Indian Ocean - Knowledge

2211: 1112: 3625: 1132:), events are a trigger to this strong warming in the Indian Ocean. While the Indian Ocean warmed at a rate of 1.2°C per century during 1950–2020, climate models predict accelerated warming, at a rate of 1.7 °C–3.8 °C per century during 2020–2100. Though the warming is basin-wide, maximum warming is in the northwestern Indian Ocean including the Arabian Sea, and reduced warming off the Sumatra and Java coasts in the southeast Indian Ocean. Global warming is projected to push the tropical Indian Ocean into a basin-wide near-permanent heatwave state by the end of the 21st century, where marine heatwaves are projected to increase from 20 days per year (during 1970–2000) to 220–250 days per year. 2892: 3191: 3111: 3102: 1413: 1404: 57: 2097: 1325:) in the Arabian Sea because evaporation exceeds precipitation there. In the Southeast Arabian Sea salinity drops to less than 34 PSU. It is the lowest (c. 33 PSU) in the Bay of Bengal because of river runoff and precipitation. The Indonesian Throughflow and precipitation results in lower salinity (34 PSU) along the Sumatran west coast. Monsoonal variation results in eastward transportation of saltier water from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal from June to September and in westerly transport by the East India Coastal Current to the Arabian Sea from January to April. 2320: 2329: 3262: 1395: 3796: 568: 1884: 2948:, the Arabic word for season), however, was used by sailors long before being "discovered" by Hippalus in the 1st century. Indian wood have been found in Sumerian cities, there is evidence of Akkad coastal trade in the region, and contacts between India and the Red Sea dates back to 2300 B.C. The archipelagoes of the central Indian Ocean, the Laccadive and Maldive islands, were probably populated during the 2nd century B.C. from the Indian mainland. They appear in written history in the account of merchant 10744: 84: 9187: 3754: 3362: 2782: 554: 1096:. Some 80% of the total annual rainfall in India occurs during summer and the region is so dependent on this rainfall that many civilisations perished when the Monsoon failed in the past. The huge variability in the Indian Summer Monsoon has also occurred pre-historically, with a strong, wet phase 33,500–32,500 BP; a weak, dry phase 26,000–23,500 BC; and a very weak phase 17,000–15,000 BP, corresponding to a series of dramatic global events: 9198: 3740: 1025: 2645: 2956: 8398: 3768: 3605: 3448: 2723:(Southeast Asia to Australia). Since then, waves of migration have resettled people and, clearly, the Indian Ocean littoral had been inhabited long before the first civilisations emerged. 5000–6000 years ago six distinct cultural centres had evolved around the Indian Ocean: East Africa, the Middle East, the Indian Subcontinent, South East Asia, the Malay World and Australia; each interlinked to its neighbours. 1893: 38: 1968: 3069: 64: 1344:, and back to Australia in a period of six years, except for debris that gets indefinitely stuck in the centre of the gyre. The garbage patch in the Indian Ocean will, according to a 2012 study, decrease in size after several decades to vanish completely over centuries. Over several millennia, however, the global system of garbage patches will accumulate in the North Pacific. 3782: 2210: 3621:

in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and Western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals, and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, Pakistan, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.

430:, resulting in unique oceanic currents and upwelling patterns. The Indian Ocean is ecologically diverse, with important marine life and ecosystems like coral reefs, mangroves, and sea grass beds. It hosts a significant portion of the world's tuna catch and is home to endangered marine species. It faces challenges like 2306:, the southwestern corner of Australia is a floristic region with a stable climate in which one of the world's largest floral biodiversity and an 80% endemism has evolved. From June to September it is an explosion of colours and the Wildflower Festival in Perth in September attracts more than half a million visitors. 2711:(11,000 years ago). This coastal dispersal, however, began in East Africa 75,000 years ago and occurred intermittently from estuary to estuary along the northern perimeter of the Indian Ocean at a rate of 0.7–4.0 km (0.43–2.49 mi) per year. It eventually resulted in modern humans migrating from 3620:

The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oil fields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped

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The sea lanes in the Indian Ocean are considered among the most strategically important in the world with more than 80 percent of the world's seaborne trade in oil transits through the Indian Ocean and its vital chokepoints, with 40 percent passing through the Strait of Hormuz, 35 percent through the

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There are fewer seamounts in the Indian Ocean than in the Atlantic and Pacific. These are typically deeper than 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and located north of 55°S and west of 80°E. Most originated at spreading ridges but some are now located in basins far away from these ridges. The ridges of the

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Coral reefs, sea grass beds, and mangrove forests are the most productive ecosystems of the Indian Ocean — coastal areas produce 20 tones of fish per square kilometre. These areas, however, are also being urbanised with populations often exceeding several thousand people per square kilometre and

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The diverse history of the Indian Ocean is a unique mix of cultures, ethnic groups, natural resources, and shipping routes. It grew in importance beginning in the 1960s and 1970s and, after the Cold War, it has undergone periods of political instability, most recently with the emergence of India and

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In contrast to the Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is enclosed by major landmasses and an archipelago on three sides and does not stretch from pole to pole, and can be likened to an embayed ocean. It is centered on the Indian Peninsula. Although this subcontinent has played a significant role

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and the Persian Gulf but excluding the Southern Ocean, or 19.5% of the world's oceans; its volume is 264,000,000 km (63,000,000 cu mi) or 19.8% of the world's oceans' volume; it has an average depth of 3,741 m (12,274 ft) and a maximum depth of 7,290 m (23,920 ft).

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marked the end of the colonial era. The British left Mauritius in 1974 and with 70% of the population of Indian descent, Mauritius became a close ally of India. In the 1980s, during the Cold War, the South African regime acted to destabilise several island nations in the Indian Ocean, including the

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This biodiversity hotspot (and namesake ecoregion and "Endemic Bird Area") is a patchwork of small forested areas, often with a unique assemblage of species within each, located within 200 km (120 mi) from the coast and covering a total area of c. 6,200 km (2,400 sq mi). It

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Research indicates that increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on the marine ecosystem. A study on the phytoplankton changes in the Indian Ocean indicates a decline of up to 20% in the marine plankton in the Indian Ocean, during the past six decades. The tuna catch rates have also declined

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The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, at about 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) (compared to 0.7 °C (33.3 °F) for the warm pool region) during 1901–2012. Research indicates that human induced

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covers 21,100,000 km (8,100,000 sq mi), virtually identical to that of the Pacific Ocean and half that of the Atlantic basin, or 30% of its ocean surface (compared to 15% for the Pacific). The Indian Ocean drainage basin is divided into roughly 800 individual basins, half that of the

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Han, Weiqing; Meehl, Gerald A.; Rajagopalan, Balaji; Fasullo, John T.; Hu, Aixue; Lin, Jialin; Large, William G.; Wang, Jih-wang; Quan, Xiao-Wei; Trenary, Laurie L.; Wallcraft, Alan; Shinoda, Toshiaki; Yeager, Stephen (August 2010). "Patterns of Indian Ocean sea-level change in a warming climate".

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he encountered along the African east coast lived in a series of cities and had established trade routes to India and to China. Among them, the Portuguese kidnapped most of their pilots in coastal raids and on board ships. A few of the pilots, however, were gifts by local Swahili rulers, including

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The Indian Ocean's relatively calmer waters opened the areas bordering it to trade earlier than the Atlantic or Pacific oceans. The powerful monsoons also meant ships could easily sail west early in the season, then wait a few months and return eastwards. This allowed ancient Indonesian peoples to

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At least eleven prehistoric tsunamis have struck the Indian Ocean coast of Indonesia between 7400 and 2900 years ago. Analysing sand beds in caves in the Aceh region, scientists concluded that the intervals between these tsunamis have varied from series of minor tsunamis over a century to dormant

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Bossuyt, Franky; Meegaskumbura, Madhava; Beenaerts, Natalie; Gower, David J.; Pethiyagoda, Rohan; Roelants, Kim; Mannaert, An; Wilkinson, Mark; Bahir, Mohomed M.; Manamendra-Arachchi, Kelum; Ng, Peter K. L.; Schneider, Christopher J.; Oommen, Oommen V.; Milinkovitch, Michel C. (15 October 2004).

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climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the Arabian Sea, the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are generally milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be

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Rijsdijk, Kenneth F.; Hume, Julian P.; Bunnik, Frans; Florens, F.B. Vincent; Baider, Claudia; Shapiro, Beth; van der Plicht, Johannes; Janoo, Anwar; Griffiths, Owen; van den Hoek Ostende, Lars W.; Cremer, Holger; Vernimmen, Tamara; De Louw, Perry G.B.; Bholah, Assenjee; Saumtally, Salem; Porch,

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Testimonies from the colonial era are stories of African slaves, Indian indentured labourers and white settlers. But, while there was a clear racial line between free men and slaves in the Atlantic World, this delineation is less distinct in the Indian Ocean — there were Indian slaves and

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covers 80,984 km (31,268 sq mi) in the Indian Ocean region, or almost half of the world's mangrove habitat, of which 42,500 km (16,400 sq mi) is located in Indonesia, or 50% of mangroves in the Indian Ocean. Mangroves originated in the Indian Ocean region and have

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Lelieveld, J.; Crutzen, P. J.; Ramanathan, V.; Andreae, M. O.; Brenninkmeijer, C. A. M.; Campos, T.; Cass, G. R.; Dickerson, R. R.; Fischer, H.; de Gouw, J. A.; Hansel, A.; Jefferson, A.; Kley, D.; de Laat, A. T. J.; Lal, S.; Lawrence, M. G.; Lobert, J. M.; Mayol-Bracero, O. L.; Mitra, A. P.;

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dramatically changed global shipping – the sailing ship declined in importance as did the importance of European trade in favour of trade in East Asia and Australia. The construction of the canal introduced many non-indigenous species into the Mediterranean. For example, the goldband goatfish

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The history of the Indian Ocean is marked by maritime trade; cultural and commercial exchange probably date back at least seven thousand years. Human culture spread early on the shores of the Indian Ocean and was always linked to the cultures of the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. Before

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The origin of this diversity is debated; the break-up of Gondwana can explain vicariance older than 100 mya, but the diversity on the younger, smaller islands must have required a Cenozoic dispersal from the rims of the Indian Ocean to the islands. A "reverse colonisation", from islands to

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Historically, the Indian Ocean has been a hub of cultural and commercial exchange since ancient times. It played a key role in early human migrations and the spread of civilizations. In modern times, it remains crucial for global trade, especially in oil and hydrocarbons. Environmental and

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in southern Madagascar and in the Australian gulf. Geological evidences suggest the tsunamis caused by these impacts reached 205 m (673 ft) above sea level and 45 km (28 mi) inland. The impact events must have disrupted human settlements and perhaps even contributed to

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Water circulation in the Indian Ocean is dominated by the Subtropical Anticyclonic Gyre, the eastern extension of which is blocked by the Southeast Indian Ridge and the 90°E Ridge. Madagascar and the Southwest Indian Ridge separate three cells south of Madagascar and off South Africa.

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In all, European traders exported 567,900–733,200 slaves within the Indian Ocean between 1500 and 1850, and almost that same number were exported from the Indian Ocean to the Americas during the same period. Slave trade in the Indian Ocean was, nevertheless, very limited compared to

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reached most of the far-flung islands and atolls and populated them, almost all the islands, archipelagos and atolls of the Indian Ocean were uninhabited until colonial times. Although there were numerous ancient civilizations in the coastal states of Asia and parts of Africa, the

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The Silk Road has become internationally important again on the one hand through European integration, the end of the Cold War and free world trade and on the other hand through Chinese initiatives. Chinese companies have made investments in several Indian Ocean ports, including

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Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean (Comoros, Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues, the Seychelles, and Socotra), includes 13,000 (11,600 endemic) species of plants; 313 (183) birds; reptiles 381 (367); 164 (97) freshwater fishes; 250 (249) amphibians; and 200 (192)

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of the global ocean combined with contributions of freshwater from retreating land ice causes a global rise in sea level. Sea level also increases in the Indian Ocean, except in the south tropical Indian Ocean where it decreases, a pattern most likely caused by rising levels of

403:. Unlike the Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is bordered by landmasses and an archipelago on three sides, making it more like an embayed ocean centered on the Indian Peninsula. Its coasts and shelves differ from other oceans, with distinct features, such as a narrower 1952:) and though extinct 66 mya, they are morphologically distinct from their Devonian ancestors. Over millions of years, coelacanths evolved to inhabit different environments — lungs adapted for shallow, brackish waters evolved into gills adapted for deep marine waters. 6833:

Galil, B. S.; Boero, F.; Campbell, M. L.; Carlton, J. T.; Cook, E.; Fraschetti, S.; Gollasch, S.; Hewitt, C. L.; Jelmert, A.; Macpherson, E.; Marchini, A.; McKenzie, C.; Minchin, D.; Occhipinti-Ambrogi, A.; Ojaveer, H.; Olenin, S.; Piraino, S.; Ruiz, G. M. (2015).

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and phytoplankton production. These phytoplankton blooms support the marine ecosystem, as the base of the marine food web, and eventually the larger fish species. The Indian Ocean accounts for the second-largest share of the most economically valuable

399:, which protrudes into it, and has been known by its current name since at least 1515. It is the only ocean to be named after a country. Previously, it was called the Eastern Ocean. It has an average depth of 3,741 m. All of the Indian Ocean is in the 701:. The continental shelf makes up 15% of the Indian Ocean. More than two billion people live in countries bordering the Indian Ocean, compared to 1.7 billion for the Atlantic and 2.7 billion for the Pacific (some countries border more than one ocean). 6877:

Gusiakov, Viacheslav; Abbott, Dallas H.; Bryant, Edward A.; Masse, W. Bruce; Breger, Dee (2009). "Mega Tsunami of the World Oceans: Chevron Dune Formation, Micro-Ejecta, and Rapid Climate Change as the Evidence of Recent Oceanic Bolide Impacts".

2185:) is an endemic bird found only in northern Somalia. An unstable political situation and mismanagement has resulted in overgrazing which has produced one of the most degraded hotspots where only c. 5 % of the original habitat remains. 2851:

margins evolved into an all-embracing network. The début of this network was not the achievement of a centralised or advanced civilisation but of local and regional exchange in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the Arabian Sea. Sherds of

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guide to the world beyond the Red Sea — including Africa and India — from the first century CE, not only gives insights into trade in the region but also shows that Roman and Greek sailors had already gained knowledge about the

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desert isolates the southern parts of the Arabic Peninsula and the Indian Ocean from the Arabic world. This encouraged the development of maritime trade in the region linking the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to East Africa and India. The

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that is unusual for a continental region of around 16 km thick sediments. It has been hypothesized that the "Hinge zone may represent the relict of continental and proto-oceanic crustal boundary formed during the rifting of India from

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ruler in Kenya, who helped the Portuguese to reach India. In expeditions after 1500, the Portuguese attacked and colonised cities along the African coast. European slave trade in the Indian Ocean began when Portugal established

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Left: Mangroves (here in East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia) are the only tropical to subtropical forests adapted for a coastal environment. From their origin on the coasts of the Indo-Malaysian region, they have reached a global

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Pacific, of which 50% are located in Asia, 30% in Africa, and 20% in Australasia. The rivers of the Indian Ocean are shorter on average (740 km (460 mi)) than those of the other major oceans. The largest rivers are (

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sailors shows that the littoral margins of the Indian Ocean were being both well-populated and regularly traversed at least by this time. Albeit the monsoon must have been common knowledge in the Indian Ocean for centuries.

1197:), constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon (November–February), however, circulation is reversed north of 30°S and winds are weakened during winter and the transitional periods between the monsoons. 3587: 2801:

periods of more than 2000 years preceding megathrusts in the Sunda Trench. Although the risk for future tsunamis is high, a major megathrust such as the one in 2004 is likely to be followed by a long dormant period.

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Novakov, T.; Oltmans, S. J.; Prather, K. A.; Reiner, T.; Rodhe, H.; Scheeren, H. A.; Sikka, D.; Williams, J. (9 February 2001). "The Indian Ocean Experiment: Widespread Air Pollution from South and Southeast Asia".

2628:", exists but emerged much more recently and is not well established. The IOW is, nevertheless, sometimes referred to as the "first global economy" and was based on the monsoon which linked Asia, China, India, and 2337:

Left: The oldest ocean floor of the Indian Ocean formed c. 150 Ma when the Indian Subcontinent and Madagascar broke-up from Africa. Right: The India–Asia collision c. 40 Ma completed the closure of the

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leads through the Indian Ocean on which a large part of the global container trade is carried out. The Silk Road runs with its connections from the Chinese coast and its large container ports to the south via

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of the Indian Ocean have an average width (horizontal distance from land to shelf break) of 19 ± 0.61 km (11.81 ± 0.38 mi) with a maximum width of 175 km (109 mi). The

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but not the marginal seas along the northern rim but in 2002 the IHO delimited the Southern Ocean separately, which removed waters south of 60°s from the Indian Ocean but included the northern marginal seas.

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first attested 1515 in Modern Latin (Oceanus Orientalis Indicus), named for India, which projects into it; earlier it was the Eastern Ocean, as opposed to the Western Ocean (Atlantic) before the Pacific was

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Forty percent of the sediment of the Indian Ocean is found in the Indus and Ganges fans. The oceanic basins adjacent to the continental slopes mostly contain terrigenous sediments. The ocean south of the

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resulted in the best maps of the region until the Portuguese era many centuries later. The main interest in the region for the Ptolemies was not commercial but military; they explored Africa to hunt for

3720:. This has sparked a debate about the strategic implications of these investments. There are also Chinese investments and related efforts to intensify trade in East Africa and in European ports such as 2246:, the Indian, Malesian, Sino-Himalayan, and Indochinese regions, meet in a unique way in Indo-Burma and the hotspot contains an estimated 15,000–25,000 species of vascular plants, many of them endemic. 3172:

during the 18th century, and 3700 during the period 1800–1870. Slave trade also occurred in the eastern Indian Ocean before the Dutch settled there around 1600 but the volume of this trade is unknown.

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Right: The coelacanth (here a model from Oxford), thought extinct for millions of years, was rediscovered in the 20th century. The Indian Ocean species is blue whereas the Indonesian species is brown.

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Autumn, Kellar; Niewiarowski, Peter H.; Puthoff, Jonathan B. (23 November 2014). "Gecko Adhesion as a Model System for Integrative Biology, Interdisciplinary Science, and Bioinspired Engineering".

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describes this route, as well as the commodities that were traded along various commercial ports on the coasts of the Horn of Africa and India circa 1 CE. Among these trading settlements were

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in 1807 a system of clandestine slave trade developed to bring slaves to French planters on the islands; in all 336,000–388,000 slaves were exported to the Mascarene Islands from 1670 until 1848.

1851:. Coral reefs cover c. 200,000 km (77,000 sq mi). The coasts of the Indian Ocean includes beaches and intertidal zones covering 3,000 km (1,200 sq mi) and 246 larger 2201:

Encompassing the west coast of India and Sri Lanka, until c. 10,000 years ago a landbridge connected Sri Lanka to the Indian Subcontinent, hence this region shares a common community of species.

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Chatterjee, S.; Goswami, A.; Scotese, C. R. (2013). "The longest voyage: tectonic, magmatic, and paleoclimatic evolution of the Indian plate during its northward flight from Gondwana to Asia".

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in the Andamans, in which prisoners, exiles, POWs, forced labourers, merchants and people of different faiths were forcefully united. On the islands of the Indian Ocean, therefore, a trend of

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Indo-Burma encompasses a series of mountain ranges, five of Asia's largest river systems, and a wide range of habitats. The region has a long and complex geological history, and long periods

3246:. Although the Ottomans shared the same religion as the trading communities in the Indian Ocean the region was unexplored by them. Maps that included the Indian Ocean had been produced by 1135:

South of the Equator (20–5°S), the Indian Ocean is gaining heat from June to October, during the austral winter, while it is losing heat from November to March, during the austral summer.

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Mammalian megafauna once widespread in the MPA was driven to near extinction in the early 20th century. Some species have been successfully recovered since then — the population of

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with 239 occupants on board, disappeared on 8 March 2014 and is alleged to have crashed into the southern Indian Ocean about 2,500 km (1,600 mi) from the coast of southwest

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reaches into the Indian Ocean south of Africa at a depth of 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) and flows north along the eastern continental slope of Africa. Deeper than NADW,

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Roxy, M.K.; Saranya, J.S.; Modi, Aditi; Anusree, A.; Cai, Wenju; Resplandy, Laure; Vialard, Jérôme; Frölicher, Thomas L. (2024). "Future projections for the tropical Indian Ocean".

3519:. The waves radiated across the ocean at speeds exceeding 500 km/h (310 mph), reached up to 20 m (66 ft) in height, and resulted in an estimated 236,000 deaths. 3314:. The EIC mostly traded in African slaves but also some Asian slaves purchased from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. The French established colonies on the islands of 1840: 7060: 1994:, for example, first diversified on Madagascar and then colonised Africa. Several species on the islands of the Indian Ocean are textbook cases of evolutionary processes; the 1028:

During summer, warm continental masses draw moist air from the Indian Ocean hence producing heavy rainfall. The process is reversed during winter, resulting in dry conditions.

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Wilson, D. J.; Piotrowski, A. M.; Galy, A.; McCave, I. N. (2012). "A boundary exchange influence on deglacial neodymium isotope records from the deep western Indian Ocean".

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Seychelles, Comoros, and Madagascar. India intervened in Mauritius to prevent a coup d'état, backed up by the United States who feared the Soviet Union could gain access to

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Müller, R. Dietmar; Royer, Jean-Yves; Lawver, Lawrence A. (1993). "Revised plate motions relative to the hotspots from combined Atlantic and Indian Ocean hotspot tracks".

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in its history, the Indian Ocean has foremostly been a cosmopolitan stage, interlinking diverse regions by innovations, trade, and religion since early in human history.

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which, when interacting with the atmosphere, affects the climate both regionally and globally. Asia blocks heat export and prevents the ventilation of the Indian Ocean

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had compiled a guide to navigation in the Indian Ocean; the Ottomans, nevertheless, began their own parallel era of discovery which rivalled the European expansion.

1820: 2754:(2000–1700 BCE). Gujarati merchants evolved into the first explorers of the Indian Ocean as they traded African goods such as ivory, tortoise shells, and slaves. 5759: 2047:) increased from less than 20 individuals in 1895 to more than 17,000 as of 2013. Other species still depend on fenced areas and management programs, including 3526:

activity. By 2013, attacks off the Horn region's coast had steadily declined due to active private security and international navy patrols, especially by the

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to the Indian Ocean. Mainly in summer, this runoff flows into the Arabian Sea but also south across the Equator where it mixes with fresher seawater from the

2545: 2208:; 13.500 (7,000 endemic) species of plants; 1,277 (73) birds; 518 (204) reptiles; 1,262 (553) freshwater fishes; 328 (193) amphibians; and 401 (100) mammals. 7510: 6507:"Creating Larger and Better Connected Protected Areas Enhances the Persistence of Big Game Species in the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Biodiversity Hotspot" 5588: 2253:; 25,000 (15,000 endemic) species of plants; 771 (146) birds; 449 (244) reptiles; 950 (350) freshwater fishes; 258 (210) amphibians; and 397 (219) mammals. 6324: 2919:, and his now-lost account put the Indian Ocean on the maps of Greek geographers. The Greeks began to explore the Indian Ocean following the conquests of 7453:"Mid-Holocene vertebrate bone Concentration-Lagerstätte on oceanic island Mauritius provides a window into the ecosystem of the dodo (Raphus cucullatus)" 4239: 2513: 2197:; 5,916 (3,049 endemic) species of plants; 457 (35) birds; 265 (176) reptiles; 191 (139) freshwater fishes; 204 (156) amphibians; and 143 (27) mammals. 1456:

catch. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan,

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in the early 17th century lead to a quick increase in the volume of the slave trade in the region; there were perhaps up to 500,000 slaves in various

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in the 9th century but the treacherous reefs of the islands were most likely cursed by the sailors of Aden long before the islands were even settled.

2284:; 10,000 (1,500 endemic) species of plants; 650 (265) birds; 222 (99) reptiles; 250 (50) freshwater fishes; 49 (33) amphibians; and 244 (144) mammals. 2035:(MPA); 8,100 (1,900 endemic) species of plants; 541 (0) birds; 205 (36) reptiles; 73 (20) freshwater fishes; 73 (11) amphibians; and 197 (3) mammals. 2601:. This history is often divided into an ancient period followed by an Islamic period; the subsequent colonial-era periods are often subdivided into 2153:). It also contains many reptiles. In Somalia, the centre of the 1,500,000 km (580,000 sq mi) hotspot, the landscape is dominated by 2028:

giant tortoise. An analysis of these remains suggests a process of aridification began in the southwest Indian Ocean began around 4,000 years ago.

2923:, who ordered a circumnavigation of the Arabian Peninsula in 323 BCE. During the two centuries that followed the reports of the explorers of 2094:; 5,000 (2,750 endemic) species of plants; 704 (25) birds; 284 (93) reptiles; 100 (10) freshwater fishes; 30 (6) amphibians; and 189 (18) mammals. 2082:; 4,000 (1,750 endemic) species of plants; 636 (12) birds; 250 (54) reptiles; 219 (32) freshwater fishes; 95 (10) amphibians; and 236 (7) mammals. 6628: 4370: 2290:; 5,571 (2,948 endemic) species of plants; 285 (10) birds; 177 (27) reptiles; 20 (10) freshwater fishes; 32 (22) amphibians; and 55 (13) mammals. 4135: 3231:

slaves were exported from Mozambique annually and similar figures has been estimated for slaves brought from Asia to the Philippines during the

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Carton, J. A.; Chepurin, G.; Cao, X. (2000). "A simple ocean data assimilation analysis of the global upper ocean 1950–95. Part II: Results".

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Guido Santevecchi: Di Maio e la Via della Seta: «Faremo i conti nel 2020», siglato accordo su Trieste in Corriere della Sera, 5 November 2019.

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were important shipping nodes for the Dutch, French, and British. Mauritius, an inhabited island, became populated by slaves from Africa and

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islands, as well as some small islands in the Red Sea and areas on the southern Arabic Peninsula. Endemic and threatened mammals include the

6241: 5164: 4186:"Basement configuration of the West Bengal sedimentary basin, India as revealed by seismic refraction tomography: its tectonic implications" 3299:

slaves 1620–1830. Indian and Chinese slave traders supplied Dutch Indonesia with perhaps 250,000 slaves during the 17th and 18th centuries.

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in the Southwest Indian Ridge: a "Hoff" crab, a "giant peltospirid" snail, a whelk-like snail, a limpet, a scaleworm and a polychaete worm.

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parallel to the 19th-century canal will most likely boost the economy in the region but also cause ecological damage in a much wider area.

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Bouchard, C.; Crumplin, W. (2010). "Neglected no longer: the Indian Ocean at the forefront of world geopolitics and global geostrategy".

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instead advocates that modern humans spread along the coasts of the Arabic Peninsula and southern Asia. This hypothesis is supported by

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near Maldives Islands represents the well-known, exotic fauna of the warmer parts of the Indian Ocean. King Penguins on a beach in the

101: 6020:

Boivin, Nicole; Crowther, Alison; Prendergast, Mary; Fuller, Dorian Q. (December 2014). "Indian Ocean Food Globalisation and Africa".

3964: 3440:) have affected tourism and fisheries along the Levantian coast and clogged power and desalination plants. Plans announced in 2014 to 2847:

but remained uncommon in Egypt before 1800 BCE. During this period, independent, short-distance oversea communications along its

3977:

ocean E of Africa, S of Asia, W of Australia, & N of Antarctica area ab 73,427,795 square kilometres (28,350,630 sq mi)

3390:

1898–1899 made deep samples in the Indian Ocean. In the 1930s, the John Murray Expedition mainly studied shallow-water habitats. The

7064: 6342: 6329:. Seascape: Maritime Histories, Littoral Cultures, and Transoceanic Exchanges. Washington D.C.: Library of Congress. pp. 87–104 4754: 2680:, Sumatra, covered India with volcanic ashes and wiped out one or more lineages of such archaic humans in India and Southeast Asia. 10694: 6190:

Bulbeck, D. (2007). "Where river meets sea: a parsimonious model for Homo sapiens colonization of the Indian Ocean rim and Sahul".

4687: 7275: 7026: 3165:

in Eastern Africa. Muslim merchants traded an estimated 1000 African slaves annually between 800 and 1700, a number that grew to

590: 43: 1251:

before it is met by a re-circulated branch of itself, the North Indian Deep Water. This mixed water partly flows north into the

11230: 11220: 10501: 10387: 6124:

Brewster, David (2014a). "Beyond the 'String of Pearls': is there really a Sino-Indian security dilemma in the Indian Ocean?".

4219:, Drainage basin area of each ocean, pp. 609–616; Table 5, p 614; Reconciling Continental and Oceanic Perspectives, pp. 616–617 3571: 2684: 2349: 1332:

was discovered in 2010 covering at least 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles). Riding the southern

10496: 10430: 7866: 7317: 6895: 6750: 6570: 6488: 6180: 5924: 5292: 4427: 3373: 2821: 1863:

in India covers between 5,000–10,000 km (1,900–3,900 sq mi) and species adapted for this environment, such as

6645: 5737: 4000: 407:. In terms of geology, the Indian Ocean is the youngest of the major oceans, with active spreading ridges and features like 10491: 10455: 10394: 7231:

Matsumoto, H.; Bohnenstiehl, D. R.; Tournadre, J.; Dziak, R. P.; Haxel, J. H.; Lau, T. K.; Fowler, M.; Salo, S. A. (2014).

5954:

Beaujard, Philippe (December 2005). "The Indian Ocean in Eurasian and African World-Systems before the Sixteenth Century".

4868:

Wirta, Helena; Orsini, Luisa; Hanski, Ilkka (June 2008). "An old adaptive radiation of forest dung beetles in Madagascar".

2896: 2354:

As the youngest of the major oceans, the Indian Ocean has active spreading ridges that are part of the worldwide system of

1174:. Near the three major mid-ocean ridges the ocean floor is relatively young and therefore bare of sediment, except for the 293: 3500:

settlers as well as black indentured labourers. There were also a string of prison camps across the Indian Ocean, such as

2840:, however, cultures on its shores were only loosely tied to each other; bronze, for example, was developed in Mesopotamia 10484: 10479: 10425: 8575: 7569:

Roxy, Mathew Koll; Ritika, Kapoor; Terray, Pascal; Masson, Sébastien (2014). "The Curious Case of Indian Ocean Warming".

6349: 5160: 5082: 3854: 3441: 2032: 1279:

across deep channels (<4,000 m (13,000 ft)) in the Southwest Indian Ridge, from where it continues into the

376:, depending on the definition in use. Along its core, the Indian Ocean has large marginal, or regional seas, such as the 6326:

The Ottoman 'Discovery' of the Indian Ocean in the Sixteenth Century: The Age of Exploration from an Islamic Perspective

1294:

the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C (72 °F), exceeding 28 °C (82 °F) to the east. Southward of

1044:, the strongest on Earth, which causes large-scale seasonal variations in ocean currents, including the reversal of the 10781: 10353: 9227: 8173:

Early Global Interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean World, Volume II: Exchange of Ideas, Religions, and Technologies

8151: 4328: 3400:

sampled deep-water fauna from Sri Lanka to South Africa on its second expedition 1950–1952. The Soviet research vessel

3046:. Like the Indonesian people above, the western sailors used the monsoon to cross the ocean. The unknown author of the 1111: 10435: 8580: 6691: 5809:

Bernhard Simon: Can The New Silk Road Compete With The Maritime Silk Road? in The Maritime Executive, 1 January 2020.

3284:

during the 17th and 18th centuries in the Indian Ocean. For example, some 4000 African slaves were used to build the

2079: 7267: 1189:, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise (including the 11162: 10450: 10440: 10382: 10360: 10343: 10338: 10257: 7081: 3874: 3496:

was an unrealised plan by Iran and the Soviet Union to build a canal between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf.

1097: 758:

and the formation of the Himalayas, the Ganges-Brahmaputra rivers flow into the world's largest delta known as the

533: 3254:

in the 14th century, had visited most parts of the known world; contemporarily with Vasco da Gama, Arab navigator

10460: 10289: 10155: 10069: 10019: 8620: 7109: 3624: 2287: 2257:

Sundaland encompasses 17,000 islands of which Borneo and Sumatra are the largest. Endangered mammals include the

1944:, Indonesia. Most extant coelacanths have been found in the Comoros. Although both species represent an order of 670:

have an average width of 47.6 ± 0.8 km (29.58 ± 0.50 mi). The average width of the

7488: 7355: 6812:

Forbes, Andrew D.W. (1981). "Southern Arabia and the Islamicisation of the Central Indian Ocean Archipelagoes".

6315: 5585: 1142:

showed that fossil fuel and biomass burning in South and Southeast Asia caused air pollution (also known as the

10404: 8570: 8423: 7136:

LaViolette, Adria (April 2008). "Swahili Cosmopolitanism in Africa and the Indian Ocean World, A.D. 600–1500".

3579: 3048: 2973: 2964: 2880:) for copper, stone, timber, tin, dates, onions, and pearls. Coast-bound vessels transported goods between the 2587:, has connected people since ancient times, whereas the Atlantic and Pacific have had the roles of barriers or 1911:

fishing techniques become more effective and often destructive beyond sustainable levels while the increase in

1147: 7830: 7680:"'Plants That Perform For You'? From Floral Aesthetics to Floraesthesis in the Southwest of Western Australia" 2342:(grey areas north of India). Geologically, the Indian Ocean is the ocean floor that opened up south of India. 11169: 10774: 10714: 10699: 9220: 9020: 8200: 3464: 1715: 1696: 1577: 890: 5699: 4229: 2804:

A group of scientists have argued that two large-scale impact events have occurred in the Indian Ocean: the

1936:

was discovered in the Indian Ocean off South Africa in the 1930s and in the late 1990s another species, the

11189: 11158: 11135: 10747: 10399: 10029: 9756: 9461: 9160: 8166:

Early Global Interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean World, Volume I: Commercial Structures and Exchanges

8006:"Global system of rivers: Its role in organizing continental land mass and defining land-to-ocean linkages" 7606:

Royer, J. Y.; Gordon, R. G. (1997). "The motion and boundary between the Capricorn and Australian plates".

3864: 3844: 3834: 3533: 3516: 3480: 3460: 1933: 1373: 2891: 586: 559:

The ocean-floor of the Indian Ocean is divided by spreading ridges and crisscrossed by aseismic structures

11185: 11151: 9886: 9165: 9150: 4265: 3995: 3849: 3353:

in the 19th century. In the mid-19th century, as many as 50,000 slaves passed annually through the port.

2726:

Food globalisation began on the Indian Ocean littoral c. 4.000 years ago. Five African crops —

2598: 1734: 1284: 6661:

Ewing, M.; Eittreim, S.; Truchan, M.; Ewing, J. I. (1969). "Sediment distribution in the Indian Ocean".

3134:

were the only island group in the Central Indian Ocean region where an ancient civilization flourished.

11147: 10064: 10049: 9347: 9332: 9155: 8949: 8853: 8253: 4127: 3265: 3190: 2959: 2888:) in the Indian subcontinent (modern-day Pakistan and Northwest India) and the Persian Gulf and Egypt. 1677: 1329: 7752:"Surface freshwater from Bay of Bengal runoff and Indonesian throughflow in the tropical Indian Ocean" 7627:

Rubin, C. M.; Horton, B. P.; Sieh, K.; Pilarczyk, J. E.; Daly, P.; Ismail, N.; Parnell, A. C. (2017).

6935:

Harris, P.T.; Macmillan-Lawler, M.; Rupp, J.; Baker, E.K. (June 2014). "Geomorphology of the oceans".

6588:

Dutt, S.; Gupta, A. K.; Clemens, S. C.; Cheng, H.; Singh, R. K.; Kathayat, G.; Edwards, R. L. (2015).

4366: 11173: 10445: 10377: 10348: 10333: 10074: 9999: 8079: 2881: 1922:

adapted to a wide range of its habitats but it is also where it suffers its biggest loss of habitat.

1264: 618:

in Australia. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean (including marginal seas) is approximately

8110:"Transoceanic Arabic historiography: sharing the past of the sixteenth-century western Indian Ocean" 6836:"'Double trouble': the expansion of the Suez Canal and marine bioinvasions in the Mediterranean Sea" 6269:"Africa, the Indian Ocean World, and the 'Early Modern': Historiographical Conventions and Problems" 4291: 3110: 3101: 819:

separates Socotra island from the Horn of Africa. The northern end of the Red Sea terminates in the

11181: 11177: 10034: 9951: 9534: 9247: 9172: 8999: 8984: 8979: 8893: 8883: 8822: 8812: 8792: 7536:"A reduction in marine primary productivity driven by rapid warming over the tropical Indian Ocean" 6448: 6219:

Burstein, Stanley M. (1996). "Ivory and Ptolemaic Exploration of the Red Sea. The Missing Factor".

4262:"World Map / World Atlas / Atlas of the World Including Geography Facts and Flags - WorldAtlas.com" 3350: 3277: 2812:

in northern Australia in 536 CE. Evidences for these impacts, the team argue, are micro-ejecta and

1412: 1314: 1248: 360:

divisions, covering 70,560,000 km (27,240,000 sq mi) or approx. 20% of the water on

9212: 7452: 5078: 3306:(EIC) was established during the same period and in 1622 one of its ships carried slaves from the 1255:

whilst most of it flows clockwise in the Mascarene Basin where an oscillating flow is produced by

11143: 11139: 10681: 10372: 10279: 9956: 9666: 9661: 9120: 8944: 8939: 8898: 8848: 8671: 8443: 7794: 6735: 6248: 4184:

Damodara, N.; Rao, V. Vijaya; Sain, Kalachand; Prasad, A.S.S.S.R.S.; Murty, A.S.N. (March 2017).

3839: 3476: 2673: 2010:. Many bones (250 bones per square metre) of recently extinct vertebrates have been found in the 1912: 1772: 1422: 1139: 698: 8215: 7858: 7629:"Highly variable recurrence of tsunamis in the 7,400 years before the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami" 6624: 5792: 5156: 4446: 1403: 10882: 10658: 10465: 10059: 9862: 8959: 8863: 8858: 8843: 8817: 8807: 8782: 8732: 8656: 3829: 3143: 2904: 2537: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2501: 2469: 2387: 2379: 2359: 2214: 1812: 1435:

Among the tropical oceans, the western Indian Ocean hosts one of the largest concentrations of

1310: 1268: 1240: 1228: 1194: 1175: 1167:) is high in biologic productivity and dominated by non-stratified sediment composed mostly of 1073: 1049: 990: 910: 8397: 6505:

Di Minin, E.; Hunter, L. T. B.; Balme, G. A.; Smith, R. J.; Goodman, P. S.; Slotow, R (2013).

6431: 2504:. These hotspot tracks have been broken by the still active spreading ridges mentioned above. 11210: 10751: 10615: 10535: 10178: 10079: 9688: 8989: 8702: 7697: 7511:"Rules for Maldivian Trading Ships Travelling Abroad (1925) and a Sojourn in Southern Ceylon" 7451:

Nicolas; Haile, James; Buckley, Mike; Collins, Matthew; Gittenberger, Edmund (January 2009).

6456:

Bulletin of Kitakyushu Museum of Natural History and Human History Series A (Natural History)

3552: 3414: 3377: 3150: 2770:, both native to Asia, appear in Egypt, albeit in small quantities. Around the same time the 2720: 2497: 2403: 2402:. Since the late 1990s, however, it has become clear that this traditional definition of the 1937: 1791: 521: 458:

The Indian Ocean has been known by its present name since at least 1515, when the Latin form

365: 220: 133: 8239: 8081:

The Eastern Africa Coastal Forests Ecoregion: Strategic Framework for Conservation 2005-2025

8052: 7878:

Joint evaluation of the international response to the Indian Ocean tsunami: Synthesis report

5836:

Matteo Bressan: Opportunities and challenges for BRI in Europe in Global Time, 2 April 2019.

3142:

rather than mainland India, which is much closer, because their ships were dependent of the

2571:. The Indian Subcontinent began to separate from Australia-Antarctica 135–125 Ma and as the 1472:

50–90% during the past half-century, mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with the

532:) who traveled to the Indian Ocean during the 15th century called it the Western Oceans. In 11215: 10625: 9601: 9319: 8787: 8737: 8542: 8234: 8048: 8017: 7964: 7929: 7809: 7763: 7722: 7640: 7578: 7547: 7467: 7343: 7244: 7195: 7030: 6944: 6915: 6847: 6693:

Ambassadors, Explorers and Allies: A Study of the African-European Relationships, 1400-1600

6670: 6601: 6518: 6403: 6374: 6303: 6059: 5992: 4998: 4877: 3960: 3556: 3395: 3391: 3368:'s population has increased from 20,000 people in 1987 to more than 220,000 people in 2020. 3331: 2668: 2517: 2363: 1961: 610:, South Africa, and from the Pacific Ocean by the meridian of 146°49'E, running south from 8137:

The Making of an Indian Ocean World-Economy, 1250–1650: Princes, Paddy fields, and Bazaars

6247:(in Catalan). UNESCO. pp. 32–38 (Els maldivians: Mariners llegedaris). Archived from 5890:"Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European Slave trading in the Indian Ocean" 5056:, "The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany biodiversity hotspot is internationally recognized..."" 4971: 4746: 3544:. Despite an extensive search, the whereabouts of the remains of the aircraft is unknown. 3242:

began its expansion into the Indian Ocean in 1517 with the conquest of Egypt under Sultan

1447:, which introduces nutrients into the upper zones where sufficient light is available for 1032:

Several features make the Indian Ocean unique. It constitutes the core of the large-scale

8: 11235: 10798: 10766: 10274: 9939: 9876: 9852: 9683: 9544: 9490: 9431: 9402: 9342: 9337: 9064: 9059: 8661: 8613: 7363:

Parthasarathi, P.; Riello, G. (2014). "The Indian Ocean in the long eighteenth century".

7233:"Antarctic icebergs: A significant natural ocean sound source in the Southern Hemisphere" 7063:. International Hydrographic Organization, Special Publication N°23. 2002. Archived from 6449:"The long-time adaptation of coelacanths to moderate deep water: reviewing the evidences" 6447:

Cupello, C.; Clément, G.; Meunier, F. J.; Herbin, M.; Yabumoto, Y.; Brito, P. M. (2019).

3560: 3420: 3384: 3158: 2991: 2920: 2813: 2809: 2319: 2274: 2234:

and glaciations have isolated ecosystems and thus promoted a high degree of endemism and

2110: 2096: 1501: 1362: 1295: 1291: 1171: 1164: 1129: 1069: 906: 619: 20: 8021: 7968: 7933: 7918:"Origin, dynamics and evolution of ocean garbage patches from observed surface drifters" 7813: 7767: 7726: 7644: 7582: 7551: 7471: 7347: 7248: 7199: 7034: 6948: 6919: 6851: 6674: 6605: 6522: 6407: 6378: 6307: 6063: 5996: 5002: 4881: 4700:. Search parametres: Mammalia/Testudines, EN/VU, Indian Ocean Antarctic/Eastern/Western 4679: 3161:, Kenya. Trade across the Indian Ocean gradually introduced Arabic script and rice as a 3088:. This spurred exploration, and a new sea route around Africa was found, triggering the 2496:

in north-eastern India; the Marion hotspot (100–70 million years ago) possibly connects

2437:

There are only two trenches in the Indian Ocean: the 6,000 km (3,700 mi)-long

2328: 697:

Australia, Indonesia, and India are the three countries with the longest shorelines and

426:

due to its interaction with the atmosphere. Its waters are affected by the Indian Ocean

11240: 10562: 10183: 10146: 10024: 9470: 9392: 9352: 9327: 9191: 9074: 9069: 8924: 8878: 8873: 7987: 7952: 7942: 7917: 7851: 7781: 7738: 7661: 7628: 7594: 7417: 7380: 7219: 7153: 7048: 6981: 6865: 6784: 6541: 6506: 6419: 6394:

Chen, G.; Quartly, G. D. (2005). "Annual amphidromes: a common feature in the ocean?".

6207: 6151: 6112: 6083: 6037: 6008: 5971: 5760:"Foreign Office quietly rejects International Court ruling to hand back Chagos Islands" 5019: 4986: 4936: 4901: 4845: 4818: 4419: 4035: 3869: 3817: 3759: 3609: 3599: 3567: 3436: 3303: 3247: 3195: 3007: 2912: 2786: 2731: 2695: 2584: 2399: 2262: 2239: 2130: 2007: 1926: 1341: 1280: 1256: 1121: 1053: 1033: 942: 781: 642: 638: 629:

The Indian Ocean covers 70,560,000 km (27,240,000 sq mi), including the

603: 427: 400: 145: 7897: 7821: 6743:

Islands of Inquiry: Colonisation, Seafaring and the Archaeology of Maritime Landscapes

5827:

Wolf D. Hartmann, Wolfgang Maennig, Run Wang: Chinas neue Seidenstraße. (2017), pp 59.

3511:

On 26 December 2004, fourteen countries around the Indian Ocean were hit by a wave of

3255: 2457: 478:) is attested, named after India, which projects into it. It was earlier known as the 11058: 10998: 10832: 10643: 10262: 10089: 10054: 9915: 9910: 9891: 9700: 9527: 9287: 9054: 8964: 8797: 8772: 8727: 8722: 8666: 8147: 7992: 7862: 7666: 7496:. An ecosystem approach to management of seamounts in the Southern Indian Ocean. IUCN 7442: 7409: 7313: 7297: 7211: 7157: 6985: 6964:

Hofmeyr, Isabel (December 2012). "The Complicating Sea: The Indian Ocean as Method".

6891: 6788: 6746: 6682: 6576: 6566: 6546: 6484: 6476: 6176: 6155: 6116: 6075: 5975: 5920: 5906: 5889: 5288: 5024: 4940: 4893: 4850: 4423: 3657: 3541: 3523: 3323: 3311: 3261: 3207: 2949: 2924: 2755: 2739: 2735: 2704: 2602: 2553: 2533: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2465: 2453: 2423: 2258: 2114: 1871: 1558: 1348: 1337: 1333: 1143: 1065: 828: 816: 671: 646: 494:

was surmised. In modern times, the name Afro-Asian Ocean has occasionally been used.

412: 404: 343: 7785: 7742: 7598: 7479: 7429:

Prange, S. R. (2008). "Scholars and the sea: a historiography of the Indian Ocean".

7421: 7384: 7296:

Mittermeier, R. A.; Turner, W. R.; Larsen, F. W.; Brooks, T. M.; Gascon, C. (2011).

7052: 6869: 6423: 6211: 6087: 6041: 3210:

during his first voyage in 1497 and became the first European to sail to India. The

3187:

through the Indian Ocean, ultimately reaching the coastal countries of East Africa.

2781: 11099: 10827: 10724: 10719: 10709: 10638: 10315: 10269: 10212: 10141: 10004: 9898: 9847: 9825: 9678: 9625: 9564: 9125: 8974: 8969: 8954: 8934: 8929: 8919: 8802: 8767: 8762: 8742: 8707: 8692: 8433: 8124: 8064: 8056: 8025: 7982: 7972: 7937: 7817: 7771: 7730: 7687: 7656: 7648: 7615: 7586: 7555: 7475: 7438: 7401: 7372: 7351: 7305: 7252: 7223: 7203: 7145: 7038: 7002: 6993:

Hui, C. H. (2010). "Huangming zuxun and Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans".

6973: 6952: 6923: 6883: 6855: 6821: 6776: 6678: 6609: 6558: 6536: 6526: 6411: 6382: 6311: 6280: 6228: 6199: 6168: 6141: 6133: 6104: 6067: 6029: 6012: 6000: 5963: 5901: 5280: 5014: 5006: 4967: 4932: 4905: 4885: 4840: 4830: 4415: 4197: 3787: 3401: 3307: 3221: 3184: 3089: 3085: 2936: 2916: 2808:

in the southern Indian Ocean in 2800 BCE and the Kanmare and Tabban craters in the

2743: 2708: 2415: 2391: 2270: 2266: 2243: 2178: 2146: 2056: 2048: 2040: 1836: 1596: 1088:

severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the

1002: 879: 844: 812: 208: 7619: 3795: 1394: 11225: 10942: 10912: 10610: 10111: 10099: 10084: 10039: 9989: 9929: 9871: 9832: 9820: 9813: 9722: 9539: 9522: 9497: 9135: 8994: 8868: 8838: 8747: 7977: 7953:"State of knowledge of coastal and marine biodiversity of Indian Ocean countries" 6956: 6887: 6653: 6590:"Abrupt changes in Indian summer monsoon strength during 33,800 to 5500 years BP" 6531: 6137: 6108: 5729: 5592: 3990: 3426: 3269: 3154: 2793: 2767: 2727: 2589: 2549: 2509: 2411: 2395: 2383: 2367: 2355: 2303: 2138: 2011: 1941: 1816: 1244: 1190: 859: 848: 747: 715: 691: 682: 611: 567: 216: 7701: 7392:

Patnaik, R.; Chauhan, P. (2009). "India at the cross-roads of human evolution".

7309: 5461:, Southern Arabia and the Central Indian Ocean: Pre- Islamic Contacts, pp. 62–66 4889: 2575:

north of India began to close 118–84 Ma the Indian Ocean opened behind it.

11104: 11048: 10917: 10867: 10852: 10755: 10704: 10603: 10567: 10547: 10530: 10470: 10234: 10126: 10104: 10094: 9946: 9924: 9808: 9803: 9788: 9783: 9710: 9656: 9608: 9579: 9485: 9475: 9130: 9025: 8914: 8888: 8752: 8717: 8712: 8697: 8687: 8606: 8060: 7951:

Wafar, M.; Venkataraman, K.; Ingole, B.; Khan, S. A.; LokaBharathi, P. (2011).

7710: 3801: 3773: 3697: 3285: 3239: 3211: 3135: 3077: 3019: 2805: 2778:

emigrate from Asia to Egypt. Banana reached Africa around 3000 years ago.

2625: 2610: 2493: 2449: 2231: 2091: 1865: 1448: 1426: 1378: 1306: 1232: 1213: 1101: 1061: 1045: 894: 871: 710: 667: 594: 537: 487: 447: 423: 369: 200: 190: 180: 83: 8128: 7713:; McCreary, J. P. (2009). "Indian Ocean circulation and climate variability". 7590: 7405: 7149: 6860: 6835: 6780: 6033: 3010:

was the first Greek to cross the Indian Ocean. The probably fictitious sailor

2652:, modern humans spread from Africa along the northern rim of the Indian Ocean. 2617:

time period can also be split into a period of competition for oil during the

1883: 482:, a term that was still in use during the mid-18th century, as opposed to the 11204: 11109: 11094: 11089: 10947: 10927: 10897: 10857: 10847: 10837: 10812: 10729: 10598: 10590: 10557: 10294: 10244: 10136: 10131: 10121: 9971: 9934: 9842: 9837: 9739: 9644: 9202: 9186: 9145: 9140: 9090: 8641: 8629: 6977: 6415: 6386: 5764: 3812: 3753: 3745: 3501: 3232: 3203: 3035: 3031: 2771: 2751: 2442: 2419: 2371: 2299: 2190: 2109:

This area, one of the only two hotspots that are entirely arid, includes the

1972: 1945: 1832: 1473: 1436: 1302: 1276: 1272: 1201: 1182: 1105: 1093: 1007: 996: 936: 924: 902: 867: 863: 855: 820: 808: 774: 751: 743: 662: 491: 439: 389: 385: 116: 103: 7692: 7207: 6796: 6736:"Seafaring simulations and the origin of prehistoric settlers to Madagascar" 6580: 6232: 6071: 4332: 4070: 1318: 11063: 11033: 11018: 11008: 10993: 10988: 10952: 10922: 10887: 10877: 10842: 10633: 10572: 10542: 10252: 10224: 9979: 9717: 9651: 9620: 9569: 9441: 9370: 9307: 9297: 9100: 9004: 8777: 8598: 8517: 8377: 8069: 7996: 7670: 7413: 7215: 6825: 6550: 6285: 6268: 6079: 5865:

Andreas Eckert: Mit Mao nach Daressalam, In: Die Zeit 28. March 2019, p 17.

5695: 5028: 4944: 4897: 4854: 4835: 4234: 3822: 3653: 3505: 3489: 3456: 3289: 3281: 3180: 3027: 2929: 2853: 2775: 2763: 2658: 2606: 2594: 2572: 2541: 2473: 2431: 2427: 2407: 2375: 2339: 2087:

also encompasses coastal islands, including Zanzibar and Pemba, and Mafia.

2024: 1443:

winds. The monsoonal wind forcing leads to a strong coastal and open ocean

1012: 966: 960: 898: 840: 836: 835:, which is accessible via the Red Sea. The Arabian Sea is connected to the 824: 800: 759: 739: 723: 623: 607: 529: 273: 204: 172: 156: 37: 8109: 8087:. Nairobi, Kenya: WWF Eastern Africa Regional Programme Office (WWF-EARPO) 7376: 6172: 6050:"Local Endemism Within the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka Biodiversity Hotspot". 5967: 5284: 5105:, Importance of biodiversity, pp. 17–19; Biodiversity of Somalia, pp.25–26 3394:

1947–1948 also sampled the Indian Ocean on its global tour and the Danish

2911:

during the last two millennia BCE. In the 6th century, BCE Greek explorer

2508:

Indian Ocean form ranges of seamounts, sometimes very long, including the

11119: 11084: 11043: 11028: 10967: 10932: 10872: 10822: 10689: 10648: 10579: 10284: 10173: 10116: 10044: 9994: 9881: 9857: 9746: 9584: 9502: 9480: 9456: 9302: 9292: 8757: 8030: 8005: 7776: 7751: 7734: 7560: 7535: 7257: 7232: 6713: 6614: 6589: 6004: 4202: 4185: 3548: 3527: 3452: 3361: 3251: 3162: 3126: 3043: 3023: 3018:

to India around this time. During the 1st and 2nd centuries AD intensive

2865: 2629: 2441:

between Java and the Sunda Trench and the 900 km (560 mi)-long

2438: 2242:

and the northern highlands on the China-Vietnam border. Several distinct

1995: 1828: 1753: 1639: 1457: 1352: 1305:

contributes more than half (2,950 km or 710 cu mi) of the

1217: 1160: 1089: 1037: 978: 930: 918: 883: 875: 796: 789: 735: 731: 727: 678: 431: 381: 377: 212: 168: 164: 160: 8283: 7652: 7006: 6767:

Fletcher, M. E. (1958). "The Suez Canal and world shipping, 1869–1914".

6483:. Vol. 28. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier. pp. 219–237. 5010: 4987:"Testing the adaptive radiation hypothesis for the lemurs of Madagascar" 4039: 2903:

The Red Sea, one of the main trade routes in Antiquity, was explored by

508: 11053: 11038: 11023: 10937: 10902: 10892: 10817: 10219: 10188: 10014: 10009: 9673: 9634: 9596: 9514: 9387: 9272: 9267: 9039: 8633: 8564: 8537: 8417: 8371: 8360: 8355: 8345: 3709: 3677: 3537: 3485: 3410: 3000: 2987: 2978: 2235: 2222: 2205: 2158: 2100: 1520: 1322: 1236: 1205: 1024: 972: 832: 785: 763: 686: 599: 553: 373: 314: 298: 196: 146: 9197: 8332: 8004:

Vörösmarty, C. J.; Fekete, B. M.; Meybeck, M.; Lammers, R. B. (2000).

6715:

A study on atmospheric and oceanic processes in the north Indian Ocean

6146: 3860:

List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the Indian Ocean

3739: 3315: 2644: 2597:

and largely dependent on the availability of written sources from the

2461: 1125: 310: 10957: 10666: 10325: 10299: 10229: 10207: 10200: 9984: 9761: 9695: 9591: 9414: 9397: 9282: 9277: 9251: 9095: 8587: 8527: 8522: 8457: 8350: 8193: 7043: 7014: 3649: 3636: 3583: 3575: 3472: 3431: 3372:

Scientifically, the Indian Ocean remained poorly explored before the

3319: 3139: 3073: 2908: 2877: 2758:

found its way from Central Asia to Africa, together with chicken and

2712: 2677: 2295: 2250: 2194: 2162: 1999: 1991: 1856: 1658: 1539: 1444: 1366: 1209: 1168: 1115:

Air pollution in South Asia spread over the Bay of Bengal and beyond.

1057: 948: 435: 361: 318: 302: 6927: 4026:

Braun, Dieter (1972). "The Indian Ocean in Afro-Asian Perspective".

3467:

and his ancestors were likely brought as slaves in the 19th century.

2796:, having emigrated from the mainland tens of thousands of years ago. 2762:

cattle, although the exact timing is disputed. Around 2000 BCE

2624:

A concept of an "Indian Ocean World" (IOW), similar to that of the "

1150:. This pollution has implications on both a local and global scale. 11114: 11013: 11003: 10907: 10193: 9798: 9734: 9705: 9615: 9574: 9382: 9362: 9242: 8532: 8507: 8492: 8487: 8387: 8304: 8238: 7230: 6563:

Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405–1433

6203: 4631: 3685: 3673: 3346: 3330:

captured the islands in 1810, however, and because the British had

3176: 3138:, on their annual trade trip, took their oceangoing trade ships to 3131: 3011: 2955: 2856:(2500–500 BCE) pottery have been found in the western Gulf at 2848: 2716: 2618: 2614: 2568: 2281: 2170: 1918: 1340:

constantly circulates the ocean from Australia to Africa, down the

1224: 984: 755: 615: 525: 408: 306: 7110:"Coastal biodiversity in the Indian Ocean: The known, the unknown" 6048: 5114: 3617:

Strait of Malacca and 8 percent through the Bab el-Mandab Strait.

3604: 2418: — separated by diffuse boundary zones. Since 20 Ma the 10165: 9903: 9793: 9751: 9639: 9451: 9446: 9375: 8497: 8412: 8365: 8325: 8314: 8299: 7898:

National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) of Somalia

7792: 7298:"Global Biodiversity Conservation: The Critical Role of Hotspots" 7184: 5983:

Bird, P. (2003). "An updated digital model of plate boundaries".

4919:

Radtkey, Ray R. (April 1996). "Adaptive radiation of day-geckos (

4506: 4482: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3693: 3669: 3661: 3645: 3628: 3512: 3493: 3250:

centuries before the Ottoman conquests; Muslim scholars, such as

3243: 3216: 3053: 3039: 2983: 2941: 2873: 2861: 2789: 2747: 2218: 2122: 2118: 1860: 1852: 1824: 1440: 1358: 1084: 1080: 1041: 954: 804: 719: 630: 419: 152: 7836:(Report). Coastal Oceans Research and Development – Indian Ocean 7793:

Shankar, D.; Vinayachandran, P. N.; Unnikrishnan, A. S. (2002).

4817:

Miraldo, Andreia; Wirta, Helena; Hanski, Ilkka (20 April 2011).

3665: 3447: 3365: 3292:. Bali and neighbouring islands supplied regional networks with 3157:

stone mosque dating to the 8th–15th centuries has been found in

10972: 10962: 10862: 10671: 9775: 9729: 9436: 9423: 8482: 8477: 8472: 8319: 7165:

MacLeod, Calum; Winter, Michael; Gray, Allison (8 March 2014).

6934: 6799:. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2016 6343:

Ecosystem Profile: Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot, 2011 Update

6165:

India's Ocean: The story of India's bid for regional leadership

6019: 5818:

Marcus Hernig: Die Renaissance der Seidenstraße (2018), pp 112.

5367: 4518: 4168: 4156: 3705: 3689: 3590:

that the UK must transfer the Chagos Archipelago to Mauritius.

3015: 2857: 2154: 1620: 1465: 1461: 602:, the Indian Ocean is delimited from the Atlantic Ocean by the 8003: 7831:

Coral reef degradation in the Indian Ocean: status report 2005

4261: 4216: 1967: 1964:

nine (or 25%) are located on the margins of the Indian Ocean.

1892: 886:

is located between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Islands.

10522: 10417: 9961: 9259: 9243: 8547: 8512: 8452: 8382: 8340: 8309: 8180:

The Impoverishment of the African Red Sea Littoral, 1640–1945

8159:

Connectivity in Motion: Island Hubs in the Indian Ocean World

7295: 6966:

Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East

6477:"The deep Indian Ocean floor - Ecosystems of the deep oceans" 5541:, Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299 4804: 3696:

with its international free port and its rail connections to

3681: 3641: 3068: 3057: 2869: 2593:. The written history of the Indian Ocean, however, has been 2003: 1351:

of opposite rotation in the Indian Ocean, probably caused by

1072:

and north of the trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere. The

536:, the Indian Ocean region known to the Greeks was called the 498: 396: 364:. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and 357: 138: 9556: 8502: 8467: 8462: 7950: 7750:

Sengupta, D.; Bharath Raj, G. N.; Shenoi, S. S. C. (2006).

7356:

10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<0275:rpmrtt>2.3.co;2

6446: 6316:

10.1175/1520-0485(2000)030<0311:ASODAA>2.0.CO;2

4923:) in the Seychelles Archipelago: A phylogenetic analysis". 4775: 4709: 4683: 3559:

in the Bay of Bengal, have been called by experts the most

3383:

1872–1876 only reported from south of the polar front. The

3194:

For most of the 16th century, the Portuguese dominated the

2816: 2759: 2015: 1976: 1453: 1186: 866:

separates the Maldives from the southern tip of India. The

446:

geopolitical concerns in the region include the effects of

10796: 8038: 7915: 7490:

Volume 1: Overview of seamount ecosystems and biodiversity

6904: 4819:"Origin and Diversification of Dung Beetles in Madagascar" 4643: 4608: 4533:, Regional setting and hydrography, pp. 4–5; Fig. 1, p. 22 4530: 4412:

The Indian Ocean and its Role in the Global Climate System

3692:

to the Upper Adriatic to the northern Italian junction of

2707:

research which reveals a rapid dispersal event during the

2693:

spread from Africa into mainland Eurasia. The more recent

2406:

cannot be correct; it consists of three plates — the

2169:) and species discovered more recently such as the Somali 1223:

The inflow of deep water into the Indian Ocean is 11

450:, piracy, and strategic disputes over island territories. 7749: 7449: 6876: 6832: 6660: 5624: 5391: 5041: 4957: 4557: 4494: 4287: 3151:

spread Islam along the western shores of the Indian Ocean

2885: 2358:. In the Indian Ocean these spreading ridges meet at the 7626: 6504: 6364: 5379: 5310:, The Concept of the Indian Ocean World (IOW), pp. 25–26 5214: 5053: 4521:, Geomorphic characteristics of ocean regions, pp. 17–18 4069: 1811:

80% of the Indian Ocean is open ocean and includes nine

750:(a dried-out river system on the Arabian Peninsula) and 422:. It is the warmest ocean, with a significant impact on 5936:"West Africa Pirates Seen Threatening Oil and Shipping" 3125:

Unlike the Pacific Ocean where the civilization of the

777:, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include: 573:

A composite satellite image centred on the Indian Ocean

8144:

Trade, Circulation, and Flow in the Indian Ocean World

7916:

Van Sebille, E.; England, M. H.; Froyland, G. (2012).

7568: 6475:

Demopoulos, A. W.; Smith, C. R.; Tyler, P. A. (2003).

5700:"Anthropology: The sad truth about uncontacted tribes" 5534: 5532: 5530: 5528: 5526: 4548:, The Southern Indian Ocean and its Seamounts, pp. 5–6 4409: 4394: 4117:, Fluid Borders: Encompassing the Ocean, pp. 1382–1385 3224:

in the early 16th century. From then until the 1830s,

2915:

made a journey to India, working for the Persian king

2672:

in Europe, have been found in India. According to the

1479:

Endangered and vulnerable marine mammals and turtles:

88:

Topographic/bathymetric map of the Indian Ocean region

6587: 5856:

Harry G. Broadman "Afrika's Silk Road" (2007), pp 59.

5520:, Conversion to Islam and Islamic Practice, pp. 39–40 4584:"Plane Search Shows World's Oceans Are Full of Trash" 4353: 4323: 4321: 4183: 2864:; traces of exchange between this trading centre and 862:

are located in Gujarat in the northern end while the

6741:. In Clark, G.R.; O'Connor, S.; Leach, B.F. (eds.). 6733: 6474: 6430: 5470: 5068:, The unique coastal forests of eastern Africa, p. 3 4960:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

3961:"'Indian Ocean' — Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online" 3934: 3902: 3735: 827:. The Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the 418:

The climate of the Indian Ocean is characterized by

7362: 7079: 6242:"Cultures del món: El desafiament de la diversitat" 5730:"Chagos Islands dispute: UK 'threatened' Mauritius" 5523: 5262: 4733: 3668:, the capital of the Maldives, to the East African 3522:In the late 2000s, the ocean evolved into a hub of 3345:slaves exported across the Atlantic. The island of 2238:. The region includes two centres of endemism: the 1990:continents, apparently occurred more recently; the 1925:In 2016, six new animal species were identified at 1231:(CDW). The CDW enters the Indian Ocean through the 909:is located on the Australian north coast while the 7850: 5790: 5210: 5208: 5206: 5204: 4816: 4800: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4792: 4790: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4572:, Results, pp. 47–48; Average for Table 3.1, p. 55 4318: 4179: 4177: 3326:, a number which had reached 133,000 in 1807. The 1076:is a unique Equatorial connection to the Pacific. 8249:. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). pp. 451–452. 8146:(Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies), 7708: 7333: 7164: 6341: 6293: 5683: 5586:"Swahili Coast: East Africa's Ancient Crossroads" 5250: 5140: 5125: 4867: 4470: 4312: 4108: 3898: 3896: 3894: 3322:in 1721; by 1735 some 7,200 slaves populated the 2398:. The Central Indian Ridge is intercepted by the 11202: 8216:"The Indian Ocean Trade: A Classroom Simulation" 7857:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 7795:"The monsoon currents in the north Indian Ocean" 7082:"Mangrove ecosystems of the Indian Ocean region" 6094: 5437:, Chapter 2. The Ancient Indian Ocean, pp. 19–22 5413:, Chapter 1. Imagining the Indian Ocean, pp. 1–2 5319: 3982: 3119:Preferred sailing routes across the Indian Ocean 2177:), the only cyclamen outside the Mediterranean. 1185:are mainly controlled by the monsoon. Two large 1124:, and changes in the frequency and magnitude of 913:constitutes a large part of its southern coast. 94: 7875: 7304:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 3–22. 6689: 5660: 5562: 5406: 5404: 5402: 5400: 5201: 4781: 4507:Shankar, Vinayachandran & Unnikrishnan 2002 4174: 3612:in the world include the northern Indian Ocean. 2899:was the first trade routes in the Indian Ocean. 2792:are thought to be the first inhabitants of the 1859:areas are small but important. The hypersaline 1421:A dolphin off Western Australia and a swarm of 1056:there are no continuous equatorial easterlies. 368:to the east. To the south it is bounded by the 254:70,560,000 km (27,240,000 sq mi) 8157:Schnepel, Burkhard and Edward A. Alpers, eds. 7391: 7268:"Cultural Exchange in the Indian Ocean Region" 6646:"The greatest emporium in the inhabited world" 5663:, Immediate effects of the disaster, pp. 33–35 5428: 5331: 5217:, Tectonic setting of the Indian Ocean, p. 246 3891: 1040:. That continent also drives the Indian Ocean 641:and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere, the 185:21,100,000 km (8,100,000 sq mi) 10782: 9228: 8614: 8269: 7107: 6663:Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts 6622: 4736:, Introduction; Mangrove habitat, pp. 104–105 3948: 3944: 3942: 3930: 3928: 3926: 3917: 3913: 3911: 3471:Throughout the colonial era, islands such as 3014:is said to have learnt the direct route from 8628: 7883:(Report). Tsunami Evaluation Coalition (TEC) 7828: 7508: 7167:"Beijing-bound flight from Malaysia missing" 5505: 5397: 4721: 4541: 4539: 42:Extent of the Indian Ocean according to the 16:Ocean bounded by Africa, Asia, and Australia 8221:. African Studies Center, Boston University 7895: 7605: 6625:"Volumes of the World's Oceans from ETOPO1" 6393: 5791:DeSilva-Ranasinghe, Sergei (2 March 2011). 5473:, The colonisation of Madagascar, pp. 47–48 5226: 5102: 4619: 4099: 4097: 4095: 3149:Arabic missionaries and merchants began to 2014:swamp in Mauritius, including bones of the 1476:adding further stress to the fish species. 851:separates Qatar from the Arabic Peninsula. 514: 502: 463: 10789: 10775: 9235: 9221: 8621: 8607: 8276: 8262: 7135: 6396:IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 5517: 4586:. National Geographic News. Archived from 4063: 4061: 3939: 3923: 3908: 2460:(active 70–40 million years ago) connects 2161:deciduous bushland, but also includes the 1464:also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for 8077: 8068: 8029: 7986: 7976: 7941: 7775: 7691: 7660: 7559: 7265: 7256: 7042: 6859: 6643: 6613: 6540: 6530: 6284: 6273:The Journal of Indian Ocean World Studies 6162: 6145: 6123: 5905: 5845: 5636: 5482: 5355: 5065: 5018: 4844: 4834: 4747:"New marine life found in deep sea vents" 4536: 4201: 4067: 2986:winds. The contemporaneous settlement of 2676:, a supereruption c. 74,000 years ago at 1949: 356:is the third-largest of the world's five 8284:Countries and territories bordering the 7061:"The Indian Ocean and its sub-divisions" 6766: 6266: 6218: 5953: 5933: 5672: 5612: 5446: 5422: 5307: 5131:, Geography, Climate, and History, p. 30 4609:Van Sebille, England & Froyland 2012 4092: 3635:In particular, the maritime part of the 3623: 3603: 3446: 3360: 3260: 3189: 3153:from the 8th century, if not earlier. A 3067: 2954: 2890: 2780: 2643: 2564: 2480:(100–35 million years ago) connects the 2209: 2095: 1966: 1110: 1023: 8233: 7027:International Hydrographic Organization 6963: 6734:Fitzpatrick, S.; Callaghan, R. (2009). 6239: 6189: 5648: 5493: 5343: 5274: 5146:, Species Diversity and Endemism, p. 36 4984: 4918: 4558:Sengupta, Bharath Raj & Shenoi 2006 4356:, Abstract; Introduction, pp. 5526–5527 4077:. Translated by Schoff, Wilfred Harvey. 4058: 3920:, Introduction, p. 11–12; Table 1, p.12 3664:opposite the southern tip of India via 3406:also did research in the Indian Ocean. 1429:near Antarctica attract fewer tourists. 1317:in the southern tropical Indian Ocean. 591:International Hydrographic Organization 44:International Hydrographic Organization 11203: 7486: 7428: 7080:Kathiresan, K.; Rajendran, N. (2005). 6811: 6721:(Thesis). University of South Carolina 6711: 6557: 6322: 5914: 5574: 5550: 5458: 5434: 5410: 5215:Chatterjee, Goswami & Scotese 2013 4581: 4569: 4545: 4242:from the original on 15 September 2020 4114: 2613:periods. Milo Kearney argues that the 2559:The opening of the Indian Ocean began 2382:separating the African Plate from the 1200:The Indian Ocean contains the largest 1178:due to its ultra-slow spreading rate. 10770: 9216: 8602: 8257: 7829:Souter, D.; Lindén, O., eds. (2005). 5887: 5694: 5651:, Crosscutting Diasporas, pp. 587–588 5538: 4985:Herrera, James P. (31 January 2017). 4972:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-120213-091839 4870:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 4757:from the original on 15 December 2016 4441: 4439: 4405: 4403: 4390: 4388: 4230:"The World's Biggest Oceans and Seas" 4025: 3374:International Indian Ocean Expedition 3215:the sailor from Gujarat, a gift by a 3179:said to have led large fleets of the 1979:bird and ostrich (from left to right) 1726:Northern Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia 878:separate Sri Lanka from India, while 652: 8107: 7848: 7677: 7533: 7237:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 7059: 7013: 6795: 6699:(Thesis). University of Pennsylvania 6623:Eakins, B.W.; Sharman, G.F. (2010). 5985:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 5982: 5772:from the original on 30 January 2021 5265:, Time and the Indian Ocean, pp. 2–3 5238: 5196: 5185: 4666: 4655: 4294:from the original on 8 November 2020 4103: 4087: 4003:from the original on 14 January 2018 3967:from the original on 16 October 2013 3676:, then through the Red Sea over the 2999:cross the Indian Ocean to settle in 2962:with ancient India according to the 2639: 1439:blooms in summer, due to the strong 870:is off the east coast of India. The 780:Along the east coast of Africa, the 63: 8576:French Southern and Antarctic Lands 8194:"The Indian Ocean in World History" 8041:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 6992: 5710:from the original on 30 August 2019 5565:, The East African Coast, pp. 90–95 5167:from the original on 6 October 2022 4138:from the original on 5 October 2021 4052: 3855:List of islands in the Indian Ocean 3442:build a new, much larger Suez Canal 3063: 2897:Austronesian maritime trade network 2746: — somehow found their way to 1948:known from the Early Devonian (410 1631:Equatorial Indian Ocean and Pacific 854:Along the west coast of India, the 13: 8108:Bahl, Christopher D. (July 2020). 8101: 7876:Telford, J.; Cosgrave, J. (2006). 6126:Journal of the Indian Ocean Region 6097:Journal of the Indian Ocean Region 5740:from the original on 23 March 2021 4937:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1996.tb03872.x 4436: 4420:10.1016/b978-0-12-822698-8.00004-4 4400: 4385: 4373:from the original on 28 April 2019 4268:from the original on 27 April 2019 3988: 3903:Demopoulos, Smith & Tyler 2003 3680:into the Mediterranean, there via 3631:Port on Kenya's Indian Ocean coast 3430:); since the 1980s huge swarms of 3356: 1313:. This mixed freshwater joins the 754:rivers. After the breakup of East 637:All of the Indian Ocean is in the 580: 14: 11252: 8581:Heard Island and McDonald Islands 8186: 7117:Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 7089:Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 5917:The Indian Ocean in World History 5277:The Indian Ocean in World History 4369:. Worldatlas. 17 September 2018. 4190:Geophysical Journal International 3376:in the early 1960s. However, the 2556:are the two major shallow areas. 2080:Coastal forests of eastern Africa 10743: 10742: 10075:West South Central United States 9196: 9185: 8396: 7853:Oceans: an illustrated reference 7443:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2008.00538.x 7108:Keesing, J.; Irvine, T. (2005). 6797:"Tuna fisheries and utilization" 6650:Coastal management sourcebooks 2 6631:National Geophysical Data Center 6434:. CIA – The World Factbook. 2015 6296:Journal of Physical Oceanography 5934:Arnsdorf, Isaac (22 July 2013). 5907:10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206 5868: 5859: 5850: 5839: 5830: 5821: 5812: 5803: 5784: 5752: 5722: 5688: 5677: 5666: 5654: 5471:Fitzpatrick & Callaghan 2009 5370:, The Earliest Evidence, pp. 4–7 4690:from the original on 8 July 2019 3875:Territorial claims in Antarctica 3794: 3780: 3766: 3752: 3738: 3109: 3100: 2621:followed by American dominance. 2567:when Africa separated from East 2456:pass over the Indian Ocean. The 2327: 2318: 1891: 1882: 1411: 1402: 1393: 792:is located north of Madagascar. 788:from mainland Africa, while the 769: 681:, also known as Hinge zone, the 566: 552: 82: 62: 55: 36: 10290:Latin America and the Caribbean 10156:Latin America and the Caribbean 7480:10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.09.018 6769:The Journal of Economic History 6745:. ANU E Press. pp. 47–58. 6652:. Paris: UNESCO. Archived from 5684:MacLeod, Winter & Gray 2014 5642: 5630: 5618: 5606: 5579: 5568: 5556: 5544: 5511: 5499: 5487: 5476: 5464: 5452: 5440: 5416: 5385: 5373: 5361: 5358:, History and Patterns, pp. 5–6 5349: 5337: 5325: 5313: 5301: 5268: 5263:Parthasarathi & Riello 2014 5256: 5251:Müller, Royer & Lawver 1993 5244: 5241:, Somalia Plate (SO), pp. 39–40 5232: 5220: 5190: 5179: 5157:"Sundaland: About this hotspot" 5149: 5134: 5119: 5108: 5096: 5071: 5059: 5047: 5035: 4978: 4951: 4912: 4861: 4810: 4769: 4739: 4734:Kathiresan & Rajendran 2005 4727: 4715: 4703: 4672: 4660: 4649: 4637: 4625: 4613: 4602: 4575: 4563: 4551: 4524: 4512: 4500: 4488: 4476: 4471:Carton, Chepurin & Cao 2000 4464: 4359: 4347: 4313:Schott, Xie & McCreary 2009 4306: 4280: 4254: 4222: 4210: 4162: 4150: 4120: 4081: 3574:between the United Kingdom and 3424:) has replaced the red mullet ( 3076:was blocked from Europe by the 3006:In the 2nd or 1st century BCE, 2585:together with the Mediterranean 1955: 1227:, most of which comes from the 1153: 815:is located in Djibouti and the 329:Cities, ports and harbours list 284:66,526 km (41,337 mi) 8571:Australian Antarctic Territory 8424:British Indian Ocean Territory 7922:Environmental Research Letters 7896:Ullah, S.; Gadain, H. (2016). 5888:Allen, Richard B. (May 2017). 5793:"Why the Indian Ocean Matters" 4582:Parker, Laura (4 April 2014). 4072:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 4046: 4019: 3953: 3580:International Court of Justice 3488:and threaten the U.S. base on 3049:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 2974:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 2965:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 1875:, are important to bird life. 1745:Northern Australia, New Guinea 1688:Northern Australia, New Guinea 1384: 1321:is highest (more than 36 1148:Intertropical Convergence Zone 1052:. Because of the Indian Ocean 831:without ship lock through the 1: 11231:Oceans surrounding Antarctica 11221:Landforms of the Indian Ocean 8201:Sultan Qaboos Cultural Center 7822:10.1016/S0079-6611(02)00024-1 7620:10.1126/science.277.5330.1268 7509:Romero-Frias, Xavier (2016). 6565:. New York: Pearson Longman. 6022:African Archaeological Review 4712:, Marine ecosystems of the IO 4367:"Which Ocean is the Warmest?" 3880: 3339: 3293: 3266:British invasion of Mauritius 3225: 3166: 3081: 2841: 2834: 2560: 2350:Landforms of the Indian Ocean 1841:West Central Australian Shelf 1716:Indo-Pacific finless porpoise 1697:Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin 1578:Indian Ocean humpback dolphin 1298:, temperatures drop quickly. 795:On the northern coast of the 270:7,290 m (23,920 ft) 262:3,741 m (12,274 ft) 244:7,600 km (4,700 mi) 236:(Antarctica to Bay of Bengal) 234:9,600 km (6,000 mi) 11159:Reservoirs and dams in India 9757:Middle East and North Africa 9462:Middle East and North Africa 8171:Schottenhammer, Angela, ed. 8164:Schottenhammer, Angela, ed. 8010:Global Biogeochemical Cycles 7978:10.1371/journal.pone.0014613 7943:10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/044040 7756:Geophysical Research Letters 7684:Australian Humanities Review 7678:Ryan, John (November 2009). 7540:Geophysical Research Letters 6957:10.1016/j.margeo.2014.01.011 6888:10.1007/978-90-481-3236-2_13 6690:Felber Seligman, A. (2006). 6683:10.1016/0011-7471(69)90016-3 6594:Geophysical Research Letters 6532:10.1371/journal.pone.0071788 6138:10.1080/19480881.2014.922350 6109:10.1080/19480881.2010.489668 5599:sidebar by Christy Ullrich, 5320:Bouchard & Crumplin 2010 3885: 3865:Indian Ocean Rim Association 3845:Indian Ocean Naval Symposium 3835:Indian Ocean in World War II 3534:Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 3517:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake 3465:French-based creole language 3459:in 1971, before the British 2827: 2666:hominid fossils, similar to 2476:in north-western India; the 2445:south of Iran and Pakistan. 1934:West Indian Ocean coelacanth 889:In Indonesia, the so-called 543: 453: 7: 8078:Mugo, Kimunya, ed. (2006). 7310:10.1007/978-3-642-20992-5_1 7015:"Limits of Oceans and Seas" 5919:. Oxford University Press. 5661:Telford & Cosgrave 2006 4890:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.03.010 4451:Climate Research Lab @ IITM 4132:National Geographic Society 3996:Online Etymology Dictionary 3850:Indian Ocean Research Group 3809:Connected bodies of water: 3731: 3586:issued an advisory opinion 3392:Swedish Deep Sea Expedition 3072:The economically important 2872:traded grain, pottery, and 2143:Equus africanus somaliensis 2033:Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany 1735:Australian humpback dolphin 1285:Prince Edward Fracture Zone 1212:, and the largest areas of 1146:) that reach as far as the 847:. In the Persian Gulf, the 811:. In the Gulf of Aden, the 587:borders of the Indian Ocean 509: 10: 11257: 10982:Inland lakes, deltas, etc. 10050:Northeastern United States 8061:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.06.009 7460:Quaternary Science Reviews 7365:Eighteenth-Century Studies 6995:Journal of Chinese Studies 5880: 5332:Patnaik & Chauhan 2009 4991:Royal Society Open Science 3597: 3463:the islanders. He spoke a 3332:prohibited the slave trade 3175:From 1405 to 1433 admiral 3084:1453 with the fall of the 2636:China as regional powers. 2578: 2347: 2309: 1849:Southwest Australian Shelf 1845:Northwest Australian Shelf 1678:Australian snubfin dolphin 1330:Indian Ocean garbage patch 1019: 460:Oceanus Orientalis Indicus 438:, including a significant 344:not a well-defined measure 18: 11128: 11072: 10981: 10805: 10738: 10680: 10657: 10624: 10588: 10521: 10415: 10323: 10314: 10243: 10164: 9970: 9774: 9555: 9513: 9422: 9413: 9361: 9318: 9258: 9181: 9113: 9083: 9047: 9038: 9013: 8907: 8831: 8680: 8649: 8640: 8556: 8405: 8394: 8292: 8142:Pearson, Michael (2015). 8129:10.1017/S1740022820000017 8117:Journal of Global History 7591:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00471.1 7406:10.1007/s12038-009-0056-9 7150:10.1007/s11759-008-9064-x 6861:10.1007/s10530-014-0778-y 6781:10.1017/S0022050700107740 6479:. In Tyler, P. A. (ed.). 6034:10.1007/s10437-014-9173-4 4669:, Discussion, pp. 831–832 4509:, Introduction, pp. 64–66 4329:"U.S. Navy Oceanographer" 3949:Eakins & Sharman 2010 3918:Keesing & Irvine 2005 3276:The establishment of the 3202:The Portuguese navigator 3060:on the Red Sea littoral. 2882:Indus Valley civilisation 2302:and isolated by the arid 2045:Ceratotherium simum simum 1915:spreads coral bleaching. 1614: 1495: 1265:North Atlantic Deep Water 1079:The climate north of the 742:rivers and (order 4) the 704: 677:In correspondence of the 503: 341: 334: 324: 292: 288: 280: 266: 258: 250: 240: 230: 226: 189: 179: 144: 132: 93: 81: 50: 35: 30: 10531:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 9535:Transantarctic Mountains 9173:Thermohaline circulation 7802:Progress in Oceanography 6978:10.1215/1089201X-1891579 6416:10.1109/LGRS.2005.854205 6387:10.1016/j.gr.2012.07.001 6240:Cabrero, Ferran (2004). 5956:Journal of World History 4722:Souter & Lindén 2005 3935:CIA World Fact Book 2018 3593: 3578:. In February 2019, the 3413:opened in 1869 when the 3351:Indian Ocean slave trade 3278:Dutch East India Company 2422:is being divided by the 2217:from the islands of the 2115:East African Rift valley 1721:Neophocaena phocaenoides 1315:South Equatorial Current 1249:western boundary current 699:exclusive economic zones 10280:Caribbean South America 9121:Atmospheric circulation 8672:Transpolar Drift Stream 8444:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 8246:Encyclopædia Britannica 8053:2012E&PSL.341...35W 7861:(Map of Indian Ocean). 7849:Stow, D. A. V. (2006). 7693:10.22459/AHR.47.2009.11 7208:10.1126/science.1057103 6481:Ecosystems of the world 6233:10.3406/topoi.1996.1696 6072:10.1126/science.1100167 5591:19 January 2018 at the 5227:Royer & Gordon 1997 5103:Ullah & Gadain 2016 4805:Mittermeier et al. 2011 4620:Chen & Quartly 2005 4315:, Introduction, pp. 1–2 3840:Indian Ocean literature 3570:in the Indian Ocean is 3566:The sovereignty of the 3479:from India. The end of 2674:Toba catastrophe theory 2656:Pleistocene fossils of 2448:A series of ridges and 1913:sea surface temperature 1813:large marine ecosystems 1773:Olive ridley sea turtle 1247:the CDW becomes a deep 1239:basins and crosses the 1140:Indian Ocean Experiment 1098:Bølling–Allerød warming 882:separates the two. The 589:, as delineated by the 534:Ancient Greek geography 19:For the rock band, see 10060:Southern United States 9863:Scandinavian Peninsula 9192:Environment portal 9146:Marine garbage patches 8960:Indonesian Throughflow 8864:Indonesian Throughflow 7394:Journal of Biosciences 7266:McPherson, K. (1984). 6826:10.3406/arch.1981.1638 6712:Felton, C. S. (2014). 6644:El-Abbadi, M. (2000). 6432:"Oceans: Indian Ocean" 6286:10.26443/jiows.v1i1.25 6163:Brewster, D. (2014b). 5275:Kearney, Milo (2004). 4836:10.3390/insects2020112 4807:, Table 1.2, pp. 12–13 4217:Vörösmarty et al. 2000 3905:, Introduction, p. 219 3830:Indian Ocean Geoid Low 3632: 3613: 3468: 3369: 3349:was the center of the 3297: 100,000–150,000 3273: 3199: 3144:Indian Monsoon Current 3093: 2969: 2900: 2797: 2653: 2538:Southeast Indian Ridge 2526:Chagos-Laccadive Ridge 2522:Southwest Indian Ridge 2502:Eighty Five East Ridge 2470:Chagos-Laccadive Ridge 2388:Southeast Indian Ridge 2380:Southwest Indian Ridge 2360:Rodrigues Triple Point 2225: 2215:Aldabra giant tortoise 2104: 2053:Diceros bicornis minor 1980: 1821:Somali Coastal Current 1645:Physeter macrocephalus 1361:drift as far north as 1311:Indonesian Throughflow 1269:Antarctic Bottom Water 1241:Southwest Indian Ridge 1229:Circumpolar Deep Water 1195:Agulhas Return Current 1176:Southwest Indian Ridge 1116: 1074:Indonesian Throughflow 1050:Indian Monsoon Current 1029: 991:Great Australian Bight 911:Great Australian Bight 501:name for the Ocean is 10536:Antarctic Convergence 10080:Western United States 9021:Antarctic Circumpolar 8235:Dickson, Henry Newton 7903:(Report). FAO-Somalia 7715:Reviews of Geophysics 7633:Nature Communications 7377:10.1353/ecs.2014.0038 7302:Biodiversity Hotspots 6267:Campbell, G. (2017). 6173:10.4324/9781315815244 6167:. London: Routledge. 5968:10.1353/jwh.2006.0014 5915:Alpers, E.A. (2013). 5285:10.4324/9780203493274 4778:, Introduction, p. 29 4632:Matsumoto et al. 2014 4483:Lelieveld et al. 2001 4447:"Future Indian Ocean" 3627: 3607: 3553:North Sentinel Island 3450: 3415:Industrial Revolution 3364: 3264: 3193: 3071: 2958: 2894: 2822:major climate changes 2784: 2647: 2599:European colonial era 2498:Prince Edward Islands 2404:Indo-Australian Plate 2275:Sumatran rhinoceroses 2213: 2099: 1970: 1962:biodiversity hotspots 1940:, was discovered off 1938:Indonesian coelacanth 1792:Loggerhead sea turtle 1778:Lepidochelys olivacea 1664:Balaenoptera physalus 1564:Orcaella brevirostris 1545:Balaenoptera borealis 1526:Balaenoptera musculus 1374:anthropogenic warming 1114: 1027: 645:, passes through the 606:, running south from 593:in 1953 included the 518: Ocean of India 411:and ridges formed by 246:(Africa to Australia) 11170:Rivers of Bangladesh 9602:Greater Central Asia 8543:United Arab Emirates 8240:"Indian Ocean" 8178:Serels, Steven, ed. 8031:10.1029/1999GB900092 7777:10.1029/2006GL027573 7735:10.1029/2007RG000245 7561:10.1002/2015GL066979 7258:10.1002/2014GC005454 6882:. pp. 197–227. 6840:Biological Invasions 6615:10.1002/2015GL064015 6192:Current Anthropology 6005:10.1029/2001GC000252 5563:Felber Seligman 2006 5392:Gusiakov et al. 2009 5054:Di Minin et al. 2013 5042:Rijsdijk et al. 2009 4753:. 15 December 2016. 4634:, pp. 3454–3455 4414:. pp. 469–482. 3700:and Eastern Europe. 3557:South Andaman Island 2845: 3000 BCE 2838: 2000 BCE 2750:in India during the 2518:Central Indian Ridge 2364:Central Indian Ridge 2006:are all examples of 1759:Dermochelys coriacea 1588:Western Indian Ocean 1319:Sea surface salinity 803:is connected to the 685:ranges from 0 to 30 473:Indian Eastern Ocean 11136:Lakes of Bangladesh 10799:Indian subcontinent 10797:Hydrography of the 10748:Continents of Earth 10275:Brazilian Highlands 9684:Indian subcontinent 9545:Antarctic Peninsula 9343:Southern Hemisphere 9338:Northern Hemisphere 9065:South Atlantic Gyre 9060:North Atlantic Gyre 8022:2000GBioC..14..599V 7969:2011PLoSO...614613W 7934:2012ERL.....7d4040V 7814:2002PrOce..52...63S 7768:2006GeoRL..3322609S 7727:2009RvGeo..47.1002S 7653:10.1038/ncomms16019 7645:2017NatCo...816019R 7614:(5330): 1268–1274. 7583:2014JCli...27.8501R 7552:2016GeoRL..43..826R 7534:Roxy, M.K. (2016). 7487:Rogers, A. (2012). 7472:2009QSRv...28...14R 7348:1993Geo....21..275D 7249:2014GGG....15.3448M 7200:2001Sci...291.1031L 7194:(5506): 1031–1036. 7035:1953Natur.172R.484. 6949:2014MGeol.352....4H 6920:2010NatGe...3..546H 6880:Geophysical Hazards 6852:2015BiInv..17..973G 6675:1969DSRA...16..231E 6656:on 31 January 2012. 6606:2015GeoRL..42.5526D 6523:2013PLoSO...871788D 6408:2005IGRSL...2..423C 6379:2013GondR..23..238C 6323:Casale, G. (2003). 6308:2000JPO....30..311C 6254:on 26 December 2016 6064:2004Sci...306..479B 5997:2003GGG.....4.1027B 5601:National Geographic 5115:Bossuyt et al. 2004 5011:10.1098/rsos.161014 5003:2017RSOS....461014H 4882:2008MolPE..47.1076W 4776:Cupello et al. 2019 4724:, Foreword, pp. 5–6 4128:"Continental Shelf" 3660:via the Sri Lankan 3421:Upeneus moluccensis 3272:on 29 November 1810 2921:Alexander the Great 2810:Gulf of Carpentaria 2689:theory states that 2546:East Indiaman Ridge 2288:Southwest Australia 2263:Sumatran orangutans 2111:Ethiopian Highlands 1512:Southwest Australia 1502:Australian sea lion 1130:Indian Ocean Dipole 1070:Northern Hemisphere 907:Gulf of Carpentaria 893:is composed of the 113: / 21:Indian Ocean (band) 10563:Great Barrier Reef 10184:Mainland Australia 9892:Apennine Peninsula 9353:Western Hemisphere 9328:Eastern Hemisphere 9075:South Pacific Gyre 9070:North Pacific Gyre 8950:Equatorial Counter 8854:Equatorial Counter 7571:Journal of Climate 5736:. 27 August 2018. 5627:, pp. 973–974 5449:, pp. 799–801 5368:Boivin et al. 2014 4531:Wilson et al. 2012 4519:Harris et al. 2014 4203:10.1093/gji/ggw461 4169:Harris et al. 2014 4157:Harris et al. 2014 4068:Anonymous (1912). 3870:Maritime Silk Road 3818:Indo-Mediterranean 3760:Environment portal 3633: 3614: 3610:ocean trade routes 3600:Indian Ocean trade 3568:Chagos Archipelago 3555:, which lies near 3469: 3437:Rhopilema nomadica 3370: 3304:East India Company 3274: 3248:Muslim geographers 3200: 3196:Indian Ocean trade 3094: 3022:developed between 3008:Eudoxus of Cyzicus 3003:around 1 CE. 2970: 2913:Scylax of Caryanda 2901: 2798: 2701:Coastal hypothesis 2696:Southern Dispersal 2669:H. heidelbergensis 2654: 2650:Coastal hypothesis 2583:The Indian Ocean, 2400:Owen Fracture Zone 2240:Annamite Mountains 2226: 2183:Carduelis johannis 2175:Cyclamen somalense 2127:Ammodorcas clarkei 2105: 2069:Loxodonta africana 2008:adaptive radiation 1981: 1946:lobe-finned fishes 1927:hydrothermal vents 1683:Orcaella heinsohni 1427:Crozet Archipelago 1363:55° south latitude 1342:Mozambique Channel 1296:40° south latitude 1292:20° south latitude 1281:Mozambique Channel 1204:of the world, the 1165:50° south latitude 1122:greenhouse warming 1117: 1054:Walker circulation 1034:Tropical Warm Pool 1030: 943:Mozambique Channel 927:- 2.172 million km 921:- 3.862 million km 782:Mozambique Channel 653:Coasts and shelves 643:90th meridian east 639:Eastern Hemisphere 428:Walker circulation 401:Eastern Hemisphere 395:It is named after 11198: 11197: 11059:Kerala backwaters 10764: 10763: 10644:Mediterranean Rim 10517: 10516: 10456:Mediterranean Sea 10310: 10309: 10263:Amazon Rainforest 10090:Canadian Prairies 10055:Pacific Northwest 9916:Iberian Peninsula 9701:Arabian Peninsula 9528:Antarctic Plateau 9288:Three/Four Worlds 9210: 9209: 9203:Oceans portal 9109: 9108: 9055:Indian Ocean Gyre 9034: 9033: 8596: 8595: 7868:978-0-226-77664-4 7577:(22): 8501–8509. 7319:978-3-642-20991-8 6908:Nature Geoscience 6897:978-90-481-3235-5 6752:978-1-921313-90-5 6600:(13): 5526–5532. 6572:978-0-321-08443-9 6490:978-0-444-82619-0 6367:Gondwana Research 6182:978-1-315-81524-4 6058:(5695): 479–481. 5926:978-0-19-533787-7 5698:(4 August 2014). 5625:Galil et al. 2015 5506:Romero-Frias 2016 5380:Rubin et al. 2017 5294:978-1-134-38175-3 4710:Wafar et al. 2011 4495:Ewing et al. 1969 4429:978-0-12-822698-8 3989:Harper, Douglas. 3658:Strait of Malacca 3542:Western Australia 3343: 12,000,000 3324:Mascarene Islands 3312:Dutch East Indies 3208:Cape of Good Hope 2960:Greco-Roman trade 2950:Sulaiman al-Tajir 2648:According to the 2640:First settlements 2554:Mascarene Plateau 2490:Ninety East Ridge 2486:Kerguelen Plateau 2482:Kerguelen Islands 2478:Kerguelen hotspot 2466:Mascarene Plateau 2424:East African Rift 2370:, separating the 2244:floristic regions 2232:rising sea levels 2167:Cordeauxia edulus 2020:Raphus cucullatus 1872:Dunaliella salina 1809: 1808: 1559:Irrawaddy dolphin 1372:Since the 1960s, 1336:, this vortex of 1334:Indian Ocean Gyre 1144:Asian brown cloud 1083:is affected by a 1066:Arabian Peninsula 891:Indonesian Seaway 829:Mediterranean Sea 817:Guardafui Channel 807:by the strait of 709:The Indian Ocean 647:Ninety East Ridge 614:on the island of 604:20° east meridian 522:Chinese explorers 515:lit. transl. 405:continental shelf 350: 349: 11248: 11100:Gulf of Khambhat 10791: 10784: 10777: 10768: 10767: 10746: 10745: 10725:Global Southwest 10720:Global Southeast 10710:Global Northwest 10705:Global Northeast 10695:Global Heartland 10639:Indian Ocean Rim 10321: 10320: 10213:Island Melanesia 9904:Balkan Peninsula 9679:Himalayan states 9626:Russian Far East 9420: 9419: 9348:Water Hemisphere 9237: 9230: 9223: 9214: 9213: 9201: 9200: 9190: 9189: 9126:Boundary current 9045: 9044: 9000:South Equatorial 8985:North Korea Cold 8980:North Equatorial 8894:South Equatorial 8884:North Madagascar 8823:West Spitsbergen 8813:South Equatorial 8793:North Equatorial 8647: 8646: 8623: 8616: 8609: 8600: 8599: 8449: 8439: 8434:Christmas Island 8428: 8400: 8278: 8271: 8264: 8255: 8254: 8250: 8242: 8230: 8228: 8226: 8220: 8211: 8209: 8207: 8198: 8132: 8114: 8096: 8094: 8092: 8086: 8074: 8072: 8035: 8033: 8000: 7990: 7980: 7947: 7945: 7912: 7910: 7908: 7902: 7892: 7890: 7888: 7882: 7872: 7856: 7845: 7843: 7841: 7835: 7825: 7799: 7789: 7779: 7746: 7705: 7695: 7674: 7664: 7623: 7602: 7565: 7563: 7530: 7528: 7526: 7505: 7503: 7501: 7495: 7483: 7457: 7446: 7437:(5): 1382–1393. 7425: 7388: 7359: 7330: 7328: 7326: 7292: 7290: 7288: 7272: 7262: 7260: 7243:(8): 3448–3458. 7227: 7181: 7179: 7177: 7161: 7132: 7130: 7128: 7114: 7104: 7102: 7100: 7086: 7076: 7074: 7072: 7056: 7046: 7044:10.1038/172484b0 7010: 6989: 6960: 6931: 6901: 6873: 6863: 6829: 6808: 6806: 6804: 6792: 6763: 6761: 6759: 6740: 6730: 6728: 6726: 6720: 6708: 6706: 6704: 6698: 6686: 6657: 6640: 6638: 6636: 6619: 6617: 6584: 6554: 6544: 6534: 6501: 6499: 6497: 6471: 6469: 6467: 6453: 6443: 6441: 6439: 6427: 6390: 6361: 6359: 6357: 6347: 6338: 6336: 6334: 6319: 6290: 6288: 6263: 6261: 6259: 6253: 6246: 6236: 6215: 6186: 6159: 6149: 6120: 6091: 6045: 6016: 5979: 5950: 5948: 5946: 5930: 5911: 5909: 5875: 5872: 5866: 5863: 5857: 5854: 5848: 5843: 5837: 5834: 5828: 5825: 5819: 5816: 5810: 5807: 5801: 5800: 5788: 5782: 5781: 5779: 5777: 5768:. 18 June 2020. 5756: 5750: 5749: 5747: 5745: 5726: 5720: 5719: 5717: 5715: 5692: 5686: 5681: 5675: 5670: 5664: 5658: 5652: 5646: 5640: 5634: 5628: 5622: 5616: 5610: 5604: 5583: 5577: 5572: 5566: 5560: 5554: 5548: 5542: 5536: 5521: 5515: 5509: 5508:, Abstract; p. 3 5503: 5497: 5491: 5485: 5480: 5474: 5468: 5462: 5456: 5450: 5444: 5438: 5432: 5426: 5420: 5414: 5408: 5395: 5389: 5383: 5377: 5371: 5365: 5359: 5353: 5347: 5341: 5335: 5329: 5323: 5317: 5311: 5305: 5299: 5298: 5272: 5266: 5260: 5254: 5253:, Fig. 1, p. 275 5248: 5242: 5236: 5230: 5224: 5218: 5212: 5199: 5194: 5188: 5183: 5177: 5176: 5174: 5172: 5153: 5147: 5138: 5132: 5123: 5117: 5112: 5106: 5100: 5094: 5093: 5091: 5089: 5079:"Horn of Africa" 5075: 5069: 5063: 5057: 5051: 5045: 5039: 5033: 5032: 5022: 4982: 4976: 4975: 4955: 4949: 4948: 4916: 4910: 4909: 4876:(3): 1076–1089. 4865: 4859: 4858: 4848: 4838: 4814: 4808: 4802: 4779: 4773: 4767: 4766: 4764: 4762: 4743: 4737: 4731: 4725: 4719: 4713: 4707: 4701: 4699: 4697: 4695: 4676: 4670: 4664: 4658: 4653: 4647: 4641: 4635: 4629: 4623: 4617: 4611: 4606: 4600: 4599: 4597: 4595: 4579: 4573: 4567: 4561: 4560:, Abstract; p. 4 4555: 4549: 4543: 4534: 4528: 4522: 4516: 4510: 4504: 4498: 4492: 4486: 4480: 4474: 4468: 4462: 4461: 4459: 4457: 4443: 4434: 4433: 4407: 4398: 4395:Roxy et al. 2014 4392: 4383: 4382: 4380: 4378: 4363: 4357: 4354:Dutt et al. 2015 4351: 4345: 4344: 4342: 4340: 4335:on 2 August 2001 4331:. Archived from 4325: 4316: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4301: 4299: 4284: 4278: 4277: 4275: 4273: 4258: 4252: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4226: 4220: 4214: 4208: 4207: 4205: 4196:(3): 1490–1507. 4181: 4172: 4171:, Table 3, p. 11 4166: 4160: 4159:, Table 2, p. 11 4154: 4148: 4147: 4145: 4143: 4134:. 4 March 2011. 4124: 4118: 4112: 4106: 4101: 4090: 4085: 4079: 4078: 4076: 4065: 4056: 4050: 4044: 4043: 4023: 4017: 4016: 4010: 4008: 3986: 3980: 3979: 3974: 3972: 3957: 3951: 3946: 3937: 3932: 3921: 3915: 3906: 3900: 3804: 3799: 3798: 3790: 3788:Geography portal 3785: 3784: 3783: 3776: 3771: 3770: 3769: 3762: 3757: 3756: 3748: 3743: 3742: 3672:, from there to 3538:Boeing 777-2H6ER 3477:indenture labour 3344: 3341: 3308:Coromandel Coast 3298: 3295: 3286:Colombo fortress 3230: 3227: 3185:treasure voyages 3171: 3168: 3113: 3104: 3090:Age of Discovery 3086:Byzantine Empire 3083: 3064:Age of Discovery 2884:(2600–1900 2846: 2843: 2839: 2836: 2756:Broomcorn millet 2709:Late Pleistocene 2566: 2562: 2514:Madagascar Ridge 2426:System into the 2416:Australian Plate 2392:Australian Plate 2366:, including the 2356:mid-ocean ridges 2331: 2322: 2294:Stretching from 2267:proboscis monkey 2179:Warsangli linnet 2147:hamadryas baboon 2065:Acynonix jubatus 2057:African wild dog 2049:black rhinoceros 2041:white rhinoceros 1951: 1895: 1886: 1837:Gulf of Thailand 1740:Sousa sahulensis 1597:Green sea turtle 1507:Neophoca cinerea 1482: 1481: 1415: 1406: 1397: 1379:greenhouse gases 1243:at 30°S. In the 1060:occurs near the 1003:Gulf of Khambhat 845:Strait of Hormuz 813:Gulf of Tadjoura 570: 556: 519: 516: 512: 506: 505: 477: 474: 471: 468: 465: 342:Shore length is 148: 128: 127: 125: 124: 123: 118: 114: 111: 110: 109: 106: 96: 86: 66: 65: 59: 40: 28: 27: 11256: 11255: 11251: 11250: 11249: 11247: 11246: 11245: 11201: 11200: 11199: 11194: 11124: 11068: 10977: 10801: 10795: 10765: 10760: 10734: 10676: 10653: 10620: 10584: 10513: 10502:South China Sea 10411: 10354:Central America 10306: 10239: 10160: 10112:Northern Mexico 10100:Northern Canada 10085:Atlantic Canada 10040:Mountain states 9966: 9821:European Russia 9814:Southern Russia 9770: 9723:Iranian Plateau 9551: 9540:West Antarctica 9523:East Antarctica 9509: 9409: 9357: 9333:Land Hemisphere 9314: 9254: 9241: 9211: 9206: 9195: 9184: 9177: 9136:Ekman transport 9105: 9079: 9030: 9009: 8945:East Korea Warm 8940:East Australian 8903: 8899:West Australian 8849:East Madagascar 8827: 8676: 8662:North Icelandic 8636: 8627: 8597: 8592: 8552: 8447: 8437: 8426: 8401: 8392: 8288: 8282: 8224: 8222: 8218: 8214: 8205: 8203: 8196: 8192: 8189: 8112: 8104: 8102:Further reading 8099: 8090: 8088: 8084: 7906: 7904: 7900: 7886: 7884: 7880: 7869: 7839: 7837: 7833: 7797: 7709:Schott, F. A.; 7524: 7522: 7499: 7497: 7493: 7455: 7431:History Compass 7324: 7322: 7320: 7286: 7284: 7270: 7175: 7173: 7126: 7124: 7112: 7098: 7096: 7084: 7070: 7068: 7067:on 25 July 2015 6928:10.1038/NGEO901 6898: 6802: 6800: 6757: 6755: 6753: 6738: 6724: 6722: 6718: 6702: 6700: 6696: 6634: 6632: 6627:. Boulder, CO: 6573: 6495: 6493: 6491: 6465: 6463: 6451: 6437: 6435: 6355: 6353: 6345: 6332: 6330: 6257: 6255: 6251: 6244: 6183: 5944: 5942: 5927: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5869: 5864: 5860: 5855: 5851: 5844: 5840: 5835: 5831: 5826: 5822: 5817: 5813: 5808: 5804: 5789: 5785: 5775: 5773: 5758: 5757: 5753: 5743: 5741: 5728: 5727: 5723: 5713: 5711: 5693: 5689: 5682: 5678: 5671: 5667: 5659: 5655: 5647: 5643: 5635: 5631: 5623: 5619: 5611: 5607: 5593:Wayback Machine 5584: 5580: 5573: 5569: 5561: 5557: 5549: 5545: 5537: 5524: 5518:LaViolette 2008 5516: 5512: 5504: 5500: 5492: 5488: 5481: 5477: 5469: 5465: 5457: 5453: 5445: 5441: 5433: 5429: 5421: 5417: 5409: 5398: 5390: 5386: 5378: 5374: 5366: 5362: 5354: 5350: 5342: 5338: 5330: 5326: 5318: 5314: 5306: 5302: 5295: 5273: 5269: 5261: 5257: 5249: 5245: 5237: 5233: 5225: 5221: 5213: 5202: 5195: 5191: 5184: 5180: 5170: 5168: 5155: 5154: 5150: 5139: 5135: 5124: 5120: 5113: 5109: 5101: 5097: 5087: 5085: 5077: 5076: 5072: 5064: 5060: 5052: 5048: 5040: 5036: 4983: 4979: 4956: 4952: 4917: 4913: 4866: 4862: 4815: 4811: 4803: 4782: 4774: 4770: 4760: 4758: 4745: 4744: 4740: 4732: 4728: 4720: 4716: 4708: 4704: 4693: 4691: 4680:"IUCN Red List" 4678: 4677: 4673: 4665: 4661: 4654: 4650: 4644:Han et al. 2010 4642: 4638: 4630: 4626: 4618: 4614: 4607: 4603: 4593: 4591: 4590:on 8 April 2014 4580: 4576: 4568: 4564: 4556: 4552: 4544: 4537: 4529: 4525: 4517: 4513: 4505: 4501: 4493: 4489: 4481: 4477: 4469: 4465: 4455: 4453: 4445: 4444: 4437: 4430: 4408: 4401: 4393: 4386: 4376: 4374: 4365: 4364: 4360: 4352: 4348: 4338: 4336: 4327: 4326: 4319: 4311: 4307: 4297: 4295: 4286: 4285: 4281: 4271: 4269: 4260: 4259: 4255: 4245: 4243: 4238:. 4 June 2010. 4228: 4227: 4223: 4215: 4211: 4182: 4175: 4167: 4163: 4155: 4151: 4141: 4139: 4126: 4125: 4121: 4113: 4109: 4102: 4093: 4086: 4082: 4066: 4059: 4051: 4047: 4028:The World Today 4024: 4020: 4006: 4004: 3987: 3983: 3970: 3968: 3959: 3958: 3954: 3947: 3940: 3933: 3924: 3916: 3909: 3901: 3892: 3888: 3883: 3800: 3793: 3786: 3781: 3779: 3772: 3767: 3765: 3758: 3751: 3744: 3737: 3734: 3602: 3596: 3561:isolated people 3427:Mullus barbatus 3359: 3357:Late modern era 3342: 3296: 3270:Napoleonic Wars 3256:Ahmad ibn Mājid 3228: 3222:Estado da Índia 3169: 3123: 3122: 3121: 3120: 3116: 3115: 3114: 3106: 3105: 3066: 3020:trade relations 2925:Ptolemaic Egypt 2844: 2837: 2830: 2794:Andaman Islands 2642: 2590:mare incognitum 2581: 2550:Agulhas Plateau 2510:Carlsberg Ridge 2458:Réunion hotspot 2450:seamount chains 2412:Capricorn Plate 2396:Antarctic Plate 2390:separating the 2384:Antarctic Plate 2368:Carlsberg Ridge 2352: 2348:Main category: 2346: 2345: 2344: 2343: 2334: 2333: 2332: 2324: 2323: 2312: 2304:Nullarbor Plain 2151:Papio hamadryas 2139:Somali wild ass 2131:Speke's gazelle 2103:of the Maldives 2012:Mare aux Songes 1958: 1942:Sulawesi Island 1908: 1907: 1906: 1905: 1903: 1898: 1897: 1896: 1888: 1887: 1817:Agulhas Current 1797:Caretta caretta 1794: 1775: 1756: 1737: 1718: 1702:Sousa chinensis 1699: 1680: 1661: 1642: 1623: 1599: 1580: 1561: 1542: 1523: 1504: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1430: 1418: 1417: 1416: 1408: 1407: 1399: 1398: 1387: 1338:plastic garbage 1245:Mascarene Basin 1191:Agulhas Current 1156: 1022: 1017: 860:Gulf of Khambat 849:Gulf of Bahrain 772: 748:Wadi Ad Dawasir 707: 683:Bouguer gravity 668:passive margins 655: 612:South East Cape 583: 581:Extent and data 578: 577: 576: 575: 574: 571: 562: 561: 560: 557: 546: 520:). Conversely, 517: 475: 472: 469: 466: 456: 362:Earth's surface 271: 245: 235: 217:Southern Africa 193: countries 147:Primary inflows 121: 119: 115: 112: 107: 104: 102: 100: 99: 89: 77: 76: 75: 74: 73: 72: 71: 67: 46: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 11254: 11244: 11243: 11238: 11233: 11228: 11223: 11218: 11213: 11196: 11195: 11193: 11192: 11166: 11165: 11155: 11154: 11132: 11130: 11126: 11125: 11123: 11122: 11117: 11112: 11107: 11105:Gulf of Mannar 11102: 11097: 11092: 11087: 11082: 11076: 11074: 11070: 11069: 11067: 11066: 11061: 11056: 11051: 11049:Red Hills Lake 11046: 11041: 11036: 11031: 11026: 11021: 11016: 11011: 11006: 11001: 10996: 10991: 10985: 10983: 10979: 10978: 10976: 10975: 10970: 10965: 10960: 10955: 10950: 10945: 10940: 10935: 10930: 10925: 10920: 10915: 10910: 10905: 10900: 10895: 10890: 10885: 10880: 10875: 10870: 10865: 10860: 10855: 10850: 10845: 10840: 10835: 10830: 10825: 10820: 10815: 10809: 10807: 10803: 10802: 10794: 10793: 10786: 10779: 10771: 10762: 10761: 10759: 10758: 10756:Physical Earth 10739: 10736: 10735: 10733: 10732: 10727: 10722: 10717: 10712: 10707: 10702: 10697: 10692: 10686: 10684: 10678: 10677: 10675: 10674: 10669: 10663: 10661: 10655: 10654: 10652: 10651: 10646: 10641: 10636: 10630: 10628: 10622: 10621: 10619: 10618: 10613: 10608: 10607: 10606: 10595: 10593: 10586: 10585: 10583: 10582: 10577: 10576: 10575: 10570: 10568:Mariana Trench 10565: 10555: 10550: 10548:Atlantic Ocean 10545: 10540: 10539: 10538: 10527: 10525: 10519: 10518: 10515: 10514: 10512: 10511: 10509:Southern Ocean 10506: 10505: 10504: 10499: 10497:East China Sea 10489: 10488: 10487: 10477: 10476: 10475: 10474: 10473: 10468: 10463: 10453: 10448: 10443: 10438: 10431:Atlantic Ocean 10428: 10422: 10420: 10413: 10412: 10410: 10409: 10408: 10407: 10402: 10392: 10391: 10390: 10385: 10375: 10370: 10365: 10364: 10363: 10358: 10357: 10356: 10351: 10336: 10330: 10328: 10318: 10312: 10311: 10308: 10307: 10305: 10304: 10303: 10302: 10292: 10287: 10282: 10277: 10272: 10267: 10266: 10265: 10260: 10249: 10247: 10241: 10240: 10238: 10237: 10235:Remote Oceania 10232: 10227: 10222: 10217: 10216: 10215: 10205: 10204: 10203: 10198: 10197: 10196: 10191: 10186: 10170: 10168: 10162: 10161: 10159: 10158: 10153: 10152: 10151: 10150: 10149: 10144: 10129: 10124: 10119: 10114: 10109: 10108: 10107: 10105:Western Canada 10102: 10097: 10095:Eastern Canada 10092: 10087: 10082: 10077: 10072: 10067: 10062: 10057: 10052: 10047: 10042: 10037: 10032: 10027: 10022: 10017: 10012: 10002: 9997: 9992: 9987: 9982: 9976: 9974: 9968: 9967: 9965: 9964: 9959: 9954: 9949: 9944: 9943: 9942: 9937: 9932: 9922: 9921: 9920: 9919: 9918: 9908: 9907: 9906: 9896: 9895: 9894: 9884: 9879: 9869: 9868: 9867: 9866: 9865: 9855: 9850: 9845: 9840: 9830: 9829: 9828: 9823: 9818: 9817: 9816: 9811: 9809:South Caucasus 9806: 9804:North Caucasus 9796: 9786: 9780: 9778: 9772: 9771: 9769: 9768: 9767: 9766: 9765: 9764: 9759: 9754: 9744: 9743: 9742: 9737: 9727: 9726: 9725: 9715: 9714: 9713: 9711:South Caucasus 9703: 9693: 9692: 9691: 9686: 9681: 9671: 9670: 9669: 9664: 9654: 9649: 9648: 9647: 9642: 9632: 9631: 9630: 9629: 9628: 9613: 9612: 9611: 9606: 9605: 9604: 9589: 9588: 9587: 9582: 9580:Aralkum Desert 9577: 9567: 9561: 9559: 9553: 9552: 9550: 9549: 9548: 9547: 9537: 9532: 9531: 9530: 9519: 9517: 9511: 9510: 9508: 9507: 9506: 9505: 9500: 9495: 9494: 9493: 9488: 9478: 9468: 9467: 9466: 9465: 9464: 9459: 9454: 9449: 9434: 9428: 9426: 9417: 9411: 9410: 9408: 9407: 9406: 9405: 9395: 9390: 9385: 9380: 9379: 9378: 9371:Africa-Eurasia 9367: 9365: 9359: 9358: 9356: 9355: 9350: 9345: 9340: 9335: 9330: 9324: 9322: 9316: 9315: 9313: 9312: 9311: 9310: 9305: 9300: 9295: 9285: 9280: 9275: 9270: 9264: 9262: 9256: 9255: 9240: 9239: 9232: 9225: 9217: 9208: 9207: 9182: 9179: 9178: 9176: 9175: 9170: 9169: 9168: 9163: 9161:North Atlantic 9158: 9153: 9143: 9138: 9133: 9131:Coriolis force 9128: 9123: 9117: 9115: 9111: 9110: 9107: 9106: 9104: 9103: 9098: 9093: 9087: 9085: 9081: 9080: 9078: 9077: 9072: 9067: 9062: 9057: 9051: 9049: 9042: 9036: 9035: 9032: 9031: 9029: 9028: 9026:Tasman Outflow 9023: 9017: 9015: 9014:Southern Ocean 9011: 9010: 9008: 9007: 9002: 8997: 8992: 8987: 8982: 8977: 8972: 8967: 8962: 8957: 8952: 8947: 8942: 8937: 8932: 8927: 8922: 8917: 8911: 8909: 8905: 8904: 8902: 8901: 8896: 8891: 8886: 8881: 8876: 8871: 8866: 8861: 8859:Indian Monsoon 8856: 8851: 8846: 8844:Agulhas Return 8841: 8835: 8833: 8829: 8828: 8826: 8825: 8820: 8818:West Greenland 8815: 8810: 8808:South Atlantic 8805: 8800: 8795: 8790: 8785: 8783:North Atlantic 8780: 8775: 8770: 8765: 8760: 8755: 8750: 8745: 8740: 8735: 8733:East Greenland 8730: 8725: 8720: 8715: 8710: 8705: 8700: 8695: 8690: 8684: 8682: 8681:Atlantic Ocean 8678: 8677: 8675: 8674: 8669: 8664: 8659: 8657:East Greenland 8653: 8651: 8644: 8638: 8637: 8630:Ocean currents 8626: 8625: 8618: 8611: 8603: 8594: 8593: 8591: 8590: 8585: 8584: 8583: 8578: 8573: 8560: 8558: 8554: 8553: 8551: 8550: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8500: 8495: 8490: 8485: 8480: 8475: 8470: 8465: 8460: 8455: 8450: 8440: 8430: 8427:United Kingdom 8420: 8415: 8409: 8407: 8403: 8402: 8395: 8393: 8391: 8390: 8385: 8380: 8375: 8368: 8363: 8358: 8353: 8348: 8343: 8338: 8337: 8336: 8329: 8317: 8312: 8307: 8302: 8296: 8294: 8290: 8289: 8281: 8280: 8273: 8266: 8258: 8252: 8251: 8231: 8212: 8188: 8187:External links 8185: 8184: 8183: 8176: 8169: 8162: 8155: 8152:978-1137564887 8140: 8133: 8123:(2): 203–223. 8103: 8100: 8098: 8097: 8075: 8036: 8016:(2): 599–621. 8001: 7948: 7913: 7893: 7873: 7867: 7846: 7826: 7790: 7762:(22): L22609. 7747: 7706: 7675: 7624: 7603: 7566: 7546:(2): 826–833. 7531: 7506: 7484: 7466:(1–2): 14–24. 7447: 7426: 7389: 7360: 7331: 7318: 7293: 7263: 7228: 7182: 7162: 7133: 7105: 7077: 7057: 7011: 6990: 6972:(3): 584–590. 6961: 6937:Marine Geology 6932: 6914:(8): 546–550. 6902: 6896: 6874: 6846:(4): 973–976. 6830: 6809: 6793: 6775:(4): 556–573. 6764: 6751: 6731: 6709: 6687: 6669:(3): 231–248. 6658: 6641: 6620: 6585: 6571: 6555: 6502: 6489: 6472: 6444: 6428: 6402:(4): 423–427. 6391: 6373:(1): 238–267. 6362: 6339: 6320: 6302:(2): 311–326. 6291: 6264: 6237: 6227:(2): 799–807. 6216: 6204:10.1086/512988 6198:(2): 315–321. 6187: 6181: 6160: 6132:(2): 133–149. 6121: 6092: 6046: 6028:(4): 547–581. 6017: 5980: 5962:(4): 411–465. 5951: 5931: 5925: 5912: 5900:(2): 294–313. 5884: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5876: 5867: 5858: 5849: 5846:Brewster 2014a 5838: 5829: 5820: 5811: 5802: 5783: 5751: 5721: 5687: 5676: 5665: 5653: 5641: 5637:Brewster 2014b 5629: 5617: 5605: 5578: 5567: 5555: 5543: 5522: 5510: 5498: 5486: 5483:El-Abbadi 2000 5475: 5463: 5451: 5439: 5427: 5415: 5396: 5384: 5372: 5360: 5356:McPherson 1984 5348: 5336: 5324: 5312: 5300: 5293: 5267: 5255: 5243: 5231: 5219: 5200: 5189: 5178: 5148: 5133: 5118: 5107: 5095: 5070: 5066:WWF-EARPO 2006 5058: 5046: 5034: 4977: 4966:(1): 445–470. 4950: 4931:(2): 604–623. 4911: 4860: 4829:(2): 112–127. 4809: 4780: 4768: 4738: 4726: 4714: 4702: 4671: 4659: 4648: 4636: 4624: 4622:, pp. 5–6 4612: 4601: 4574: 4562: 4550: 4535: 4523: 4511: 4499: 4487: 4475: 4463: 4435: 4428: 4399: 4384: 4358: 4346: 4317: 4305: 4288:"List of seas" 4279: 4253: 4221: 4209: 4173: 4161: 4149: 4119: 4107: 4091: 4080: 4057: 4045: 4034:(6): 249–256. 4018: 3991:"Indian Ocean" 3981: 3952: 3938: 3922: 3907: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3878: 3877: 3872: 3867: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3826: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3806: 3805: 3802:Weather portal 3791: 3777: 3774:Ecology portal 3763: 3749: 3733: 3730: 3598:Main article: 3595: 3592: 3563:in the world. 3515:caused by the 3358: 3355: 3282:Dutch colonies 3240:Ottoman Empire 3212:Swahili people 3118: 3117: 3108: 3107: 3099: 3098: 3097: 3096: 3095: 3078:Ottoman Empire 3065: 3062: 3044:Southern India 3028:Tamil kingdoms 2968:1st century CE 2860:, present-day 2829: 2826: 2806:Burckle Crater 2662:and other pre– 2641: 2638: 2626:Atlantic World 2580: 2577: 2494:Rajmahal Traps 2336: 2335: 2326: 2325: 2317: 2316: 2315: 2314: 2313: 2311: 2308: 2292: 2291: 2285: 2255: 2254: 2228: 2227: 2199: 2198: 2135:Gazella spekei 2107: 2106: 2092:Horn of Africa 2084: 2083: 2037: 2036: 1987: 1986: 1975:, Mauritius's 1960:Of Earth's 36 1957: 1954: 1900: 1899: 1890: 1889: 1881: 1880: 1879: 1878: 1877: 1866:Artemia salina 1807: 1806: 1803: 1800: 1788: 1787: 1784: 1781: 1769: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1750: 1749: 1746: 1743: 1731: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1712: 1711: 1708: 1707:Southeast Asia 1705: 1693: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1674: 1673: 1670: 1667: 1655: 1654: 1651: 1648: 1636: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1617: 1616: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1602:Chelonia mydas 1593: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1574: 1573: 1570: 1569:Southeast Asia 1567: 1555: 1554: 1551: 1548: 1536: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1517: 1516: 1513: 1510: 1498: 1497: 1493: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1449:photosynthesis 1420: 1419: 1410: 1409: 1401: 1400: 1392: 1391: 1390: 1389: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1347:There are two 1214:slope terraces 1202:submarine fans 1155: 1152: 1062:Horn of Africa 1046:Somali Current 1021: 1018: 1016: 1015: 1010: 1005: 1000: 994: 988: 982: 976: 970: 964: 958: 952: 946: 940: 934: 928: 922: 915: 903:Torres Straits 872:Gulf of Mannar 771: 768: 711:drainage basin 706: 703: 663:active margins 654: 651: 595:Southern Ocean 582: 579: 572: 565: 564: 563: 558: 551: 550: 549: 548: 547: 545: 542: 538:Erythraean Sea 510:Hind Mahāsāgar 455: 452: 448:climate change 424:global climate 370:Southern Ocean 348: 347: 339: 338: 336: 332: 331: 326: 322: 321: 296: 290: 289: 286: 285: 282: 278: 277: 268: 264: 263: 260: 256: 255: 252: 248: 247: 242: 238: 237: 232: 228: 227: 224: 223: 201:Southeast Asia 194: 187: 186: 183: 181:Catchment area 177: 176: 150: 142: 141: 136: 130: 129: 97: 91: 90: 87: 79: 78: 69: 68: 61: 60: 54: 53: 52: 51: 48: 47: 41: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11253: 11242: 11239: 11237: 11234: 11232: 11229: 11227: 11224: 11222: 11219: 11217: 11214: 11212: 11209: 11208: 11206: 11191: 11187: 11183: 11179: 11175: 11171: 11168: 11167: 11164: 11160: 11157: 11156: 11153: 11149: 11145: 11141: 11137: 11134: 11133: 11131: 11127: 11121: 11118: 11116: 11113: 11111: 11110:Laccadive Sea 11108: 11106: 11103: 11101: 11098: 11096: 11095:Gulf of Kutch 11093: 11091: 11090:Bay of Bengal 11088: 11086: 11083: 11081: 11078: 11077: 11075: 11071: 11065: 11062: 11060: 11057: 11055: 11052: 11050: 11047: 11045: 11042: 11040: 11037: 11035: 11032: 11030: 11027: 11025: 11022: 11020: 11017: 11015: 11014:Skeleton Lake 11012: 11010: 11007: 11005: 11002: 11000: 10997: 10995: 10992: 10990: 10987: 10986: 10984: 10980: 10974: 10971: 10969: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10959: 10956: 10954: 10951: 10949: 10946: 10944: 10941: 10939: 10936: 10934: 10931: 10929: 10926: 10924: 10921: 10919: 10916: 10914: 10911: 10909: 10906: 10904: 10901: 10899: 10896: 10894: 10891: 10889: 10886: 10884: 10881: 10879: 10876: 10874: 10871: 10869: 10866: 10864: 10861: 10859: 10856: 10854: 10851: 10849: 10846: 10844: 10841: 10839: 10836: 10834: 10831: 10829: 10826: 10824: 10821: 10819: 10816: 10814: 10811: 10810: 10808: 10806:Inland rivers 10804: 10800: 10792: 10787: 10785: 10780: 10778: 10773: 10772: 10769: 10757: 10753: 10749: 10741: 10740: 10737: 10731: 10728: 10726: 10723: 10721: 10718: 10716: 10713: 10711: 10708: 10706: 10703: 10701: 10698: 10696: 10693: 10691: 10688: 10687: 10685: 10683: 10679: 10673: 10670: 10668: 10665: 10664: 10662: 10660: 10656: 10650: 10647: 10645: 10642: 10640: 10637: 10635: 10632: 10631: 10629: 10627: 10623: 10617: 10614: 10612: 10609: 10605: 10602: 10601: 10600: 10597: 10596: 10594: 10592: 10587: 10581: 10578: 10574: 10571: 10569: 10566: 10564: 10561: 10560: 10559: 10558:Pacific Ocean 10556: 10554: 10551: 10549: 10546: 10544: 10541: 10537: 10534: 10533: 10532: 10529: 10528: 10526: 10524: 10520: 10510: 10507: 10503: 10500: 10498: 10495: 10494: 10493: 10492:Pacific Ocean 10490: 10486: 10483: 10482: 10481: 10478: 10472: 10469: 10467: 10464: 10462: 10459: 10458: 10457: 10454: 10452: 10449: 10447: 10446:Caribbean Sea 10444: 10442: 10439: 10437: 10434: 10433: 10432: 10429: 10427: 10424: 10423: 10421: 10419: 10414: 10406: 10403: 10401: 10398: 10397: 10396: 10393: 10389: 10388:by population 10386: 10384: 10381: 10380: 10379: 10376: 10374: 10371: 10369: 10366: 10362: 10361:South America 10359: 10355: 10352: 10350: 10347: 10346: 10345: 10344:North America 10342: 10341: 10340: 10337: 10335: 10332: 10331: 10329: 10327: 10322: 10319: 10317: 10313: 10301: 10298: 10297: 10296: 10295:Southern Cone 10293: 10291: 10288: 10286: 10283: 10281: 10278: 10276: 10273: 10271: 10270:Andean States 10268: 10264: 10261: 10259: 10256: 10255: 10254: 10251: 10250: 10248: 10246: 10245:South America 10242: 10236: 10233: 10231: 10228: 10226: 10223: 10221: 10218: 10214: 10211: 10210: 10209: 10206: 10202: 10199: 10195: 10192: 10190: 10187: 10185: 10182: 10181: 10180: 10177: 10176: 10175: 10172: 10171: 10169: 10167: 10163: 10157: 10154: 10148: 10145: 10143: 10140: 10139: 10138: 10135: 10134: 10133: 10130: 10128: 10125: 10123: 10120: 10118: 10115: 10113: 10110: 10106: 10103: 10101: 10098: 10096: 10093: 10091: 10088: 10086: 10083: 10081: 10078: 10076: 10073: 10071: 10068: 10066: 10063: 10061: 10058: 10056: 10053: 10051: 10048: 10046: 10043: 10041: 10038: 10036: 10033: 10031: 10028: 10026: 10023: 10021: 10018: 10016: 10013: 10011: 10008: 10007: 10006: 10003: 10001: 9998: 9996: 9993: 9991: 9988: 9986: 9983: 9981: 9978: 9977: 9975: 9973: 9972:North America 9969: 9963: 9960: 9958: 9955: 9953: 9950: 9948: 9945: 9941: 9938: 9936: 9935:Low Countries 9933: 9931: 9928: 9927: 9926: 9923: 9917: 9914: 9913: 9912: 9911:South-western 9909: 9905: 9902: 9901: 9900: 9899:South-eastern 9897: 9893: 9890: 9889: 9888: 9887:South-central 9885: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9877:Mediterranean 9875: 9874: 9873: 9870: 9864: 9861: 9860: 9859: 9856: 9854: 9851: 9849: 9846: 9844: 9843:British Isles 9841: 9839: 9836: 9835: 9834: 9831: 9827: 9824: 9822: 9819: 9815: 9812: 9810: 9807: 9805: 9802: 9801: 9800: 9797: 9795: 9792: 9791: 9790: 9787: 9785: 9782: 9781: 9779: 9777: 9773: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9750: 9749: 9748: 9745: 9741: 9740:Levantine Sea 9738: 9736: 9733: 9732: 9731: 9728: 9724: 9721: 9720: 9719: 9716: 9712: 9709: 9708: 9707: 9704: 9702: 9699: 9698: 9697: 9694: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9677: 9676: 9675: 9672: 9668: 9665: 9663: 9660: 9659: 9658: 9655: 9653: 9650: 9646: 9643: 9641: 9638: 9637: 9636: 9633: 9627: 9624: 9623: 9622: 9619: 9618: 9617: 9614: 9610: 9607: 9603: 9600: 9599: 9598: 9595: 9594: 9593: 9590: 9586: 9583: 9581: 9578: 9576: 9573: 9572: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9562: 9560: 9558: 9554: 9546: 9543: 9542: 9541: 9538: 9536: 9533: 9529: 9526: 9525: 9524: 9521: 9520: 9518: 9516: 9512: 9504: 9501: 9499: 9496: 9492: 9489: 9487: 9484: 9483: 9482: 9479: 9477: 9474: 9473: 9472: 9469: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9453: 9450: 9448: 9445: 9444: 9443: 9440: 9439: 9438: 9435: 9433: 9432:Mediterranean 9430: 9429: 9427: 9425: 9421: 9418: 9416: 9412: 9404: 9401: 9400: 9399: 9396: 9394: 9391: 9389: 9386: 9384: 9381: 9377: 9374: 9373: 9372: 9369: 9368: 9366: 9364: 9360: 9354: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9344: 9341: 9339: 9336: 9334: 9331: 9329: 9326: 9325: 9323: 9321: 9317: 9309: 9306: 9304: 9301: 9299: 9296: 9294: 9291: 9290: 9289: 9286: 9284: 9281: 9279: 9276: 9274: 9271: 9269: 9266: 9265: 9263: 9261: 9257: 9253: 9249: 9245: 9238: 9233: 9231: 9226: 9224: 9219: 9218: 9215: 9205: 9204: 9199: 9193: 9188: 9180: 9174: 9171: 9167: 9166:South Pacific 9164: 9162: 9159: 9157: 9154: 9152: 9151:Great Pacific 9149: 9148: 9147: 9144: 9142: 9141:Marine debris 9139: 9137: 9134: 9132: 9129: 9127: 9124: 9122: 9119: 9118: 9116: 9112: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9094: 9092: 9091:Beaufort Gyre 9089: 9088: 9086: 9082: 9076: 9073: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9056: 9053: 9052: 9050: 9046: 9043: 9041: 9037: 9027: 9024: 9022: 9019: 9018: 9016: 9012: 9006: 9003: 9001: 8998: 8996: 8993: 8991: 8990:North Pacific 8988: 8986: 8983: 8981: 8978: 8976: 8973: 8971: 8968: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8956: 8953: 8951: 8948: 8946: 8943: 8941: 8938: 8936: 8933: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8916: 8913: 8912: 8910: 8908:Pacific Ocean 8906: 8900: 8897: 8895: 8892: 8890: 8887: 8885: 8882: 8880: 8877: 8875: 8872: 8870: 8867: 8865: 8862: 8860: 8857: 8855: 8852: 8850: 8847: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8837: 8836: 8834: 8830: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8804: 8801: 8799: 8796: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8764: 8761: 8759: 8756: 8754: 8751: 8749: 8746: 8744: 8741: 8739: 8736: 8734: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8721: 8719: 8716: 8714: 8711: 8709: 8706: 8704: 8703:Baffin Island 8701: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8691: 8689: 8686: 8685: 8683: 8679: 8673: 8670: 8668: 8665: 8663: 8660: 8658: 8655: 8654: 8652: 8648: 8645: 8643: 8639: 8635: 8631: 8624: 8619: 8617: 8612: 8610: 8605: 8604: 8601: 8589: 8586: 8582: 8579: 8577: 8574: 8572: 8569: 8568: 8567: 8566: 8562: 8561: 8559: 8555: 8549: 8546: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8526: 8524: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8494: 8491: 8489: 8486: 8484: 8481: 8479: 8476: 8474: 8471: 8469: 8466: 8464: 8461: 8459: 8456: 8454: 8451: 8446: 8445: 8441: 8436: 8435: 8431: 8429: 8425: 8421: 8419: 8416: 8414: 8411: 8410: 8408: 8404: 8399: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8379: 8376: 8374: 8373: 8369: 8367: 8364: 8362: 8359: 8357: 8354: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8335: 8334: 8330: 8328: 8327: 8323: 8322: 8321: 8318: 8316: 8313: 8311: 8308: 8306: 8303: 8301: 8298: 8297: 8295: 8291: 8287: 8279: 8274: 8272: 8267: 8265: 8260: 8259: 8256: 8248: 8247: 8241: 8236: 8232: 8217: 8213: 8202: 8195: 8191: 8190: 8181: 8177: 8174: 8170: 8167: 8163: 8160: 8156: 8153: 8149: 8145: 8141: 8138: 8135:Palat, Ravi. 8134: 8130: 8126: 8122: 8118: 8111: 8106: 8105: 8083: 8082: 8076: 8071: 8070:10044/1/12815 8066: 8062: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8046: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8023: 8019: 8015: 8011: 8007: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7970: 7966: 7963:(1): e14613. 7962: 7958: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7935: 7931: 7928:(4): 044040. 7927: 7923: 7919: 7914: 7899: 7894: 7879: 7874: 7870: 7864: 7860: 7855: 7854: 7847: 7832: 7827: 7823: 7819: 7815: 7811: 7808:(1): 63–120. 7807: 7803: 7796: 7791: 7787: 7783: 7778: 7773: 7769: 7765: 7761: 7757: 7753: 7748: 7744: 7740: 7736: 7732: 7728: 7724: 7721:(1): RG1002. 7720: 7716: 7712: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7685: 7681: 7676: 7672: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7654: 7650: 7646: 7642: 7638: 7634: 7630: 7625: 7621: 7617: 7613: 7609: 7604: 7600: 7596: 7592: 7588: 7584: 7580: 7576: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7545: 7541: 7537: 7532: 7520: 7516: 7512: 7507: 7492: 7491: 7485: 7481: 7477: 7473: 7469: 7465: 7461: 7454: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7432: 7427: 7423: 7419: 7415: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7390: 7386: 7382: 7378: 7374: 7370: 7366: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7337: 7332: 7321: 7315: 7311: 7307: 7303: 7299: 7294: 7282: 7278: 7277: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7234: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7209: 7205: 7201: 7197: 7193: 7189: 7183: 7172: 7168: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7138:Archaeologies 7134: 7122: 7118: 7111: 7106: 7094: 7090: 7083: 7078: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7050: 7045: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7029:: 484. 1953. 7028: 7024: 7020: 7016: 7012: 7008: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6991: 6987: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6962: 6958: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6933: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6903: 6899: 6893: 6889: 6885: 6881: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6841: 6837: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6819: 6815: 6810: 6798: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6782: 6778: 6774: 6770: 6765: 6754: 6748: 6744: 6737: 6732: 6717: 6716: 6710: 6695: 6694: 6688: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6664: 6659: 6655: 6651: 6647: 6642: 6630: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6607: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6517:(8): e71788. 6516: 6512: 6508: 6503: 6492: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6473: 6461: 6457: 6450: 6445: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6363: 6351: 6344: 6340: 6328: 6327: 6321: 6317: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6265: 6250: 6243: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6188: 6184: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6098: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6023: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5952: 5941: 5937: 5932: 5928: 5922: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5886: 5885: 5871: 5862: 5853: 5847: 5842: 5833: 5824: 5815: 5806: 5798: 5794: 5787: 5771: 5767: 5766: 5761: 5755: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5725: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5696:Nuwer, Rachel 5691: 5685: 5680: 5674: 5673:Arnsdorf 2013 5669: 5662: 5657: 5650: 5645: 5638: 5633: 5626: 5621: 5614: 5613:Fletcher 1958 5609: 5602: 5598: 5597:Did You Know? 5594: 5590: 5587: 5582: 5576: 5571: 5564: 5559: 5552: 5547: 5540: 5535: 5533: 5531: 5529: 5527: 5519: 5514: 5507: 5502: 5495: 5490: 5484: 5479: 5472: 5467: 5460: 5455: 5448: 5447:Burstein 1996 5443: 5436: 5431: 5425:, p. 417 5424: 5423:Beaujard 2005 5419: 5412: 5407: 5405: 5403: 5401: 5393: 5388: 5381: 5376: 5369: 5364: 5357: 5352: 5346:, p. 315 5345: 5340: 5333: 5328: 5321: 5316: 5309: 5308:Campbell 2017 5304: 5296: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5271: 5264: 5259: 5252: 5247: 5240: 5235: 5228: 5223: 5216: 5211: 5209: 5207: 5205: 5198: 5193: 5187: 5182: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5152: 5145: 5144: 5137: 5130: 5129: 5122: 5116: 5111: 5104: 5099: 5084: 5080: 5074: 5067: 5062: 5055: 5050: 5043: 5038: 5030: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4997:(1): 161014. 4996: 4992: 4988: 4981: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4954: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4915: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4864: 4856: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4813: 4806: 4801: 4799: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4791: 4789: 4787: 4785: 4777: 4772: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4742: 4735: 4730: 4723: 4718: 4711: 4706: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4675: 4668: 4663: 4657: 4652: 4645: 4640: 4633: 4628: 4621: 4616: 4610: 4605: 4589: 4585: 4578: 4571: 4566: 4559: 4554: 4547: 4542: 4540: 4532: 4527: 4520: 4515: 4508: 4503: 4496: 4491: 4484: 4479: 4473:, p. 321 4472: 4467: 4452: 4448: 4442: 4440: 4431: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4406: 4404: 4396: 4391: 4389: 4372: 4368: 4362: 4355: 4350: 4334: 4330: 4324: 4322: 4314: 4309: 4293: 4289: 4283: 4267: 4263: 4257: 4241: 4237: 4236: 4231: 4225: 4218: 4213: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4178: 4170: 4165: 4158: 4153: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4123: 4116: 4111: 4105: 4100: 4098: 4096: 4089: 4084: 4075: 4073: 4064: 4062: 4054: 4049: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4022: 4015: 4002: 3998: 3997: 3992: 3985: 3978: 3966: 3962: 3956: 3950: 3945: 3943: 3936: 3931: 3929: 3927: 3919: 3914: 3912: 3904: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3890: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3813:Indo-Atlantic 3811: 3810: 3808: 3807: 3803: 3797: 3792: 3789: 3778: 3775: 3764: 3761: 3755: 3750: 3747: 3746:Oceans portal 3741: 3736: 3729: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3701: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3638: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3591: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3564: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3545: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3529: 3525: 3520: 3518: 3514: 3509: 3507: 3503: 3502:Cellular Jail 3497: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3449: 3445: 3443: 3439: 3438: 3433: 3429: 3428: 3423: 3422: 3416: 3412: 3407: 3405: 3404: 3399: 3398: 3393: 3389: 3387: 3382: 3380: 3375: 3367: 3363: 3354: 3352: 3348: 3335: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3300: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3236: 3235:(1580–1640). 3234: 3233:Iberian Union 3223: 3218: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3204:Vasco da Gama 3197: 3192: 3188: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3173: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3147: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3128: 3112: 3103: 3091: 3087: 3079: 3075: 3070: 3061: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3050: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3004: 3002: 2996: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2976: 2975: 2967: 2966: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2938: 2937:Rub' al Khali 2933: 2931: 2930:war elephants 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2898: 2893: 2889: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2850: 2825: 2823: 2818: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2802: 2795: 2791: 2788: 2783: 2779: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2752:Late Harappan 2749: 2745: 2744:hyacinth bean 2741: 2737: 2736:finger millet 2733: 2729: 2724: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2697: 2692: 2688: 2687: 2686:Out of Africa 2681: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2670: 2665: 2661: 2660: 2651: 2646: 2637: 2633: 2631: 2627: 2622: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2591: 2586: 2576: 2574: 2570: 2557: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2505: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2446: 2444: 2443:Makran Trench 2440: 2435: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2420:African Plate 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2372:African Plate 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2351: 2341: 2330: 2321: 2307: 2305: 2301: 2300:Israelite Bay 2297: 2289: 2286: 2283: 2280: 2279: 2278: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2252: 2249: 2248: 2247: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2224: 2221:Atoll in the 2220: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2204: 2203: 2202: 2196: 2192: 2191:Western Ghats 2188: 2187: 2186: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2102: 2098: 2093: 2090: 2089: 2088: 2081: 2078: 2077: 2076: 2074: 2071:), and lion ( 2070: 2067:), elephant ( 2066: 2062: 2061:Lycaon pictus 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2034: 2031: 2030: 2029: 2027: 2026: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1983: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1973:Elephant bird 1971:Madagascar's 1969: 1965: 1963: 1953: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1930: 1928: 1923: 1920: 1916: 1914: 1902:distribution. 1894: 1885: 1876: 1874: 1873: 1868: 1867: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1833:Bay of Bengal 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1804: 1801: 1798: 1793: 1790: 1789: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1766: 1763: 1760: 1755: 1752: 1751: 1747: 1744: 1741: 1736: 1733: 1732: 1728: 1725: 1722: 1717: 1714: 1713: 1709: 1706: 1703: 1698: 1695: 1694: 1690: 1687: 1684: 1679: 1676: 1675: 1671: 1668: 1665: 1660: 1657: 1656: 1652: 1649: 1646: 1641: 1638: 1637: 1633: 1630: 1627: 1622: 1619: 1618: 1613: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1598: 1595: 1594: 1590: 1587: 1584: 1583:Sousa plumbea 1579: 1576: 1575: 1571: 1568: 1565: 1560: 1557: 1556: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1541: 1538: 1537: 1533: 1530: 1527: 1522: 1519: 1518: 1514: 1511: 1508: 1503: 1500: 1499: 1494: 1490: 1487: 1484: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1474:ocean warming 1469: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1437:phytoplankton 1428: 1424: 1414: 1405: 1396: 1382: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1355:propagation. 1354: 1350: 1345: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1326: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1303:Bay of Bengal 1299: 1297: 1293: 1288: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1277:Agulhas Basin 1274: 1273:Enderby Basin 1270: 1266: 1260: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1198: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1179: 1177: 1173: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1151: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1138:In 1999, the 1136: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1113: 1109: 1107: 1106:Younger Dryas 1103: 1099: 1095: 1094:Bay of Bengal 1091: 1086: 1082: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1026: 1014: 1011: 1009: 1008:Gulf of Kutch 1006: 1004: 1001: 998: 997:Gulf of Aqaba 995: 992: 989: 986: 983: 980: 977: 974: 971: 968: 965: 962: 959: 956: 953: 950: 947: 944: 941: 938: 937:Laccadive Sea 935: 932: 929: 926: 925:Bay of Bengal 923: 920: 917: 916: 914: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 887: 885: 881: 880:Adam's Bridge 877: 873: 869: 868:Bay of Bengal 865: 864:Laccadive Sea 861: 857: 856:Gulf of Kutch 852: 850: 846: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 822: 821:Gulf of Aqaba 818: 814: 810: 809:Bab-el-Mandeb 806: 802: 798: 793: 791: 787: 783: 778: 776: 775:Marginal seas 770:Marginal seas 767: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 744:Shatt al-Arab 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 712: 702: 700: 695: 693: 688: 684: 680: 675: 673: 669: 664: 659: 650: 648: 644: 640: 635: 632: 627: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 596: 592: 588: 569: 555: 541: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 511: 500: 495: 493: 490:) before the 489: 485: 484:Western Ocean 481: 480:Eastern Ocean 461: 451: 449: 443: 441: 440:garbage patch 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 416: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 393: 391: 390:Laccadive Sea 387: 386:Bay of Bengal 383: 379: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 345: 340: 337: 333: 330: 327: 323: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 297: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 269: 265: 261: 259:Average depth 257: 253: 249: 243: 239: 233: 229: 225: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 195: 192: 188: 184: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 151: 149: 143: 140: 137: 135: 131: 126: 98: 92: 85: 80: 58: 49: 45: 39: 34: 29: 26: 22: 11211:Indian Ocean 11080:Indian Ocean 11079: 11064:Pulicat Lake 11034:Saiful Muluk 11019:Chilika Lake 11009:Pookode Lake 10994:Ganges Delta 10989:Ganges Basin 10754: / 10752:List of seas 10750: / 10715:Global South 10700:Global North 10634:Atlantic Rim 10573:Ring of Fire 10553:Indian Ocean 10552: 10543:Arctic Ocean 10485:Persian Gulf 10480:Indian Ocean 10461:Adriatic Sea 10426:Arctic Ocean 10258:Amazon Basin 10253:Amazon Plain 10225:Near Oceania 10030:Mid-Atlantic 9980:Aridoamerica 9940:Northwestern 9853:Northwestern 9826:Southeastern 9718:Greater Iran 9657:Southeastern 9652:Pacific Asia 9621:Pacific Asia 9609:Northeastern 9565:Asia–Pacific 9308:Fourth World 9298:Second World 9194: 9183: 9156:Indian Ocean 9101:Weddell Gyre 9005:Tasman Front 8832:Indian Ocean 8788:North Brazil 8738:East Iceland 8650:Arctic Ocean 8563: 8518:Saudi Arabia 8442: 8432: 8422: 8378:South Africa 8370: 8331: 8324: 8286:Indian Ocean 8285: 8244: 8223:. 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Retrieved 3955: 3823:Indo-Pacific 3702: 3656:through the 3654:Kuala Lumpur 3634: 3619: 3615: 3565: 3546: 3532: 3521: 3510: 3506:creolisation 3498: 3490:Diego Garcia 3481:World War II 3470: 3457:Diego Garcia 3435: 3425: 3419: 3408: 3402: 3396: 3385: 3378: 3371: 3336: 3301: 3290:Dutch Ceylon 3275: 3237: 3206:rounded the 3201: 3181:Ming dynasty 3174: 3148: 3124: 3047: 3005: 2997: 2992:Austronesian 2972: 2971: 2963: 2945: 2934: 2902: 2831: 2803: 2799: 2764:black pepper 2732:pearl millet 2725: 2700: 2694: 2691:Homo sapiens 2690: 2685: 2682: 2667: 2663: 2659:Homo erectus 2657: 2655: 2649: 2634: 2623: 2588: 2582: 2573:Tethys Ocean 2558: 2542:Broken Ridge 2506: 2474:Deccan Traps 2452:produced by 2447: 2436: 2408:Indian Plate 2376:Indian Plate 2353: 2340:Tethys Ocean 2293: 2256: 2229: 2200: 2182: 2174: 2166: 2150: 2142: 2134: 2126: 2108: 2085: 2073:Panthera leo 2072: 2068: 2064: 2063:), cheetah ( 2060: 2052: 2044: 2038: 2025:Cylindraspis 2023: 2019: 1996:dung beetles 1988: 1959: 1956:Biodiversity 1931: 1924: 1917: 1909: 1870: 1864: 1810: 1796: 1777: 1758: 1739: 1720: 1701: 1682: 1663: 1644: 1626:Dugong dugon 1625: 1601: 1582: 1563: 1544: 1525: 1506: 1488:Distribution 1478: 1470: 1434: 1371: 1357: 1346: 1327: 1307:runoff water 1300: 1289: 1261: 1257:Rossby waves 1253:Somali Basin 1222: 1218:rift valleys 1199: 1181:The ocean's 1180: 1157: 1154:Oceanography 1137: 1134: 1118: 1078: 1031: 1013:Gulf of Suez 987:- 181,000 km 981:- 200,000 km 975:- 240,000 km 969:- 251,000 km 967:Persian Gulf 963:- 410,000 km 961:Gulf of Aden 957:- 438,000 km 951:- 610,000 km 945:- 700,000 km 939:- 786,000 km 933:- 797,700 km 888: 853: 841:Gulf of Oman 837:Persian Gulf 825:Gulf of Suez 801:Gulf of Aden 794: 779: 773: 760:Bengal delta 708: 696: 676: 660: 656: 636: 628: 624:Persian Gulf 608:Cape Agulhas 600:Meridionally 584: 530:Ming dynasty 504:हिंद महासागर 496: 483: 479: 459: 457: 444: 417: 394: 354:Indian Ocean 353: 351: 281:Shore length 274:Sunda Trench 251:Surface area 205:Western Asia 70:Indian Ocean 31:Indian Ocean 25: 11216:East Africa 11120:Palk Strait 11085:Arabian Sea 11044:Nizam Sagar 11029:Borith Lake 10999:Indus Delta 10833:Brahmaputra 10730:Global West 10690:Global East 10649:Pacific Rim 10591:waterbodies 10580:World Ocean 10405:New Zealand 10285:The Guianas 10174:Australasia 10117:West Indies 10045:New England 10025:Great Lakes 9995:Mesoamerica 9882:Middle East 9858:Scandinavia 9747:Middle East 9585:Caspian Sea 9491:Great Lakes 9471:Sub-Saharan 9457:Middle East 9320:Hemispheres 9303:Third World 9293:First World 9246:'s primary 9084:Other gyres 9048:Major gyres 8758:Gulf Stream 8538:Timor-Leste 8448:(Australia) 8438:(Australia) 7887:30 December 7371:(1): 1–19. 7176:31 December 6356:1 September 5991:(3): 1027. 5765:inews.co.uk 5575:Casale 2003 5553:, p. 1 5551:Dreyer 2007 5459:Forbes 1981 5435:Alpers 2013 5411:Alpers 2013 5171:1 September 5141:CEPF 2012: 5126:CEPF 2012: 4761:15 December 4594:30 December 4570:Felton 2014 4546:Rogers 2012 4298:9 September 4246:9 September 4115:Prange 2008 3549:Sentinelese 3528:Indian Navy 3434:jellyfish ( 3268:during the 3252:Ibn Battuta 3183:on several 3170: 4000 3127:Polynesians 3024:Roman Egypt 2979:Alexandrian 2909:Phoenicians 2866:Mesopotamia 2776:house mouse 2630:Mesopotamia 2595:Eurocentric 2439:Java Trench 2101:Coral reefs 1829:Arabian Sea 1805:Decreasing 1786:Decreasing 1767:Decreasing 1754:Leatherback 1748:Decreasing 1729:Decreasing 1710:Decreasing 1691:Decreasing 1672:Increasing 1640:Sperm whale 1634:Decreasing 1615:Vulnerable 1610:Decreasing 1591:Decreasing 1572:Decreasing 1553:Increasing 1534:Increasing 1515:Decreasing 1496:Endangered 1458:South Korea 1423:surgeonfish 1385:Marine life 1353:Rossby wave 1349:amphidromes 1271:flows from 1161:polar front 1090:Arabian Sea 1038:thermocline 993:- 45,926 km 979:Molucca Sea 931:Andaman Sea 919:Arabian Sea 884:Andaman Sea 876:Palk Strait 797:Arabian Sea 790:Sea of Zanj 728:Brahmaputra 679:Shelf break 528:during the 432:overfishing 382:Arabian Sea 378:Andaman Sea 325:Settlements 231:Max. length 175:(largest 5) 161:Brahmaputra 120: / 95:Coordinates 11236:South Asia 11205:Categories 11129:Categories 11054:Malampuzha 11039:Gosaikunda 11024:Lake Powai 10828:Bhagirathi 10471:Ionian Sea 10466:Aegean Sea 10436:Baltic Sea 10368:Antarctica 10220:Micronesia 10189:New Guinea 10147:Portuguese 10070:West Coast 10020:East Coast 10015:Bible Belt 10010:Appalachia 9689:Subregions 9597:Inner Asia 9515:Antarctica 9415:Continents 9388:Antarctica 9363:Landmasses 9273:Down Under 9268:Arab World 9252:subregions 8925:California 8879:Mozambique 8874:Madagascar 8565:Antarctica 8418:Bangladesh 8372:Somaliland 8361:Seychelles 8356:Mozambique 8346:Madagascar 7711:Xie, S. P. 7639:: 160190. 7400:(5): 729. 7342:(3): 275. 7123:(1): 11–26 6803:29 January 6348:(Report). 6147:1885/13060 5615:, Abstract 5539:Allen 2017 5394:, Abstract 5382:, Abstract 5334:, Abstract 5322:, Abstract 5229:, Abstract 5143:Indo-Burma 5128:Indo-Burma 5044:, Abstract 4646:, Abstract 4497:, Abstract 4485:, Abstract 4397:, Abstract 4055:, Abstract 4007:18 January 3881:References 3710:Hambantota 3678:Suez Canal 3551:people of 3486:Port Louis 3453:Chagossian 3432:scyphozoan 3411:Suez Canal 3388:expedition 3381:expedition 3379:Challenger 3229: 200 3136:Maldivians 3001:Madagascar 2988:Madagascar 2878:reed boats 2876:(used for 2664:H. sapiens 2603:Portuguese 2534:90°E Ridge 2530:85°E Ridge 2386:; and the 2269:, and the 2236:speciation 2223:Seychelles 2206:Indo-Burma 2159:Commiphora 2000:day geckos 1992:chameleons 1521:Blue whale 1468:and tuna. 1237:Madagascar 1206:Bengal Fan 973:Flores Sea 833:Suez Canal 786:Madagascar 784:separates 764:Sunderbans 692:Antarctica 388:, and the 374:Antarctica 335:References 315:Seychelles 299:Madagascar 267:Max. depth 241:Max. width 11241:West Asia 11190:Sri Lanka 11163:Sri Lanka 11152:Sri Lanka 10943:Sarasvati 10913:Mahananda 10667:Antarctic 10451:Irish Sea 10441:Black Sea 10400:Australia 10349:Caribbean 10326:continent 10300:Patagonia 10230:Polynesia 10208:Melanesia 10201:Zealandia 10179:Australia 10065:Southwest 9985:Caribbean 9762:Near East 9403:submerged 9398:Zealandia 9393:Australia 9283:Old World 9278:New World 9096:Ross Gyre 8965:Kamchatka 8798:Norwegian 8773:Lomonosov 8728:Caribbean 8723:Cape Horn 8667:Norwegian 8588:Australia 8528:Sri Lanka 8523:Singapore 8458:Indonesia 8351:Mauritius 8047:: 35–47. 7907:18 August 7702:236780800 7283:(4): 5–16 7171:USA Today 7158:128591857 7001:: 67–85. 6986:145735928 6789:153427820 6156:153404767 6117:154426445 5976:145387071 5940:Bloomberg 5639:, Excerpt 5239:Bird 2003 5197:Stow 2006 5186:Ryan 2009 5088:18 August 4925:Evolution 4667:Roxy 2016 4142:5 October 4014:surmised. 3886:Citations 3650:Singapore 3637:Silk Road 3584:The Hague 3576:Mauritius 3508:emerged. 3473:Mauritius 3320:Mauritius 3140:Sri Lanka 3074:Silk Road 2905:Egyptians 2870:Sumerians 2828:Antiquity 2772:black rat 2678:Lake Toba 2563:156 2394:from the 2374:from the 2362:with the 2296:Shark Bay 2251:Sundaland 2195:Sri Lanka 2163:Yeheb nut 1919:Mangroves 1857:Upwelling 1853:estuaries 1659:Fin whale 1540:Sei whale 1445:upwelling 1290:North of 1210:Indus Fan 1169:siliceous 1163:(roughly 1058:Upwelling 949:Timor Sea 620:30° north 544:Geography 454:Etymology 436:pollution 409:seamounts 366:Australia 319:Mauritius 303:Sri Lanka 221:Australia 209:Northeast 117:20°S 80°E 11186:Pakistan 11148:Pakistan 11115:Palk Bay 11004:Dal Lake 10918:Mahaweli 10908:Mahanadi 10868:Ghaghara 10853:Godavari 10194:Tasmania 10142:Hispanic 10005:Northern 9952:Germanic 9930:Atlantic 9872:Southern 9833:Northern 9799:Caucasus 9735:Dead Sea 9706:Caucasus 9674:Southern 9667:Maritime 9662:Mainland 9635:Northern 9616:Far East 9575:Aral Sea 9498:Southern 9442:Northern 8975:Mindanao 8970:Kuroshio 8955:Humboldt 8935:Davidson 8930:Cromwell 8920:Aleutian 8803:Portugal 8768:Labrador 8763:Irminger 8743:Falkland 8708:Benguela 8693:Antilles 8642:Currents 8533:Thailand 8508:Pakistan 8493:Maldives 8488:Malaysia 8388:Tanzania 8305:Djibouti 8237:(1911). 7997:21297949 7957:PLOS ONE 7786:55182412 7743:15022438 7698:ProQuest 7671:28722009 7599:42480067 7515:Politeja 7422:27338615 7414:20009268 7385:19098934 7287:22 April 7276:Westerly 7216:11161214 7053:36029611 7025:(4376). 6943:: 4–24. 6870:10633560 6814:Archipel 6581:64592164 6561:(2007). 6551:23977144 6511:PLOS ONE 6424:34522950 6333:21 April 6212:84420169 6088:41762434 6080:15486298 6042:59384628 5770:Archived 5738:Archived 5734:BBC News 5708:Archived 5589:Archived 5165:Archived 5029:28280597 4945:28568942 4921:Phelsuma 4898:18424187 4855:26467617 4755:Archived 4751:BBC News 4688:Archived 4656:FAO 2016 4377:28 April 4371:Archived 4339:4 August 4292:Archived 4272:28 April 4266:Archived 4240:Archived 4136:Archived 4104:IHO 2002 4088:IHO 1953 4053:Hui 2010 4040:40394632 4001:Archived 3965:Archived 3732:See also 3686:Istanbul 3674:Djibouti 3572:disputed 3513:tsunamis 3461:expelled 3397:Galathea 3386:Valdivia 3347:Zanzibar 3177:Zheng He 3132:Maldives 3026:and the 3012:Hippalus 2849:littoral 2790:Negritos 2774:and the 2717:Wallacea 2619:Cold War 2569:Gondwana 2492:and the 2472:and the 2464:and the 2454:hotspots 2434:plates. 2282:Wallacea 2171:cyclamen 1985:mammals. 1861:salterns 1653:Unknown 1359:Icebergs 1183:currents 1128:(or the 1102:Heinrich 1092:and the 1064:and the 999:- 239 km 985:Oman Sea 874:and the 843:and the 756:Gondwana 616:Tasmania 526:Zheng He 488:Atlantic 420:monsoons 413:hotspots 307:Maldives 11073:Coastal 10948:Sankosh 10928:Narmada 10898:Krishna 10858:Gandaki 10848:Damodar 10838:Chambal 10813:Bagmati 10395:Oceania 10383:by area 10339:America 10316:Islands 10166:Oceania 10035:Midwest 9990:Central 9957:Romance 9925:Western 9794:Balkans 9789:Eastern 9784:Central 9752:Mashriq 9696:Western 9640:Siberia 9592:Eastern 9570:Central 9503:Western 9476:Central 9452:Mashriq 9447:Maghreb 9437:Saharan 9383:America 9376:Eurasia 9248:regions 9114:Related 8995:Oyashio 8869:Leeuwin 8839:Agulhas 8748:Florida 8498:Myanmar 8413:Bahrain 8366:Somalia 8333:Réunion 8326:Mayotte 8315:Eritrea 8300:Comoros 8225:25 July 8206:25 July 8197:(Flash) 8182:(2018). 8175:(2019). 8168:(2019). 8161:(2017). 8139:(2015). 8049:Bibcode 8018:Bibcode 7988:3031507 7965:Bibcode 7930:Bibcode 7810:Bibcode 7764:Bibcode 7723:Bibcode 7662:5524937 7641:Bibcode 7608:Science 7579:Bibcode 7548:Bibcode 7525:22 June 7521:: 69–84 7468:Bibcode 7344:Bibcode 7336:Geology 7245:Bibcode 7224:2141541 7196:Bibcode 7188:Science 7071:25 July 7031:Bibcode 6945:Bibcode 6916:Bibcode 6848:Bibcode 6758:25 July 6725:23 July 6703:21 July 6671:Bibcode 6635:25 July 6602:Bibcode 6542:3743761 6519:Bibcode 6462:: 29–35 6438:25 July 6404:Bibcode 6375:Bibcode 6304:Bibcode 6258:25 July 6060:Bibcode 6052:Science 6013:9127133 5993:Bibcode 5945:23 July 5881:Sources 5020:5319363 4999:Bibcode 4906:7509190 4878:Bibcode 4846:4553453 4823:Insects 3726:Trieste 3722:Piraeus 3718:Sonadia 3714:Colombo 3698:Central 3694:Trieste 3670:Mombasa 3662:Colombo 3646:Jakarta 3629:Mombasa 3588:stating 3494:Iranrud 3328:British 3316:Réunion 3244:Selim I 3217:Malindi 3155:Swahili 3054:Mosylon 3040:Pandyas 3030:of the 2984:monsoon 2942:monsoon 2874:bitumen 2862:Bahrain 2814:Chevron 2787:Andaman 2748:Gujarat 2728:sorghum 2615:postwar 2611:British 2579:History 2500:to the 2488:to the 2468:to the 2462:Réunion 2432:Somalia 2310:Geology 2259:Bornean 2219:Aldabra 2137:); the 2123:dibatag 2119:Socotra 1825:Red Sea 1441:monsoon 1126:El Niño 1085:monsoon 1081:equator 1068:in the 1042:monsoon 1020:Climate 955:Red Sea 895:Malacca 839:by the 805:Red Sea 752:Limpopo 720:Zambezi 716:order 5 631:Red Sea 622:in the 524:(e.g., 492:Pacific 467: 358:oceanic 311:Reunion 294:Islands 153:Zambezi 122:-20; 80 11226:Oceans 11174:Bhutan 10973:Yamuna 10963:Sutlej 10953:Sharda 10923:Meghna 10888:Kaveri 10878:Jhelum 10863:Ganges 10843:Chenab 10682:Global 10672:Arctic 10611:Rivers 10589:Other 10523:Oceans 10378:Europe 10334:Africa 10127:French 10000:Middle 9962:Slavic 9947:Celtic 9848:Nordic 9838:Baltic 9776:Europe 9730:Levant 9424:Africa 9260:Worlds 8915:Alaska 8889:Somali 8753:Guinea 8718:Canary 8713:Brazil 8698:Azores 8688:Angola 8483:Kuwait 8478:Jordan 8473:Israel 8320:France 8293:Africa 8150: 8091:9 July 7995: 7985: 7865: 7840:11 May 7784: 7741: 7700: 7669: 7659: 7597: 7500:11 May 7420: 7412: 7383: 7325:7 July 7316: 7222: 7214: 7156: 7127:25 May 7099:25 May 7051: 7019:Nature 6984: 6894: 6868: 6787: 6749: 6579: 6569: 6549: 6539: 6496:11 May 6487: 6466:5 July 6422: 6352:. 2012 6210: 6179: 6154: 6115: 6086: 6078: 6040: 6011: 5974: 5923: 5776:15 May 5744:15 May 5714:15 May 5291: 5027: 5017: 4943: 4904: 4896: 4853: 4843: 4694:8 July 4456:1 July 4426: 4074: 4038: 3971:7 July 3706:Gwadar 3690:Athens 3608:Major 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