Delayed gratification

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reward. Five-year-olds often choose instead to actively distract themselves or even use self-instructions to remind themselves of the contingency that waiting produces a reward of a greater value. Between 8 and 13 years old, children develop the cognitive ability to differentiate and employ abstract versus arousing thoughts in order to distract their minds from the reward and thereby increase the delay. Once delaying strategies are developed, the capacity to resist temptation is relatively stable throughout adulthood. Preschoolers' performance on delayed gratification tasks correlates with their adolescent performance on tasks designed to measure similar constructs and processing, which parallels the corresponding development of willpower and the fronto-striatal circuit (neural pathways that connect the frontal lobe to other brain regions). Declines in self-regulation and impulse control in old age predict corresponding declines in reward-delaying strategies, specifically reduced temporal discounting due to a decrease in cooling strategies.

739:(CAPS), suggests that delaying gratification results from an ability to use "cool" regulatory strategies (i.e., calm, controlled and cognitive strategies) over "hot regulatory strategies (i.e., emotional, impulsive, automatic reactions), when faced with provocation. In "hot" processing, a person thinks intently about the object causing temptation, and especially about its most appealing elements, and is subsequently less able to resist the immediate reward. The use of cool strategies can translate to more control over behavior. Effective "cool" strategies involve distraction and restructuring the perception of the tempting stimulus to make it seem less appealing. For example, in one study of pre-adolescent boys with behavioral problems, the boys showed a reduction in verbal and physical aggression when they used "cool" strategies, such as looking away or distracting themselves. The most effective type of distraction seems to be imagining another desirable reward, which takes attention away from the immediate temptations. 759:. Mischel and his colleagues were interested in strategies that preschool children used to resist temptation. They presented four-year-olds with a marshmallow and told the children that they had two options: (1) ring a bell at any point to summon the experimenter and eat the marshmallow, or (2) wait until the experimenter returned (about 15 minutes later), and earn two marshmallows. The message was: "small reward now, bigger reward later." Some children broke down and ate the marshmallow, whereas others were able to delay gratification and earn the coveted two marshmallows. In follow-up experiments, Mischel found that children were able to wait longer if they used certain "cool" distraction techniques (covering their eyes, hiding under the desk, singing songs, or imagining pretzels instead of the marshmallow in front of them), or if they changed the way they thought about the marshmallow (focusing on its similarity to a cotton ball, rather than on its gooey, delectable taste). 1145:

first, also known as an interruption risk. Second, there is the risk that the chance to get the reward will be cut short, perhaps by a predator, also known as a termination risk. These costs and risks create situations in which the fitness of the individual is threatened. There are several examples that show how reward delay occurs in the real world. For example, animals that eat fruit have the option of eating unripe fruit right away, or waiting, delaying gratification, until it becomes ripe. The interruption risk plays a part here, because if the individual forgoes the unripe fruit, there is a chance that another individual may come along and get to it first. Also, in extractive foraging, such as with nuts and shellfish, the outer shell creates a delay. However, animals that can store food and defer eating are more likely to survive during harsh conditions, and thus delaying gratification may also incur an evolutionary advantage.

839:, which is also associated with reasoning and rational thought, must be active. The prefrontal cortex is also the part of the brain that determines the focus of a person's attention, which enables a better framing that facilitates delayed gratification. During adolescence and early adulthood, the prefrontal cortex develops and matures to become more complicated and connected with the rest of the brain. Older children and adults find the deferment-of-gratification tasks easier than do young children for this reason. However, the relative ability to defer gratification remains stable throughout development. Children who can better control impulses grow up to be adults who also have better control. Practicing deferred gratification is quite beneficial to cognitive abilities throughout life. 1132:

that they would receive better art supplies if they waited. After the children successfully waited for the reward, better supplies could not be "found" and so they had to use the crayons and stickers that were in poor shape. Comparing these children to ones who received their promised rewards reliably revealed different results on subsequent Marshmallow tests measuring delayed gratification. Children who had learned that the researcher's promise was unreliable quickly succumbed to eating the marshmallow, waiting only an average of three minutes. Conversely, children who had learned that the researcher was reliable were able to wait an average of 12 minutes, with many of them waiting the full 15 minutes for the researcher to return in order to double the reward to two marshmallows.

696:, such as the use of distracting or "cool" thoughts, can increase delay ability, as can neurological factors, such as strength of connections in the frontal-striatal pathway. Behavioral researchers have focused on the contingencies that govern choices to delay reinforcement, and have studied how to manipulate those contingencies in order to lengthen delay. Age plays a role too; children under five years old demonstrate a marked lack of delayed gratification ability and most commonly seek immediate gratification. A very small difference between males and females suggest that females may be better at delaying rewards. The inability to choose to wait rather than seek immediate reinforcement is related to avoidance-related behaviors such as 722:, or a lack of ego-control, has a stronger effect on one's ability to choose delayed rewards if a reward is more desirable. Finally, environmental and social factors play a role; for example, delay is affected by the self-imposed or external nature of a reward contingency, by the degree of task engagement required during the delay, by early mother-child relationship characteristics, by a person's previous experiences with unreliable promises of rewards (e.g., in poverty), and by contemporary sociocultural expectations and paradigms. Research on animals comprises another body of literature describing delayed gratification characteristics that are not as easily tested in human samples, such as ecological factors affecting the skill. 820:

etc.) their self-control and delay of gratification decreases, while directing attention to a symbol of the reward by focusing on its abstract, "cool" qualities (shape, color, number, etc.), can enhance self-control and increase the delay. Optimal self-control and the longest delay to gratification can be achieved by directing attention to a competing item, especially the arousing, "hot" qualities of a competing item. For example, delays are increased when thinking about the taste and smell of popcorn while waiting to eat candy. This illustrates an individual's ability to manipulate their cognitive representation of external stimuli for goal-directed purposes.

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self-control training procedure in which reinforcer immediacy competes with the frequency, quantity or saliency of the reward. One study demonstrated that any verbal activity while waiting for reinforcement increases delay to gratification in participants with ADHD. In another study, three children diagnosed with ADHD and demonstrating impulsivity were trained to prefer reward rate and saliency more than immediacy through manipulation of the quality of the reinforcers and by systematically increasing the delay with a changing-criterion design. Post-assessment of the children illustrated that self-control can transfer to untrained dimensions of reinforcement.

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conditions and the preference of the participants with experiencing a loud noise for variable amounts of time: 15, 30, 60, and 90 seconds. The buttons to turn off the noise were manipulated by one button turning off the noise for a short amount of time and the other turning the noise off for an extended time. The participants were found to be more willing to turn off the noise immediately for 90 seconds rather than turning it off for the 120 seconds after a 60-second delay was issued. Findings illustrate that participants chose not to delay their gratification for the relief of noise but rather instantly silence it for a shorter amount of time.

783:(the tendency to be anxious when anticipating interpersonal rejection). In a 20-year follow-up of the marshmallow experiment, individuals with vulnerability to high rejection sensitivity who had shown strong delay of gratification abilities as preschoolers had higher self-esteem and self-worth and more adaptive coping skills, in comparison to the individuals who had high rejection sensitivity but low delay of gratification as four-year-olds. These compelling longitudinal findings converge with other studies showing a similar pattern: The ability to resist temptation early in life translates to persistent benefits across settings. 790:, recruited 59 of the original participants – who are now in their mid-40s – and gave them a delayed gratification task. Instead of resisting marshmallows, these adults were instructed to suppress responses to images of happy faces, but not to neutral or fearful faces. Those who had been high delayers as pre-schoolers were more successful at controlling their impulses in response to the emotional faces (i.e., not pressing the button in response to happy faces), suggesting that the high delayers continued to show better ability to dampen or resist impulses. Casey and colleagues also scanned the brains of 26 participants using 1212:. They showed that tamarins will travel longer distances for larger food rewards, but will not wait as long as marmosets. Conversely, marmosets will wait longer, but will not travel as far. They then concluded that this discounting behavior directly correlates to the normal feeding behavior of species. The tamarins feed over large distances, looking for insects. Capturing and eating insects requires a quick and impulsive decision and action. The marmosets, on the other hand, eat tree sap, which takes more time to secrete, but does not require that the marmosets to cover large distances. 1115:

This suggests that some children of controlling mothers have better learned how to distract themselves from or effectively avoid intrusive stimuli, although additional effects on their emotional competency are speculated but unknown. A greater capacity to delay gratification by using effective attentional strategies is also seen in preschoolers whose mothers had been responsive and supportive during particularly stressful times of self-regulation when the child was a toddler, indicating that maternal responsiveness during highly demanding times is crucial for the development of

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social behavior. This effect may be related to the slight gender differences found in delay discounting (i.e., minimizing the value of a delayed reward) and higher levels of impulsivity and inattention in boys. Further studies are needed to analyze if this minute difference begins at a certain age (e.g., puberty) or if it has a stable magnitude throughout the lifespan. Some researchers suggest this gender difference may correspond with a mother's tendency to sacrifice her wants and needs in order to meet those of her child more frequently than a father does.

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openness to experience, as well as more productive ways of responding to anger and other provocations. Early delay ability has been shown to protect against the development of a variety of emotional vulnerabilities later in life, such as aggression and features of borderline personality disorder. Meanwhile, many maladaptive coping skills that characterize mental illness entail a difficulty delaying gratification. The tendency to choose short-term rewards at the expense of longer-term benefits permeates many forms of psychopathology.

981:(ADHD) and aggressive behavior are associated with difficulty delaying gratification in children and adolescents, as are substance abuse, gambling, and other addictive behaviors in adolescents and adults. In a 2010 study, teenagers and young adults with stronger abilities to delay gratification were less likely to drink alcohol, or to smoke cigarettes or cannabis. A 2011 study found that the contrast in delayed gratification between children with and without ADHD was no longer significant after statistically controlling for 1191:

time did not affect pigeons' choices in another study. This suggests that research looking into varying risk sensitivity of different species is needed. When provided a choice between a small, short delay reward, and a large, long delay reward, there is an impulsive preference for the former. Additionally, as the delay time for the small/short and large/long reward increases, there is a shift in preference toward the larger, delayed reward. This evidence only supports hyperbolic discounting, not exponential.

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than providing motivation. For example, a child who can see other children playing outside while the child is finishing their homework will be less motivated to wait for their turn for recess. Another factor work and task engagement adds to the delay of gratification is that if the work is interesting and has some reinforcing quality inherent to it, then attention to the reward will reduce work productivity since it becomes a distraction to the work rather than a motivation to finish it.

1013:(OCD) is a more jarring case of this anxiety-related struggle to delay gratification; someone with OCD is unable to resist compulsions that temporarily mitigate the torture of obsessive thoughts, even though these compulsions do not banish the obsessions in the long run. One experiment, however, did not find any significant differences between samples with OCD and healthy controls in delayed gratification, while finding substantially improved delayed gratification among those with 1062:

Funder. These tendencies are thought to be relatively stable in each individual, such that someone who tends toward undercontrol will "grab whatever rewards are immediately available even at the cost of long-term gain" and someone who tends toward overcontrol will "delay or even forgo pleasures even when they can be had without cost". By this view, delay of gratification may be adaptive in certain settings, but inappropriate or even costly in other settings.

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gratification is seen as a skill that arises only when it is adaptive. To tease apart these models, Funder and Block explored the association between ego control, ego resiliency, IQ and delayed gratification in adolescents. The adolescents had the choice between being paid $ 4 at each of six study sessions or delaying their payment until the last session, in which case they would also earn an additional $ 4 of "interest".

1017:. Depression is also associated with lower capacity to delay gratification, though the direction of cause and effect is not clear. A depressed person who has difficulty pushing themself to engage in previously enjoyed activities is (deliberately or not) prioritizing short-term comfort and is demonstrating an impaired ability to delay gratification. There is evidence that individuals who engage in deliberate 1070:

rebellious), but was also independently associated with ego control (e.g., higher delayers were rated as "tends toward over-control of needs and impulses" and "favors conservative values in a number of areas"). The researchers noted that individual differences in ego control (i.e., overall impulsivity) may play a larger role in delayed gratification when the incentives are larger and more motivating.

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often involves teaching individuals to realize the downsides of acting on immediate urges and in turn to practice delaying gratification. In anxiety disorders, this process occurs through exposure to a feared situation – which is very uncomfortable at first, but eventually becomes tolerable and even trains a person's mind and body that these situations are less threatening than originally feared.

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ultimate payoff was the same, but the monkeys preferred the riskier choice. They speculated that the monkeys did not see their action as risky, but rather as a large, delayed reward. They reasoned that the monkeys viewed the large reward as certain: if they did not get the large reward the first time around, they would eventually get it, but at a longer delay.

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long-term outcomes. For maladaptive coping behaviors such as self-injury, substance use or avoidance, there are generally no long-term pros. Meanwhile, abstinence from acting on a harmful urge (i.e., delayed gratification) generally results in long-term benefits. This realization can be a powerful impetus for change.

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Researchers have investigated whether the reliability of the reward affects one's ability to delay gratification. Reliability of the reward refers to how well the reward received matches what the person was expecting or promised in terms of quality and quantity. For example, researchers told children

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A growing body of research suggests that self-control is akin to a muscle that can be strengthened through practice. In other words, self-control abilities are malleable, a fact that can be a source of hope for those who struggle with this skill. In psychotherapy, treatment for impulse-control issues

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Children under five years old display the least effective strategies for delaying gratification, such as looking at the reward and thinking about its arousing features. By 5 years old, most children are able to demonstrate better self-control by recognizing the counter-productivity of focusing on the

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for rewards is an example of delayed gratification, by way of cool processing. Instead of having the girls focus on attention-seeking behaviors that distracted the teacher and the students, the teacher had them focus on how many questions they had, and if they needed to ask for help from the teacher.

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with social and interpersonal frustrations are similar to those utilized for coping with the aggravation of goal-directed delay of gratification. Maternal attachment also influences the development of a child's ability to delay gratification. An interaction has been found between a mother's level of

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Factors affecting one's ability to delay gratification depend on whether the delay contingency is self-imposed (delay can be terminated at the will of the person waiting) or externally imposed by another person, institution or circumstance. When the contingency is self-imposed, the physical presence

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is only effective if an individual can delay gratification and resist the urge to escape the situation early on. To shed insight on the tradeoff between short- and long-term gains, therapists might also help individuals construct a pro-con list of a certain behavior, with sections for short-term and

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In a 2011 study, researchers tested to see if people would willingly choose between instant and delayed gratification by offering them a set amount of (hypothetical) money that they could receive presently, or telling them they could wait a month for more money. Results suggested that willingness to

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Behavioral researchers have found that a choice for instant versus delayed gratification is influenced by several factors including whether the reward is negative or positive reinforcement. A past study by Solnick et al., focused on an experiment where the main concentrations were time added to both

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The physiological similarities between humans and other animals, especially primates, have led to more comparative research between the two groups. Future research with animal models then can expand our own understanding of how people make decisions about instant versus delayed gratification in the

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and willpower, all of which are involved in self-regulation. Broadly, self-regulation encompasses a person's capacity to adapt the self as necessary to meet demands of the environment. Delaying gratification is the reverse of delay discounting, which is "the preference for smaller immediate rewards

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In a study conducted by Haden and Platt, macaque monkeys were given the choice of a medium reward that they knew they would receive, versus a more risky choice. The riskier choice would reward the monkey with a large reward fifty percent of the time, and a small reward the other fifty percent. The

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It is likely that there is a strong genetic component to deferred gratification, though no direct link has been established. Since many complex genetic interactions are necessary for neurons to perform the simplest tasks, it is hard to isolate one gene to study this behavior. For this same reason,

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associated with time spent waiting. While waiting, individuals lose time that could be used to find other food. Seeking high calorie food conveys a clear evolutionary advantage. There are also two risks associated with being patient. First, there is a risk that another animal might get to the food

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Children who have controlling mothers and explore their environment at a far distance from her are able to employ more cooling strategies and prefer rewards that come later. Similarly, children who stay close to a non-controlling mothers also use more cool strategies and demonstrate longer delays.

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theorized that a person's tendency to delay, or not delay, gratification is just one element of a broader construct called ego control, defined as a person's ability to modulate or control impulses. Ego control "ranges from ego undercontrol at one end to ego overcontrol at the other", according to

985:(in other words, ADHD was not associated with delayed gratification above and beyond the influence of IQ). This may stem from the high correlation between intelligence and delayed gratification, and suggests that the tie between delayed gratification and ADHD could benefit from more investigation. 956:

Self-control has been called the "master virtue" by clinical and social psychologists, suggesting that the ability to delay gratification plays a critical role in a person's overall psychological adjustment. People with better ability to delay gratification report higher wellbeing, self-esteem and

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At birth, infants are unable to wait for their wants and needs to be met and exhibit a defining lack of impulse control. With age, developing children are able to retain impulsivity but also gain control over their immediate desires and are increasingly able to prolong gratification. Developmental

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In a Year 3 elementary classroom in South Wales a teacher was having difficulty keeping three girls on task during designated private study times. The teacher reached for aid from behavior analysts, and a delayed gratification behavior modification plan was put into place. The study gave limits on

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delay gratification depended on the amount of money being offered, but also showed wide individual variation in the threshold of later reward that was motivating enough to forgo the immediate reward. The subjective value of a reward can also stem from the way one describes the potential reward. As

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or high levels of impulsivity, aggressiveness and hyperactivity. As adults, the high delayers were less likely to have drug problems or other addictive behaviors, get divorced, or be overweight. Each minute, that a preschooler was able to delay gratification translated on average to a reduction of

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To test for this theory, they gave the same test while varying the time between the opportunities to choose a reward. They found that as the interval increased, the number of times that the monkeys chose the more risky reward decreased. While this occurred in macaque monkeys, the varying interval

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Engaging in work or an assigned task can generate an effective distraction from a reward and enable a person to wait for a longer delay, as long as the reward is not being flaunted. Having the reward present during work (and easily accessible) creates a negative frustration—akin to teasing—rather

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Funder and Block draw a distinction between the ego-control model, in which delayed gratification is seen as a general tendency to contain motivational impulses (whether or not it is adaptive in a specific instance), and the ego-resiliency model (supported by Mischel's research), in which delayed

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Throughout 33 studies on gender differences, a small significant effect (r = .06) has been found indicating that a base-rate of 10% more females are able to choose delayed rewards than males, which is the typical percentage of difference found between the sexes on measures such as personality or

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The way that a person frames a situation heavily influences a decision's outcome. Research on "hot" and "cool" strategies suggests that when children cognitively represent what they are waiting for as a real reward by focusing on the reward's arousing, "hot" qualities (taste, smell, sound, feel,

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Writing in 1998, Funder described delayed gratification as a "mixed bag". He concluded: "Participants who exhibited the most delay were not just 'better' at self-control, but in a sense they seemed unable to avoid it. ... Delayers are in general smart and well-adjusted, but they also tend to be

657:, is the ability to resist the temptation of an immediate reward in favor of a more valuable and long-lasting reward later. It involves forgoing a smaller, immediate pleasure to achieve a larger or more enduring benefit in the future. A growing body of literature has linked the ability to delay 1199:

Although predicting reward preference seems simple when using empirical models, there are a number of ecological factors that seem to affect the delayed gratification behavior of animals. In real world situations, "discounting makes sense because of the inherent uncertainty of future payoffs".

1005:. A hallmark behavior in anxiety is avoidance of feared or anxiety-provoking situations. By seeking the immediate relief that comes with avoidance, a person is succumbing to the pull of instant gratification over the larger reward from overcoming the fear and anxiety that caused the avoidance. 862:

Behavior theorists see delaying gratification as an adaptive skill. It has been shown that learning to delay gratification promotes positive social behavior, such as sharing and positive peer interactions. For example, students who learn to delay gratification are better able to complete their

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Shamosh, Noah A.; Deyoung, Colin G.; Green, Adam E.; Reis, Deidre L.; Johnson, Matthew R.; Conway, Andrew R.A.; Engle, Randall W.; Braver, Todd S.; Gray, Jeremy R. (2008). "Individual Differences in Delay Discounting: Relation to Intelligence, Working Memory, and Anterior Prefrontal Cortex".

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The results supported both models of delayed gratification. The teens' tendency to delay gratification was indeed associated with IQ and with ego resiliency (e.g., higher delayers were rated as more responsible, consistent, likable, sympathetic, generous; less hostile, moody, self-indulgent,

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generally demonstrate greater impulsivity by being influenced by reward immediacy and quality more than by the frequency of reward and effort to obtain it. However, researchers have empirically shown that these impulsive behavior patterns can be changed through the implementation of a simple

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The more positive emotions and behavior that a 12- to 24-month-old toddler displays when coping with separation from a parent, the better they are 3.5 years later at using cooling strategies in order to defer gratification. This suggests that the emotional skills and processes required for

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The duration of time until an eventual reward also affects participants' choice of immediate or delayed gratification. A 2001 study demonstrated that if a reward will not be granted for an extensive amount of time, such as 180–300 months (15–25 years), the monetary amount of the reward is

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of the reward is hyperbolic. As the length of time of waiting for a reward increases, the reward is discounted at a gradual rate. Empirical data have suggested that exponential discounting, rewards discounting at a constant rate per unit of waiting time, only occurs when there are random

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They also focused on gaining tokens rather than focusing on the final reward, which increased their delays. By giving the children this goal and the promise of positive reinforcement for good behavior, the girls dropped their rate of question-asking and attention-seeking.

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inconsequential; instead, the bulk of the participants choose the immediate reward, even if their delayed reward would be quite large. Delayed gratification has its limits, and a delay can only be so long before it is judged to be not worth the effort it takes to wait.

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Sethi, Anita; Mischel, Walter; Aber, J. Lawrence; Shoda, Yuichi; Rodriguez, Monica Larrea (2000). "The role of strategic attention deployment in development of self-regulation: Predicting preschoolers' delay of gratification from mother-toddler interactions".

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theory, a person with difficulty delaying gratification is plagued by intrapsychic conflict – the ego cannot adequately regulate the battle between the id and the superego – and experiences psychological distress, often in the form of anxiety or "neurosis".

718:, the founder of psychoanalytic theory, discussed the ego's role in balancing the immediate pleasure-driven desires of the id with the morality-driven choices of the superego. Funder and Block expanded psychoanalytic research on the topic, and found that 1157:

Delayed gratification or deferred gratification is an animal behavior that can be linked to delay discounting, ecological factors, individual fitness, and neurobiological mechanisms. Research for this behavior has been conducted with animals such as

1021:(e.g. cut themselves) are less able to tolerate emotional distress but are more able to tolerate physical pain. Thus it is argued that they injure themselves because they cannot delay gratification and need a way to end emotional pain quickly. 3814: 858:

regimen to succeed, the reward must have some value to the participant. Without a reward that is meaningful, providing delayed or immediate gratification serves little purpose, as the reward is not a strong reinforcer of the desired behavior.

1829:; Aber, J. Lawrence; Mischel, Walter; Sethi, Anita; Shoda, Yuichi (2005). "A Contextual Approach to the Development of Self-regulatory Competencies: The Role of Maternal Unresponsivity and Toddlers' Negative Affect in Stressful Situations". 1088:

of the reward seems to aid in delaying gratification. On the other hand, when the delay is externally imposed, children are not able to wait as long when the reward is present, suggesting greater frustration under these circumstances.

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scores, social competence, self-assuredness and self-worth, and were rated by their parents as more mature, better able to cope with stress, more likely to plan ahead, and more likely to use reason. They were less likely to have

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over larger but delayed rewards" and refers to the "fact that the subjective value of reward decreases with increasing delay to its receipt". It is theorized that the ability to choose delayed rewards is under the control of the

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Krueger, Robert F.; Caspi, Avshalom; Moffitt, Terrie E.; White, Jennifer; Stouthamer-Loeber, Magda (1996). "Delay of Gratification, Psychopathology, and Personality: Is Low Self-Control Specific to Externaiizing Problems?".

1901: 794:(fMRI) as they completed the task. The researchers hypothesized that high delayers would be more likely to use "cool" regulation strategies to control their responses, which would manifest as activation of the right 930:

psychologists study the progression of impulse control and delay of gratification over the lifespan, including deficiencies in development that are closely related to attention deficits and behavior problems.

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One study looked at how reward discounting is context specific. By differing the time and space between small and large rewards, they were able to test how these factors affected the decision making in

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viewed the struggle to delay gratification as a person's efforts to overcome the instinctive, libidinal drive of the id. According to classic psychoanalytic theory, a person's psyche is composed of the

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Evolutionary theory can argue against the selection of the deferred gratification trait since there are both costs and risks associated with delaying gratification behavior. One such cost is the basic

802:, an area also linked to addiction. Indeed, results showed this differential brain activity. This mirrors other fMRI research of delayed gratification conducted by Noah Shamosh and Jeremy Gray, of 779:

Each of these positive outcomes requires some ability to forgo short-term reward in favor of a higher payoff in the future. The ability to delay gratification also appears to be a buffer against

806:, demonstrating that individuals who chose larger delayed rewards over smaller immediate rewards (in hypothetical situations) showed greater brain activation in the anterior prefrontal cortex. 880:

states, people are heavily loss-averse. People tend to value a commodity more when it is considered to be something that can be lost or given up than when it is evaluated as a potential gain.

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capitalize on the effective principles of reinforcement when shaping behavior by making rewards contingent on the person's current behavior, which promotes learning a delay of gratification.

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interruptions in foraging. Discounting can also be related to the risk sensitivity of animals. Rather than relating risk to delay, risk sensitivity acts as a function of delay discounting.

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Fair, Damien A.; Dosenbach, Nico U. F.; Church, Jessica A.; Cohen, Alexander L.; Brahmbhatt, Shefali; Miezin, Francis M.; Barch, Deanna M.; Raichle, Marcus E.; et al. (2007).

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Neef, Nancy A; Marckel, Julie; Ferreri, Summer J; Bicard, David F; Endo, Sayaka; Aman, Michael G; Miller, Kelly M; Jung, Sunhwa; et al. (2005). Lerman, Dorothea (ed.).

2930:; Dadlani, Mamta B.; Davidson, Matthew C.; Aber, J. Lawrence; Casey, B. J. (2006). "Predicting Cognitive Control from Preschool to Late Adolescence and Young Adulthood". 786:

Forty years after the first marshmallow test studies, neuroimaging data has shed light on the neural correlates of delayed gratification. A team led by B. J. Casey, of

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The children who waited longer, when re-evaluated as teenagers and adults, demonstrated a striking array of advantages over their peers. As teenagers, they had higher

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Solnick, Jay V.; Kannenberg, Catherine H.; Eckerman, David A.; Waller, Marcus B. (1980). "An experimental analysis of impulsivity and impulse control in humans".

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that is the reward center as well as a pleasure center. The limbic system will always react to the potential for instant pleasure. To override this instinct, the

1045:, serves to moderate the id's desire for instant gratification against the superego, which is guided by a person's internalized sense of morality. According to 863:

assigned activities. To put it simply, if someone undertakes an activity with the promise of a delayed reward after, the task's completion becomes more likely.

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Carducci, Bernardo J. (2009). "Basic Processes of Mischel's Cognitive-Affective Perspective: Delay of Gratification and Conditions of Behavioral Consistency".

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Duckworth, Angela Lee; Seligman, Martin E. P. (2006). "Self-discipline gives girls the edge: Gender in self-discipline, grades, and achievement test scores".

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multiple genes are likely responsible for deferred gratification. Further research is necessary to discover the genetic corollaries to delayed gratification.

3391:"An experimental investigation of emotional willingness and physical pain tolerance in deliberate self-harm: The moderating role of interpersonal distress" 3960: 3776: 3736: 3721: 1746:

Peake, Philip K.; Hebl, Michelle; Mischel, Walter (2002). "Strategic attention deployment for delay of gratification in working and waiting situations".

1009:, which is often a reflection of anxiety, is a clear example: a person avoids a dreaded task by engaging in a more enjoyable immediate activity instead. 847:

Behaviorists focus on the acquisition and teaching of delayed gratification, and have developed therapeutic techniques for increasing ability to delay.

977:(i.e., acting-out disorders) show a clearer link to delayed gratification, since they more directly involve deficits in impulse control. For example, 4003: 3683: 3726: 1014: 637: 3460:

van den Bos, Ruud; de Ridder, Denise (2006). "Evolved to satisfy our immediate needs: Self-control and the rewarding properties of food".

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Funder, David C.; Block, Jack (1989). "The role of ego-control, ego-resiliency, and IQ in delay of gratification in adolescence".

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Delaying gratification is the same as controlling the impulse for immediate gratification, which requires cognitive control. The

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Baumeister, Roy F.; Juola Exline, Julie (1999). "Virtue, Personality, and Social Relations: Self-Control as the Moral Muscle".

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the numbers of questions the children could ask, and if they did not exceed the limit, they were given tokens for rewards. The

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Campbell, Susan B.; Stauffenberg, Camilla (2008). "Delay and Inhibition as Early Predictors of ADHD Symptoms in Third Grade".

3212: 2524: 2375: 2094: 1609: 1577: 1369: 1288: 1259: 791: 2828:"Behavioral Assessment of Impulsivity: A Comparison of Children with and Without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder" 4039: 3965: 2776:"Assessment of impulsivity and the development of self-control in students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder" 1053:

Other psychoanalytic researchers describe a more nuanced, and less universally positive, view of delayed gratification.

3389:

Gratz, Kim L.; Hepworth, Claire; Tull, Matthew T.; Paulson, Autumn; Clarke, Sue; Remington, Bob; Lejuez, C.W. (2011).

2123:; Berman, Marc G.; Casey, B. J.; Gotlib, Ian H.; Jonides, John; Kross, Ethan; Teslovich, Theresa; et al. (2010). 1716:

Miller, Dale T.; Karniol, Rachel (1976). "The role of rewards in externally and self-imposed delay of gratification".

1277:"Self-Regulatory Strength and Psychological Adjustment: Implications of the Limited Resource Model of Self-Regulation" 4029: 3315:"Capacity to Delay Reward Differentiates Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder" 1010: 2315: 630: 554: 31: 3985: 1038: 1858:"Delay of Gratification in Two- and Three-Year-Olds: Associations with Attachment, Personality, and Temperament" 549: 377: 17: 2877:"Your wish is my command! The influence of symbolic modelling on preschool children's delay of gratification" 579: 146: 3955: 1392:"Can Adolescents Learn Self-control? Delay of Gratification in the Development of Control over Risk Taking" 589: 502: 4024: 3980: 623: 2547:"Designing interventions that include delayed reinforcement: Implications of recent laboratory research" 3264:

Wilson, Vanessa B.; Mitchell, Suzanne H.; Musser, Erica D.; Schmitt, Colleen F.; Nigg, Joel T. (2011).

93: 1178:

When animals are faced with a choice to either wait for a reward, or receive a reward right away, the

2028: 1116: 848: 544: 535: 457: 277: 158: 2986:"Age differences in temporal discounting: The role of dispositional affect and anticipated emotions" 2420: 3975: 2675:"Using Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates to Reduce Children's Requests for Teacher Attention" 168: 136: 3675: 2379: 3786: 974: 569: 467: 238: 203: 188: 183: 173: 122: 82: 2415: 1179: 994: 748: 584: 517: 407: 317: 272: 248: 223: 153: 141: 107: 2406:

Kahneman, Daniel (2003). "A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality".

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Silverman, Irwin W. (2003). "Gender Differences in Delay of Gratification: A Meta-Analysis".

2724:"A procedure to teach self-control to children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder" 1639: 1597: 1276: 855: 780: 564: 559: 477: 342: 307: 282: 178: 77: 72: 38: 3390: 2981: 3644: 3595: 2275: 2058: 1947: 1457: 1034: 666: 462: 387: 297: 132: 117: 1514:

Kim, BaekSun; Im, Heh-In (2018). "The role of the dorsal striatum in choice impulsivity".

8: 4034: 3521: 1107: 756: 392: 382: 367: 332: 327: 312: 292: 287: 163: 102: 3648: 3599: 2279: 1951: 1461: 3970: 3846: 3559: 3522:"When is it adaptive to be patient? A general framework for evaluating delayed rewards" 3495: 3339: 3314: 3290: 3265: 3242: 3138: 3095: 3057: 2963: 2947: 2903: 2876: 2852: 2827: 2800: 2775: 2748: 2723: 2699: 2674: 2650: 2625: 2571: 2546: 2485: 2460: 2441: 2364: 2298: 2263: 2230: 2205: 2149: 2124: 1968: 1877: 1539: 1488: 1475: 1445: 1416: 1391: 1330: 1305: 787: 693: 487: 432: 427: 362: 302: 263: 193: 3375: 2626:"Temporal discounting: Basic research and the analysis of socially important behavior" 3862: 3662: 3613: 3551: 3487: 3410: 3344: 3295: 3281: 3246: 3208: 3176: 3130: 3099: 3008: 2955: 2943: 2908: 2857: 2805: 2753: 2704: 2655: 2607: 2576: 2520: 2490: 2433: 2356: 2352: 2303: 2235: 2154: 2090: 2083: 2036: 1973: 1935: 1934:

Stevens, Jeffrey R.; Rosati, Alexandra G.; Ross, Kathryn R.; Hauser, Marc D. (2005).

1881: 1842: 1804: 1763: 1691: 1605: 1573: 1531: 1493: 1421: 1365: 1335: 1284: 1255: 1042: 1002: 836: 795: 768: 709: 670: 611: 412: 337: 243: 228: 112: 3563: 3499: 3406: 3061: 3016: 2445: 2368: 1543: 3868: 3652: 3603: 3541: 3533: 3477: 3469: 3437: 3402: 3371: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3285: 3277: 3238: 3168: 3142: 3122: 3087: 3049: 3000: 2967: 2939: 2898: 2888: 2847: 2839: 2795: 2787: 2743: 2735: 2694: 2686: 2645: 2637: 2603: 2566: 2558: 2480: 2472: 2425: 2348: 2293: 2283: 2225: 2217: 2144: 2136: 1963: 1955: 1869: 1838: 1796: 1755: 1725: 1683: 1523: 1483: 1465: 1411: 1403: 1325: 1317: 1141: 1111:

control and how close a child stays to the mother while exploring the environment.

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Anokhin, Andrey P.; Golosheykin, Simon; Grant, Julia D.; Heath, Andrew C. (2010).

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A person's ability to delay gratification relates to other similar skills such as

3874: 3840: 3741: 3537: 1225: 1159: 1054: 1006: 877: 803: 773: 697: 213: 3473: 2221: 1687: 1041:: it wants physical pleasure, and it wants it now. The ego, operating under the 3441: 3053: 2429: 2384: 1800: 1759: 1729: 1046: 752: 3657: 3632: 3608: 3583: 3126: 3091: 2206:"Preschoolers' Delay of Gratification Predicts their Body Mass 30 Years Later" 1959: 1873: 1446:"Development of distinct control networks through segregation and integration" 1407: 1321: 4018: 3761: 2843: 2791: 2739: 2690: 2641: 2562: 1306:"Heritability of Delay Discounting in Adolescence: A Longitudinal Twin Study" 1029: 904: 832: 715: 658: 522: 482: 402: 397: 37:"Instant gratification" redirects here. For the Dance Gavin Dance album, see 3172: 2288: 1857: 1470: 1390:

Romer, Daniel; Duckworth, Angela L.; Sznitman, Sharon; Park, Sunhee (2010).

798:, whereas low delayers would use "hot" strategies, which would activate the 3666: 3617: 3555: 3491: 3428:

Funder, David C. (1998). "On the Pros and Cons of Delay of Gratification".

3414: 3348: 3299: 3180: 3134: 3012: 2959: 2912: 2861: 2809: 2757: 2708: 2659: 2580: 2494: 2461:"Short-Term Temporal Discounting of Reward Value in Human Ventral Striatum" 2437: 2360: 2307: 2264:"Behavioral and neural correlates of delay of gratification 40 years later" 2239: 2158: 2040: 1993:"Lead Us Not Into Temptation: The Neuroscience Behind the Marshmallow Test" 1977: 1808: 1767: 1535: 1497: 1425: 1339: 1120: 681: 507: 198: 3250: 2476: 2140: 1695: 3889: 3852: 3771: 3766: 2927: 2259: 2201: 2120: 1826: 719: 422: 127: 2951: 1598:"Delay of Gratification: A Review of Fifty Years of Regulation Research" 1479: 3895: 3546: 1527: 1058: 322: 218: 54: 30:

This article is about the psychology concept. For the UK magazine, see

3935:

List of investigational attention deficit hyperactivity disorder drugs

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Several factors can affect a person's ability to delay gratification.

3915: 3905: 3756: 3004: 2374: 2200:

Schlam, Tanya R.; Wilson, Nicole L.; Shoda, Yuichi; Mischel, Walter;

1252:

The Psychology of Personality: Viewpoints, Research, and Applications

1209: 1018: 472: 3266:"Delay discounting of reward in ADHD: Application in young children" 1936:"Will Travel for Food: Spatial Discounting in Two New World Monkeys" 62: 3856: 3781: 3705: 2926:

Eigsti, Inge-Marie; Zayas, Vivian; Mischel, Walter; Shoda, Yuichi;

2085:

Skills Training Manual for Treating Borderline Personality Disorder

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Fawcett, Tim W.; McNamara, John M.; Houston, Alasdair I. (2012).

1856:

Mittal, R.; Russell, B. S.; Britner, P. A.; Peake, P. K. (2012).

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The seminal research on delayed gratification – the now-famous "

2980: 2593: 27:

Resistance of an immediate reward in return for a later reward

2458: 2125:"'Willpower' over the life span: Decomposing self-regulation" 3362:

Rehm, Lynn P. (1977). "A self-control model of depression".

2517:

Fundamental Neurosicence for Basic and Clinical Applications

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Mischel, Walter; Shoda, Yichi; Rodriguez, Monica L. (1992).

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Gregorios-Pippas, L.; Tobler, P. N.; Schultz, W. (2009).

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One well-supported theory of self-regulation, called the

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Social Psychological Foundations of Clinical Psychology

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Social Psychological Foundations of Clinical Psychology

993:

Difficulty delaying gratification also plays a role in

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somewhat overcontrolled and unnecessarily inhibited."

3809:

ADHD Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Presentation

3633:"Decision Making: The Virtue of Patience in Primates" 1785: 1563: 1024: 897: 3459: 3112: 2614: 1356:

Kross, Ethan; Mischel, Walter; Shoda, Yichi (2011).

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Deficits in attention, motor control and perception

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(March 26, 2012). 1902:"A new take on the marshmallow test" 1888: 1629: 1586: 1566:"Delay of Gratification in Children" 1378: 1173: 1082: 937: 3966:Developmental coordination disorder 1862:Journal of Child and Family Studies 1432: 1364:. Guilford Press. pp. 375–94. 946: 24: 3243:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00816.x 1504: 1283:. 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(2006). 2027:Lehrer, Jonah (May 18, 2009). 13: 1: 3376:10.1016/S0005-7894(77)80150-0 2320:ArtsBeat: New York Times Blog 2057:Brooks, David (May 7, 2006). 1232: 1011:Obsessive–compulsive disorder 725: 348:Industrial and organizational 3956:Auditory processing disorder 3538:10.1016/j.beproc.2011.08.015 2608:10.1016/0023-9690(80)90021-1 1127:Reliability of gratification 503:Human factors and ergonomics 7: 3981:Sensory processing disorder 3582:Kalenscher, Tobias (2007). 3474:10.1016/j.appet.2006.02.008 2875:Kumst, S; Scarf, D (2015). 2222:10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.06.049 2181:. The Daily Beast. Newsweek 1688:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1041 1600:. In Hoyle, Rick H. (ed.). 1219: 10: 4056: 4040:Psychoanalytic terminology 3944:Related or outdated topics 3859:, Adzenys XR, Dyanavel XR) 3815:ADHD Combined Presentation 3442:10.1207/s15327965pli0903_3 3054:10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.198 2465:Journal of Neurophysiology 2430:10.1037/0003-066X.58.9.697 1801:10.1037/0012-1649.36.6.767 1760:10.1037/0012-1649.38.2.313 1730:10.1037/0022-3514.33.5.594 1123:and emotional competency. 1037:. The id is driven by the 755:in the 1960s and 1970s at 36: 29: 3994: 3943: 3824: 3795: 3714: 3658:10.1016/j.cub.2005.10.024 3609:10.1016/j.cub.2006.12.016 3127:10.1007/s10802-008-9270-4 2210:The Journal of Pediatrics 1960:10.1016/j.cub.2005.09.016 1874:10.1007/s10826-012-9600-6 1408:10.1007/s11121-010-0171-8 1322:10.1007/s10519-010-9384-7 1101:Mother–child relationship 278:Applied behavior analysis 4030:Psychological adjustment 3976:Sluggish cognitive tempo 3395:Comprehensive Psychiatry 2844:10.1901/jaba.2005.146-02 2792:10.1901/jaba.2001.34-397 2740:10.1901/jaba.2000.33-233 2691:10.1901/jaba.2011.44-451 2642:10.1901/jaba.2001.34-101 2563:10.1901/jaba.2000.33-359 2089:. Taylor & Francis. 2081:Linehan, Marsha (1993). 1789:Developmental Psychology 1748:Developmental Psychology 3787:Emotional dysregulation 3313:Pinto, Anthony (2014). 3173:10.1111/1467-6494.00086 3092:10.1023/A:1025872421115 2596:Learning and Motivation 2373:For a lay summary, see 2312:For a lay summary, see 2289:10.1073/pnas.1108561108 1471:10.1073/pnas.0705843104 1358:"Enabling Self-Control" 995:internalizing disorders 989:Internalizing disorders 975:Externalizing disorders 970:Externalizing disorders 468:Behavioral neuroscience 123:Behavioral neuroscience 3754:Major characteristics: 3231:Journal of Personality 3161:Journal of Personality 2982:Löckenhoff, Corinna E. 1825:Rodriguez, Monica L.; 1632:"Temporal discounting" 1136:Genetics and evolution 884:Duration of time delay 815:Neurocognitive factors 749:marshmallow experiment 655:deferred gratification 518:Psychology of religion 458:Behavioral engineering 142:Cognitive neuroscience 108:Affective neuroscience 3951:Delayed gratification 3849:(Focalin, Focalin XR) 3526:Behavioural Processes 3430:Psychological Inquiry 2932:Psychological Science 2477:10.1152/jn.90730.2008 2408:American Psychologist 2378:(September 9, 2008). 2341:Psychological Science 1170:, rats, and pigeons. 856:behavior modification 831:, is the part of the 781:rejection sensitivity 751:" – was conducted by 651:Delayed gratification 612:Psychology portal 39:Instant Gratification 3747:Epidemiology of ADHD 2993:Psychology and Aging 1035:id, ego and superego 912:Applications to ADHD 694:Cognitive strategies 667:psychological health 3649:2005CBio...15.R874L 3600:2007CBio...17R..58K 2280:2011PNAS..10814998C 2141:10.1093/scan/nsq081 1952:2005CBio...15.1855S 1906:The Washington Post 1462:2007PNAS..10413507F 925:Across the lifespan 893:Behavioral training 757:Stanford University 680:, impulse control, 665:, physical health, 463:Behavioral genetics 378:Occupational health 118:Behavioral genetics 49:Part of a series on 4025:Consumer behaviour 3971:Low arousal theory 3847:Dexmethylphenidate 3732:ADHD controversies 2274:(36): 14998–5003. 2063:The New York Times 2035:. pp. 26–32. 1831:Social Development 1528:10.1111/nyas.13961 1396:Prevention Science 1195:Ecological factors 1039:pleasure principle 843:Behavioral factors 788:Cornell University 772:0.2 points of the 580:Schools of thought 418:Sport and exercise 264:Applied psychology 4012: 4011: 3863:Dextroamphetamine 3777:Dopamine Dressing 3214:978-1-111-34365-1 2894:10.7717/peerj.774 2526:978-0-443-06751-8 2119:Mischel, Walter; 2096:978-0-89862-034-4 1912:on March 10, 2016 1611:978-1-4443-1812-8 1579:978-0-87154-558-9 1371:978-1-60623-689-5 1310:Behavior Genetics 1290:978-1-60623-689-5 1261:978-1-4051-3635-8 1174:Delay discounting 1083:Who is in control 1043:reality principle 938:Effects of gender 849:Behavior analysts 837:prefrontal cortex 827:, located in the 796:prefrontal cortex 769:conduct disorders 671:social competence 648: 647: 545:Counseling topics 488:Consumer behavior 229:Psycholinguistics 113:Affective science 16:(Redirected from 4047: 4002: 4001: 3928:Investigational: 3869:Lisdexamfetamine 3700: 3693: 3686: 3677: 3676: 3671: 3670: 3660: 3628: 3622: 3621: 3611: 3579: 3568: 3567: 3549: 3517: 3504: 3503: 3485: 3457: 3446: 3445: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3386: 3380: 3379: 3364:Behavior Therapy 3359: 3353: 3352: 3342: 3310: 3304: 3303: 3293: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3225: 3219: 3218: 3200: 3185: 3184: 3156: 3147: 3146: 3110: 3104: 3103: 3086:(9/10): 451–63. 3075: 3066: 3065: 3037: 3031: 3030: 3028: 3027: 3021: 3015:. Archived from 3005:10.1037/a0023280 2990: 2978: 2972: 2971: 2923: 2917: 2916: 2906: 2896: 2872: 2866: 2865: 2855: 2823: 2814: 2813: 2803: 2771: 2762: 2761: 2751: 2719: 2713: 2712: 2702: 2670: 2664: 2663: 2653: 2621: 2612: 2611: 2591: 2585: 2584: 2574: 2542: 2531: 2530: 2512: 2499: 2498: 2488: 2456: 2450: 2449: 2423: 2403: 2390: 2389: 2372: 2335: 2324: 2323: 2311: 2301: 2291: 2255: 2244: 2243: 2233: 2197: 2191: 2190: 2188: 2186: 2174: 2163: 2162: 2152: 2116: 2101: 2100: 2088: 2078: 2067: 2066: 2054: 2045: 2044: 2024: 2005: 2004: 2003:on 30 June 2013. 1999:. Archived from 1997:Psychology Today 1988: 1982: 1981: 1971: 1931: 1922: 1921: 1919: 1917: 1908:. Archived from 1897: 1886: 1885: 1853: 1847: 1846: 1822: 1813: 1812: 1783: 1772: 1771: 1743: 1734: 1733: 1713: 1700: 1699: 1671: 1652: 1651: 1649: 1647: 1642:on June 22, 2013 1638:. Archived from 1627: 1616: 1615: 1593: 1584: 1583: 1570:Choice Over Time 1561: 1548: 1547: 1511: 1502: 1501: 1491: 1473: 1456:(33): 13507–12. 1441: 1430: 1429: 1419: 1387: 1376: 1375: 1353: 1344: 1343: 1333: 1301: 1295: 1294: 1272: 1266: 1265: 1247: 1160:capuchin monkeys 1142:opportunity cost 963:Exposure therapy 947:Clinical factors 825:ventral striatum 800:ventral striatum 776:30 years later. 663:academic success 640: 633: 626: 610: 609: 608: 575:Research methods 234:Psychophysiology 94:Basic psychology 65: 46: 45: 21: 4055: 4054: 4050: 4049: 4048: 4046: 4045: 4044: 4015: 4014: 4013: 4008: 3990: 3939: 3875:Methamphetamine 3841:Methylphenidate 3820: 3791: 3737:ADHD management 3722:History of ADHD 3710: 3704: 3674: 3637:Current Biology 3629: 3625: 3588:Current Biology 3580: 3571: 3518: 3507: 3458: 3449: 3426: 3422: 3387: 3383: 3360: 3356: 3319:Biol Psychiatry 3311: 3307: 3262: 3258: 3226: 3222: 3215: 3201: 3188: 3157: 3150: 3111: 3107: 3076: 3069: 3038: 3034: 3025: 3023: 3019: 2988: 2979: 2975: 2924: 2920: 2873: 2869: 2824: 2817: 2772: 2765: 2720: 2716: 2671: 2667: 2622: 2615: 2592: 2588: 2543: 2534: 2527: 2513: 2502: 2457: 2453: 2421:10.1.1.186.3636 2404: 2393: 2336: 2327: 2256: 2247: 2198: 2194: 2184: 2182: 2175: 2166: 2117: 2104: 2097: 2079: 2070: 2055: 2048: 2025: 2008: 1989: 1985: 1946:(20): 1855–60. 1940:Current Biology 1932: 1925: 1915: 1913: 1898: 1889: 1854: 1850: 1823: 1816: 1784: 1775: 1744: 1737: 1714: 1703: 1672: 1655: 1645: 1643: 1628: 1619: 1612: 1594: 1587: 1580: 1562: 1551: 1512: 1505: 1442: 1433: 1388: 1379: 1372: 1354: 1347: 1302: 1298: 1291: 1273: 1269: 1262: 1248: 1239: 1235: 1226:Time preference 1222: 1197: 1176: 1155: 1138: 1129: 1117:self-regulation 1103: 1094: 1092:Task engagement 1085: 1080: 1055:David C. Funder 1027: 1007:Procrastination 991: 972: 954: 949: 940: 927: 914: 900: 895: 886: 878:prospect theory 873: 845: 817: 812: 804:Yale University 774:Body Mass Index 745: 733: 728: 698:procrastination 644: 606: 604: 597: 596: 595: 594: 570:Psychotherapies 538: 528: 527: 448: 440: 439: 438: 437: 266: 256: 255: 254: 253: 214:Neuropsychology 96: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4053: 4043: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4010: 4009: 4007: 4006: 3995: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3947: 3945: 3941: 3940: 3938: 3937: 3931: 3930: 3924: 3923: 3913: 3903: 3893: 3886: 3885: 3883:Non-stimulant: 3879: 3878: 3872: 3866: 3860: 3850: 3844: 3837: 3836: 3830: 3828: 3822: 3821: 3819: 3818: 3812: 3806: 3799: 3797: 3793: 3792: 3790: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3750: 3749: 3744: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3727:ADHD in adults 3724: 3718: 3716: 3712: 3711: 3703: 3702: 3695: 3688: 3680: 3673: 3672: 3643:(21): R874–6. 3623: 3569: 3505: 3447: 3420: 3381: 3370:(5): 787–804. 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3279: 3276:(3): 256–64. 3275: 3271: 3267: 3260: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3237:(1): 107–29. 3236: 3232: 3224: 3216: 3210: 3206: 3199: 3197: 3195: 3193: 3191: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3155: 3153: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3109: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3074: 3072: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3036: 3022:on 2017-09-22 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2999:(2): 274–84. 2998: 2994: 2987: 2983: 2977: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2938:(6): 478–84. 2937: 2933: 2929: 2922: 2914: 2910: 2905: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2863: 2859: 2854: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2822: 2820: 2811: 2807: 2802: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2770: 2768: 2759: 2755: 2750: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2718: 2710: 2706: 2701: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2685:(3): 451–61. 2684: 2680: 2676: 2669: 2661: 2657: 2652: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2636:(1): 101–22. 2635: 2631: 2627: 2620: 2618: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2590: 2582: 2578: 2573: 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1098: 1089: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1060: 1056: 1051: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1031: 1030:Sigmund Freud 1022: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 986: 984: 980: 976: 967: 964: 958: 944: 935: 931: 922: 919: 909: 906: 905:token economy 890: 881: 879: 868: 864: 860: 857: 852: 850: 840: 838: 834: 833:limbic system 830: 826: 821: 807: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 784: 782: 777: 775: 770: 765: 760: 758: 754: 750: 740: 738: 723: 721: 717: 716:Sigmund Freud 713: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 690: 688: 683: 679: 674: 672: 668: 664: 660: 659:gratification 656: 652: 641: 636: 634: 629: 627: 622: 621: 619: 618: 613: 603: 602: 601: 600: 591: 588: 586: 583: 581: 578: 576: 573: 571: 568: 566: 565:Psychologists 563: 561: 558: 556: 555:Organizations 553: 551: 548: 546: 543: 542: 537: 532: 531: 524: 523:Psychometrics 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 483:Consciousness 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 450: 444: 443: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 403:Psychotherapy 401: 399: 398:Psychometrics 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 346: 344: 341: 339: 336: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 270: 265: 260: 259: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 169:Developmental 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 148: 145: 144: 143: 140: 138: 134: 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 114: 111: 109: 106: 104: 101: 100: 95: 90: 89: 84: 81: 79: 76: 74: 71: 70: 69: 68: 64: 60: 59: 56: 53: 52: 48: 47: 44: 40: 33: 19: 3950: 3927: 3919: 3918:(Wellbutrin 3909: 3899: 3882: 3833: 3753: 3640: 3636: 3626: 3591: 3587: 3529: 3525: 3465: 3461: 3436:(3): 211–2. 3433: 3429: 3423: 3401:(1): 63–74. 3398: 3394: 3384: 3367: 3363: 3357: 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128:Behaviorism 4035:Motivation 4019:Categories 3908:(Catapres 3902:, Intuniv) 3896:Guanfacine 3483:1874/20183 3026:2019-09-23 1233:References 1059:Jack Block 1003:depression 726:Background 710:depression 478:Competence 343:Humanistic 323:Ergonomics 308:Counseling 283:Assessment 219:Perception 179:Ecological 55:Psychology 3916:Bupropion 3912:, Kapvay) 3906:Clonidine 3877:(Desoxyn) 3871:(Vyvanse) 3855:(Evekeo, 3811:(ADHD-HI) 3796:Sub-types 3757:Attention 3100:146923494 3080:Sex Roles 2602:: 61–77. 2416:CiteSeerX 1882:254595202 1210:marmosets 1168:marmosets 1019:self-harm 473:Cognition 388:Political 298:Community 133:Cognitive 83:Subfields 4004:Category 3922:, Zyban) 3857:Adderall 3817:(ADHD-C) 3805:(ADHD-I) 3782:Stimming 3667:16271858 3618:17240330 3564:25019719 3556:21920413 3500:54382119 3492:16678304 3462:Appetite 3415:21220067 3349:24199665 3300:21083561 3181:10637991 3135:18787941 3062:14921633 3013:21534688 2960:16771797 2952:40064397 2913:25737814 2887:: e774. 2862:15898472 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