34:
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557:. There, Meese accused the Court of taking too much power for itself by setting itself up as the sole institution responsible for the interpretation of the Constitution. He wrote that while judicial interpretation of the Constitution binds the parties of the case, it should not establish a supreme law of the land that must be accepted by all persons.
539:, who felt a unanimous decision would emphasize how strongly the Court felt about the issue. Frankfurter's opinion did not directly contradict the majority opinion, but it did reemphasize the importance of judicial supremacy and expressed disdain for the Arkansas State Legislature's actions.
965:... declared the basic principle that the federal judiciary is supreme in the exposition of the law of the Constitution, and that principle has ever since been respected by the Court and the country as a permanent and indispensable feature of our constitutional system. 358 U.S. 1, 18
428:' request to decide the case without waiting for the appeals court to deliberate on the case. Once the appeals court handed down their decision in favor of the defendants, the school board appealed to the Supreme Court, which met in a rare special session to hear arguments.
490:
in this case, which had been invoked by segregationists. Segregation supporters argued that the states have the power to nullify federal laws or court rulings that they believe to be unconstitutional and the states could use this power to nullify the
883:
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requested was for the
African-American children to be returned to segregated schools and for the implementation of the desegregation plan to be postponed until January 1961. The district court granted the school board's request, but the
522:
also maintained that even though education is the responsibility of the state government, that responsibility must be carried out in a manner consistent with the requirements of the
Constitution, particularly the Fourteenth Amendment.
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is the supreme law of the land and is therefore binding on all the states, regardless of any state laws contradicting it. The Court therefore rejected the contention that the
Arkansas legislature and Governor were not bound by the
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This Court cannot countenance a claim by the
Governor and Legislature of a State that there is no duty on state officials to obey federal court orders resting on this Court's considered interpretation of the
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it is emphatically the province and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. Those who apply the rule to particular cases must of necessity expound and interpret that rule. U.S. (1 Cranch) at
503:
decision "can neither be nullified openly and directly by state legislators or state executive or judicial officers nor nullified indirectly by them through evasive schemes for segregation." Thus,
57:
William G. Cooper, et al., Members of the Board of
Directors of the Little Rock, Arkansas, Independent School District, and Virgial T. Blossom, Superintendent of Schools v. John Aaron, et al.
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On
September 12, 1958, the Court issued an opinion jointly authored by all nine Justices — the only instance of that occurring on record, but primarily drafted by
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its schools. Meanwhile, other school districts in the state opposed the
Supreme Court's rulings and did not make any attempts to desegregate their schools. The
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published a separate, concurring, opinion. He was, however, dissuaded from announcing it the same day as the main opinion by
Justices Brennan and
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884:"Brown's Dream Deferred: Lessons on Democracy and Identity From Cooper v. Aaron to the 'School-to-Prison Pipeline'"
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are bound by the Court's decisions and must enforce them even if the states disagree with them, asserting the
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decision. The
Arkansas laws that attempted to prevent desegregation were Arkansas' effort to nullify the
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514:(as per Article VI, Clause 3), the officials who ignored the supremacy of the Court's precedent in the
399:, members of the Little Rock school board (along with the Superintendent of Schools) filed suit in the
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Freyer, Tony A. Little Rock on Trial: Cooper v. Aaron and School
Desegregation. Lawrence (KS), 2007.
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473:(1803) made the Supreme Court the final interpreter of the Constitution, the precedent set forth in
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Freyer, Tony A. (March 2008). "Cooper v. Aaron (1958): A Hidden Story of Unanimity and Division".
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Freyer, Tony A. (March 2008). "Cooper v. Aaron (1958): A Hidden Story of Unanimity and Division".
723:
Freyer, Tony A. (March 2008). "Cooper v. Aaron (1958): A Hidden Story of Unanimity and Division".
585:
Freyer, Tony A. (March 2008). "Cooper v. Aaron (1958): A Hidden Story of Unanimity and Division".
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to maintain law and order by depriving the black students of their equal rights under the law.
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225:
1201:
Farber, Daniel A. (1982). "The Supreme Court and the Rule of Law: Cooper v. Aaron Revisited".
905:
Farber, Daniel A. (1982). "The Supreme Court and the Rule of Law: Cooper v. Aaron Revisited".
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schools. During this time the school board of Little Rock still continued with desegregation.
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to oppose desegregation and then passed a law relieving children from mandatory attendance at
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1958 U.S. Supreme Court ruling that states must enforce its rulings regardless of agreement
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991:"The Unbearable Rightness of Marbury v. Madison: Its Real Lessons and Irrepressible Myths"
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However, on February 20, 1958, five months after the integration crisis involving the
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1016:"In Defense of Cooper v. Aaron: Distinguishing among Judicial Supremacy Claims"
837:"In Defense of Cooper v. Aaron: Distinguishing among Judicial Supremacy Claims"
630:"In Defense of Cooper v. Aaron: Distinguishing among Judicial Supremacy Claims"
1273:
The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, Second Edition
1031:
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and the state legislature created "chaos, bedlam and turmoil". The relief the
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Warren, Black, Frankfurter, Douglas, Burton, Clark, Harlan, Brennan, Whittaker
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546:. Perhaps the most famous criticism of the case was that of former
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441:
334:
104:
1257:
Farber, Daniel A.; Eskridge, William N., Jr.; Frickey, Philip P.
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held that state attempts to nullify federal law are ineffective.
401:
United States District Court for the Eastern District of Arkansas
1259:
Constitutional Law: Themes for the Constitution's Third Century
3385:
448:. Nonetheless, it was constitutionally impermissible under the
33:
2120:
417:
482:
decision. The Supreme Court also rejected the doctrines of
115:
510:
Moreover, since public officials are required to swear an
542:
Some legal scholars criticized the Court's rationale in
327:(1803). The decision in this case upheld the rulings in
3570:
Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
3348:"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"
3594:
African American founding fathers of the United States
1947:
Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement
1812:
John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights
1381:
Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture entry:
3841:
United States Supreme Court cases of the Warren Court
1419:
567:
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 358
414:
United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit
3642:
Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument
3827:
2178:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
956:
455:More importantly, the Court held that since the
3886:United States Supreme Court per curiam opinions
2168:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
2101:Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
1992:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
531:Despite all nine Justices signing the opinion,
3647:Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
1183:, vol. 358, September 12, 1958, p. 1
1135:, vol. 358, September 12, 1958, p. 1
1066:, vol. 358, September 12, 1958, p. 1
945:, vol. 358, September 12, 1958, p. 1
814:, vol. 358, September 12, 1958, p. 1
705:, vol. 358, September 12, 1958, p. 1
3555:List of lynching victims in the United States
1893:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
1405:
3851:United States racial desegregation case law
2022:Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights
2071:Council for United Civil Rights Leadership
1412:
1398:
499:decision. The Supreme Court held that the
3627:Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
351:
3662:King Center for Nonviolent Social Change
1702:University of Georgia desegregation riot
1013:
881:
834:
627:
313:delivered a decision that held that the
3576:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence
3313:"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"
3308:"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"
431:
3828:
3490:African-American women in the movement
1942:White House Conference on Civil Rights
1773:"Segregation now, segregation forever"
1200:
1152:
1086:
1082:
1080:
904:
765:
722:
674:
584:
1931:Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
1393:
1299:
830:
828:
21:1958 United States Supreme Court case
3699:St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument
2163:Regional Council of Negro Leadership
2111:Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
2057:Committee on Appeal for Human Rights
1534:Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
1459:Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore
526:
145:Opinion announced September 29, 1958
2106:Lowndes County Freedom Organization
2042:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
1712:Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address
1261:. Thomson-West Publishing, 2003.
1194:
1171:
1146:
1123:
1077:
1054:
1007:
933:
882:Epperson, Lia (September 1, 2014).
553:, in a law review article entitled
340:that had held that the doctrine of
13:
3876:Education in Little Rock, Arkansas
3550:African-American churches attacked
2116:Montgomery Improvement Association
2091:Georgia Council on Human Relations
2076:Council of Federated Organizations
2047:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
1805:16th Street Baptist Church bombing
1763:Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot
1569:1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
1473:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
898:
825:
802:
759:
716:
291:Supreme Court of the United States
39:Supreme Court of the United States
14:
3897:
3861:Nullification (U.S. Constitution)
3836:United States Supreme Court cases
3622:Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
3495:Jews in the civil rights movement
1293:
1203:University of Illinois Law Review
981:For a different understanding of
907:University of Illinois Law Review
693:
668:
621:
578:
416:reversed that decision after the
103:Suspension of order granted, 163
3816:Civil rights movement portal
3809:
3657:Freedom Riders National Monument
3399:The Kingdom of God Is Within You
1911:1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
1870:1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests
1757:Second Emancipation Proclamation
1101:10.1111/j.1540-5818.2008.00180.x
1089:Journal of Supreme Court History
1004:, Vol. 12, Iss. 2, p. 94 (2011).
894:: 687–702 – via ebscohost.
780:10.1111/j.1540-5818.2008.00180.x
768:Journal of Supreme Court History
737:10.1111/j.1540-5818.2008.00180.x
725:Journal of Supreme Court History
599:10.1111/j.1540-5818.2008.00180.x
587:Journal of Supreme Court History
467:the supreme law of the land and
293:that denied the school board of
32:
3684:Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
3672:Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
2148:National Council of Negro Women
2086:Deacons for Defense and Justice
1315:1 (1958) is available from:
1229:
512:oath to uphold the Constitution
372:(1954), the school district of
3871:Civil rights movement case law
3856:1958 in United States case law
1564:Mansfield school desegregation
1245:, Vol. 61, p. 979 (1986-1987).
962:The Court claimed that Marbury
875:
1:
3694:National Voting Rights Museum
3637:Civil Rights Movement Archive
3436:Lynching in the United States
3323:"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"
1778:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
1751:University of Chicago sit-ins
1518:Davis v. Prince Edward County
1237:"The Law of the Constitution"
3689:National Civil Rights Museum
3545:March on Washington Movement
3530:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
1999:Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
7:
3333:"This Little Light of Mine"
2081:Dallas County Voters League
2027:Atlanta Negro Voters League
1790:Letter from Birmingham Jail
1497:Brown v. Board of Education
1157:. Oxford University Press.
996:September 10, 2015, at the
679:. Oxford University Press.
560:
555:The Law of the Constitution
518:case violated their oaths.
475:Brown v. Board of Education
369:Brown v. Board of Education
330:Brown v. Board of Education
285:, 358 U.S. 1 (1958), was a
163:Brown v. Board of Education
10:
3902:
3667:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
3535:Holt Street Baptist Church
3505:16th Street Baptist Church
2489:Annie Bell Robinson Devine
2133:Nashville Student Movement
2063:An Appeal for Human Rights
1374:Oyez (oral argument audio)
1251:
1014:Harriger, Katy J. (2016).
835:Harriger, Katy J. (2016).
628:Harriger, Katy J. (2016).
382:Arkansas state legislature
355:
297:the right to delay racial
158:United States Constitution
48:Decided September 12, 1958
3866:Legal history of Arkansas
3846:Supremacy Clause case law
3805:
3707:
3609:
3423:
3356:
3298:
3277:
3164:Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
3134:Modjeska Monteith Simkins
2206:
2198:Women's Political Council
2193:Wednesdays in Mississippi
2188:United Auto Workers (UAW)
2173:Southern Regional Council
2143:Northern Student Movement
2052:Committee for Freedom Now
2012:
1959:Memphis sanitation strike
1925:Voting Rights Act of 1965
1847:
1668:Savannah Protest Movement
1630:
1488:
1449:Journey of Reconciliation
1441:
1428:
1032:10.1017/S0034670516000346
853:10.1017/S0034670516000346
646:10.1017/S0034670516000346
267:
262:
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175:
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154:
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99:
94:
62:
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46:Argued September 11, 1958
45:
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26:
2032:Atlanta Student Movement
1981:Civil Rights Act of 1968
1906:1964–1965 Scripto strike
1887:Civil Rights Act of 1964
1785:1963 Birmingham campaign
1678:Civil Rights Act of 1960
1602:Civil Rights Act of 1957
572:
89:657; 79 Ohio L. Abs. 452
3584:Voter Education Project
3338:"We Shall Not Be Moved"
2999:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
2434:Josephine Dobbs Clement
1860:Chester school protests
1855:Twenty-fourth Amendment
1817:Detroit Walk to Freedom
1559:Tallahassee bus boycott
1480:Baton Rouge bus boycott
450:Equal Protection Clause
3797:Movement photographers
3039:Bernice Johnson Reagon
2759:Martin Luther King Sr.
2754:Martin Luther King Jr.
2324:William Holmes Borders
2096:Highlander Folk School
1986:Poor People's Campaign
1839:St. Augustine movement
1689:Gomillion v. Lightfoot
1612:Katz Drug Store sit-in
1583:Royal Ice Cream sit-in
1545:Montgomery bus boycott
1020:The Review of Politics
980:
967:
888:Wake Forest Law Review
841:The Review of Politics
634:The Review of Politics
352:Background of the case
269:U.S. Const. amend. XIV
226:William J. Brennan Jr.
3632:Civil Rights Memorial
3520:Bethel Baptist Church
3169:Charles Kenzie Steele
2614:Audrey Faye Hendricks
2519:Myrlie Evers-Williams
2499:Patricia Stephens Due
2469:Abraham Lincoln Davis
2404:Colia Lafayette Clark
2158:Operation Breadbasket
2153:National Urban League
1900:Katzenbach v. McClung
1768:Atlanta's Berlin Wall
1421:Civil rights movement
1271:Hall, Kermit L. ed.
1153:Freyer, Tony (2009).
975:
963:
675:Freyer, Tony (2009).
376:formulated a plan to
374:Little Rock, Arkansas
295:Little Rock, Arkansas
114:1958); reversed, 257
3677:other King memorials
3652:Freedom Rides Museum
3589:1960s counterculture
3540:Edmund Pettus Bridge
3219:Walter Francis White
3124:Alexander D. Shimkin
1638:New Year's Day March
1607:Ministers' Manifesto
1454:Executive Order 9981
444:state government to
432:The court's decision
305:months. On September
234:Charles E. Whittaker
3415:Mary McLeod Bethune
3376:Sermon on the Mount
3343:"We Shall Overcome"
2924:William Lewis Moore
2704:Frank Minis Johnson
2679:Richie Jean Jackson
2634:Donald L. Hollowell
2439:Charles E. Cobb Jr.
2244:Gwendolyn Armstrong
2239:William G. Anderson
2219:Victoria Gray Adams
2183:The Freedom Singers
2037:Black Panther Party
1822:March on Washington
1735:Garner v. Louisiana
1696:Boynton v. Virginia
1365:Library of Congress
548:US Attorney General
533:Justice Frankfurter
3732:Michael Eric Dyson
3617:In popular culture
3500:Fifth Circuit Four
3484:Loving v. Virginia
3477:Hernandez v. Texas
3456:Buchanan v. Warley
3448:Separate but equal
3442:Plessy v. Ferguson
3405:Frederick Douglass
3239:Robert F. Williams
3149:Kelly Miller Smith
3129:Fred Shuttlesworth
3054:Frederick D. Reese
3034:George Raymond Jr.
3024:A. Philip Randolph
3004:Fay Bellamy Powell
2919:Queen Mother Moore
2804:Z. Alexander Looby
2749:Coretta Scott King
2694:Barbara Rose Johns
2674:Jimmie Lee Jackson
2599:William E. Harbour
2379:Stokely Carmichael
2294:Randolph Blackwell
1964:King assassination
1953:Loving v. Virginia
1937:March Against Fear
1917:How Long, Not Long
1795:Children's Crusade
1746:Cambridge movement
1683:Ax Handle Saturday
1648:Greensboro sit-ins
1575:Give Us the Ballot
470:Marbury v. Madison
446:racial integration
386:state constitution
362:Southern Manifesto
342:separate but equal
324:Marbury v. Madison
319:judicial supremacy
202:William O. Douglas
186:Associate Justices
81:78 S. Ct. 1401; 3
3881:Thurgood Marshall
3823:
3822:
3600:Eyes on the Prize
3515:A.G. Gaston Motel
3510:Kelly Ingram Park
3470:Sweatt v. Painter
3154:Mary Louise Smith
3114:Cleveland Sellers
3099:Michael Schwerner
3064:Gloria Richardson
2844:Thurgood Marshall
2764:Bernard Lafayette
2494:John Wesley Dobbs
2008:
2007:
1727:Birmingham attack
1707:Rock Hill sit-ins
1658:Sibley Commission
1653:Nashville sit-ins
1525:Gebhart v. Belton
1511:Briggs v. Elliott
1504:Bolling v. Sharpe
1465:Sweatt v. Painter
1285:978-0-19-517661-2
1277:Oxford University
1242:Tulane Law Review
974:wrote in Marbury,
527:Critical response
422:Thurgood Marshall
420:, represented by
287:landmark decision
278:
277:
222:John M. Harlan II
198:Felix Frankfurter
3893:
3814:
3813:
3777:Charles M. Payne
3762:Steven F. Lawson
3752:David Halberstam
3722:Clayborne Carson
3463:Hocutt v. Wilson
3410:W. E. B. Du Bois
3259:Sammy Younge Jr.
3244:Q. V. Williamson
3209:Wyatt Tee Walker
3074:Bernice Robinson
3019:Lincoln Ragsdale
3009:Rodney N. Powell
2904:Douglas E. Moore
2779:Sanford R. Leigh
2714:J. Charles Jones
2589:Fannie Lou Hamer
2504:Joseph Ellwanger
2464:Jonathan Daniels
2454:Claudette Colvin
2444:Annie Lee Cooper
2429:Kathleen Cleaver
2424:Eldridge Cleaver
2399:Shirley Chisholm
2289:Gloria Blackwell
1880:workers' murders
1827:"I Have a Dream"
1722:Anniston bombing
1673:Greenville Eight
1588:Little Rock Nine
1551:Browder v. Gayle
1439:
1438:
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619:
618:
582:
457:Supremacy Clause
397:Little Rock Nine
358:Little Rock Nine
346:unconstitutional
308:
304:
273:Supremacy Clause
210:Harold H. Burton
171:Court membership
36:
35:
24:
23:
3901:
3900:
3896:
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3894:
3892:
3891:
3890:
3826:
3825:
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3819:
3808:
3801:
3782:Thomas E. Ricks
3772:Diane McWhorter
3757:Vincent Harding
3742:Adam Fairclough
3709:
3703:
3605:
3560:Freedom Schools
3419:
3352:
3300:
3294:
3285:Omaha, Nebraska
3273:
3189:Hartman Turnbow
3179:Dorothy Tillman
3139:Glenn E. Smiley
3119:Charles Sherrod
3079:Jo Ann Robinson
2954:Charles Neblett
2944:Elijah Muhammad
2909:Harriette Moore
2869:Floyd McKissick
2854:Franklin McCain
2789:Stanley Levison
2654:T. R. M. Howard
2604:Vincent Harding
2534:Walter Fauntroy
2419:Xernona Clayton
2369:John H. Calhoun
2354:Aurelia Browder
2344:Stanley Branche
2339:Raylawni Branch
2319:Joseph E. Boone
2304:Ezell Blair Jr.
2299:Unita Blackwell
2274:Harry Belafonte
2214:Ralph Abernathy
2202:
2138:Nation of Islam
2014:
2004:
1843:
1800:Birmingham riot
1741:Albany Movement
1663:Atlanta sit-ins
1643:Sit-in movement
1626:
1622:Biloxi wade-ins
1594:Cooper v. Aaron
1484:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1384:Aaron v. Cooper
1376:
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1361:
1358:
1352:
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1331:
1325:
1322:
1316:
1305:Cooper v. Aaron
1296:
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1234:
1230:
1215:10.2307/1340770
1199:
1195:
1186:
1184:
1180:Cooper v. Aaron
1177:
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1155:Cooper v. Aaron
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1132:Cooper v. Aaron
1129:
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1124:
1085:
1078:
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1063:Cooper v. Aaron
1060:
1059:
1055:
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1008:
998:Wayback Machine
961:
957:
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942:Cooper v. Aaron
939:
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934:
919:10.2307/1340770
903:
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833:
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677:Cooper v. Aaron
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583:
579:
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529:
505:Cooper v. Aaron
465:US Constitution
438:Justice Brennan
434:
366:In the wake of
364:
354:
321:established in
306:
302:
282:Cooper v. Aaron
224:
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90:
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27:Cooper v. Aaron
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3381:Mahatma Gandhi
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3290:South Carolina
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3256:
3251:
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3144:A. Maceo Smith
3141:
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3126:
3121:
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3106:
3101:
3096:
3094:Bernie Sanders
3091:
3086:
3084:Angela Russell
3081:
3076:
3071:
3069:David Richmond
3066:
3061:
3059:Walter Reuther
3056:
3051:
3046:
3044:Cordell Reagon
3041:
3036:
3031:
3029:George Raymond
3026:
3021:
3016:
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2996:
2991:
2989:Charles Person
2986:
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2959:Huey P. Newton
2956:
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2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2914:Harry T. Moore
2911:
2906:
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2899:Cecil B. Moore
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2879:James Meredith
2876:
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2649:Zilphia Horton
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2619:Lola Hendricks
2616:
2611:
2609:Dorothy Height
2606:
2601:
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2591:
2586:
2581:
2579:Lawrence Guyot
2576:
2571:
2569:Jack Greenberg
2566:
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2554:Andrew Goodman
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2479:Joseph DeLaine
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2449:Dorothy Cotton
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2394:J. L. Chestnut
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2336:
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2329:Amelia Boynton
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2249:Arnold Aronson
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1934:
1927:
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1920:
1908:
1903:
1896:
1889:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1875:Freedom Summer
1872:
1867:
1865:Bloody Tuesday
1862:
1857:
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1295:
1294:External links
1292:
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1287:
1279:Press, 2005.
1269:
1253:
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1248:
1247:
1235:Meese, Edwin.
1228:
1209:(1): 387–412.
1193:
1170:
1164:978-0199891511
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1026:(3): 443–465.
1006:
987:Pryor, William
955:
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913:(1): 387–412.
897:
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847:(3): 443–465.
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686:978-0199891511
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3787:Timothy Tyson
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3565:Freedom songs
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3431:Jim Crow laws
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3331:
3329:
3328:"Oh, Freedom"
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3194:Albert Turner
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2874:Joseph McNeil
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2859:Charles McDew
2857:
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2834:Vivian Malone
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2809:Joseph Lowery
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2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2734:Clyde Kennard
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2724:Vernon Jordan
2722:
2720:
2719:Matthew Jones
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2684:T. J. Jemison
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2669:Jesse Jackson
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2559:Robert Graetz
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2549:Golden Frinks
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2509:Charles Evers
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2459:Vernon Dahmer
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2414:Septima Clark
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2334:Bruce Boynton
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2259:James Baldwin
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2229:Mathew Ahmann
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2205:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2127:
2126:Youth Council
2124:
2123:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2065:
2064:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2017:
2011:
2001:
2000:
1996:
1994:
1993:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1932:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1918:
1914:
1913:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1901:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1881:
1878:
1877:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1840:
1837:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1824:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1786:
1783:
1779:
1776:
1775:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1719:
1718:
1717:Freedom Rides
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1697:
1693:
1691:
1690:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1596:
1595:
1591:
1590:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1576:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1553:
1552:
1548:
1547:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1520:
1519:
1515:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1494:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1444:
1442:Prior to 1954
1440:
1437:
1434:
1427:
1422:
1415:
1410:
1408:
1403:
1401:
1396:
1395:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1366:
1357:
1348:
1339:
1330:
1329:CourtListener
1321:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1288:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1268:
1267:0-314-14353-X
1264:
1260:
1256:
1255:
1244:
1243:
1238:
1232:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1197:
1182:
1181:
1174:
1166:
1160:
1156:
1149:
1134:
1133:
1126:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1095:(1): 89–109.
1094:
1090:
1083:
1081:
1065:
1064:
1057:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1010:
1003:
999:
995:
992:
988:
984:
979:
973:
972:John Marshall
970:
969:Chief Justice
966:
959:
944:
943:
936:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
901:
893:
889:
885:
878:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
831:
829:
813:
812:
805:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
774:(1): 89–109.
773:
769:
762:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
731:(1): 89–109.
730:
726:
719:
704:
703:
696:
688:
682:
678:
671:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
624:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
593:(1): 89–109.
592:
588:
581:
577:
568:
565:
564:
558:
556:
552:
549:
545:
540:
538:
534:
524:
521:
517:
513:
508:
506:
502:
498:
494:
489:
488:interposition
485:
484:nullification
481:
476:
472:
471:
466:
462:
458:
453:
451:
447:
443:
439:
429:
427:
423:
419:
415:
410:
406:
402:
398:
393:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
370:
363:
359:
349:
347:
343:
339:
337:
332:
331:
326:
325:
320:
316:
312:
300:
299:desegregation
296:
292:
288:
284:
283:
274:
270:
266:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
242:Case opinions
240:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:Chief Justice
177:
176:
174:
169:
165:
164:
159:
153:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
117:
113:
109:
106:
102:
98:
93:
88:
84:
78:
77:
72:
69:
65:
61:
58:
55:
51:
44:
40:
30:
25:
19:
3807:
3747:David Garrow
3727:John Dittmer
3598:
3525:Brown Chapel
3482:
3475:
3468:
3461:
3454:
3440:
3397:
3249:Andrew Young
3204:A. T. Walden
3199:C. T. Vivian
3159:Maxine Smith
2994:Homer Plessy
2974:James Orange
2929:Irene Morgan
2884:William Ming
2864:Ralph McGill
2799:Viola Liuzzo
2784:Jim Letherer
2769:James Lawson
2699:Vernon Johns
2689:Esau Jenkins
2644:Myles Horton
2594:Fred Hampton
2584:Prathia Hall
2574:Dick Gregory
2544:Marie Foster
2539:James Forman
2529:James Farmer
2514:Medgar Evers
2474:Angela Davis
2409:Ramsey Clark
2389:James Chaney
2384:Johnnie Carr
2364:Ralph Bunche
2359:H. Rap Brown
2349:Ruby Bridges
2309:Joanne Bland
2284:Claude Black
2264:Marion Barry
2234:Muhammad Ali
2061:
1997:
1990:
1951:
1929:
1898:
1891:
1733:
1694:
1687:
1617:Kissing Case
1593:
1592:
1549:
1532:
1523:
1516:
1509:
1502:
1495:
1471:
1463:
1383:
1304:
1300:
1272:
1258:
1240:
1231:
1206:
1202:
1196:
1185:, retrieved
1179:
1173:
1154:
1148:
1137:, retrieved
1131:
1125:
1092:
1088:
1068:, retrieved
1062:
1056:
1023:
1019:
1009:
1001:
982:
976:
964:
958:
947:, retrieved
941:
935:
910:
906:
900:
891:
887:
877:
844:
840:
816:, retrieved
810:
804:
771:
767:
761:
728:
724:
718:
707:, retrieved
701:
695:
676:
670:
637:
633:
623:
590:
586:
580:
554:
543:
541:
530:
519:
515:
509:
504:
500:
496:
492:
479:
474:
468:
454:
435:
405:Orval Faubus
394:
384:amended the
367:
365:
335:
328:
322:
311:Warren Court
281:
280:
279:
263:Laws applied
229:
217:
214:Tom C. Clark
205:
193:
161:
95:Case history
74:
56:
18:
3767:Doug McAdam
3737:Chuck Fager
3364:Nonviolence
3269:James Zwerg
3264:Bob Zellner
3224:Roy Wilkins
3174:Hank Thomas
3109:Pete Seeger
3104:Bobby Seale
2969:Jack O'Dell
2964:Edgar Nixon
2894:Amzie Moore
2889:Jack Minnis
2829:Mae Mallory
2814:Clara Luper
2774:Bernard Lee
2664:Cecil Ivory
2659:Ruby Hurley
2629:Oliver Hill
2624:Aaron Henry
2524:Chuck Fager
2484:Dave Dennis
2374:Guy Carawan
2314:Julian Bond
2279:James Bevel
2269:Daisy Bates
1540:Emmett Till
1423:(1954–1968)
1187:December 1,
1139:December 1,
1070:December 1,
949:December 1,
818:December 1,
709:December 1,
551:Edwin Meese
378:desegregate
258:Frankfurter
255:Concurrence
182:Earl Warren
129:. granted,
3830:Categories
3710:historians
3391:Satyagraha
3357:Influences
3049:James Reeb
2984:James Peck
2979:Rosa Parks
2949:Diane Nash
2819:Danny Lyon
2794:John Lewis
2739:A. D. King
2639:James Hood
2254:Ella Baker
2224:Zev Aelony
461:Article VI
426:defendants
409:plaintiffs
390:integrated
356:See also:
190:Hugo Black
142:Subsequent
87:U.S. LEXIS
3369:Padayatra
3318:"Kumbaya"
3278:By region
2934:Bob Moses
2839:Bob Mants
2824:Malcolm X
2744:C.B. King
2564:Fred Gray
2207:Activists
1848:1964–1968
1631:1960–1963
1489:1954–1959
1117:143700384
1109:1059-4329
1048:148135292
1040:0034-6705
869:148135292
861:0034-6705
796:143700384
788:1059-4329
753:143700384
745:1059-4329
662:148135292
654:0034-6705
615:143700384
607:1059-4329
463:made the
83:L. Ed. 2d
63:Citations
3299:Movement
2729:Tom Kahn
2013:Activist
1433:timeline
1303:Text of
994:Archived
561:See also
442:Arkansas
247:Majority
123:8th Cir.
112:E.D. Ark
105:F. Supp.
85:5; 1958
3424:Related
3014:Al Raby
1969:funeral
1832:Big Six
1338:Findlaw
1320:Cornell
1252:Sources
1223:1340770
983:Marbury
927:1340770
289:of the
166:(1954).
150:Holding
125:1958);
3610:Legacy
3386:Ahimsa
2015:groups
1476:(1950)
1468:(1950)
1429:Events
1377:
1371:
1368:
1362:
1359:
1356:Justia
1353:
1350:
1344:
1341:
1335:
1332:
1326:
1323:
1317:
1283:
1265:
1221:
1161:
1115:
1107:
1046:
1038:
1002:Engage
925:
867:
859:
794:
786:
751:
743:
683:
660:
652:
613:
605:
544:Cooper
520:Cooper
315:states
307:
303:
301:for 30
232:
230:·
228:
220:
218:·
216:
208:
206:·
204:
196:
194:·
192:
3708:Noted
3301:songs
2121:NAACP
1974:riots
1311:
1219:JSTOR
1113:S2CID
1044:S2CID
923:JSTOR
865:S2CID
792:S2CID
749:S2CID
658:S2CID
611:S2CID
573:Notes
537:Black
516:Brown
501:Brown
497:Brown
493:Brown
480:Brown
418:NAACP
336:Brown
133:
100:Prior
1313:U.S.
1281:ISBN
1263:ISBN
1189:2018
1159:ISBN
1141:2018
1105:ISSN
1072:2018
1036:ISSN
985:see
951:2018
857:ISSN
820:2018
784:ISSN
741:ISSN
711:2018
681:ISBN
650:ISSN
603:ISSN
486:and
360:and
344:was
333:and
135:U.S.
127:cert
116:F.2d
76:more
68:U.S.
66:358
1309:358
1275:.
1211:doi
1097:doi
1028:doi
978:177
915:doi
849:doi
776:doi
733:doi
642:doi
595:doi
459:of
160:in
131:358
3832::
1307:,
1239:,
1217:.
1205:.
1111:.
1103:.
1093:33
1091:.
1079:^
1042:.
1034:.
1024:78
1022:.
1018:.
1000:,
989:.
921:.
909:.
892:49
890:.
886:.
863:.
855:.
845:78
843:.
839:.
827:^
790:.
782:.
772:33
770:.
747:.
739:.
729:33
727:.
656:.
648:.
638:78
636:.
632:.
609:.
601:.
591:33
589:.
348:.
338:II
271:;
119:33
108:13
3578:"
3574:"
1919:"
1915:"
1759:"
1755:"
1577:"
1573:"
1435:)
1431:(
1413:e
1406:t
1399:v
1225:.
1213::
1207:2
1167:.
1119:.
1099::
1050:.
1030::
929:.
917::
911:2
871:.
851::
798:.
778::
755:.
735::
689:.
664:.
644::
617:.
597::
121:(
110:(
79:)
73:(
71:1
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