417:
22:
692:, since large water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature differences—larger than 13 °C (23 °F)—between the water surface and the air above. Because of this temperature difference, warmth and moisture are transported upward, condensing into vertically oriented clouds which produce snow showers. The temperature decrease with height and cloud depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large-scale environment. The stronger the temperature decrease with height, the taller the clouds get, and the greater the precipitation rate becomes.
341:, can affect sea surface temperatures over several decades. The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) is an important driver of North Atlantic SST and Northern Hemisphere climate, but the mechanisms controlling AMO variability remain poorly understood. Atmospheric internal variability, changes in ocean circulation, or anthropogenic drivers may control the multidecadal temperature variability associated with AMO. These changes in North Atlantic SST may influence winds in the subtropical North Pacific and produce warmer SSTs in the western Pacific Ocean.
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because of the differences in buckets. Samples were collected in either a wood or an uninsulated canvas bucket, but the canvas bucket cooled quicker than the wood bucket. The sudden change in temperature between 1940 and 1941 was the result of an undocumented change in procedure. The samples were taken near the engine intake because it was too dangerous to use lights to take measurements over the side of the ship at night.
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67:. Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake. This is due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 metres (100 ft) of the ocean. Sea surface temperature changes during the day. This is like the air above it, but to a lesser degree. There is less variation in sea surface temperature on breezy days than on calm days.
380:
irregular intervals of 2–7 years and lasts nine months to two years. The average period length is 5 years. When this warming or cooling occurs for only seven to nine months, it is classified as El Niño/La Niña "conditions"; when it occurs for more than that period, it is classified as El Niño/La Niña "episodes".
430:
Overall, scientists project that all regions of the oceans will warm by 2050, but models disagree for SST changes expected in the subpolar North
Atlantic, the equatorial Pacific, and the Southern Ocean. The future global mean SST increase for the period 1995-2014 to 2081-2100 is 0.86°C under the most
255:
447:
There are a variety of techniques for measuring this parameter that can potentially yield different results because different things are actually being measured. Away from the immediate sea surface, general temperature measurements are accompanied by a reference to the specific depth of measurement.
259:
258:
254:
448:
This is because of significant differences encountered between measurements made at different depths, especially during the daytime when low wind speed and high sunshine conditions may lead to the formation of a warm layer at the ocean's surface and strong vertical temperature gradients (a diurnal
387:
to the east
Pacific. It takes the rain with it, causing extensive drought in the western Pacific and rainfall in the normally dry eastern Pacific. El Niño's warm rush of nutrient-poor tropical water, heated by its eastward passage in the Equatorial Current, replaces the cold, nutrient-rich surface
781:
at 500 hPa in a tropical atmosphere of −13.2 °C (8.2 °F) is required to initiate convection if the water temperature is 26.5 °C (79.7 °F), and this temperature requirement increases or decreases proportionally by 1 °C in the sea surface temperature for each 1 °C
750:
that fuels tropical systems. This value is well above 16.1 °C (60.9 °F), the long term global average surface temperature of the oceans. However, this requirement can be considered only a general baseline because it assumes that the ambient atmospheric environment surrounding an area of
484:
measure the water temperature at a depth of 3 metres (9.8 ft). Measurements of SST have had inconsistencies over the last 130 years due to the way they were taken. In the nineteenth century, measurements were taken in a bucket off a ship. However, there was a slight variation in temperature
399:
Among scientists, there is medium confidence that the tropical
Pacific will transition to a mean pattern resembling that of El Niño on centennial time scale, but there is still high uncertainty in tropical Pacific SST projections because it is difficult to capture El Niño variability in climate
379:
El Niño is defined by prolonged differences in
Pacific Ocean surface temperatures when compared with the average value. The accepted definition is a warming or cooling of at least 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) averaged over the east-central tropical Pacific Ocean. Typically, this anomaly happens at
476:
into a bucket of water that was manually drawn from the sea surface. The first automated technique for determining SST was accomplished by measuring the temperature of water in the intake port of large ships, which was underway by 1963. These observations have a warm bias of around 0.6 °C
260:
173:
does not specify the number of metres but focuses more on measurement techniques: Sea surface temperature is "the subsurface bulk temperature in the top few metres of the ocean, measured by ships, buoys and drifters. Satellite measurements of skin temperature (uppermost layer; a fraction of a
622:
of the upper meter of ocean due primarily to effects of solar surface heating during the daytime, reflected radiation, as well as sensible heat loss and surface evaporation. All these factors make it somewhat difficult to compare satellite data to measurements from buoys or shipboard methods,
790:, roughly at the 500 hPa level, is normally a requirement for development. However, when dry air is found at the same height, temperatures at 500 hPa need to be even colder as dry atmospheres require a greater lapse rate for instability than moist atmospheres. At heights near the
488:
Many different drifting buoys exist around the world that vary in design, and the location of reliable temperature sensors varies. These measurements are beamed to satellites for automated and immediate data distribution. A large network of coastal buoys in U.S. waters is maintained by the
623:
complicating ground truth efforts. Secondly, the satellite cannot look through clouds, creating a cool bias in satellite-derived SSTs within cloudy areas. However, passive microwave techniques can accurately measure SST and penetrate cloud cover. Within atmospheric sounder channels on
676:, it is also important in determining the formation of sea fog and sea breezes. Heat from underlying warmer waters can significantly modify an air mass over distances as short as 35 kilometres (22 mi) to 40 kilometres (25 mi). For example, southwest of Northern Hemisphere
223:
down into the ocean is influenced by the amount of mixing that takes place between the surface water and the deeper water. This depends on the temperature: in the tropics the warm surface layer of about 100 m is quite stable and does not mix much with deeper water, while near the
257:
291:, temperatures near its bottom reach a maximum in December and a minimum in May and June. Near the coastline, some offshore and longshore winds move the warm waters near the surface offshore, and replace them with cooler water from below in the process known as
994:
Fox-Kemper, B., H.T. Hewitt, C. Xiao, G. Aðalgeirsdóttir, S.S. Drijfhout, T.L. Edwards, N.R. Golledge, M. Hemer, R.E. Kopp, G. Krinner, A. Mix, D. Notz, S. Nowicki, I.S. Nurhati, L. Ruiz, J.-B. Sallée, A.B.A. Slangen, and Y. Yu, 2021:
287:. On calm days, the temperature can vary by 6 °C (10 °F). The temperature of the ocean at depth lags the Earth's atmosphere temperature by 15 days per 10 metres (33 ft), which means for locations like the
3412:
299:, freshwater flows over the top of the denser seawater, which allows it to heat faster due to limited vertical mixing. Remotely sensed SST can be used to detect the surface temperature signature due to
322:
The tropical ocean has been warming faster than other regions since 1950, with the greatest rates of warming in the tropical Indian Ocean, western
Pacific Ocean, and western boundary currents of the
420:
The global average sea surface temperature has been increasing since around 1900 (graph showing annual average and 5-year smoothed average, relative to the average value for the years 1951-1980).
256:
786:, 500 hPa temperatures can fall as low as −30 °C (−22 °F), which can initiate convection even in the driest atmospheres. This also explains why moisture in the mid-levels of the
295:. This pattern generally increases nutrients for marine life in the region, and can have a profound effect in some regions where the bottom waters are particularly nutrient-rich. Offshore of
307:
outbreaks across the adjacent northern
Atlantic Ocean, sea surface temperatures are reduced 0.2 C to 0.4 C (0.3 to 0.7 F). Other sources of short-term SST fluctuation include
2335:
Jun Inoue, Masayuki
Kawashima, Yasushi Fujiyoshi and Masaaki Wakatsuchi (October 2005). "Aircraft Observations of Air-mass Modification Over the Sea of Okhotsk during Sea-ice Growth".
326:. However, the eastern Pacific Ocean, subtropical North Atlantic Ocean, and Southern Ocean have warmed more slowly than the global average or have experienced cooling since the 1950s.
303:. In general, an SST cooling is observed after the passing of a hurricane, primarily as the result of mixed layer deepening and surface heat losses. In the wake of several day long
3255:
773:
At the 500 hPa level, the air temperature averages −7 °C (18 °F) within the tropics, but air in the tropics is normally dry at this height, giving the air room to
396:
and the reduction in
Easterly Trade winds limits upwelling of cold nutrient-rich deep water and its economic impact to local fishing for an international market can be serious.
2637:
493:(NDBC). Between 1985 and 1994, an extensive array of moored and drifting buoys was deployed across the equatorial Pacific Ocean designed to help monitor and predict the
2484:
527:
Weather satellites have been available to determine sea surface temperature information since 1967, with the first global composites created during 1970. Since 1982,
1733:
1378:
Beaugrand, Grégory; Keith M. Brander; J. Alistair
Lindley; Sami Souissi; Philip C. Reid (11 December 2003). "Plankton effect on cod recruitment in the North Sea".
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174:
millimetre thick) in the infrared or the top centimetre or so in the microwave are also used, but must be adjusted to be compatible with the bulk temperature."
1040:
Climate Change 2021: The
Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
1001:
Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
1429:
Beman, J. Michael; Kevin R. Arrigo; Pamela A. Matson (10 March 2005). "Agricultural runoff fuels large phytoplankton blooms in vulnerable areas of the ocean".
754:
Tropical cyclones are known to form even when normal conditions are not met. For example, cooler air temperatures at a higher altitude (e.g., at the 500
610:
There are several difficulties with satellite-based absolute SST measurements. First, in infrared remote sensing methodology the radiation emanates from the
3407:
3248:
2615:
1240:
State and evolution of the Baltic Sea, 1952–2005: a detailed 50-year survey of meteorology and climate, physics, chemistry, biology, and marine environment
494:
349:
1265:
135:
Global map of sea surface temperature, showing warmer areas around the equator and colder areas around the poles (20 December 2013 at 1-km resolution).
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3382:
2386:
2100:
2005:
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are often warmer. Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant, such as the northwest coast of
4450:
3509:
3387:
3241:
2777:
2430:
2141:
1809:
2737:, SST Quality Monitor (A near real-time Global QC Tool for monitoring time-series stability & cross-platform consistency of satellite SST)
794:, the 30-year average temperature (as measured in the period encompassing 1961 through 1990) was −77 °C (−132 °F). One example of a
1737:
520:
751:
disturbed weather presents average conditions. Tropical cyclones have intensified when SSTs were slightly below this standard temperature.
2722:
2426:
166:
2750:, in situ SST Quality Monitor (A near real-time quality control & monitoring system for in situ SST measured by ships and buoys)
1003:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, USA, pages 1211–1362, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.011.
151:
varies according to the measurement method used, but it is between 1 millimetre (0.04 in) and 20 metres (70 ft) below the
4366:
44:
varies in the literature and in practice. It is usually between 1 millimetre (0.04 in) and 20 metres (70 ft) below the
2717:
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3549:
2797:
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2319:
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1989:
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1855:
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1098:
1071:
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2227:
1042:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
766:
enough for convection. In a moist atmosphere, this lapse rate is 6.5 °C/km, while in an atmosphere with less than 100%
559:
or other parts of the spectrum which can then be empirically related to SST. These wavelengths are chosen because they are:
4013:
1823:
721:
1212:
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above the Western Hemisphere which enables them to deliver SST data on an hourly basis with only a few hours of lag time.
3502:
659:
627:, which peak just above the ocean's surface, knowledge of the sea surface temperature is important to their calibration.
198:
3903:
1741:
896:
831:
101:, with most of that warming (0.60°C) occurring between 1980 and 2020. The temperatures over land are rising faster than
4608:
4035:
3923:
3372:
452:). Sea surface temperature measurements are confined to the top portion of the ocean, known as the near-surface layer.
383:
The sign of an El Niño in the sea surface temperature pattern is when warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the
3233:
97:
It is very likely that global mean sea surface temperature increased by 0.88°C between 1850–1900 and 2011–2020 due to
4771:
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3292:
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2790:
2125:
1931:
540:
510:
338:
25:
Sea surface temperature since 1979 in the extrapolar region (between 60 degrees south and 60 degrees north latitude).
1087:
Chester, R.; Jickells, Tim (2012). "Chapter 9: Nutrients, oxygen, organic carbon and the carbon cycle in seawater".
3913:
3873:
3458:
3443:
3438:
3422:
3114:
1323:"North Atlantic thermohaline circulation during the past 20,000 years linked to high-latitude surface temperature"
4643:
3629:
3463:
2161:
1088:
996:
849:
2080:
1548:"Evidence for external forcing of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation since termination of the Little Ice Age"
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374:
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Weekly average sea surface temperature in the ocean during the first week of February 2011, during a period of
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is typically about 100 m and is related to this heated surface layer. It can be up to around 200 m deep in the
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189:(more than 20 metres below the surface) also vary by region and time, and they contribute to variations in
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83:
1480:
McCarthy, Gerard D.; Haigh, Ivan D.; Hirschi, Joël J.-M.; Grist, Jeremy P.; Smeed, David A. (2015-05-28).
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modest greenhouse gas emissions scenarios, and up to 2.89°C under the most severe emissions scenarios.
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Surface air temperatures over land masses have been increasing faster than the sea surface temperature.
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Knudsen, Mads Faurschou; Jacobsen, Bo Holm; Seidenkrantz, Marit-Solveig; Olsen, Jesper (2014-02-25).
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369:. The white areas off the tropical coasts of South and North America indicate the pool of warm water.
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SST satellites have been providing global SST data since 2000, available with a one-day lag. NOAA's
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level, or 5.9 km) can lead to tropical cyclogenesis at lower water temperatures, as a certain
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110:
57:
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2157:"Accuracy of in situ sea surface temperatures used to calibrate infrared satellite measurements"
680:, curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across relatively warm water bodies can lead to narrow
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of the ocean and a high frequency of repeat views, allowing the examination of basin-wide upper
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1981:
1975:
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1948:
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777:, or cool as it moistens, to a more favorable temperature that can then support convection. A
228:
winter cooling and storms makes the surface layer denser and it mixes to great depth and then
197:. The increase of both ocean surface temperature and deeper ocean temperature is an important
60:
has a major impact on average sea surface temperature throughout most of the world's oceans.
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2405:
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2113:
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2020:
1973:
1892:
1788:
1662:"North Pacific subtropical mode water is controlled by the Atlantic Multidecadal Variability"
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1123:
897:"Copernicus: March 2024 is the tenth month in a row to be the hottest on record | Copernicus"
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64:
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as the sea surface temperature influences the atmosphere above, such as in the formation of
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936:
778:
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229:
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1613:"Ocean–atmosphere dynamical coupling fundamental to the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation"
8:
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3918:
3634:
3413:
Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction (RAMA)
3377:
3146:
3131:
2562:
1715:
1482:"Ocean impact on decadal Atlantic climate variability revealed by sea-level observations"
604:
564:
532:
465:
460:
The sea surface temperature was one of the first oceanographic variables to be measured.
443:
Temperature profile of the surface layer of the ocean (a) at night and (b) during the day
53:
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2500:
2348:
2174:
2072:
2052:"Global Sea-Surface Temperature Distribution Determined From an Environmental Satellite"
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from a ship while travelling between the United States and Europe in his survey of the
283:, just like the Earth's atmosphere above, though to a lesser degree due to its greater
190:
106:
2638:"Climatological characteristics of the tropical tropopause as revealed by radiosondes"
2533:
2485:"Changes in tropical cyclone number, duration, and intensity in a warming environment"
74:, which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses, but shallower waters over a
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Measuring the oceans from space: the principles and methods of satellite oceanography
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91:
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2117:
The unpredictable certainty: information infrastructure through 2000; white papers
1977:
The meteorological buoy and coastal marine automated network for the United States
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temperature measurements. The satellite measurement is made by sensing the ocean
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2155:
W. J. Emery; D. J. Baldwin; Peter Schlüssel & R. W. Reynolds (2001-02-15).
1216:
876:
578:
366:
114:
98:
3820:
2459:
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1685:
1052:
Emerson, Steven; Hedges, John (2008-04-24). "Chapter 4: Carbonate chemistry".
708:
131:
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280:
79:
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Dian J. Gaffen-Seidel, Rebecca J. Ross and James K. Angell (November 2000).
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1716:"Independent NASA Satellite Measurements Confirm El Niño is Back and Strong"
403:
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Binary Universal Form for the Representation of meteorological data (BUFR)
139:
Sea surface temperature (SST), or ocean surface temperature, is the water
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4123:
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Satellite Remote Sensing and GIS Applications in Agricultural Meteorology
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The near-surface layer of the ocean: structure, dynamics and applications
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2203:"Infrared and microwave remote sensing of sea surface temperature (SST)"
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241:
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2114:
National Research Council (U.S.). NII 2000 Steering Committee (1997).
1974:
Lance F. Bosart, William A. Sprigg, National Research Council (1998).
1125:
Modern hydronic heating for residential and light commercial buildings
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1000:
817:
70:
Coastal sea surface temperatures can cause offshore winds to generate
4580:
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4341:
4186:
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846: – Stratification of a body of water due to salinity differences
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528:
361:
274:
71:
2608:"Climate Variability of Tropical Cyclones: Past, Present and Future"
1428:
949:
531:
have been increasingly utilized to measure SST and have allowed its
472:
in the late eighteenth century. SST was later measured by dipping a
4675:
4397:
4256:
4148:
4138:
4083:
3559:
3214:
3176:
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2835:
1215:. BNSC via the Internet Wayback Machine. 2008-04-24. Archived from
700:
647:
552:
426:
Effects of climate change on oceans § Rising ocean temperature
288:
49:
2262:
Robert Harwood (1971-09-16). "Mapping the Atmosphere From Space".
1890:
1611:
Wills, R.C.; Armour, K.C.; Battisti, D.S.; Hartmann, D.L. (2019).
4544:
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232:
again in summer. This is why there is no simple single depth for
1545:
4251:
3664:
3468:
3453:
3448:
3368:
Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS)
2018:
1093:(3rd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley/Blackwell.
593:
4613:
4432:
4211:
4166:
3408:
Prediction and Research Moored Array in the Atlantic (PIRATA)
3322:
2893:
2587:
1835:
1761:
1734:"ENSO FAQ: How often do El Niño and La Niña typically occur?"
735:
672:
is important. While sea surface temperature is important for
582:
144:
3469:
Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR)
2050:
P. Krishna Rao, W. L. Smith, and R. Koffler (January 1972).
1297:
The Impact of Saharan Dust on the North Atlantic Circulation
599:
515:
344:
162:
relates to the top 20 or so microns of the ocean's surface.
4045:
3302:
2870:
2081:
10.1175/1520-0493(1972)100<0010:GSTDDF>2.3.CO;2
1610:
1269:
689:
536:
2763:, Monitoring of IR Clear-sky Radiances over Oceans for SST
684:(or sea effect) bands. Those bands bring strong localized
392:. When El Niño conditions last for many months, extensive
3383:
Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System (AMeDAS)
2903:
2534:"Global Long-term Mean Land and Sea Surface Temperatures"
1926:(2. ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge Univiversity Press.
1728:
1479:
1293:
755:
152:
45:
2713:
NOAA OceanView Blended SST and animated Surface Currents
1660:
Wu, Baolan; Lin, Xiaopei; Yu, Lisan (17 February 2020).
1237:
Rainer Feistel; Günther Nausch; Norbert Wasmund (2008).
411:
2723:
Global map of current sea surface temperature anomalies
2281:
David E. Alexander; Rhodes Whitmore Fairbridge (1999).
854:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
834: – Climate phenomenon that periodically fluctuates
630:
587:
319:
blooms due to seasonal cycles or agricultural run-off.
3388:
Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART)
2812:
861: – Unusually warm temperature event in the ocean
704:
Seasonal peaks of tropical cyclone activity worldwide
594:
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)
2616:
Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory
813:
738:
depth is one of the precursors needed to maintain a
664:
Sea surface temperature affects the behavior of the
329:
3264:Earth-based meteorological observation systems and
2307:
1321:Boyle, Edward A.; Lloyd Keigwin (5 November 1987).
1922:Climate change : a multidisciplinary approach
1919:
1897:(2nd Revised ed.). Elsevier. pp. 24–25.
1320:
990:
988:
986:
984:
982:
980:
978:
976:
852: – Average temperature of the Earth's surface
840: – Average temperature of the Earth's surface
477:(1 °F) due to the heat of the engine room.
4461:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
1769:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
1767:"El Niño / Southern Oscillation (ENSO) June 2009"
1263:
1184:
1121:
1055:Chemical Oceanography and the Marine Carbon Cycle
997:Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change
746:). These warm waters are needed to maintain the
48:surface. Sea surface temperatures greatly modify
4758:
1014:"The Oceans Are Heating Up Faster Than Expected"
879: – Rise in sea levels due to climate change
873: – Recurring pattern of climate variability
204:
4451:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
2778:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2431:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
2225:
1946:
1157:
1086:
973:
591:(National Aeronautic and Space Administration)
3418:Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project (TAO/TRITON)
2718:Global map of current sea surface temperatures
2460:"Subject: A15) How do tropical cyclones form?"
2261:
1894:Data analysis methods in physical oceanography
600:GOES (Geostationary Orbiting Earth Satellites)
63:Warm sea surface temperatures can develop and
16:Water temperature close to the ocean's surface
3503:
3249:
2798:
2602:
2588:John M. Wallace & Peter V. Hobbs (1977).
2454:
1891:William J. Emery; Richard E. Thomson (2001).
1738:National Centers for Environmental Prediction
1270:National Aeronautics and Space Administration
1051:
922:"The concept of the thermohaline circulation"
770:, the required lapse rate is 9.8 °C/km.
570:able to transmit adequately well through the
177:The temperature further below that is called
2947:Convective available potential energy (CAPE)
2687:
2385:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2099:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2004:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1791:. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
1257:
1006:
913:
2629:
2590:Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey
2200:
2140:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1808:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1188:Physical oceanography of the dying Aral Sea
585:dynamics not possible with ships or buoys.
577:The satellite-measured SST provides both a
40:close to the surface. The exact meaning of
3510:
3496:
3373:Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (AMDAR)
3256:
3242:
2805:
2791:
2596:
2531:
1058:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
798:maintaining itself over cooler waters was
762:is required to force the atmosphere to be
56:within a short distance of the shore. The
3517:
3403:Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS)
2661:
2508:
2424:
2399:
2182:
2019:K. A. Browning; Robert J. Gurney (1999).
1917:
1636:
1587:
1266:"Passing of Hurricanes Cools Entire Gulf"
948:
919:
247:
3444:Coastal-Marine Automated Network (C-MAN)
2550:
1836:Alexander Soloviev; Roger Lukas (2006).
1780:
707:
699:
634:
514:
438:
415:
402:
360:
343:
279:The sea surface temperature (SST) has a
251:
130:
20:
3459:Remote Automated Weather Station (RAWS)
3439:Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP)
3323:Meteorological Aerodrome Report (METAR)
2690:"Hurricane Epsilon Discussion Eighteen"
2556:
2525:
2482:
2196:
2194:
1659:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1145:
712:Average equatorial Pacific temperatures
4759:
3782:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
3464:Road Weather Information System (RWIS)
2592:. Academic Press, Inc. pp. 76–77.
1786:
551:in two or more wavelengths within the
356:
3491:
3349:
3276:
3237:
2786:
2284:Encyclopedia of environmental science
618:or less, which may not represent the
500:
412:Recent increase due to climate change
4729:
2191:
1980:. National Academies Press. p.
1940:
1243:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 258.
1142:
722:Tropical cyclones and climate change
695:
668:above, so their initialization into
631:Importance to the Earth's atmosphere
2909:Convective condensation level (CCL)
2476:
2448:
734:) spanning through at minimum a 50-
660:Effects of climate change on oceans
539:variation to be viewed more fully.
268:
13:
4609:National Oceanographic Data Center
4036:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
3924:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
3115:Equivalent potential temperature (
2776:from websites or documents of the
1950:Oceanography from Space: Revisited
1294:Nidia Martínez Avellaneda (2010).
1161:Oceanography from Space: Revisited
1045:
726:Ocean temperature of at least 26.5
199:effect of climate change on oceans
82:. Its values are important within
65:strengthen cyclones over the ocean
14:
4798:
4456:Global Sea Level Observing System
3293:Automated airport weather station
2967:Conditional symmetric instability
2813:Meteorological data and variables
2706:
2120:. National Academies. p. 2.
1918:Burroughs, William James (2007).
1080:
782:change at 500 hpa. Inside a
543:are in reasonable agreement with
511:Satellite temperature measurement
339:Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation
330:Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation
264:Sea surface temperature and flows
147:'s surface. The exact meaning of
4739:
4728:
4719:
4718:
3914:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
3830:
3819:
3423:Voluntary observing ship program
2914:Lifting condensation level (LCL)
2772: This article incorporates
2767:
1842:. シュプリンガー・ジャパン株式会社. p. xi.
1191:. シュプリンガー・ジャパン株式会社. p. 27.
1128:. Cengage Learning. p. 84.
816:
4644:Ocean thermal energy conversion
4367:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
3298:Automatic weather station (AWS)
2899:Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)
2681:
2642:Journal of Geophysical Research
2581:
2418:
2393:
2328:
2301:
2274:
2255:
2219:
2162:Journal of Geophysical Research
2148:
2107:
2043:
2012:
1967:
1911:
1884:
1829:
1816:
1755:
1722:
1708:
1653:
1604:
1539:
1473:
1422:
1371:
1314:
1287:
1230:
1205:
1178:
867: – Energy stored by oceans
850:Instrumental temperature record
639:Sea-effect snow bands near the
455:
3162:Wet-bulb potential temperature
3004:Level of free convection (LFC)
2226:C. M. Kishtawal (2005-08-06).
2022:Global energy and water cycles
1953:. Springer. pp. 237–238.
1115:
1028:
889:
804:2005 Atlantic hurricane season
434:
120:
1:
3398:Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW)
3350:
3205:Pressure-gradient force (PGF)
3127:Sea surface temperature (SST)
2962:Convective momentum transport
2538:National Climatic Data Center
2532:Matt Menne (March 15, 2000).
1763:National Climatic Data Center
1213:"Envisat watches for La Niña"
883:
614:, approximately the top 0.01
541:Satellite measurements of SST
365:The 1997 El Niño observed by
315:fresh water and concentrated
3904:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
3874:Craik–Leibovich vortex force
3630:Luke's variational principle
3019:Bulk Richardson number (BRN)
2495:(5742). Gale Group: 1844–6.
2308:Ian Stuart Robinson (2004).
2201:John Maurer (October 2002).
832:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
652:Numerical weather prediction
567:expected from the Earth, and
375:El Niño-Southern Oscillation
160:sea surface skin temperature
84:numerical weather prediction
7:
3277:
3223:Maximum potential intensity
2989:Free convective layer (FCL)
2952:Convective inhibition (CIN)
2692:. National Hurricane Center
2688:Lixion Avila (2005-12-03).
2464:Hurricane Research Division
2228:"Meteorological Satellites"
1300:. GRIN Verlag. p. 72.
871:Pacific decadal oscillation
809:
656:Precipitation (meteorology)
165:The definition proposed by
10:
4803:
3969:Ocean dynamical thermostat
3817:
3157:Wet-bulb globe temperature
3014:Maximum parcel level (MPL)
2557:Kushnir, Yochanan (2000).
2337:Boundary-Layer Meteorology
2027:Cambridge University Press
1264:Earth Observatory (2005).
1185:Peter O. Zavialov (2005).
1122:John Siegenthaler (2003).
838:Global surface temperature
715:
645:
504:
423:
372:
272:
208:
124:
38:temperature of ocean water
4714:
4553:
4527:
4504:Ocean acoustic tomography
4489:
4441:
4380:
4317:Mohorovičić discontinuity
4275:
4147:
4044:
3909:General circulation model
3839:
3545:Benjamin–Feir instability
3525:
3431:
3393:FluxNet Project (FluxNet)
3360:
3356:
3345:
3283:
3272:
3213:
3175:
3137:Thermodynamic temperature
3071:Forest fire weather index
3027:
2937:
2884:
2818:
2357:10.1007/s10546-004-3407-y
2314:. Springer. p. 279.
2287:. Springer. p. 510.
1730:Climate Prediction Center
1686:10.1038/s41558-020-0692-5
1164:. Springer. p. 263.
491:National Data Buoy Center
238:photic depth of the ocean
34:ocean surface temperature
4772:Meteorological phenomena
4634:Ocean surface topography
4009:Thermohaline circulation
3999:Subsurface ocean current
3939:Hydrothermal circulation
3772:Wave–current interaction
3550:Boussinesq approximation
3059:Equivalent temperature (
2972:Convective temperature (
2856:Surface weather analysis
2425:Greg Byrd (1998-06-03).
1947:Vittorio Barale (2010).
1638:10.1175/JCLI-D-18-0269.1
1158:Vittorio Barale (2010).
1064:10.1017/cbo9780511793202
557:electromagnetic spectrum
183:deeper ocean temperature
58:thermohaline circulation
4671:Sea surface temperature
4654:Outline of oceanography
3849:Atmospheric circulation
3787:shallow water equations
3777:Waves and shallow water
3670:Significant wave height
3454:Snow Telemetry (SNOTEL)
3288:Aircraft report (AIREP)
3106:Potential temperature (
2851:Surface solar radiation
2510:10.1126/science.1116448
688:, often in the form of
612:top "skin" of the ocean
563:within the peak of the
519:2003–2011 SST based on
171:sea surface temperature
30:Sea surface temperature
4666:Sea surface microlayer
4031:Wind generated current
3096:Relative humidity (RH)
2984:Equilibrium level (EL)
2957:Convective instability
2774:public domain material
2060:Monthly Weather Review
713:
705:
678:extratropical cyclones
643:
524:
444:
421:
408:
370:
353:
309:extratropical cyclones
265:
248:Variations and changes
136:
105:. This is because the
26:
4499:Deep scattering layer
4481:World Geodetic System
3989:Princeton Ocean Model
3869:Coriolis–Stokes force
3519:Physical oceanography
2406:University of Wyoming
2207:University of Hawaiʻi
1787:WW2010 (1998-04-28).
1666:Nature Climate Change
1552:Nature Communications
1016:. scientific american
920:Rahmstorf, S (2003).
901:climate.copernicus.eu
718:Tropical cyclogenesis
711:
703:
674:tropical cyclogenesis
638:
518:
442:
424:Further information:
419:
406:
364:
347:
263:
134:
24:
4787:Thermodynamic cycles
4519:Underwater acoustics
4079:Perigean spring tide
3944:Langmuir circulation
3655:Rossby-gravity waves
3328:Pilot report (PIREP)
3185:Atmospheric pressure
3152:Wet-bulb temperature
3054:Dry-bulb temperature
3049:Dew point depression
2663:10.1029/2000JD900837
2559:"The Climate System"
2483:Webster, PJ (2005).
2237:: 73. Archived from
2184:10.1029/2000JC000246
779:wet-bulb temperature
311:, rapid influxes of
211:Ocean stratification
195:ocean stratification
158:For comparison, the
4681:Science On a Sphere
4287:Convergent boundary
3959:Modular Ocean Model
3919:Geostrophic current
3635:Mild-slope equation
3147:Virtual temperature
3132:Temperature anomaly
2826:Adiabatic processes
2654:2001JGR...106.7857S
2563:Columbia University
2501:2005Sci...309.1844W
2349:2005BoLMe.117..111I
2175:2001JGR...106.2387E
2073:1972MWRv..100...10K
1848:2006nslo.book.....S
1678:2020NatCC..10..238W
1629:2019JCli...32..251W
1564:2014NatCo...5.3323K
1509:10.1038/nature14491
1501:2015Natur.521..508M
1451:10.1038/nature03370
1443:2005Natur.434..211M
1400:10.1038/nature02164
1392:2003Natur.426..661B
1342:1987Natur.330...35B
1090:Marine geochemistry
1036:Annex VII: Glossary
941:2003Natur.421..699R
565:blackbody radiation
466:mercury thermometer
357:Regional variations
205:Extent of "surface"
4777:Marine meteorology
4337:Seafloor spreading
4327:Outer trench swell
4292:Divergent boundary
4192:Continental margin
4177:Carbonate platform
4074:Lunitidal interval
2919:Precipitable water
2759:2016-03-05 at the
2746:2018-06-23 at the
2733:2016-03-06 at the
2427:"Lake Effect Snow"
2402:"Lake Effect Snow"
2400:B. Geerts (1998).
1617:Journal of Climate
1572:10.1038/ncomms4323
865:Ocean heat content
714:
706:
670:atmospheric models
666:Earth's atmosphere
644:
625:weather satellites
525:
501:Weather satellites
445:
422:
409:
371:
354:
266:
219:The extent of the
191:ocean heat content
187:Ocean temperatures
137:
103:ocean temperatures
54:Earth's atmosphere
27:
4754:
4753:
4746:Oceans portal
4706:World Ocean Atlas
4696:Underwater glider
4639:Ocean temperature
4302:Hydrothermal vent
4267:Submarine volcano
4202:Continental shelf
4182:Coastal geography
4172:Bathymetric chart
4054:Amphidromic point
3742:Wave nonlinearity
3600:Infragravity wave
3485:
3484:
3481:
3480:
3477:
3476:
3341:
3340:
3313:Hurricane Hunters
3231:
3230:
3200:Pressure gradient
3009:Lifted index (LI)
2648:(D8): 7857–7878.
2618:. pp. 220–41
2321:978-3-540-42647-9
2294:978-0-412-74050-3
2036:978-0-521-56057-3
1991:978-0-309-06088-2
1960:978-90-481-8680-8
1904:978-0-444-50757-0
1857:978-1-4020-4052-8
1495:(7553): 508–510.
1437:(7030): 211–214.
1386:(6967): 661–664.
1307:978-3-640-55639-7
1250:978-0-471-97968-5
1198:978-3-540-22891-2
1171:978-90-481-8680-8
1135:978-0-7668-1637-4
1100:978-1-118-34909-0
1073:978-0-521-83313-4
768:relative humidity
696:Tropical cyclones
507:Weather satellite
462:Benjamin Franklin
324:subtropical gyres
301:tropical cyclones
261:
179:ocean temperature
127:Ocean temperature
76:continental shelf
4794:
4744:
4743:
4732:
4731:
4722:
4721:
4661:Pelagic sediment
4599:Marine pollution
4393:Deep ocean water
4262:Submarine canyon
4197:Continental rise
4089:Rule of twelfths
4004:Sverdrup balance
3934:Humboldt Current
3859:Boundary current
3834:
3823:
3640:Radiation stress
3610:Iribarren number
3585:Equatorial waves
3540:Ballantine scale
3535:Airy wave theory
3512:
3505:
3498:
3489:
3488:
3358:
3357:
3347:
3346:
3274:
3273:
3266:weather stations
3258:
3251:
3244:
3235:
3234:
2807:
2800:
2793:
2784:
2783:
2771:
2770:
2701:
2700:
2698:
2697:
2685:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2675:
2666:. Archived from
2665:
2633:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2600:
2594:
2593:
2585:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2565:. Archived from
2554:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2544:
2529:
2523:
2522:
2512:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2470:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2433:. Archived from
2422:
2416:
2415:
2413:
2412:
2397:
2391:
2390:
2384:
2376:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2305:
2299:
2298:
2278:
2272:
2271:
2259:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2249:
2243:
2232:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2213:
2198:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2139:
2131:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2098:
2090:
2088:
2087:
2056:
2047:
2041:
2040:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2003:
1995:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1925:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1875:
1871:
1869:
1861:
1833:
1827:
1820:
1814:
1813:
1807:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1775:
1774:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1740:. Archived from
1726:
1720:
1719:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1640:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1591:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1486:
1477:
1471:
1470:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1350:10.1038/330035a0
1327:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1282:
1281:
1272:. Archived from
1261:
1255:
1254:
1234:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1224:
1209:
1203:
1202:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1155:
1140:
1139:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1084:
1078:
1077:
1049:
1043:
1032:
1026:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1010:
1004:
992:
971:
970:
952:
926:
917:
911:
910:
908:
907:
893:
855:
826:
821:
820:
796:tropical cyclone
740:tropical cyclone
682:lake-effect snow
641:Korean Peninsula
620:bulk temperature
602:
596:
590:
390:Humboldt Current
269:Local variations
262:
4802:
4801:
4797:
4796:
4795:
4793:
4792:
4791:
4767:Aquatic ecology
4757:
4756:
4755:
4750:
4738:
4710:
4549:
4523:
4485:
4466:Sea-level curve
4437:
4376:
4362:Transform fault
4312:Mid-ocean ridge
4278:
4271:
4237:Oceanic plateau
4143:
4129:Tidal resonance
4099:Theory of tides
4040:
3949:Longshore drift
3899:Ekman transport
3835:
3829:
3828:
3827:
3826:
3825:
3824:
3815:
3767:Wave turbulence
3700:Trochoidal wave
3625:Longshore drift
3521:
3516:
3486:
3473:
3427:
3352:
3337:
3279:
3268:
3262:
3232:
3227:
3209:
3171:
3121:
3065:
3043:
3023:
2978:
2933:
2880:
2814:
2811:
2768:
2761:Wayback Machine
2748:Wayback Machine
2735:Wayback Machine
2709:
2704:
2695:
2693:
2686:
2682:
2673:
2671:
2634:
2630:
2621:
2619:
2601:
2597:
2586:
2582:
2572:
2570:
2555:
2551:
2542:
2540:
2530:
2526:
2481:
2477:
2468:
2466:
2453:
2449:
2440:
2438:
2423:
2419:
2410:
2408:
2398:
2394:
2378:
2377:
2333:
2329:
2322:
2306:
2302:
2295:
2279:
2275:
2260:
2256:
2247:
2245:
2241:
2230:
2224:
2220:
2211:
2209:
2199:
2192:
2153:
2149:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2112:
2108:
2092:
2091:
2085:
2083:
2054:
2048:
2044:
2037:
2017:
2013:
1997:
1996:
1992:
1972:
1968:
1961:
1945:
1941:
1934:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1889:
1885:
1873:
1872:
1863:
1862:
1858:
1834:
1830:
1821:
1817:
1801:
1800:
1794:
1792:
1785:
1781:
1772:
1770:
1760:
1756:
1747:
1745:
1727:
1723:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1658:
1654:
1609:
1605:
1544:
1540:
1484:
1478:
1474:
1427:
1423:
1376:
1372:
1362:
1360:
1336:(6143): 35–40.
1325:
1319:
1315:
1308:
1292:
1288:
1279:
1277:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1235:
1231:
1222:
1220:
1211:
1210:
1206:
1199:
1183:
1179:
1172:
1156:
1143:
1136:
1120:
1116:
1101:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1050:
1046:
1033:
1029:
1019:
1017:
1012:
1011:
1007:
993:
974:
950:10.1038/421699a
924:
918:
914:
905:
903:
895:
894:
890:
886:
859:Marine heatwave
853:
822:
815:
812:
724:
716:Main articles:
698:
662:
633:
603:satellites are
598:
592:
586:
513:
503:
458:
437:
428:
414:
377:
359:
332:
293:Ekman transport
285:thermal inertia
277:
271:
252:
250:
217:
207:
129:
123:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4800:
4790:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4752:
4751:
4749:
4748:
4736:
4726:
4715:
4712:
4711:
4709:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4686:Stratification
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4657:
4656:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4586:
4578:
4576:Color of water
4573:
4571:Benthic lander
4568:
4563:
4557:
4555:
4551:
4550:
4548:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4531:
4529:
4525:
4524:
4522:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4495:
4493:
4487:
4486:
4484:
4483:
4478:
4476:Sea level rise
4473:
4471:Sea level drop
4468:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4447:
4445:
4439:
4438:
4436:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4384:
4382:
4378:
4377:
4375:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4307:Marine geology
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4283:
4281:
4273:
4272:
4270:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4247:Passive margin
4244:
4242:Oceanic trench
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4153:
4151:
4145:
4144:
4142:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4050:
4048:
4042:
4041:
4039:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4017:
4016:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3974:Ocean dynamics
3971:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3864:Coriolis force
3861:
3856:
3851:
3845:
3843:
3837:
3836:
3818:
3816:
3814:
3813:
3812:
3811:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3790:
3789:
3784:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3713:
3712:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3685:Stokes problem
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3620:Kinematic wave
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3531:
3529:
3523:
3522:
3515:
3514:
3507:
3500:
3492:
3483:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3475:
3474:
3472:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3435:
3433:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3364:
3362:
3354:
3353:
3343:
3342:
3339:
3338:
3336:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3284:
3281:
3280:
3270:
3269:
3261:
3260:
3253:
3246:
3238:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3225:
3219:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3208:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3181:
3179:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3142:Vapor pressure
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3112:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3033:
3031:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2943:
2941:
2935:
2934:
2932:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2890:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2822:
2820:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2809:
2802:
2795:
2787:
2765:
2764:
2751:
2738:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2708:
2707:External links
2705:
2703:
2702:
2680:
2670:on May 8, 2006
2628:
2595:
2580:
2569:on 20 May 2020
2549:
2524:
2475:
2447:
2417:
2392:
2343:(1): 111–129.
2327:
2320:
2300:
2293:
2273:
2254:
2218:
2190:
2147:
2126:
2106:
2042:
2035:
2029:. p. 62.
2011:
1990:
1966:
1959:
1939:
1932:
1910:
1903:
1883:
1874:|journal=
1856:
1828:
1815:
1779:
1754:
1732:(2005-12-19).
1721:
1707:
1672:(3): 238–243.
1652:
1623:(1): 251–272.
1603:
1538:
1472:
1421:
1370:
1313:
1306:
1286:
1256:
1249:
1229:
1204:
1197:
1177:
1170:
1141:
1134:
1114:
1099:
1079:
1072:
1044:
1027:
1005:
972:
912:
887:
885:
882:
881:
880:
877:Sea level rise
874:
868:
862:
856:
847:
841:
835:
828:
827:
811:
808:
697:
694:
632:
629:
605:geo-stationary
575:
574:
568:
502:
499:
457:
454:
436:
433:
413:
410:
373:Main article:
367:TOPEX/Poseidon
358:
355:
337:, such as the
335:Ocean currents
331:
328:
270:
267:
249:
246:
206:
203:
122:
119:
115:climate change
99:global warming
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4799:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4764:
4762:
4747:
4742:
4737:
4735:
4727:
4725:
4717:
4716:
4713:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4655:
4652:
4651:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4594:Marine energy
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4584:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4561:Acidification
4559:
4558:
4556:
4552:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4532:
4530:
4526:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4514:SOFAR channel
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4496:
4494:
4492:
4488:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4448:
4446:
4444:
4440:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4385:
4383:
4379:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4322:Oceanic crust
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4297:Fracture zone
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4284:
4282:
4280:
4274:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4232:Oceanic basin
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4162:Abyssal plain
4160:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4152:
4150:
4146:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4069:Internal tide
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4047:
4043:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4015:
4012:
4011:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3964:Ocean current
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3846:
3844:
3842:
3838:
3833:
3822:
3810:
3807:
3806:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3779:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3762:Wave shoaling
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3722:Ursell number
3720:
3718:
3715:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3605:Internal wave
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3555:Breaking wave
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3532:
3530:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3513:
3508:
3506:
3501:
3499:
3494:
3493:
3490:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3432:United States
3430:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3348:
3344:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3282:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3259:
3254:
3252:
3247:
3245:
3240:
3239:
3236:
3224:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3212:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3195:Barotropicity
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3111:
3109:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3030:
3026:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2940:
2936:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2924:Precipitation
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2887:
2883:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2817:
2808:
2803:
2801:
2796:
2794:
2789:
2788:
2785:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2762:
2758:
2755:
2752:
2749:
2745:
2742:
2739:
2736:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2691:
2684:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2632:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2604:Chris Landsea
2599:
2591:
2584:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2553:
2539:
2535:
2528:
2520:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2479:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2456:Chris Landsea
2451:
2437:on 2009-06-17
2436:
2432:
2428:
2421:
2407:
2403:
2396:
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2264:New Scientist
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1276:on 2006-09-30
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394:ocean warming
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317:phytoplankton
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281:diurnal range
276:
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143:close to the
142:
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118:
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113:generated by
112:
109:about 90% of
108:
107:ocean absorbs
104:
100:
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81:
80:South America
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68:
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39:
35:
31:
23:
19:
4782:Oceanography
4701:Water column
4670:
4649:Oceanography
4624:Observations
4619:Explorations
4589:Marginal sea
4582:
4540:OSTM/Jason-2
4372:Volcanic arc
4347:Slab suction
4064:Head of tide
3954:Loop Current
3894:Ekman spiral
3680:Stokes drift
3590:Gravity wave
3565:Cnoidal wave
3449:NEXRAD radar
3333:Weather ship
3126:
3116:
3107:
3101:Mixing ratio
3076:Haines Index
3060:
3038:
2973:
2886:Condensation
2766:
2694:. Retrieved
2683:
2672:. Retrieved
2668:the original
2645:
2641:
2631:
2620:. Retrieved
2611:
2598:
2589:
2583:
2573:24 September
2571:. Retrieved
2567:the original
2552:
2541:. Retrieved
2527:
2492:
2488:
2478:
2467:. Retrieved
2450:
2439:. Retrieved
2435:the original
2420:
2409:. Retrieved
2395:
2381:cite journal
2340:
2336:
2330:
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2303:
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2246:. Retrieved
2239:the original
2234:
2221:
2210:. Retrieved
2169:(C2): 2387.
2166:
2160:
2150:
2116:
2109:
2095:cite journal
2084:. Retrieved
2067:(1): 10–14.
2064:
2058:
2045:
2021:
2014:
1976:
1969:
1949:
1942:
1921:
1913:
1893:
1886:
1838:
1831:
1818:
1793:. Retrieved
1782:
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1757:
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1742:the original
1724:
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1361:. Retrieved
1333:
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1296:
1289:
1278:. Retrieved
1274:the original
1259:
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1221:. Retrieved
1217:the original
1207:
1187:
1180:
1160:
1124:
1117:
1089:
1082:
1054:
1047:
1034:IPCC, 2021:
1030:
1018:. Retrieved
1008:
932:
928:
915:
904:. Retrieved
900:
891:
802:late in the
784:cold cyclone
772:
753:
725:
663:
609:
576:
555:part of the
526:
497:phenomenon.
487:
479:
464:suspended a
459:
456:Thermometers
446:
429:
398:
385:Indian Ocean
382:
378:
333:
321:
305:Saharan dust
297:river deltas
278:
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220:
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176:
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164:
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148:
138:
96:
69:
62:
41:
33:
29:
28:
18:
4691:Thermocline
4408:Mesopelagic
4381:Ocean zones
4352:Slab window
4217:Hydrography
4157:Abyssal fan
4124:Tidal range
4114:Tidal power
4109:Tidal force
3994:Rip current
3929:Gulf Stream
3889:Ekman layer
3879:Downwelling
3854:Baroclinity
3841:Circulation
3737:Wave height
3727:Wave action
3710:megatsunami
3690:Stokes wave
3650:Rossby wave
3615:Kelvin wave
3595:Green's law
3190:Baroclinity
3037:Dew point (
3029:Temperature
2929:Water vapor
2270:(769): 623.
1718:. NASA/JPL.
1363:10 February
788:troposphere
744:mesocyclone
742:(a type of
474:thermometer
470:Gulf Stream
450:thermocline
435:Measurement
215:Photic zone
141:temperature
121:Definitions
111:excess heat
88:sea breezes
4761:Categories
4629:Reanalysis
4528:Satellites
4509:Sofar bomb
4357:Subduction
4332:Ridge push
4227:Ocean bank
4207:Contourite
4134:Tide gauge
4119:Tidal race
4104:Tidal bore
4094:Slack tide
4059:Earth tide
3979:Ocean gyre
3799:Wind setup
3794:Wind fetch
3757:Wave setup
3752:Wave radar
3747:Wave power
3645:Rogue wave
3575:Dispersion
3167:Wind chill
3081:Heat index
2939:Convection
2876:Wind shear
2861:Visibility
2841:Lapse rate
2696:2010-12-14
2674:2006-10-19
2622:2006-10-19
2543:2006-10-19
2469:2011-01-27
2441:2009-07-12
2411:2008-12-24
2248:2011-01-27
2212:2011-01-09
2086:2011-01-09
1822:Data from
1795:2009-07-17
1773:2009-07-26
1748:2009-07-26
1280:2006-04-26
1223:2011-01-09
906:2024-08-15
884:References
792:tropopause
760:lapse rate
646:See also:
572:atmosphere
529:satellites
505:See also:
273:See also:
242:open ocean
230:stratifies
209:See also:
155:surface.
125:See also:
50:air masses
4491:Acoustics
4443:Sea level
4342:Slab pull
4279:tectonics
4187:Cold seep
4149:Landforms
4026:Whirlpool
4021:Upwelling
3804:Wind wave
3732:Wave base
3660:Sea state
3580:Edge wave
3570:Cross sea
3361:Worldwide
3351:By region
3308:Dropsonde
2866:Vorticity
2846:Lightning
2831:Advection
2373:121768400
2365:0006-8314
2136:cite book
2000:cite book
1876:ignored (
1866:cite book
1824:NASA GISS
1789:"El Niño"
1702:211138572
1694:1758-6798
1580:2041-1723
1517:1476-4687
1109:781078031
844:Halocline
748:warm core
549:radiation
523:Aqua data
275:Upwelling
72:upwelling
36:) is the
4724:Category
4676:Seawater
4403:Littoral
4398:Deep sea
4257:Seamount
4139:Tideline
4084:Rip tide
4014:shutdown
3984:Overflow
3717:Undertow
3560:Clapotis
3215:Velocity
3177:Pressure
3091:Humidity
2994:Helicity
2836:Buoyancy
2757:Archived
2744:Archived
2731:Archived
2606:(2000).
2519:16166514
2458:(2011).
1804:cite web
1647:85450306
1598:24567051
1558:: 3323.
1525:26017453
1459:15758999
1408:14668864
959:12610602
810:See also
775:wet-bulb
764:unstable
648:Air mass
553:infrared
537:temporal
289:Aral Sea
4734:Commons
4604:Mooring
4554:Related
4545:Jason-3
4535:Jason-1
4418:Pelagic
4413:Oceanic
4388:Benthic
3705:Tsunami
3675:Soliton
3318:Mesonet
3278:General
3086:Humidex
2999:K Index
2819:General
2650:Bibcode
2497:Bibcode
2489:Science
2345:Bibcode
2171:Bibcode
2069:Bibcode
1844:Bibcode
1674:Bibcode
1625:Bibcode
1589:3948066
1560:Bibcode
1533:4399436
1497:Bibcode
1467:2299664
1439:Bibcode
1416:4420759
1388:Bibcode
1358:4359752
1338:Bibcode
1020:3 March
967:4414604
937:Bibcode
800:Epsilon
545:in situ
533:spatial
495:El Niño
400:models.
350:La Niña
313:glacial
149:surface
92:sea fog
52:in the
42:surface
4423:Photic
4252:Seabed
3665:Seiche
2754:MICROS
2612:Storms
2517:
2371:
2363:
2318:
2291:
2124:
2033:
1988:
1957:
1930:
1901:
1854:
1700:
1692:
1645:
1596:
1586:
1578:
1531:
1523:
1515:
1489:Nature
1465:
1457:
1431:Nature
1414:
1406:
1380:Nature
1356:
1330:Nature
1304:
1247:
1195:
1168:
1132:
1107:
1097:
1070:
965:
957:
929:Nature
658:, and
588:NASA's
480:Fixed
236:. The
4614:Ocean
4583:Alvin
4433:Swash
4277:Plate
4222:Knoll
4212:Guyot
4167:Atoll
4046:Tides
3809:model
3695:Swell
3527:Waves
2894:Cloud
2741:iQuam
2728:SQUAM
2369:S2CID
2242:(PDF)
2231:(PDF)
2055:(PDF)
1698:S2CID
1643:S2CID
1529:S2CID
1485:(PDF)
1463:S2CID
1412:S2CID
1354:S2CID
1326:(PDF)
1038:. In
999:. In
963:S2CID
925:(PDF)
736:metre
730:(79.7
583:ocean
521:MODIS
226:poles
145:ocean
4581:DSV
4566:Argo
4428:Surf
3884:Eddy
3378:Argo
2871:Wind
2575:2010
2515:PMID
2387:link
2361:ISSN
2316:ISBN
2289:ISBN
2142:link
2122:ISBN
2101:link
2031:ISBN
2006:link
1986:ISBN
1955:ISBN
1928:ISBN
1899:ISBN
1878:help
1852:ISBN
1810:link
1690:ISSN
1594:PMID
1576:ISSN
1521:PMID
1513:ISSN
1455:PMID
1404:PMID
1365:2011
1302:ISBN
1245:ISBN
1193:ISBN
1166:ISBN
1130:ISBN
1105:OCLC
1095:ISBN
1068:ISBN
1022:2020
955:PMID
720:and
690:snow
535:and
509:and
213:and
193:and
169:for
167:IPCC
90:and
32:(or
2904:Fog
2658:doi
2646:106
2505:doi
2493:309
2353:doi
2341:117
2179:doi
2167:106
2077:doi
2065:100
1682:doi
1633:doi
1584:PMC
1568:doi
1505:doi
1493:521
1447:doi
1435:434
1396:doi
1384:426
1346:doi
1334:330
1060:doi
945:doi
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756:hPa
181:or
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