Ó Gráda, C. (2009). 11901:Brian Fagan (1999). 11423:10.1029/1999pa000409 10967:on 22 September 2012 10630:Washingtonia robusta 10609:Mariners Weather Log 10379:10.1002/2017GL076197 10033:Met Office News Blog 9927:El Niño in Australia 9912:La Niña In Australia 9902:, December 29, 2020. 9058:Health Topics A to Z 8777:10.1029/2008GL034734 8360:10.1038/nclimate3013 8002:10.1002/2015GL065211 7680:10.1029/2009GL038710 7357:10.1029/2006GL026196 6768:(PhD) (in Spanish). 6639:10.1029/2011JC007304 6520:10.1029/2011GL047364 6321:10.1029/2010GL045886 6263:10.1029/2011GL047658 6211:10.1029/2010JC006695 6162:10.1029/2011GL048275 6114:10.1029/2008GL034499 5969:10.1029/2011JC007304 5690:10.1029/2011GL047364 5560:10.1029/2009GL037885 5419:10.1029/2009GL037885 5331:10.1029/2005GL022738 4949:"La Niña years" 4911:10.1002/2014GL062997 4109:(19 December 2005). 3275: : 72–110. 3108:10.1002/2013EF000165 3054:10.1002/2014JD022576 2749:2022 Suriname floods 2702:2010 Pakistan floods 2301:During human history 2213:in 9 deep sea cores 1904:high-pressure system 1855:To the north across 1789:across the northern 1684:Southern Oscillation 1450:Developing countries 947:Murray–Darling basin 775:rises to the surface 472:Southern Oscillation 447:westerly wind bursts 165:developing countries 121:is the accompanying 119:Southern Oscillation 15677:Climate sensitivity 15452:The Adaptation Fund 14908:Infectious diseases 14810:Social and economic 14214:Science On a Sphere 13820:Convergent boundary 13492:Modular Ocean Model 13452:Geostrophic current 13168:Mild-slope equation 12950:Milankovitch cycles 12940:Indian Ocean Dipole 12751:2007RvGeo..45.2005L 12710:2009JCli...22..381R 12669:2007JCli...20.4341R 12554:2005RvGeo..43.2003Z 12509:1971JAtS...28..702M 12422:2002JGRD..107.4065T 12377:1996GeoRL..23...57T 12194: : 241–258. 11946:1998Natur.393..318G 11872:2010Geo....38..419G 11818:10.1038/nature08831 11810:2010Natur.463.1066F 11804:(7284): 1066–1070. 11749:2005Sci...309..758W 11702:2002JPall..27..453M 11659:2001Sci...293.2440B 11653:(5539): 2440–2444. 11616:10.1038/nature02386 11608:2004Natur.428..306T 11564:10.1038/nature01194 11556:2002Natur.420..162M 11505:1999Sci...283..516R 11451:2016Holoc..26..567S 11415:2000PalOc..15..465C 11381:(6714): 1189-1195. 11351:on 26 February 2018 11259:2005Holoc..15...42C 11178:2010GCBio..16.2876E 11143:2006BCons.127..107V 10953:1987JGR....9214417P 10712:on 7 November 2017. 10513:2003JCli...16.2628R 10370:2018GeoRL..45..907L 10091:. 22 October 2021. 10064:2009NatGe...2...32I 9824:2006JCli...19.4755P 9744:2004JCli...17.1419W 9663:2004AntSc..16..415Y 9617:2004IJCli..24....1T 9565:2023Wthr...78..286B 9498:. 12 October 2010. 9468:. 18 January 2012. 9302:2020Biotr..52..252F 9228:10.1038/nature10311 9220:2011Natur.476..438H 9159:2011NatSR...1E.152R 9104:2013GeoRL..40.2284B 8805:2000ClDy...16..213L 8768:2008GeoRL..3516705L 8727:1997JGR...102..929E 8546:2014JCli...27.5311P 8497:2004JCli...17.1419W 8383:"Technical Summary" 8352:2016NatCC...6..649S 8295:2019ESD....10..631D 8210:2021ESD....12..601W 8148:2008PNAS..105.1786L 8099:2015NatCo...6.7423R 8037:2014JCli...27.8501R 7993:2015GeoRL..42.8140S 7883:2023NRvEE...4..407C 7767:2008AdAtS..25..361Z 7716:2000Sci...288.1997F 7710:(5473): 1997–2002. 7671:2009GeoRL..3612702W 7622:1996GeoRL..23...57T 7575:2010NatGe...3..391C 7489:2022NatCo..13.4952L 7418:2019PNAS..11622512W 7412:(45): 22512–22517. 7348:2006GeoRL..3311704P 7290:2006ClDy...26..549M 7219:2009BAMS...90..325G 7167:2006JCli...19.4009M 6860:2019ClDy...52.7389T 6630:2011JGRC..11612001S 6581:2009JCli...22.1499K 6512:2011GeoRL..3810704T 6451:2010ClDy...35..299L 6410:2013ClDy...40.1223L 6363:2011APJAS..47..223N 6312:2011GeoRL..38.2704Y 6254:2011GeoRL..3814705N 6202:2011JGRC..116.2024G 6153:2011GeoRL..3815709M 6106:2008GeoRL..3519703N 6063:10.1038/nature08316 6055:2009Natur.461..511Y 5960:2011JGRC..11612001S 5856:2013ChSBu..58..406Y 5682:2011GeoRL..3810704T 5642:on 17 November 2022 5551:2009GeoRL..3612805C 5496:2009Sci...325...77K 5451:2013JCli...26.4816J 5410:2009GeoRL..3612805C 5366:2013ChSBu..58..406Y 5322:2005GeoRL..3213705L 5273:2009JCli...22..615K 5233:2013JCli...26.1626L 5176:2009HyPr...23..973K 5127:2001JCli...14.1697T 5062:on 18 February 2017 5055:The Weather Network 4902:2015GeoRL..42.1512D 4773:2013GeoRL..40.4751K 4736:on 18 February 2017 4729:The Weather Network 4071:Columbia University 3413:. 21 October 2015. 3383:1997BAMS...78.2771T 3193:2010NatGe...3..391C 3099:2013EaFut...1...19T 3035:(27 January 2015). 2995:Scientific American 2683:Recharge oscillator 2638:South Pacific Ocean 1799:Northern California 1756:Indian Ocean Dipole 1719:, particularly the 1697:Indian Ocean Dipole 1613:anomalies over the 1595:South Atlantic High 1521:Columbia University 1517:The Earth Institute 1104:climate variability 1067:Peruvian government 969:might affect ENSO. 899:Transitional phases 172:climate variability 15248:(LULUCF and AFOLU) 15220:Forest management 15204:Direct air capture 15169:Sustainable energy 15126:Net zero emissions 15121:Low-carbon economy 15116:Green Climate Fund 14903:Indigenous peoples 14801:Plant biodiversity 14589:Effects and issues 13870:Seafloor spreading 13860:Outer trench swell 13825:Divergent boundary 13725:Continental margin 13710:Carbonate platform 13607:Lunitidal interval 12895:Earth's axial tilt 12880:Arctic oscillation 12678:10.1175/JCLI4249.1 12285:on 1 December 2015 12236: : 457-461. 12224:2023-10-30 at the 12201:2023-10-30 at the 12182:2023-10-30 at the 12155:2023-04-03 at the 12090:, pp. 603–606 11997:on 12 January 2016 11731:Wara, Michael W.; 11098:Karnauskas, Kris. 11034:on 15 October 2011 10800:2008-04-21 at the 10780:2012-10-22 at the 10501:Journal of Climate 10481:2010-05-28 at the 10458:2008-04-21 at the 10435:2007-10-22 at the 10186:Environment Canada 10167:2008-04-12 at the 9833:10.1175/JCLI3868.1 9812:Journal of Climate 9731:Journal of Climate 9396:(1794): 20190116. 9147:Scientific Reports 8762:(L16705): L16705. 8684:"El Nino is here!" 8588:on 9 October 2014. 8534:Journal of Climate 8485:Journal of Climate 8108:10.1038/ncomms8423 8025:Journal of Climate 7659:Geophys. Res. Lett 7185:10.1175/JCLI3834.1 7155:Journal of Climate 7050:. United Kingdom. 6500:Geophys. Res. Lett 6300:Geophys. Res. Lett 6242:Geophys. Res. Lett 6141:Geophys. Res. Lett 6094:Geophys. Res. Lett 5986:Spotlight Magazine 5893:on 23 October 2014 5439:Journal of Climate 5115:Journal of Climate 5011:on 6 December 2010 4807:. Climate.gov.uk. 4761:Geophys. Res. Lett 3961:10.1093/nsr/nwy046 3933:10.1093/nsr/nwy104 3889:"What is El Niño?" 3282:2023-10-30 at the 3261:2023-10-30 at the 3152:2023-05-26 at the 3141:2023-12-08 at the 2586: 2494: 2420: 2380:Around 1525, when 2363:Walker circulation 2311: 2263:Deep sea cores at 2260:in deep sea cores 1996:Peruvian anchoveta 1583: 1442: 1341:tends to lie near 1219: 1100: 1092:Arctic oscillation 1017: 926: 794:Pacific hurricanes 761: 657:Hadley circulation 653: 555:Sea surface height 459:Walker circulation 453:Walker circulation 434:negative feedbacks 359:continental margin 288: 202: 157:Walker circulation 130:sea level pressure 93:over the tropical 15866: 15865: 15804: 15803: 15800: 15799: 15739:Radiative forcing 15582: 15581: 15578: 15577: 15402:Adaptive capacity 15287: 15286: 15283: 15282: 15147:Energy transition 15023: 15022: 15019: 15018: 14738:Tropical cyclones 14664:Urban heat island 14578: 14577: 14490: 14489: 14486: 14485: 14451:Carbon accounting 14405:Greenhouse effect 14371: 14370: 14287: 14286: 14279:Oceans portal 14239:World Ocean Atlas 14229:Underwater glider 14172:Ocean temperature 13835:Hydrothermal vent 13800:Submarine volcano 13735:Continental shelf 13715:Coastal geography 13705:Bathymetric chart 13587:Amphidromic point 13275:Wave nonlinearity 13133:Infragravity wave 13018: 13017: 13010:True polar wander 13005:Solar variability 12466:978-1-876945-40-4 12395:10.1029/95GL03602 12166: : 457–470. 12065:From pp. 22–23: 12042:Lartigue (1827). 11918:978-0-465-01120-9 11743:(5735): 758–761. 11602:(6980): 306–310. 11550:(6912): 162–165. 11499:(5401): 516–520. 11300:(1478): 175–187. 11172:(10): 2876–2890. 10999:978-81-7133-905-1 10947:(C13): 14417–28. 10507:(15): 2628–2639. 10230:. 29 April 2022. 10192:on 7 August 2011. 10052:Nature Geoscience 9818:(19): 4755–4771. 9781:Channel News Asia 9651:Antarctic Science 9359:www.pmel.noaa.gov 9311:10.1111/btp.12756 9214:(7361): 438–441. 9167:10.1038/srep00152 9113:10.1002/grl.50388 9098:(10): 2284–2289. 8854:978-1-85984-739-8 8736:10.1029/96JC03296 8540:(14): 5311–5328. 8031:(22): 8501–8509. 7987:(19): 8140–8146. 7640:10.1029/95GL03602 7563:Nature Geoscience 6854:(12): 7389–7415. 6725:(12): 7537–7552. 5621:978-0-691-11335-7 5445:(13): 4816–4827. 5035:on 12 August 2014 4782:10.1002/grl.50697 4767:(17): 4751–4755. 4682:978-1-85984-739-8 4546:. 8 August 2019. 4379:on 27 August 2009 3985:978-1-108-97903-0 3816:978-94-017-7498-7 3713:978-0-521-84786-5 3377:(12): 2771–2777. 3181:Nature Geoscience 2949:on 22 March 2016. 2829:978-0-367-72588-4 2412:Hovmöller diagram 2382:Francisco Pizarro 2322:French Revolution 2318:Peruvian cultures 2298: 2297: 2082:Galápagos Islands 2076:Galápagos Islands 1865:Pacific Northwest 1842:Pacific Northwest 1803:Pacific Northwest 1690:The onset of the 1560:Impacts by region 1483:Rift Valley fever 1339:subtropical ridge 1319:subtropical ridge 1307:Tropical cyclones 1234:droughts in India 1181:weakening of the 994:Amazon rainforest 559:thermal expansion 518:Darwin, Australia 429:Conceptual models 425:Bjerknes feedback 417:positive feedback 407:Bjerknes feedback 389:ENSO describes a 105:, and has links ( 16:(Redirected from 15931: 15854: 15853: 15842: 15841: 15830: 15829: 15819: 15818: 15817: 15782:Paleoclimatology 15599: 15598: 15588: 15587: 15349:Ecological grief 15332:Climate movement 15307: 15306: 15293: 15292: 15273:Plant-based diet 15164:Renewable energy 15042: 15041: 15029: 15028: 14864:Economic impacts 14791:Invasive species 14647:Coastal flooding 14597: 14596: 14584: 14583: 14520:Svante Arrhenius 14496: 14495: 14466:from agriculture 14456:Carbon footprint 14441:Greenhouse gases 14390: 14389: 14377: 14376: 14329: 14328: 14314: 14307: 14300: 14291: 14290: 14277: 14276: 14265: 14264: 14255: 14254: 14194:Pelagic sediment 14132:Marine pollution 13926:Deep ocean water 13795:Submarine canyon 13730:Continental rise 13622:Rule of twelfths 13537:Sverdrup balance 13467:Humboldt Current 13392:Boundary current 13367: 13356: 13173:Radiation stress 13143:Iribarren number 13118:Equatorial waves 13073:Ballantine scale 13068:Airy wave theory 13045: 13038: 13031: 13022: 13021: 12842: 12835: 12828: 12819: 12818: 12813: 12801: 12785: 12765: 12764: 12762: 12730: 12724: 12723: 12721: 12689: 12683: 12682: 12680: 12648: 12642: 12641: 12639: 12638: 12629: 12620: 12614: 12613: 12611: 12609: 12600:. Archived from 12590: 12584: 12583: 12565: 12537: 12531: 12530: 12520: 12488: 12482: 12481: 12479: 12478: 12450: 12444: 12443: 12433: 12405: 12399: 12398: 12388: 12360: 12354: 12353: 12351: 12349: 12331: 12325: 12324: 12322: 12320: 12301: 12295: 12294: 12292: 12290: 12270: 12264: 12243: 12237: 12215: 12209: 12173: 12167: 12146: 12140: 12126:The Australasian 12122: 12116: 12115: 12098: 12092: 12091: 12079: 12070: 12064: 12062: 12061: 12039: 12033: 12032: 12030: 12028: 12013: 12007: 12006: 12004: 12002: 11993:. Archived from 11972: 11966: 11965: 11929: 11923: 11922: 11898: 11892: 11891: 11880:10.1130/g30629.1 11854: 11848: 11847: 11829: 11793: 11787: 11786: 11760: 11728: 11722: 11721: 11685: 11679: 11678: 11642: 11636: 11635: 11590: 11584: 11583: 11539: 11533: 11532: 11487: 11481: 11480: 11470: 11433: 11427: 11426: 11403:Paleoceanography 11397: 11391: 11390: 11367: 11361: 11360: 11358: 11356: 11337: 11328: 11327: 11317: 11285: 11279: 11278: 11242: 11233: 11232: 11204: 11198: 11197: 11161: 11155: 11154: 11126: 11120: 11119: 11117: 11115: 11095: 11089: 11088: 11086: 11084: 11065: 11059: 11058: 11050: 11044: 11043: 11041: 11039: 11030:. Archived from 11024: 11015: 11014: 11012: 11011: 10983: 10977: 10976: 10974: 10972: 10963:. Archived from 10932: 10926: 10925: 10923: 10922: 10903: 10897: 10896: 10890: 10882: 10880: 10878: 10862: 10856: 10855: 10853: 10851: 10836: 10830: 10829: 10827: 10826: 10811: 10805: 10791: 10785: 10771: 10765: 10758: 10752: 10751: 10749: 10748: 10742: 10736:. January 2016. 10731: 10723: 10714: 10713: 10711: 10705:. Archived from 10700: 10692: 10683: 10682: 10680: 10678: 10663: 10654: 10653: 10651: 10623: 10617: 10616: 10604: 10598: 10597: 10595: 10594: 10574: 10568: 10567: 10565: 10564: 10541: 10535: 10534: 10524: 10492: 10486: 10469: 10463: 10446: 10440: 10428:Mantua, Nathan. 10426: 10420: 10406: 10400: 10399: 10381: 10349: 10343: 10342: 10340: 10339: 10319: 10313: 10312: 10301: 10295: 10294: 10278: 10272: 10271: 10255: 10244: 10243: 10241: 10239: 10224: 10218: 10217: 10215: 10208: 10200: 10194: 10193: 10178: 10172: 10155: 10149: 10148: 10146: 10145: 10129: 10123: 10122: 10121:on 26 June 2014. 10111: 10105: 10104: 10102: 10100: 10082: 10076: 10075: 10047: 10041: 10040: 10025: 10019: 10013: 10007: 10006: 10004: 10003: 9988: 9982: 9976: 9970: 9969: 9966:The Conversation 9957: 9951: 9950: 9939: 9933: 9924: 9918: 9909: 9903: 9893: 9887: 9886: 9884: 9882: 9867: 9854: 9853: 9835: 9803: 9797: 9796: 9794: 9792: 9783:. Archived from 9772: 9766: 9765: 9755: 9738:(6): 1419–1428. 9725: 9719: 9718: 9717:on 3 March 2010. 9707: 9701: 9698: 9692: 9689: 9683: 9682: 9646: 9637: 9636: 9600: 9594: 9588: 9579: 9578: 9576: 9574:10.1002/wea.4468 9544: 9538: 9537: 9535: 9533: 9518: 9512: 9511: 9509: 9507: 9488: 9482: 9481: 9479: 9477: 9458: 9452: 9451: 9435: 9424: 9423: 9413: 9381: 9375: 9374: 9372: 9370: 9351: 9345: 9344: 9342: 9341: 9322: 9316: 9315: 9313: 9281: 9275: 9274: 9254: 9248: 9247: 9203: 9197: 9196: 9186: 9138: 9132: 9131: 9129: 9128: 9122: 9115: 9089: 9080: 9074: 9073: 9071: 9069: 9050: 9044: 9043: 9041: 9039: 9028:allcountries.org 9020: 9014: 9013: 9011: 9009: 8990: 8984: 8983: 8982:on 28 July 2014. 8981: 8975:. Archived from 8970: 8961: 8955: 8954: 8952: 8950: 8935: 8929: 8928: 8926: 8925: 8906: 8900: 8899: 8893: 8885: 8883: 8881: 8865: 8859: 8858: 8831: 8825: 8824: 8799:(2–3): 213–218. 8793:Climate Dynamics 8788: 8782: 8781: 8779: 8747: 8741: 8740: 8738: 8706: 8700: 8699: 8697: 8695: 8680: 8674: 8673: 8671: 8669: 8654: 8648: 8647: 8645: 8643: 8628: 8619: 8618: 8616: 8614: 8599: 8590: 8589: 8573: 8560: 8559: 8557: 8525: 8519: 8518: 8508: 8480: 8471: 8470: 8468: 8466: 8460: 8454:. Archived from 8453: 8444: 8438: 8437: 8426: 8420: 8419: 8417: 8415: 8400: 8394: 8393: 8387: 8378: 8372: 8371: 8331: 8325: 8324: 8306: 8274: 8265: 8264: 8262: 8260: 8246: 8240: 8239: 8221: 8189: 8180: 8179: 8169: 8159: 8142:(6): 1786–1793. 8127: 8121: 8120: 8110: 8078: 8072: 8071: 8069: 8067: 8061: 8022: 8013: 8007: 8006: 8004: 7972: 7966: 7965: 7955: 7945: 7936:(6): 1786–1793. 7921: 7915: 7914: 7912: 7910: 7861: 7855: 7854: 7852: 7850: 7830: 7824: 7823: 7821: 7819: 7803: 7797: 7796: 7778: 7750: 7744: 7743: 7699: 7693: 7692: 7682: 7650: 7644: 7643: 7633: 7605: 7599: 7598: 7596: 7594: 7555:Timmermann, Axel 7550: 7544: 7543: 7527: 7521: 7520: 7510: 7500: 7464: 7458: 7457: 7447: 7429: 7397: 7391: 7390: 7388: 7387: 7368: 7362: 7361: 7359: 7327: 7321: 7320: 7318: 7317: 7278:Climate Dynamics 7269: 7263: 7262: 7260: 7259: 7253: 7238: 7204: 7195: 7189: 7188: 7178: 7146: 7140: 7139: 7137: 7135: 7120: 7114: 7113: 7111: 7109: 7094: 7088: 7087: 7085: 7084: 7069: 7063: 7062: 7060: 7059: 7043: 7037: 7036: 7034: 7032: 7017: 7011: 7010: 7008: 7006: 6991: 6985: 6984: 6982: 6981: 6975: 6964: 6952: 6946: 6945: 6929: 6923: 6922: 6920: 6918: 6907: 6898: 6897: 6879: 6877:20.500.12816/738 6848:Climate Dynamics 6839: 6833: 6832: 6830: 6828: 6813: 6807: 6806: 6804: 6802: 6787: 6781: 6780: 6778: 6776: 6767: 6756: 6750: 6749: 6747: 6745: 6719:Climate Dynamics 6710: 6704: 6703: 6701: 6699: 6684: 6675: 6674: 6672: 6670: 6655: 6644: 6643: 6641: 6609: 6603: 6602: 6592: 6575:(6): 1499–1515. 6560: 6554: 6553: 6551: 6550: 6544: 6497: 6488: 6482: 6481: 6479: 6478: 6445:(2–3): 299–313. 6439:Climate Dynamics 6430: 6424: 6423: 6421: 6398:Climate Dynamics 6389: 6383: 6382: 6346: 6340: 6339: 6337: 6336: 6330: 6323: 6297: 6288: 6282: 6281: 6279: 6278: 6272: 6265: 6239: 6230: 6224: 6223: 6213: 6181: 6175: 6174: 6164: 6132: 6126: 6125: 6089: 6083: 6082: 6038: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6025: 6004: 6002: 6000: 5994: 5983: 5973: 5971: 5938: 5936: 5934: 5928: 5921: 5909: 5903: 5902: 5900: 5898: 5892: 5885: 5876: 5870: 5869: 5867: 5835: 5829: 5828: 5826: 5824: 5809: 5803: 5802: 5800: 5788: 5782: 5780: 5778: 5776: 5761: 5755: 5754: 5752: 5751: 5745: 5739:(Report). NOAA. 5738: 5730: 5724: 5723: 5721: 5720: 5714: 5667: 5658: 5652: 5651: 5649: 5647: 5632: 5626: 5625: 5605: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5595: 5579: 5573: 5572: 5562: 5530: 5524: 5523: 5479: 5473: 5472: 5462: 5430: 5424: 5423: 5421: 5389: 5380: 5379: 5377: 5345: 5336: 5335: 5333: 5301: 5295: 5294: 5284: 5256: 5247: 5246: 5244: 5227:(5): 1626–1642. 5212: 5206: 5205: 5194:10.1002/hyp.7200 5187: 5159: 5153: 5152: 5150: 5148: 5138: 5121:(8): 1697–1701. 5106: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5093: 5087: 5080: 5071: 5069: 5067: 5058:. Archived from 5044: 5042: 5040: 5031:. Archived from 5020: 5018: 5016: 4992: 4990: 4988: 4972: 4970: 4968: 4942: 4936: 4935: 4933: 4931: 4913: 4896:(5): 1512–1519. 4879: 4873: 4872: 4870: 4868: 4853: 4847: 4846: 4844: 4842: 4827: 4821: 4820: 4818: 4816: 4801: 4795: 4794: 4784: 4752: 4746: 4745: 4743: 4741: 4732:. Archived from 4719: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4708: 4693: 4687: 4686: 4659: 4653: 4652: 4647: 4645: 4622: 4616: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4595: 4589: 4588: 4586: 4585: 4566: 4560: 4559: 4557: 4555: 4536: 4530: 4529: 4527: 4525: 4509: 4503: 4502: 4500: 4498: 4492: 4481: 4473: 4467: 4466: 4464: 4462: 4447: 4441: 4440: 4438: 4436: 4421: 4415: 4414: 4412: 4410: 4395: 4389: 4388: 4386: 4384: 4368: 4362: 4361: 4359: 4357: 4342: 4336: 4335: 4333: 4332: 4316: 4310: 4309: 4307: 4305: 4296:. Archived from 4285: 4276: 4275: 4273: 4271: 4256: 4250: 4249: 4247: 4246: 4230: 4224: 4223: 4221: 4220: 4204: 4198: 4197: 4195: 4194: 4178: 4172: 4171: 4169: 4168: 4162: 4151: 4137: 4131: 4130: 4128: 4126: 4103: 4097: 4092: 4086: 4085: 4083: 4082: 4062: 4056: 4055: 4053: 4052: 4032: 4019: 4018: 4016: 4015: 3996: 3990: 3989: 3971: 3965: 3964: 3944: 3938: 3937: 3935: 3911: 3905: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3875: 3873: 3857: 3848: 3847: 3841: 3837: 3835: 3827: 3825: 3823: 3796: 3787: 3774: 3773: 3771: 3769: 3753: 3744: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3724: 3718: 3717: 3699: 3693: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3673: 3667: 3666: 3664: 3662: 3651: 3638: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3627: 3620: 3612: 3599: 3598: 3596: 3594: 3575: 3556: 3555: 3553: 3551: 3532: 3526: 3525: 3523: 3521: 3506: 3500: 3499: 3497: 3495: 3472: 3457: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3433: 3427: 3426: 3424: 3422: 3403: 3397: 3396: 3394: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3353: 3352: 3343:. Archived from 3333: 3327: 3326: 3324: 3323: 3304: 3298: 3252: 3246: 3245: 3229: 3216: 3215: 3213: 3212: 3168: 3157: 3132: 3113: 3112: 3110: 3078: 3069: 3068: 3066: 3056: 3028: 3019: 3018: 2989: 2980: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2960: 2951: 2950: 2945:. Archived from 2934: 2925: 2924: 2922: 2921: 2906: 2900: 2899: 2897: 2896: 2876: 2867: 2866: 2864: 2863: 2854:. Archived from 2840: 2834: 2833: 2815: 2433:of the American 2388:Related patterns 2286:varve thickness 2164:Humboldt Current 2120: 2119: 1874:polar jet stream 1795:northern Rockies 1510:Kawasaki disease 1423:Economic impacts 1378:French Polynesia 1354:tropical cyclone 1329:. Areas west of 1293: 1277: 767: 647:showing extreme 607: 594: 581: 498: 484: 395:weather patterns 364:Humboldt Current 290:On average, the 62: 53: 21: 15939: 15938: 15934: 15933: 15932: 15930: 15929: 15928: 15909:Weather hazards 15869: 15868: 15867: 15862: 15815: 15813: 15796: 15743: 15734:Orbital forcing 15628: 15593: 15574: 15548:Paris Agreement 15526: 15522:Warming stripes 15461: 15427:Managed retreat 15422:Loss and damage 15383: 15317:Business action 15301: 15279: 15256: 15179: 15173: 15130: 15091:Climate finance 15036: 15015: 14947: 14805: 14781:Extinction risk 14757:Flora and fauna 14752: 14713:Permafrost thaw 14708:Ozone depletion 14637:Extreme weather 14591: 14574: 14501: 14482: 14419: 14384: 14367: 14334: 14323: 14318: 14288: 14283: 14271: 14243: 14082: 14056: 14018: 13999:Sea-level curve 13970: 13909: 13895:Transform fault 13845:Mid-ocean ridge 13811: 13804: 13770:Oceanic plateau 13676: 13662:Tidal resonance 13632:Theory of tides 13573: 13482:Longshore drift 13432:Ekman transport 13368: 13362: 13361: 13360: 13359: 13358: 13357: 13348: 13300:Wave turbulence 13233:Trochoidal wave 13158:Longshore drift 13054: 13049: 13019: 13014: 12970:Orbital forcing 12857: 12851: 12846: 12804: 12788: 12776: 12773: 12768: 12731: 12727: 12690: 12686: 12663:(17): 4341–55. 12649: 12645: 12636: 12634: 12627: 12621: 12617: 12607: 12605: 12604:on 9 March 2012 12592: 12591: 12587: 12563:10.1.1.546.5531 12538: 12534: 12489: 12485: 12476: 12474: 12467: 12451: 12447: 12431:10.1.1.167.1208 12406: 12402: 12361: 12357: 12347: 12345: 12332: 12328: 12318: 12316: 12303: 12302: 12298: 12288: 12286: 12271: 12267: 12262:Wayback Machine 12244: 12240: 12226:Wayback Machine 12216: 12212: 12203:Wayback Machine 12184:Wayback Machine 12174: 12170: 12157:Wayback Machine 12147: 12143: 12137:Wayback Machine 12123: 12119: 12099: 12095: 12080: 12073: 12059: 12057: 12040: 12036: 12026: 12024: 12015: 12014: 12010: 12000: 11998: 11991: 11973: 11969: 11940:(6683): 318–9. 11930: 11926: 11919: 11899: 11895: 11855: 11851: 11794: 11790: 11758:10.1.1.400.7297 11729: 11725: 11686: 11682: 11643: 11639: 11591: 11587: 11540: 11536: 11488: 11484: 11434: 11430: 11398: 11394: 11368: 11364: 11354: 11352: 11339: 11338: 11331: 11286: 11282: 11243: 11236: 11205: 11201: 11162: 11158: 11127: 11123: 11113: 11111: 11096: 11092: 11082: 11080: 11067: 11066: 11062: 11051: 11047: 11037: 11035: 11026: 11025: 11018: 11009: 11007: 11000: 10984: 10980: 10970: 10968: 10933: 10929: 10920: 10918: 10905: 10904: 10900: 10884: 10883: 10876: 10874: 10863: 10859: 10849: 10847: 10838: 10837: 10833: 10824: 10822: 10813: 10812: 10808: 10802:Wayback Machine 10792: 10788: 10782:Wayback Machine 10772: 10768: 10760:Chu, Pao-Shin. 10759: 10755: 10746: 10744: 10740: 10729: 10725: 10724: 10717: 10709: 10698: 10694: 10693: 10686: 10676: 10674: 10665: 10664: 10657: 10624: 10620: 10605: 10601: 10592: 10590: 10575: 10571: 10562: 10560: 10549:"Tehuantepecer" 10542: 10538: 10493: 10489: 10483:Wayback Machine 10470: 10466: 10460:Wayback Machine 10447: 10443: 10437:Wayback Machine 10427: 10423: 10417:Wayback Machine 10407: 10403: 10350: 10346: 10337: 10335: 10320: 10316: 10303: 10302: 10298: 10279: 10275: 10256: 10247: 10237: 10235: 10226: 10225: 10221: 10213: 10206: 10202: 10201: 10197: 10180: 10179: 10175: 10169:Wayback Machine 10156: 10152: 10143: 10141: 10130: 10126: 10113: 10112: 10108: 10098: 10096: 10084: 10083: 10079: 10072:10.1038/ngeo381 10048: 10044: 10027: 10026: 10022: 10014: 10010: 10001: 9999: 9990: 9989: 9985: 9977: 9973: 9958: 9954: 9941: 9940: 9936: 9925: 9921: 9910: 9906: 9894: 9890: 9880: 9878: 9869: 9868: 9857: 9804: 9800: 9790: 9788: 9773: 9769: 9753:10.1.1.461.2391 9726: 9722: 9709: 9708: 9704: 9699: 9695: 9690: 9686: 9647: 9640: 9625:10.1002/joc.965 9601: 9597: 9589: 9582: 9559:(10): 286–293. 9545: 9541: 9531: 9529: 9520: 9519: 9515: 9505: 9503: 9490: 9489: 9485: 9475: 9473: 9460: 9459: 9455: 9436: 9427: 9382: 9378: 9368: 9366: 9353: 9352: 9348: 9339: 9337: 9324: 9323: 9319: 9282: 9278: 9255: 9251: 9204: 9200: 9139: 9135: 9126: 9124: 9120: 9087: 9081: 9077: 9067: 9065: 9052: 9051: 9047: 9037: 9035: 9022: 9021: 9017: 9007: 9005: 8992: 8991: 8987: 8979: 8968: 8962: 8958: 8948: 8946: 8937: 8936: 8932: 8923: 8921: 8908: 8907: 8903: 8887: 8886: 8879: 8877: 8866: 8862: 8855: 8832: 8828: 8789: 8785: 8748: 8744: 8721:(C1): 929–945. 8707: 8703: 8693: 8691: 8682: 8681: 8677: 8667: 8665: 8656: 8655: 8651: 8641: 8639: 8630: 8629: 8622: 8612: 8610: 8601: 8600: 8593: 8574: 8563: 8526: 8522: 8506:10.1.1.461.2391 8481: 8474: 8464: 8462: 8458: 8451: 8445: 8441: 8428: 8427: 8423: 8413: 8411: 8401: 8397: 8385: 8379: 8375: 8332: 8328: 8275: 8268: 8258: 8256: 8248: 8247: 8243: 8190: 8183: 8128: 8124: 8079: 8075: 8065: 8063: 8059: 8020: 8014: 8010: 7973: 7969: 7922: 7918: 7908: 7906: 7862: 7858: 7848: 7846: 7831: 7827: 7817: 7815: 7804: 7800: 7776:10.1.1.606.9579 7751: 7747: 7700: 7696: 7651: 7647: 7606: 7602: 7592: 7590: 7583:10.1038/ngeo868 7551: 7547: 7528: 7524: 7471:(23 Aug 2022). 7465: 7461: 7398: 7394: 7385: 7383: 7370: 7369: 7365: 7328: 7324: 7315: 7313: 7270: 7266: 7257: 7255: 7251: 7202: 7196: 7192: 7176:10.1.1.403.9784 7161:(16): 4009–27. 7152: 7147: 7143: 7133: 7131: 7122: 7121: 7117: 7107: 7105: 7096: 7095: 7091: 7082: 7080: 7070: 7066: 7057: 7055: 7044: 7040: 7030: 7028: 7019: 7018: 7014: 7004: 7002: 6993: 6992: 6988: 6979: 6977: 6973: 6962: 6953: 6949: 6930: 6926: 6916: 6914: 6909: 6908: 6901: 6840: 6836: 6826: 6824: 6814: 6810: 6800: 6798: 6788: 6784: 6774: 6772: 6765: 6757: 6753: 6743: 6741: 6711: 6707: 6697: 6695: 6686: 6685: 6678: 6668: 6666: 6657: 6656: 6647: 6610: 6606: 6561: 6557: 6548: 6546: 6542: 6495: 6489: 6485: 6476: 6474: 6431: 6427: 6390: 6386: 6347: 6343: 6334: 6332: 6328: 6295: 6289: 6285: 6276: 6274: 6270: 6237: 6231: 6227: 6190:J. Geophys. Res 6182: 6178: 6133: 6129: 6090: 6086: 6049:(7263): 511–4. 6039: 6035: 6023: 6021: 5998: 5996: 5992: 5981: 5932: 5930: 5926: 5919: 5910: 5906: 5896: 5894: 5890: 5883: 5877: 5873: 5836: 5832: 5822: 5820: 5811: 5810: 5806: 5790: 5789: 5785: 5774: 5772: 5763: 5762: 5758: 5749: 5747: 5743: 5736: 5732: 5731: 5727: 5718: 5716: 5712: 5665: 5659: 5655: 5645: 5643: 5634: 5633: 5629: 5622: 5606: 5602: 5593: 5591: 5580: 5576: 5531: 5527: 5490:(5936): 77–80. 5480: 5476: 5431: 5427: 5390: 5383: 5346: 5339: 5302: 5298: 5257: 5250: 5213: 5209: 5185:10.1.1.177.2614 5164:Hydrol. Process 5160: 5156: 5146: 5144: 5107: 5103: 5091: 5089: 5085: 5078: 5074: 5065: 5063: 5038: 5036: 5023: 5014: 5012: 4995: 4986: 4984: 4975: 4966: 4964: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4929: 4927: 4880: 4876: 4866: 4864: 4855: 4854: 4850: 4840: 4838: 4829: 4828: 4824: 4814: 4812: 4803: 4802: 4798: 4753: 4749: 4739: 4737: 4720: 4716: 4706: 4704: 4695: 4694: 4690: 4683: 4660: 4656: 4643: 4641: 4636:. 9 June 2023. 4624: 4623: 4619: 4609: 4607: 4596: 4592: 4583: 4581: 4574:The Independent 4568: 4567: 4563: 4553: 4551: 4538: 4537: 4533: 4523: 4521: 4510: 4506: 4496: 4494: 4490: 4479: 4475: 4474: 4470: 4460: 4458: 4449: 4448: 4444: 4434: 4432: 4423: 4422: 4418: 4408: 4406: 4396: 4392: 4382: 4380: 4369: 4365: 4355: 4353: 4344: 4343: 4339: 4330: 4328: 4317: 4313: 4303: 4301: 4300:on 9 April 2016 4286: 4279: 4269: 4267: 4258: 4257: 4253: 4244: 4242: 4231: 4227: 4218: 4216: 4205: 4201: 4192: 4190: 4179: 4175: 4166: 4164: 4160: 4149: 4143:Sharon L. Smith 4138: 4134: 4124: 4122: 4104: 4100: 4093: 4089: 4080: 4078: 4063: 4059: 4050: 4048: 4033: 4022: 4013: 4011: 3998: 3997: 3993: 3986: 3972: 3968: 3945: 3941: 3912: 3908: 3898: 3896: 3885: 3881: 3871: 3869: 3858: 3851: 3839: 3838: 3829: 3828: 3821: 3819: 3817: 3794: 3788: 3777: 3767: 3765: 3754: 3747: 3737: 3735: 3726: 3725: 3721: 3714: 3700: 3696: 3686: 3684: 3677:"What is ENSO?" 3675: 3674: 3670: 3660: 3658: 3653: 3652: 3641: 3631: 3629: 3625: 3618: 3614: 3613: 3602: 3592: 3590: 3577: 3576: 3559: 3549: 3547: 3534: 3533: 3529: 3519: 3517: 3508: 3507: 3503: 3493: 3491: 3474: 3473: 3460: 3450: 3448: 3441:Popular Science 3435: 3434: 3430: 3420: 3418: 3405: 3404: 3400: 3363: 3359: 3350: 3348: 3335: 3334: 3330: 3321: 3319: 3306: 3305: 3301: 3284:Wayback Machine 3263:Wayback Machine 3253: 3249: 3230: 3219: 3210: 3208: 3201:10.1038/ngeo868 3169: 3160: 3154:Wayback Machine 3143:Wayback Machine 3133: 3116: 3079: 3072: 3033:Xie, Shang-Ping 3029: 3022: 2990: 2983: 2973: 2971: 2962: 2961: 2954: 2935: 2928: 2919: 2917: 2908: 2907: 2903: 2894: 2892: 2877: 2870: 2861: 2859: 2841: 2837: 2830: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2673: 2668: 2667: 2662:and especially 2652:typhoon seasons 2610:with decreased 2608:Baja California 2577: 2569: 2564: 2563: 2555:planetary waves 2543:deep convection 2535: 2527: 2522: 2521: 2485: 2477: 2472: 2471: 2452: 2447: 2446: 2403: 2395: 2390: 2375:coral bleaching 2303: 2211:Coccolithophore 2144:Coral bleaching 2096: 2091: 2078: 2070:Beni Department 2062:northern Brazil 2055:Central America 1949: 1932: 1930:Pacific islands 1888: 1882: 1846:Rocky Mountains 1783: 1777: 1765: 1760: 1759: 1708: 1679: 1639: 1603: 1571: 1562: 1550:coral bleaching 1546: 1544:Coral bleaching 1529: 1463: 1425: 1420: 1398: 1315: 1309: 1301: 1300: 1299: 1298: 1297: 1294: 1286: 1285: 1278: 1267: 1262: 1261: 1194: 1174:tipping element 1170: 1124: 1084: 1051:The Australian 1041:Niño 3.4 region 1037:Niño 3.4 region 1009: 983: 918: 913: 905:teleconnections 901: 896: 895: 810: 807: 805: 765: 749: 738: 724:, 2018–19, and 706: 703: 702: 700: 637: 620: 615: 614: 613: 612: 611: 608: 600: 599: 595: 587: 586: 582: 567: 529:deep convection 506: 505: 504: 503: 502: 499: 490: 489: 488: 485: 474: 461: 455: 409: 355:Ekman transport 351:Coriolis effect 279: 267:climate pattern 189: 107:teleconnections 76: 75: 74: 73: 65: 64: 63: 55: 54: 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 15937: 15927: 15926: 15921: 15916: 15911: 15906: 15901: 15896: 15891: 15886: 15881: 15864: 15863: 15861: 15860: 15848: 15836: 15824: 15809: 15806: 15805: 15802: 15801: 15798: 15797: 15795: 15794: 15789: 15784: 15779: 15778: 15777: 15767: 15762: 15757: 15751: 15749: 15745: 15744: 15742: 15741: 15736: 15731: 15726: 15721: 15716: 15711: 15706: 15701: 15700: 15699: 15689: 15687:Cloud feedback 15684: 15679: 15674: 15669: 15668: 15667: 15662: 15657: 15652: 15642: 15636: 15634: 15630: 15629: 15627: 15626: 15621: 15616: 15611: 15605: 15603: 15595: 15594: 15584: 15583: 15580: 15579: 15576: 15575: 15573: 15572: 15567: 15562: 15561: 15560: 15555: 15545: 15543:Kyoto Protocol 15540: 15534: 15532: 15528: 15527: 15525: 15524: 15519: 15518: 15517: 15512: 15507: 15497: 15495:Media coverage 15492: 15487: 15485:Climate spiral 15482: 15477: 15471: 15469: 15463: 15462: 15460: 15459: 15454: 15449: 15444: 15439: 15434: 15429: 15424: 15419: 15414: 15409: 15404: 15399: 15393: 15391: 15385: 15384: 15382: 15381: 15376: 15374:Public opinion 15371: 15366: 15361: 15356: 15351: 15346: 15341: 15340: 15339: 15329: 15324: 15322:Climate action 15319: 15313: 15311: 15303: 15302: 15289: 15288: 15285: 15284: 15281: 15280: 15278: 15277: 15276: 15275: 15264: 15262: 15258: 15257: 15255: 15254: 15249: 15243: 15242: 15241: 15236: 15234:REDD and REDD+ 15231: 15226: 15218: 15213: 15211:Carbon farming 15208: 15207: 15206: 15201: 15191: 15185: 15183: 15175: 15174: 15172: 15171: 15166: 15161: 15156: 15155: 15154: 15144: 15138: 15136: 15132: 15131: 15129: 15128: 15123: 15118: 15113: 15108: 15103: 15098: 15093: 15088: 15083: 15078: 15073: 15072: 15071: 15061: 15056: 15050: 15048: 15038: 15037: 15025: 15024: 15021: 15020: 15017: 15016: 15014: 15013: 15008: 15003: 14998: 14993: 14988: 14983: 14978: 14973: 14968: 14963: 14957: 14955: 14949: 14948: 14946: 14945: 14943:Water security 14940: 14938:Water scarcity 14935: 14933:Urban flooding 14930: 14925: 14920: 14915: 14910: 14905: 14900: 14895: 14894: 14893: 14883: 14878: 14873: 14872: 14871: 14861: 14856: 14851: 14846: 14841: 14836: 14831: 14830: 14829: 14824: 14813: 14811: 14807: 14806: 14804: 14803: 14798: 14793: 14788: 14786:Forest dieback 14783: 14778: 14773: 14772: 14771: 14760: 14758: 14754: 14753: 14751: 14750: 14745: 14740: 14735: 14730: 14725: 14723:Sea level rise 14720: 14715: 14710: 14705: 14704: 14703: 14698: 14696:stratification 14693: 14688: 14683: 14678: 14668: 14667: 14666: 14661: 14651: 14650: 14649: 14639: 14634: 14629: 14624: 14619: 14614: 14609: 14603: 14601: 14593: 14592: 14580: 14579: 14576: 14575: 14573: 14572: 14571: 14570: 14565: 14560: 14555: 14550: 14545: 14537: 14532: 14527: 14522: 14517: 14512: 14506: 14503: 14502: 14492: 14491: 14488: 14487: 14484: 14483: 14481: 14480: 14475: 14474: 14473: 14468: 14463: 14461:Carbon leakage 14458: 14453: 14443: 14438: 14433: 14427: 14425: 14421: 14420: 14418: 14417: 14412: 14402: 14400:Climate system 14396: 14394: 14386: 14385: 14373: 14372: 14369: 14368: 14366: 14365: 14360: 14355: 14350: 14345: 14339: 14336: 14335: 14325: 14324: 14321:Climate change 14317: 14316: 14309: 14302: 14294: 14285: 14284: 14282: 14281: 14269: 14259: 14248: 14245: 14244: 14242: 14241: 14236: 14231: 14226: 14221: 14219:Stratification 14216: 14211: 14206: 14201: 14196: 14191: 14190: 14189: 14179: 14174: 14169: 14164: 14159: 14154: 14149: 14144: 14139: 14134: 14129: 14124: 14119: 14111: 14109:Color of water 14106: 14104:Benthic lander 14101: 14096: 14090: 14088: 14084: 14083: 14081: 14080: 14075: 14070: 14064: 14062: 14058: 14057: 14055: 14054: 14049: 14044: 14039: 14034: 14028: 14026: 14020: 14019: 14017: 14016: 14011: 14009:Sea level rise 14006: 14004:Sea level drop 14001: 13996: 13991: 13986: 13980: 13978: 13972: 13971: 13969: 13968: 13963: 13958: 13953: 13948: 13943: 13938: 13933: 13928: 13923: 13917: 13915: 13911: 13910: 13908: 13907: 13902: 13897: 13892: 13887: 13882: 13877: 13872: 13867: 13862: 13857: 13852: 13847: 13842: 13840:Marine geology 13837: 13832: 13827: 13822: 13816: 13814: 13806: 13805: 13803: 13802: 13797: 13792: 13787: 13782: 13780:Passive margin 13777: 13775:Oceanic trench 13772: 13767: 13762: 13757: 13752: 13747: 13742: 13737: 13732: 13727: 13722: 13717: 13712: 13707: 13702: 13697: 13692: 13686: 13684: 13678: 13677: 13675: 13674: 13669: 13664: 13659: 13654: 13649: 13644: 13639: 13634: 13629: 13624: 13619: 13614: 13609: 13604: 13599: 13594: 13589: 13583: 13581: 13575: 13574: 13572: 13571: 13566: 13561: 13556: 13551: 13550: 13549: 13539: 13534: 13529: 13524: 13519: 13514: 13509: 13507:Ocean dynamics 13504: 13499: 13494: 13489: 13484: 13479: 13474: 13469: 13464: 13459: 13454: 13449: 13444: 13439: 13434: 13429: 13424: 13419: 13414: 13409: 13404: 13399: 13397:Coriolis force 13394: 13389: 13384: 13378: 13376: 13370: 13369: 13351: 13349: 13347: 13346: 13345: 13344: 13334: 13329: 13324: 13323: 13322: 13317: 13307: 13302: 13297: 13292: 13287: 13282: 13277: 13272: 13267: 13262: 13257: 13252: 13247: 13246: 13245: 13235: 13230: 13225: 13220: 13218:Stokes problem 13215: 13210: 13205: 13200: 13195: 13190: 13185: 13180: 13175: 13170: 13165: 13160: 13155: 13153:Kinematic wave 13150: 13145: 13140: 13135: 13130: 13125: 13120: 13115: 13110: 13105: 13100: 13095: 13090: 13085: 13080: 13075: 13070: 13064: 13062: 13056: 13055: 13048: 13047: 13040: 13033: 13025: 13016: 13015: 13013: 13012: 13007: 13002: 12997: 12992: 12987: 12982: 12977: 12972: 12967: 12962: 12957: 12952: 12947: 12942: 12937: 12935:Glacial cycles 12932: 12927: 12922: 12917: 12912: 12907: 12902: 12897: 12892: 12887: 12882: 12877: 12872: 12867: 12861: 12859: 12853: 12852: 12845: 12844: 12837: 12830: 12822: 12816: 12815: 12802: 12786: 12772: 12771:External links 12769: 12767: 12766: 12725: 12704:(2): 381–395. 12684: 12643: 12615: 12585: 12532: 12503:(5): 702–708. 12483: 12465: 12445: 12400: 12386:10.1.1.54.3115 12355: 12326: 12309:Wild Singapore 12296: 12265: 12238: 12210: 12168: 12141: 12117: 12093: 12071: 12034: 12008: 11989: 11967: 11924: 11917: 11893: 11866:(5): 419–422. 11849: 11788: 11723: 11696:(4): 453–463. 11680: 11637: 11585: 11534: 11482: 11445:(4): 567–577. 11428: 11409:(4): 465–470. 11392: 11362: 11341:"El Niño 2016" 11329: 11280: 11234: 11199: 11156: 11137:(1): 107–114. 11121: 11090: 11069:"Biodiversity" 11060: 11045: 11016: 10998: 10978: 10927: 10911:scied.ucar.edu 10898: 10857: 10831: 10806: 10786: 10766: 10753: 10715: 10684: 10655: 10618: 10599: 10569: 10547:(2012-01-26). 10536: 10487: 10464: 10441: 10421: 10401: 10364:(2): 907–915. 10344: 10314: 10296: 10273: 10245: 10219: 10216:on 2005-05-15. 10195: 10173: 10150: 10124: 10106: 10077: 10042: 10020: 10008: 9983: 9971: 9952: 9934: 9931:www.bom.gov.au 9919: 9916:www.bom.gov.au 9904: 9888: 9855: 9798: 9787:on 14 May 2008 9767: 9720: 9702: 9693: 9684: 9657:(4): 415–425. 9638: 9595: 9580: 9539: 9513: 9483: 9453: 9425: 9376: 9346: 9317: 9296:(1): 252–262. 9276: 9249: 9198: 9133: 9075: 9045: 9015: 8985: 8956: 8930: 8901: 8860: 8853: 8826: 8783: 8742: 8701: 8675: 8649: 8620: 8591: 8561: 8520: 8491:(6): 1419–28. 8472: 8461:on 5 July 2012 8439: 8421: 8395: 8373: 8346:(7): 649–653. 8326: 8289:(4): 631–650. 8266: 8254:ClimateScience 8241: 8204:(2): 601–619. 8181: 8122: 8073: 8008: 7967: 7916: 7877:(6): 407–418. 7856: 7825: 7798: 7745: 7694: 7665:(12): L12702. 7645: 7631:10.1.1.54.3115 7600: 7569:(6): 391–397. 7545: 7522: 7469:Xie,Shang-Ping 7459: 7392: 7363: 7342:(11): L11704. 7322: 7284:(6): 549–566. 7264: 7213:(3): 325–340. 7190: 7150: 7141: 7115: 7089: 7064: 7038: 7012: 6986: 6958:(2014-06-30). 6947: 6924: 6899: 6834: 6820:(in Spanish). 6808: 6794:(in Spanish). 6782: 6751: 6705: 6676: 6645: 6624:(12): C12001. 6604: 6555: 6506:(10): L10704. 6483: 6425: 6384: 6357:(3): 223–233. 6341: 6283: 6248:(14): L14705. 6225: 6196:(C2): C02024. 6176: 6147:(15): L15709. 6127: 6100:(19): L19703. 6084: 6033: 6031: 6030: 6005: 5974: 5954:(12): C12001. 5939: 5904: 5871: 5850:(3): 406–415. 5830: 5804: 5783: 5756: 5725: 5653: 5627: 5620: 5600: 5574: 5545:(12): L12805. 5525: 5474: 5425: 5404:(12): L12805. 5381: 5360:(3): 406–415. 5337: 5316:(13): L13705. 5296: 5282:10.1.1.467.457 5267:(3): 615–632. 5248: 5207: 5154: 5101: 5099: 5098: 5072: 5045: 5021: 4993: 4973: 4937: 4874: 4848: 4822: 4796: 4747: 4714: 4688: 4681: 4654: 4617: 4590: 4576:. 2023-06-08. 4561: 4531: 4504: 4468: 4442: 4416: 4390: 4363: 4337: 4311: 4277: 4251: 4225: 4199: 4173: 4132: 4098: 4087: 4057: 4020: 4006:. 2002-04-03. 3991: 3984: 3966: 3955:(6): 840–857. 3939: 3926:(6): 813–825. 3906: 3879: 3849: 3840:|journal= 3815: 3775: 3745: 3719: 3712: 3694: 3668: 3639: 3600: 3557: 3527: 3501: 3458: 3428: 3398: 3357: 3328: 3299: 3247: 3217: 3173:Timmermann, A. 3158: 3114: 3087:Earth's Future 3070: 3047:(2): 480–494. 3020: 2981: 2952: 2926: 2901: 2868: 2846:(2005-12-19). 2835: 2828: 2809: 2807: 2804: 2803: 2802: 2797: 2791: 2786: 2781: 2775: 2764: 2763: 2758: 2752: 2746: 2740: 2734: 2728: 2722: 2716: 2711: 2705: 2699: 2687: 2686: 2680: 2672: 2669: 2578: 2570: 2568: 2565: 2536: 2528: 2526: 2523: 2486: 2478: 2476: 2473: 2454: 2453: 2451: 2448: 2404: 2396: 2394: 2391: 2389: 2386: 2367:Jacob Bjerknes 2361:(for whom the 2359:Gilbert Walker 2355:Norman Lockyer 2302: 2299: 2296: 2295: 2287: 2280: 2274: 2273: 2261: 2254: 2248: 2247: 2235: 2232: 2226: 2225: 2214: 2207: 2201: 2200: 2192: 2189: 2183: 2182: 2178: 2172: 2168: 2167: 2156: 2153: 2149: 2148: 2141: 2138: 2131: 2130: 2127: 2124: 2123:Series/ epoch 2095: 2092: 2090: 2087: 2077: 2074: 2020:Horse mackerel 1948: 1945: 1931: 1928: 1884:Main article: 1881: 1878: 1776: 1773: 1764: 1761: 1709: 1701: 1678: 1675: 1638: 1635: 1619:Bellingshausen 1602: 1599: 1570: 1567: 1561: 1558: 1545: 1542: 1528: 1525: 1462: 1459: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1397: 1394: 1361:Atlantic Ocean 1321:closer to the 1308: 1305: 1295: 1288: 1287: 1282:global warming 1279: 1272: 1271: 1270: 1269: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1250:food shortages 1207:Arctic sea ice 1195: 1187: 1178:teleconnection 1169: 1166: 1165: 1164: 1161: 1158: 1132:climate change 1123: 1122:Climate change 1120: 1083: 1080: 1079: 1078: 1070: 1063: 1056: 1049: 1008: 1005: 982: 979: 967:climate change 917: 914: 912: 909: 900: 897: 894: 893: 888: 885: 882: 877: 874: 871: 868: 865: 862: 859: 856: 853: 850: 847: 844: 841: 838: 835: 832: 829: 826: 823: 820: 816: 815: 803: 802: 737: 734: 704: 698: 697: 636: 633: 619: 616: 609: 602: 601: 596: 589: 588: 583: 576: 575: 574: 573: 572: 566: 563: 548:station record 500: 493: 492: 491: 486: 479: 478: 477: 476: 475: 473: 470: 465:Gilbert Walker 457:Main article: 454: 451: 421:climate system 413:Jacob Bjerknes 408: 405: 391:quasi-periodic 368:Southern Ocean 278: 275: 188: 185: 176:climate change 145:Jacob Bjerknes 67: 66: 57: 56: 48: 47: 46: 45: 44: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 15936: 15925: 15922: 15920: 15917: 15915: 15912: 15910: 15907: 15905: 15902: 15900: 15897: 15895: 15892: 15890: 15887: 15885: 15882: 15880: 15877: 15876: 15874: 15859: 15858: 15849: 15847: 15846: 15837: 15835: 15834: 15825: 15823: 15822: 15811: 15810: 15807: 15793: 15790: 15788: 15785: 15783: 15780: 15776: 15773: 15772: 15771: 15768: 15766: 15763: 15761: 15760:Climate model 15758: 15756: 15753: 15752: 15750: 15746: 15740: 15737: 15735: 15732: 15730: 15727: 15725: 15722: 15720: 15717: 15715: 15712: 15710: 15707: 15705: 15702: 15698: 15695: 15694: 15693: 15692:Cloud forcing 15690: 15688: 15685: 15683: 15680: 15678: 15675: 15673: 15670: 15666: 15663: 15661: 15658: 15656: 15653: 15651: 15648: 15647: 15646: 15643: 15641: 15638: 15637: 15635: 15631: 15625: 15622: 15620: 15617: 15615: 15612: 15610: 15607: 15606: 15604: 15600: 15596: 15589: 15585: 15571: 15568: 15566: 15563: 15559: 15556: 15554: 15551: 15550: 15549: 15546: 15544: 15541: 15539: 15536: 15535: 15533: 15529: 15523: 15520: 15516: 15513: 15511: 15508: 15506: 15503: 15502: 15501: 15498: 15496: 15493: 15491: 15488: 15486: 15483: 15481: 15478: 15476: 15473: 15472: 15470: 15468: 15467:Communication 15464: 15458: 15455: 15453: 15450: 15448: 15447:Vulnerability 15445: 15443: 15440: 15438: 15435: 15433: 15430: 15428: 15425: 15423: 15420: 15418: 15417:Flood control 15415: 15413: 15410: 15408: 15405: 15403: 15400: 15398: 15395: 15394: 15392: 15390: 15386: 15380: 15377: 15375: 15372: 15370: 15367: 15365: 15362: 15360: 15357: 15355: 15352: 15350: 15347: 15345: 15342: 15338: 15335: 15334: 15333: 15330: 15328: 15325: 15323: 15320: 15318: 15315: 15314: 15312: 15308: 15304: 15300: 15294: 15290: 15274: 15271: 15270: 15269: 15266: 15265: 15263: 15259: 15253: 15250: 15247: 15244: 15240: 15239:reforestation 15237: 15235: 15232: 15230: 15227: 15225: 15224:afforestation 15222: 15221: 15219: 15217: 15214: 15212: 15209: 15205: 15202: 15200: 15197: 15196: 15195: 15192: 15190: 15187: 15186: 15184: 15182: 15176: 15170: 15167: 15165: 15162: 15160: 15159:Nuclear power 15157: 15153: 15150: 15149: 15148: 15145: 15143: 15140: 15139: 15137: 15133: 15127: 15124: 15122: 15119: 15117: 15114: 15112: 15109: 15107: 15104: 15102: 15099: 15097: 15094: 15092: 15089: 15087: 15084: 15082: 15079: 15077: 15074: 15070: 15067: 15066: 15065: 15062: 15060: 15057: 15055: 15054:Carbon budget 15052: 15051: 15049: 15047: 15043: 15039: 15035: 15030: 15026: 15012: 15009: 15007: 15004: 15002: 14999: 14997: 14994: 14992: 14989: 14987: 14984: 14982: 14979: 14977: 14974: 14972: 14969: 14967: 14964: 14962: 14959: 14958: 14956: 14954: 14950: 14944: 14941: 14939: 14936: 14934: 14931: 14929: 14926: 14924: 14921: 14919: 14916: 14914: 14911: 14909: 14906: 14904: 14901: 14899: 14896: 14892: 14891:Mental health 14889: 14888: 14887: 14884: 14882: 14879: 14877: 14874: 14870: 14867: 14866: 14865: 14862: 14860: 14857: 14855: 14852: 14850: 14847: 14845: 14842: 14840: 14837: 14835: 14832: 14828: 14827:United States 14825: 14823: 14820: 14819: 14818: 14815: 14814: 14812: 14808: 14802: 14799: 14797: 14794: 14792: 14789: 14787: 14784: 14782: 14779: 14777: 14774: 14770: 14767: 14766: 14765: 14762: 14761: 14759: 14755: 14749: 14746: 14744: 14741: 14739: 14736: 14734: 14731: 14729: 14726: 14724: 14721: 14719: 14716: 14714: 14711: 14709: 14706: 14702: 14699: 14697: 14694: 14692: 14689: 14687: 14684: 14682: 14681:deoxygenation 14679: 14677: 14676:acidification 14674: 14673: 14672: 14669: 14665: 14662: 14660: 14657: 14656: 14655: 14652: 14648: 14645: 14644: 14643: 14640: 14638: 14635: 14633: 14630: 14628: 14625: 14623: 14620: 14618: 14615: 14613: 14610: 14608: 14605: 14604: 14602: 14598: 14594: 14590: 14585: 14581: 14569: 14566: 14564: 14561: 14559: 14556: 14554: 14551: 14549: 14546: 14544: 14541: 14540: 14538: 14536: 14533: 14531: 14528: 14526: 14523: 14521: 14518: 14516: 14513: 14511: 14508: 14507: 14504: 14497: 14493: 14479: 14476: 14472: 14471:from wetlands 14469: 14467: 14464: 14462: 14459: 14457: 14454: 14452: 14449: 14448: 14447: 14444: 14442: 14439: 14437: 14434: 14432: 14431:Deforestation 14429: 14428: 14426: 14422: 14416: 14413: 14410: 14406: 14403: 14401: 14398: 14397: 14395: 14391: 14387: 14383: 14378: 14374: 14364: 14361: 14359: 14356: 14354: 14351: 14349: 14346: 14344: 14341: 14340: 14337: 14330: 14326: 14322: 14315: 14310: 14308: 14303: 14301: 14296: 14295: 14292: 14280: 14275: 14270: 14268: 14260: 14258: 14250: 14249: 14246: 14240: 14237: 14235: 14232: 14230: 14227: 14225: 14222: 14220: 14217: 14215: 14212: 14210: 14207: 14205: 14202: 14200: 14197: 14195: 14192: 14188: 14185: 14184: 14183: 14180: 14178: 14175: 14173: 14170: 14168: 14165: 14163: 14160: 14158: 14155: 14153: 14150: 14148: 14145: 14143: 14140: 14138: 14135: 14133: 14130: 14128: 14127:Marine energy 14125: 14123: 14120: 14118: 14117: 14112: 14110: 14107: 14105: 14102: 14100: 14097: 14095: 14094:Acidification 14092: 14091: 14089: 14085: 14079: 14076: 14074: 14071: 14069: 14066: 14065: 14063: 14059: 14053: 14050: 14048: 14047:SOFAR channel 14045: 14043: 14040: 14038: 14035: 14033: 14030: 14029: 14027: 14025: 14021: 14015: 14012: 14010: 14007: 14005: 14002: 14000: 13997: 13995: 13992: 13990: 13987: 13985: 13982: 13981: 13979: 13977: 13973: 13967: 13964: 13962: 13959: 13957: 13954: 13952: 13949: 13947: 13944: 13942: 13939: 13937: 13934: 13932: 13929: 13927: 13924: 13922: 13919: 13918: 13916: 13912: 13906: 13903: 13901: 13898: 13896: 13893: 13891: 13888: 13886: 13883: 13881: 13878: 13876: 13873: 13871: 13868: 13866: 13863: 13861: 13858: 13856: 13855:Oceanic crust 13853: 13851: 13848: 13846: 13843: 13841: 13838: 13836: 13833: 13831: 13830:Fracture zone 13828: 13826: 13823: 13821: 13818: 13817: 13815: 13813: 13807: 13801: 13798: 13796: 13793: 13791: 13788: 13786: 13783: 13781: 13778: 13776: 13773: 13771: 13768: 13766: 13765:Oceanic basin 13763: 13761: 13758: 13756: 13753: 13751: 13748: 13746: 13743: 13741: 13738: 13736: 13733: 13731: 13728: 13726: 13723: 13721: 13718: 13716: 13713: 13711: 13708: 13706: 13703: 13701: 13698: 13696: 13695:Abyssal plain 13693: 13691: 13688: 13687: 13685: 13683: 13679: 13673: 13670: 13668: 13665: 13663: 13660: 13658: 13655: 13653: 13650: 13648: 13645: 13643: 13640: 13638: 13635: 13633: 13630: 13628: 13625: 13623: 13620: 13618: 13615: 13613: 13610: 13608: 13605: 13603: 13602:Internal tide 13600: 13598: 13595: 13593: 13590: 13588: 13585: 13584: 13582: 13580: 13576: 13570: 13567: 13565: 13562: 13560: 13557: 13555: 13552: 13548: 13545: 13544: 13543: 13540: 13538: 13535: 13533: 13530: 13528: 13525: 13523: 13520: 13518: 13515: 13513: 13510: 13508: 13505: 13503: 13500: 13498: 13497:Ocean current 13495: 13493: 13490: 13488: 13485: 13483: 13480: 13478: 13475: 13473: 13470: 13468: 13465: 13463: 13460: 13458: 13455: 13453: 13450: 13448: 13445: 13443: 13440: 13438: 13435: 13433: 13430: 13428: 13425: 13423: 13420: 13418: 13415: 13413: 13410: 13408: 13405: 13403: 13400: 13398: 13395: 13393: 13390: 13388: 13385: 13383: 13380: 13379: 13377: 13375: 13371: 13366: 13355: 13343: 13340: 13339: 13338: 13335: 13333: 13330: 13328: 13325: 13321: 13318: 13316: 13313: 13312: 13311: 13308: 13306: 13303: 13301: 13298: 13296: 13295:Wave shoaling 13293: 13291: 13288: 13286: 13283: 13281: 13278: 13276: 13273: 13271: 13268: 13266: 13263: 13261: 13258: 13256: 13255:Ursell number 13253: 13251: 13248: 13244: 13241: 13240: 13239: 13236: 13234: 13231: 13229: 13226: 13224: 13221: 13219: 13216: 13214: 13211: 13209: 13206: 13204: 13201: 13199: 13196: 13194: 13191: 13189: 13186: 13184: 13181: 13179: 13176: 13174: 13171: 13169: 13166: 13164: 13161: 13159: 13156: 13154: 13151: 13149: 13146: 13144: 13141: 13139: 13138:Internal wave 13136: 13134: 13131: 13129: 13126: 13124: 13121: 13119: 13116: 13114: 13111: 13109: 13106: 13104: 13101: 13099: 13096: 13094: 13091: 13089: 13088:Breaking wave 13086: 13084: 13081: 13079: 13076: 13074: 13071: 13069: 13066: 13065: 13063: 13061: 13057: 13053: 13046: 13041: 13039: 13034: 13032: 13027: 13026: 13023: 13011: 13008: 13006: 13003: 13001: 12998: 12996: 12993: 12991: 12988: 12986: 12983: 12981: 12978: 12976: 12973: 12971: 12968: 12966: 12963: 12961: 12958: 12956: 12953: 12951: 12948: 12946: 12943: 12941: 12938: 12936: 12933: 12931: 12928: 12926: 12923: 12921: 12918: 12916: 12915:Diurnal cycle 12913: 12911: 12908: 12906: 12903: 12901: 12898: 12896: 12893: 12891: 12888: 12886: 12883: 12881: 12878: 12876: 12873: 12871: 12868: 12866: 12863: 12862: 12860: 12854: 12850: 12843: 12838: 12836: 12831: 12829: 12824: 12823: 12820: 12811: 12808:. Australian 12807: 12803: 12799: 12795: 12791: 12787: 12783: 12779: 12775: 12774: 12761: 12756: 12752: 12748: 12744: 12740: 12736: 12729: 12720: 12715: 12711: 12707: 12703: 12699: 12695: 12688: 12679: 12674: 12670: 12666: 12662: 12658: 12654: 12647: 12633: 12626: 12619: 12603: 12599: 12595: 12589: 12581: 12577: 12573: 12569: 12564: 12559: 12555: 12551: 12548:(2): RG2003. 12547: 12543: 12536: 12528: 12524: 12519: 12514: 12510: 12506: 12502: 12498: 12494: 12487: 12472: 12468: 12462: 12458: 12457: 12449: 12441: 12437: 12432: 12427: 12423: 12419: 12415: 12411: 12404: 12396: 12392: 12387: 12382: 12378: 12374: 12370: 12366: 12359: 12343: 12339: 12338: 12330: 12314: 12310: 12306: 12300: 12284: 12280: 12276: 12269: 12263: 12259: 12256: 12252: 12248: 12242: 12235: 12231: 12227: 12223: 12220: 12214: 12207: 12204: 12200: 12197: 12193: 12189: 12185: 12181: 12178: 12172: 12165: 12161: 12158: 12154: 12151: 12145: 12138: 12134: 12131: 12130:From p. 1456: 12127: 12121: 12114: 12110: 12106: 12105: 12097: 12089: 12085: 12078: 12076: 12068: 12055: 12051: 12047: 12046: 12038: 12022: 12018: 12012: 11996: 11992: 11990:9780691147970 11986: 11982: 11978: 11971: 11963: 11959: 11955: 11954:10.1038/30636 11951: 11947: 11943: 11939: 11935: 11928: 11920: 11914: 11910: 11906: 11905: 11897: 11889: 11885: 11881: 11877: 11873: 11869: 11865: 11861: 11853: 11845: 11841: 11837: 11833: 11828: 11823: 11819: 11815: 11811: 11807: 11803: 11799: 11792: 11784: 11780: 11776: 11772: 11768: 11764: 11759: 11754: 11750: 11746: 11742: 11738: 11734: 11727: 11719: 11715: 11711: 11707: 11703: 11699: 11695: 11691: 11684: 11676: 11672: 11668: 11664: 11660: 11656: 11652: 11648: 11641: 11633: 11629: 11625: 11621: 11617: 11613: 11609: 11605: 11601: 11597: 11589: 11581: 11577: 11573: 11569: 11565: 11561: 11557: 11553: 11549: 11545: 11538: 11530: 11526: 11522: 11518: 11514: 11510: 11506: 11502: 11498: 11494: 11486: 11478: 11474: 11469: 11464: 11460: 11456: 11452: 11448: 11444: 11440: 11432: 11424: 11420: 11416: 11412: 11408: 11404: 11396: 11388: 11384: 11380: 11376: 11375: 11366: 11350: 11346: 11342: 11336: 11334: 11325: 11321: 11316: 11311: 11307: 11303: 11299: 11295: 11291: 11284: 11276: 11272: 11268: 11264: 11260: 11256: 11252: 11248: 11241: 11239: 11230: 11226: 11222: 11218: 11214: 11210: 11203: 11195: 11191: 11187: 11183: 11179: 11175: 11171: 11167: 11160: 11152: 11148: 11144: 11140: 11136: 11132: 11125: 11109: 11105: 11101: 11094: 11078: 11074: 11070: 11064: 11056: 11049: 11033: 11029: 11023: 11021: 11005: 11001: 10995: 10991: 10990: 10982: 10966: 10962: 10958: 10954: 10950: 10946: 10942: 10938: 10931: 10916: 10912: 10908: 10902: 10894: 10888: 10872: 10868: 10861: 10845: 10841: 10835: 10820: 10816: 10810: 10803: 10799: 10796: 10790: 10783: 10779: 10776: 10770: 10763: 10757: 10739: 10735: 10728: 10722: 10720: 10708: 10704: 10697: 10691: 10689: 10672: 10668: 10662: 10660: 10650: 10645: 10641: 10637: 10633: 10631: 10622: 10614: 10610: 10603: 10589:on 2013-02-18 10588: 10584: 10580: 10573: 10558: 10554: 10550: 10546: 10540: 10532: 10528: 10523: 10518: 10514: 10510: 10506: 10502: 10498: 10491: 10484: 10480: 10477: 10473: 10468: 10461: 10457: 10454: 10450: 10445: 10438: 10434: 10431: 10425: 10418: 10414: 10411: 10405: 10397: 10393: 10389: 10385: 10380: 10375: 10371: 10367: 10363: 10359: 10355: 10348: 10333: 10329: 10325: 10318: 10310: 10306: 10300: 10292: 10288: 10284: 10277: 10269: 10265: 10261: 10254: 10252: 10250: 10233: 10229: 10223: 10212: 10205: 10199: 10191: 10187: 10183: 10177: 10170: 10166: 10163: 10159: 10154: 10139: 10135: 10128: 10120: 10116: 10110: 10094: 10090: 10087: 10081: 10073: 10069: 10065: 10061: 10057: 10053: 10046: 10038: 10034: 10030: 10024: 10017: 10012: 9997: 9993: 9987: 9980: 9975: 9967: 9963: 9956: 9948: 9944: 9938: 9932: 9928: 9923: 9917: 9913: 9908: 9901: 9897: 9892: 9876: 9872: 9866: 9864: 9862: 9860: 9851: 9847: 9843: 9839: 9834: 9829: 9825: 9821: 9817: 9813: 9809: 9802: 9786: 9782: 9778: 9771: 9763: 9759: 9754: 9749: 9745: 9741: 9737: 9733: 9732: 9724: 9716: 9712: 9706: 9697: 9688: 9680: 9676: 9672: 9668: 9664: 9660: 9656: 9652: 9645: 9643: 9634: 9630: 9626: 9622: 9618: 9614: 9610: 9606: 9599: 9593: 9587: 9585: 9575: 9570: 9566: 9562: 9558: 9554: 9550: 9543: 9527: 9526:reliefweb.int 9523: 9517: 9501: 9497: 9493: 9487: 9471: 9467: 9463: 9457: 9449: 9445: 9441: 9434: 9432: 9430: 9421: 9417: 9412: 9407: 9403: 9399: 9395: 9391: 9387: 9380: 9364: 9360: 9356: 9350: 9335: 9331: 9327: 9321: 9312: 9307: 9303: 9299: 9295: 9291: 9287: 9280: 9272: 9268: 9264: 9260: 9253: 9245: 9241: 9237: 9233: 9229: 9225: 9221: 9217: 9213: 9209: 9202: 9194: 9190: 9185: 9180: 9176: 9172: 9168: 9164: 9160: 9156: 9152: 9148: 9144: 9137: 9119: 9114: 9109: 9105: 9101: 9097: 9093: 9086: 9079: 9063: 9059: 9055: 9049: 9033: 9029: 9025: 9019: 9003: 8999: 8995: 8989: 8978: 8974: 8967: 8960: 8944: 8940: 8934: 8919: 8915: 8911: 8905: 8897: 8891: 8875: 8871: 8864: 8856: 8850: 8846: 8842: 8841: 8836: 8830: 8822: 8818: 8814: 8810: 8806: 8802: 8798: 8794: 8787: 8778: 8773: 8769: 8765: 8761: 8757: 8753: 8746: 8737: 8732: 8728: 8724: 8720: 8716: 8712: 8705: 8689: 8685: 8679: 8663: 8659: 8653: 8637: 8633: 8627: 8625: 8608: 8604: 8598: 8596: 8587: 8583: 8579: 8572: 8570: 8568: 8566: 8556: 8551: 8547: 8543: 8539: 8535: 8531: 8524: 8516: 8512: 8507: 8502: 8498: 8494: 8490: 8486: 8479: 8477: 8457: 8450: 8443: 8435: 8431: 8425: 8410: 8406: 8399: 8392:. p. 88. 8391: 8384: 8377: 8369: 8365: 8361: 8357: 8353: 8349: 8345: 8341: 8337: 8330: 8322: 8318: 8314: 8310: 8305: 8300: 8296: 8292: 8288: 8284: 8280: 8273: 8271: 8255: 8251: 8245: 8237: 8233: 8229: 8225: 8220: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8203: 8199: 8195: 8188: 8186: 8177: 8173: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8153: 8149: 8145: 8141: 8137: 8133: 8126: 8118: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8100: 8096: 8092: 8088: 8084: 8077: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8046: 8042: 8038: 8034: 8030: 8026: 8019: 8012: 8003: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7971: 7963: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7935: 7931: 7927: 7920: 7904: 7900: 7896: 7892: 7888: 7884: 7880: 7876: 7872: 7868: 7860: 7844: 7840: 7836: 7829: 7813: 7809: 7802: 7794: 7790: 7786: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7768: 7764: 7760: 7756: 7749: 7741: 7737: 7733: 7729: 7725: 7721: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7705: 7698: 7690: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7672: 7668: 7664: 7660: 7656: 7649: 7641: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7611: 7604: 7588: 7584: 7580: 7576: 7572: 7568: 7564: 7560: 7556: 7549: 7541: 7537: 7533: 7526: 7518: 7514: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7490: 7486: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7470: 7463: 7455: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7437: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7419: 7415: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7396: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7367: 7358: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7337: 7333: 7326: 7311: 7307: 7303: 7299: 7295: 7291: 7287: 7283: 7279: 7275: 7268: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7201: 7194: 7186: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7168: 7164: 7160: 7156: 7145: 7129: 7125: 7119: 7103: 7099: 7098:"Climate.gov" 7093: 7078: 7075:(June 2009). 7074: 7068: 7053: 7049: 7042: 7026: 7022: 7016: 7000: 6996: 6990: 6972: 6968: 6961: 6957: 6951: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6928: 6912: 6906: 6904: 6895: 6891: 6887: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6838: 6823: 6819: 6812: 6797: 6793: 6786: 6771: 6764: 6763: 6755: 6740: 6736: 6732: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6716: 6709: 6693: 6689: 6683: 6681: 6664: 6660: 6654: 6652: 6650: 6640: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6608: 6600: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6570: 6566: 6559: 6541: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6494: 6487: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6429: 6420: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6404:(5–6): 1–14. 6403: 6399: 6395: 6388: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6364: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6345: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6313: 6309: 6306:(2): L02704. 6305: 6301: 6294: 6287: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6236: 6229: 6221: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6180: 6172: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6131: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6088: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6037: 6019: 6015: 6014:Grain Central 6011: 6006: 5991: 5987: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5940: 5925: 5918: 5913: 5912: 5908: 5889: 5882: 5875: 5866: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5834: 5818: 5814: 5808: 5799: 5794: 5787: 5770: 5766: 5760: 5742: 5735: 5729: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5664: 5657: 5641: 5637: 5631: 5623: 5617: 5613: 5612: 5604: 5590:on 2014-07-21 5589: 5585: 5578: 5570: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5529: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5478: 5470: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5429: 5420: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5388: 5386: 5376: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5344: 5342: 5332: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5300: 5292: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5255: 5253: 5243: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5211: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5170:(7): 973–84. 5169: 5165: 5158: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5105: 5084: 5077: 5073: 5061: 5057: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4953:The NOAA News 4950: 4946: 4945: 4941: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4890: 4885: 4878: 4862: 4858: 4852: 4841:September 11, 4836: 4832: 4826: 4810: 4806: 4800: 4792: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4751: 4735: 4731: 4730: 4725: 4718: 4702: 4698: 4692: 4684: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4669: 4664: 4658: 4651: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4621: 4605: 4601: 4594: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4565: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4535: 4519: 4515: 4508: 4489: 4485: 4478: 4472: 4456: 4452: 4446: 4430: 4426: 4420: 4404: 4401:(June 2009). 4400: 4394: 4378: 4374: 4367: 4351: 4347: 4341: 4327:on 2014-07-14 4326: 4322: 4315: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4284: 4282: 4265: 4261: 4255: 4241:on 2014-06-27 4240: 4236: 4229: 4214: 4210: 4203: 4188: 4184: 4177: 4159: 4155: 4148: 4144: 4136: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4102: 4096: 4091: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4061: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4031: 4029: 4027: 4025: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3995: 3987: 3981: 3977: 3970: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3943: 3934: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3910: 3894: 3890: 3883: 3868:. Climate.gov 3867: 3863: 3856: 3854: 3845: 3833: 3818: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3793: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3764:. Climate.gov 3763: 3759: 3752: 3750: 3733: 3729: 3723: 3715: 3709: 3705: 3698: 3682: 3678: 3672: 3656: 3650: 3648: 3646: 3644: 3624: 3617: 3611: 3609: 3607: 3605: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3574: 3572: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3562: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3531: 3515: 3511: 3505: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3471: 3469: 3467: 3465: 3463: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3432: 3416: 3412: 3411:Bloomberg.com 3408: 3402: 3393: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3361: 3347:on 2019-10-27 3346: 3342: 3338: 3332: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3303: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3285: 3281: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3269: 3264: 3260: 3257: 3251: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3228: 3226: 3224: 3222: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3167: 3165: 3163: 3155: 3151: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3137: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3121: 3119: 3109: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3077: 3075: 3065: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3027: 3025: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2988: 2986: 2969: 2965: 2959: 2957: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2933: 2931: 2915: 2912:. 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