Citizen's arrest - Knowledge

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personnel for breach of the peace misdemeanors. Other non-police persons are granted arrest authority by statute, in the case of those who are state-certified, armed security officers: "A registered armed security officer of a private security services business while at a location which the business is contracted to protect shall have the power to effect an arrest for an offense occurring (i) in his presence on such premises or (ii) in the presence of a merchant, agent, or employee of the merchant the private security business has contracted to protect" and "For the purposes of § 19.2-74, a registered armed security officer of a private security services business shall be considered an arresting officer."

371:), section 55(3), any person may arrest any other person whom they find committing an offence, where they have reasonable grounds to believe that the conduct will create or may involve substantial injury to another person, serious danger of such injury, loss of property or serious injury to property. Section 55(5) states "For the purposes of this section, a person is said to be 'found offending' if he does any act, or makes any omission, or conducts or behaves himself, and thereby causes a person who finds him reasonable grounds for believing that he has, in respect of such act, omission, or conduct, committed an offence against this Act." There are further provisions in section 301 of the 735:("Zákon č. 141/1961 Sb. o trestním řízení soudním (trestní řád)"), the personal liberty of a person caught in the act of committing a crime or immediately afterwards may be restricted by anyone if necessary to establish the person's identity, prevent their escape or secure evidence. The arrester shall, however, be obliged to hand that person over immediately to the police authority; The arrester may also hand over a member of the armed forces to the nearest armed forces unit or garrison administrator. If such a person cannot be handed over immediately, the restriction of that person's personal liberty shall be notified without delay to one of those authorities. 190:, in detaining a suspect, acted reasonably and the suspect unreasonably, then it is likely that the court will find in favour of the citizen or security officer and against the suspect if that suspect chooses, later, to sue the citizen for assault or false imprisonment. In other circumstances where, e.g. a property owner (or an agent) arrests a thief in a manner, and in circumstances, disproportionate to the likely harm to the victim, and in clear defiance of the rights of the suspect (for example, to be taken forthwith to a police station), then the court is very likely to find in favour of the suspect (guilty or otherwise). The courts may order 519:, a Federal law allows any person to arrest a suspect criminal found in flagrante delicto or fleeing from the crime scene. The person has to, at his/her own judgment, have the physical power to keep the suspect detained, has to verbally explain what (s)he is doing to the arrestee and has to call the police. Both have to wait for the arrival of the police. The person who makes a citizen's arrest has to sign the police forms as a witness and explain the facts. Typically it will lead to a time burden of at least two hours. If the facts cannot be verified the person who realizes the citizen's arrest might be sued by the arrestee. 1063:

to detain a person who is witnessed carrying out certain suspected crimes. The crimes include the following: a felony, theft, a crime of violence and a crime which has caused serious damage to property. A person using these detention powers may use reasonable force if their request is not met as long as they do not cause the suspect bruising. They must hand the suspect over to the police immediately and no later than three hours. A citizen's arrest cannot be performed on persons whose identity is known or who are not suspected of fleeing. The law can be used by both private individuals and private security.

759:, any private person may arrest without warrant a person who has committed a flagrant offence as defined in Art. 19 and 20 of the Criminal Procedure Code where the offence is punishable with simple imprisonment for not less than three months. In addition where the police call for assistance in making an arrest with or without warrant there shall be a duty to assist where assistance can be given without risk. The Criminal Procedure Code also provides that where an arrest is made the person making the arrest shall without unnecessary delay hand over the person so arrested to the nearest police station. 1343:

Property owners are entitled to arrest those found damaging their private property and to authorize people working for them to arrest anyone damaging their property as well. Anyone damaging public property may be arrested by a private citizen. Private citizens who make arrests are legally obligated to immediately hand over the suspect to a police officer, or, in the absence of a police officer, to turn the suspect over to the nearest police station. After turning in the suspect, the private person who made the arrest must give a formal witness statement on the circumstances of the arrest.

421:, and is later proven to be false, then the arrest itself will not be considered unlawful if it was made on reasonable grounds. Section 462A allows any person the right to use force "not disproportionate to the objective as he believes on reasonable grounds to be necessary to prevent the commission, continuance or completion of an indictable offence or to effect or assist in effecting the lawful arrest of a person committing or suspected of committing any offence". 2162:"Public offense" is read similarly as breach of peace in this case and includes felonies, misdemeanors, and infractions. There is generally no provision for an investigative detention by a private person under the law. With certain exceptions (see below), an arrest must be made. "Holding them until the police get there" is simply a form of arrest. The officer is accepting the arrest and processing the prisoner on behalf of the private person. 1985: 449:, who, within view of such person apprehending, shall offend against this Act, and shall forthwith deliver him to any constable or police officer of the place where he shall have been apprehended, to be taken and conveyed before a Justice, to be dealt with according to law ..." A private citizen would have found it rather difficult to interpret the terms "loose" or "idle" with any degree of 784:(arrest warrant) can be apprehended by anyone. After the apprehension, the detainee must be handed over to the police as soon as possible. If the criminal is resisting or tries to escape, the law gives a citizen the right to use an amount of force considered necessary, when considering the nature of the crime, the behavior of the apprehended and the situation as a whole. 4073: 2187:

the offense and to apprehend the offender. The force must be reasonable under the circumstances to restrain the individual arrested. This includes the nature of the offense and the amount of force required to overcome resistance. In Texas, a civilian may use reasonable force, including deadly force if reasonable, to prevent an escape from a lawful citizen's arrest.

747:, pursuant to § 755 (2) of the Administration of Justice Act, anyone may arrest a person caught in the act of committing a crime or in direct connection to a crime if the criminal act is subject to public prosecution. The arrestee must as soon as possible be turned over to the police with information about the time of and reasons for the arrest. 1504:, any person may arrest someone in the act of committing a crime, or fleeing from the crime scene, if the crime committed is punishable by imprisonment. A person wanted by the police, for whom there is an arrest warrant, can be arrested by anyone at any time. After the arrest, the police must be contacted as soon as possible. 1923: 1091:" (a crime report), has the duty to commence prosecution, without a party necessarily filing a complaint. The person making the arrest is legally required to hand to police the arrested person and the corpus delicti to the judicial authority, failure to do so could result in the person making the arrest committing a crime. 2212:

Private persons are occasionally granted immunity from civil or criminal liability, like the police are, when arresting others. While the powers to arrest are similar, police are entitled to mistake of fact in most cases, while civilians can be held to a stricter liability depending on the individual

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In the case of felonies, a private person may make an arrest for a felony occurring outside their presence, but the rule is that a felony must have, in fact, been committed. For example, consider a suspect that has been seen on surveillance video vandalizing a building to the extent that the arrestor

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A citizen's arrest may also be made technically for a warrant for an arrest if the offence listed is indictable as there is no law prohibiting a re-citizen's arrest or the number of times they may be arrested for it nor is there a time limit. The warrant would satisfy the requirement for the arrester

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Any person who commits an offence on or with respect to the property of another may if his name and address are unknown be apprehended by the person injured or by any person who is using the property to which the injury is done, or by the servant of either of those persons or by any person authorized

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Sub-section 5 further allows the arrest of a person who commits an offence on or with respect to the property of another by any person who is using the property to which the injury is done, or by the servant of either of those persons or by any person authorized by or acting in aid of either of those

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law allowing anyone to arrest a suspect whom they witnessed carrying out a felony was repealed in 1996 and replaced by a new law allowing the detention of a suspect by another person under certain conditions. Section 75 of the Criminal Procedure Law (Enforcement Powers – Arrest) of 1996 allows anyone

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It is lawful for any person who witnesses a breach of the peace to interfere to prevent the continuance or renewal of it, and to use such force as is reasonably necessary for such prevention and is reasonably proportioned to the danger to be apprehended from such continuance or renewal, and to detain

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If there is a reason to believe that he has committed a non-cognizable offence, and he refuses on the demand of the police officer to give his name and residence, or gives name or residence which such officer has a reason to believe to be false, he shall be dealt with under the provisions of Sec 42,

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Any private person may arrest or cause to be arrested any person who in his presence commits a non-bailable and cognizable offence, or any proclaimed offender, and, without unnecessary delay, shall make over or cause to be made over any person so arrested to a police officer, or, in the absence of a

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Under section 441(2) of the Criminal Code of the Northern Territory, any person can arrest another whom (s)he finds committing an offence or behaving such that he or she believes on reasonable grounds that the offender has committed an offence and that an arrest is necessary for a range of specified

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Other states seem to allow only arrests in cases of felonies, but court decisions have ruled more broadly. For example, in Virginia, the statute appears to only permit warrantless arrests by officers listed in the Code. However, Virginia courts have upheld warrantless arrests by non-law enforcement

1256:. A non-police officer doing so must immediately bring them to the nearest civil authority. A person who fails to do so may be found guilty of illegal deprivation of liberty, a crime similar to kidnapping that can result in a prison sentence for the perpetrator. In 2006, the celebrity bounty hunter 2186:

In general, a private person is considered to be justified in using non-deadly force upon another if they reasonably believe that: (1) such other person is committing a felony, or a misdemeanor amounting to a breach of the peace; and (2) the force used is necessary to prevent further commission of

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They witness a breach of the peace, and therefore are justified in interfering to prevent its continuance or renewal, and may detain any person committing it, in order to hand them over to a police officer provided that the person interfering does not use more force than is reasonably necessary to

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Following the arrest, the person arrested must, without delay, be handed over to a justice of the peace or police officer, in accordance with section 552 of the Criminal Code. Legal advice should then be sought to avoid any possible legal action for wrongful arrest, false imprisonment or assault.

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Detention causing personal harm is an act which is directed against such person as is committing or has committed a criminal offence. Criminal liability for this act shall not apply if the harm allowed to be effected to the person is not evidently disproportionate to the character of the offence,

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anyone has the right to apprehend a person caught in the act of committing an offence, or seized in a pursuit undertaken directly following the commission of an offence, if it is feared that such person may go into hiding or if his identity cannot be established. The apprehended person should be

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The Administration of Criminal Justice Act (2015) allows private citizens to arrest a person who commits a criminal offense in their presence or a person who they reasonably suspect of having committed a crime for which a police officer would be legally entitled to arrest them without a warrant.

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position that anyone committing an offence can be arrested using minimum force if necessary with consideration to what is reasonable in the relevant circumstances. The offence must be a serious one and not merely for a breach of the peace. The person exercising the power must have witnessed the

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Any private person may arrest any person who, in his view, commits a non-bailable and seizable offence or who has been proclaimed under section 44 and shall without unnecessary delay hand over the person so arrested to the nearest police officer or, in the absence of a police officer, take that

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If there is a clear connection between a person and a committed criminal offence regarding which a punishment related to the deprivation of liberty may be applied, and such person is located at the location where the criminal offence was committed or flees from such site, or if a search for the

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They believe, on reasonable and probable grounds, someone has committed an offence against the Crimes Act 1961 and is fleeing and is being pursued by any one they believe can arrest that person for the offence (such as a police officer). This applies whether or not the offence has in fact been

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or fleeing from the crime scene, if punishment for the crime might be imprisonment or the crime is petty assault, petty theft, petty embezzlement, petty unauthorized use, petty stealing of a motor vehicle for temporary use, petty damage to property or petty fraud. A person wanted by the police

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against the other person would not: ensure the appearance of the person before a court in respect of the offence; prevent a repetition or continuation of the offence or the commission of another offence; prevent the concealment, loss or destruction of evidence relating to the offence; prevent

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Because most states have codified their arrest laws, there are many variations. For example, in Pennsylvania, the courts have been clear that a non-law enforcement officer cannot make an arrest for a "summary offense". In North Carolina, there is no de jure "citizen's arrest". Although it is

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for the prevention of crime. This would not allow a citizen's arrest before an offence takes place in this sense but would allow any person to use reasonable force to prevent an offence from occurring; for example, restraining a suspected offender who raised a brick in their hand in order to

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Section 9(8) of The National Criminal Procedure (Code) Act, 2017 states : "If the police is not available for the time being at the time of commission of any offence, any person who is present at the time of commission of that offence or who is eye witness thereto may prevent the person

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Citizen's arrest is known as the "101 power". Under the Criminal Procedure Ordinance (cap. 221 of the Laws of Hong Kong), section 101(2) provides that "Any person may arrest without warrant any person whom he may reasonably suspect of being guilty of an arrestable offence" using "force as is

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and either the identity of the person cannot be otherwise established immediately or they are suspected to try to flee. The person making the arrest is allowed to hold the arrestee solely for the purpose of turning them over to a proper legal authority such as the police. German law does not

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on store property for a reasonable period of time, so long as the shopkeeper has cause to believe that the person detained in fact committed, or attempted to commit, theft of store property. The purpose of this detention is to recover the property and make an arrest if the merchant desires.

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is that one does not give way to property rights over personal rights, the latter prevailing at all costs. There is also an exception to the proportionality principle which applies when, even though the defensive violence was excessive, it was triggered by a legitimate fear of the offended.

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s271(3): A person is liable to arrest and detention under this section if the person is in the act of committing, or has just committed an indictable offence; or theft (whether the theft is a summary or indictable offence); or an offence against the person (whether the offence is summary or

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The Criminal Code provisions related to citizen arrests were changed in 2012, by the Citizen's Arrest and Self-defence Act. As a consequence, it is now possible to make a citizen's arrest in Canada in circumstances where a "reasonable" amount of time has lapsed between the commission of a

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The Code of Criminal Procedure allows private citizens to detain those suspected of crimes in order to prevent their escape, so long as the crime in question is on the list of crimes subjected to citizens' arrest, the crime is evident, and law enforcement is absent from the scene.

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or fleeing from the crime scene, if punishment for the crime might be imprisonment. Also a person wanted by the police, for whom there is an arrest warrant, can be arrested by anyone at any time. A person stopping a criminal from committing a crime is not criminally responsible

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There are several arrest authorities found through the various provincial statutes. The most notable citizen's arrest authority in Ontario is found in the Trespass to Property Act, but there are others found in the Highway Traffic Act, the Liquor Licence Act, and many others.

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Section 231 of the Act allows the use of such force as is "reasonably necessary to make the arrest or to prevent the escape of the person after arrest". A person who arrests another person under section 100 must, as soon as is reasonably practicable, take the person, and any

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2022 Georgia Code Title 17 - Criminal Procedure Chapter 4 - Arrest of Persons Article 5 - Detention by Private Individuals § 17-4-80. Limited Detention by Certain Private Individuals for Certain Offenses; Definitions; Involvement of Law Enforcement; Defenses; Limited Use of

1038:. For most offences, a private individual can only make such an arrest if the suspect would otherwise evade arrest by a Garda, and the arrester must surrender the suspect to Garda custody as soon as practicable. An exception is that stamp hawkers must be brought before the 603:(2) The owner or a person in lawful possession of property, or a person authorized by the owner or by a person in lawful possession of property, may arrest a person without a warrant if they find them committing a criminal offence on or in relation to that property and 1970:

Similar provisions apply to Northern Ireland as to England and Wales, implemented through the Police and Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/1341) as amended by the Police and Criminal Evidence (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order (SI 2007/288).

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of 27 September 2012 if the person performing the arrest is certain that the arrestee has committed a crime. The arrest must be carried out with applying as little force as required for the apprehension and the arrestee should be surrendered to the

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harassment of, or interference with, a person who may be required to give evidence in proceedings in respect of the offence; prevent the fabrication of evidence in respect of the offence; or would not preserve the safety or welfare of the person.

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If the offence has been actually committed–it is lawful for any person who believes on reasonable ground that another person has committed the offence to arrest that person without warrant, whether that other person has committed the offence or

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are violated. This is especially true when police forces are attempting to determine who an aggressor is. Private citizens do not enjoy the same immunity from civil liability when making arrests on other private citizens as police officers do.

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by or acting in aid of either of those persons, and may be detained until he gives his name and address and satisfies such person that the name and address so given are correct or until he can be delivered into the custody of a police officer.

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prevent the continuance or renewal of the breach of the peace, or than is reasonably proportionate to the danger to be apprehended from its continuance or renewal. Similar legislation applies to suppressions of riots by members of the public.

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However, the first additional circumstance, i.e. "pursued with cries" has been considered ambiguous in recent years, leading to many ongoing discussions and controversies of whether this would cause an infringement of the personal freedom.

507:) can be made under § 80 Abs 2 StPO (code of penal procedures). The person making the arrest is allowed to hold the arrestee solely for the purpose of turning him over to a proper legal authority such as the police. 662:(1) A police officer, or the occupier of premises, or a person authorized by the occupier may arrest without warrant any person he or she believes on reasonable and probable grounds to be on the premises in contravention of section 2. 1577:

One is found in possession of a weapon, stolen property, or other items sufficient to warrant a suspicion that he is an offender or his body, clothes and the like show traces of the commission of an offense sufficient to warrant such

815:. In modern practice, one would detain the perpetrator and immediately call the nearest police, then hand over the perpetrator and any evidence to the first police officers to arrive at the scene. Use of force is not authorised. 669:(2) Where the person who makes an arrest under subsection (1) is not a police officer, he or she shall promptly call for the assistance of a police officer and give the person arrested into the custody of the police officer. 114:

as long as the means employed are in proportion to the threat. In both countries, this results from a different legal norm, "aid to others in immediate danger", which is concerned with prevention, not prosecution, of crimes.

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b) If the other person was under pursuit after committing an offense, if there is the possibility of escape of the person under pursuit after committing an offense or, if the establishment of his identity right away is not

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by law and the criminal procedure does not require private complaint, and no law enforcement authority is available in due time. The arrester must immediately bring the detainee into the custody of law enforcement.

1492:, any person is allowed to arrest someone in the act of committing a crime or a fugitive as described in article 490 of the Criminal Procedure Law, and must be delivered to a judge within 24 hours (article 496). 3766: 2110:

for a crime occurring in their presence. However, the crimes for which this is permitted vary by state. This procedure was criticized in the state of Georgia for the potential of abuse and racial bias after the

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A person who arrests another person must, as soon as practicable after the arrest, arrange for the other person, and any property found on the other person, to be delivered into the custody of a constable.

618:) they make the arrest within a reasonable time after the offence is committed and they believe on reasonable grounds that it is not feasible in the circumstances for a peace officer to make the arrest. 324:

any person who is committing or who is about to join in or to renew the breach of the peace for such time as may be reasonably necessary in order to give the person into the custody of a police officer.

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They have been asked by a police officer to help arrest any person believed or suspected to have committed any offence unless they know that there is no reasonable ground for the belief or suspicion.

877:, anyone may arrest a person caught committing a felony, but is obliged to hand the person over to the "investigative authorities" immediately; if this is not possible, the police must be informed. 1762:. For this to apply, the offence must actually be in the process of being attempted—preparatory steps are not sufficient. Furthermore, the definition of what constitutes a "crime" was clarified in 1528:

When making an arrest, private individuals may only use force as a last resort and any force used must be reasonable. Arrested persons must be handed over to the police as quickly as possible.

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A person may also arrest another person if they are instructed to do so by a member of the police force, or if they believe on reasonable grounds that the offender is escaping legal custody.

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has the power to take into custody any member of the public who is in a Members-only area of the House, or who misconducts themselves, or who fails to leave when the House sits in private.

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in that there may be justification or protection from criminal responsibility. Justification of the arrest ensures the arresting person is not guilty of an offence and is not liable to any

1843:. Furthermore, the offence of 'assault with intent to resist arrest or lawful apprehension or detainer of himself' may apply if the arrestee assaulted the arrestor under Section 38 of the 1847:. Both assault with intent to resist arrest/lawful apprehension and escaping from lawful custody are indictable, the former being so by the mode of trial of the offence, the latter is a 865:

must be delivered to a police office as soon as possible for court proceedings. "Arrestable offence" is defined as any crimes that can be sentenced for more than 12 months of jail time.

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Criminal offences are divided into three groups: indictable, dual procedure, and summary conviction. For the purposes of arrest, dual procedure offences are considered to be indictable.

2115:. As a result, Georgia repealed its citizen's arrest law, and replaced it with a narrower law applying only to business owners, inspectors, security guards, and private investigators. 1389:

or the "Citizen's Arrest Ordinance of Quezon City". Any citizens within the Quezon City area can arrest a person even without a warrant in the instances mentioned and provided by law.

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person regarding the committing of such criminal offence has been announced, such person may be detained by anyone and shall immediately be transferred to the nearest police employee.

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In Serbia anybody can arrest somebody in the act of committing a crime that the arrested would otherwise be pursued after in official capacity, provided that the police are notified.

1355:, pursuant to § 176 of the Criminal Procedure Act any person may arrest a suspect caught at the scene or pursued from it. The arrestee must be handed over to the police immediately. 690:

Under any of the following circumstances, a person may be immediately taken by any citizen to a public security authority, a people's procuratorate, or a people's court for handling:

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for restraining another person as long as one has used proportional force in order to defend themselves or someone else or anyone's property, under Articles 336, 337 and 339 of the

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was charged with unlawful deprivation of liberty for arresting an American fugitive in Mexico and attempting to take him across the border to California without consulting police.

2127:" covers a multitude of violations in which the Supreme Court has even included a misdemeanor seatbelt violation punishable only by a fine. The term historically included theft, " 1003:, and authorises anyone to arrest someone for committing or having committed such an offence, whether in the Republic of Ireland or Northern Ireland. The 1976 act, and a similar 1766:

which stated under the S3 CLA1967 meaning, it was held to be any domestic crime in England/Wales. Kent Police have released a brief yet comprehensive guide on reasonable force.

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According to the Swiss Criminal Procedure Code § 218, citizens have the right to arrest a person when there is insufficient time to obtain police assistance, provided that

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establish that the crime has to be serious, nor that the person making the arrest has to actually be a citizen of Germany. The use of force is authorized, but the force must be

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believes it rises to a felony due to the damage. If they find the suspect and make the arrest but it later turns out that it was misdemeanor damage, the arrestor is liable for

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If the acts by which harm has been caused to the person to be detained have not been necessary for his or her arrest, liability on a general basis applies for the harm caused.

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Da die Freiheitsberaubung einen schweren Grundrechtseingriff darstellt, ist wiederum – als ungeschriebene Voraussetzung – der Verhältnismäßigkeitsgrund-satz zu beachten.

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The person making the arrest is entitled to perform a search on the suspect, provided (s)he is not working for the place of arrest (e.g. a security guard in a hospital).

635:(4) For greater certainty, a person who is authorized to make an arrest under this section is a person who is authorized by law to do so for the purposes of section 25. 3759: 2373: 3563: 2824: 3319: 1438:

With regards to the criminal aspects of the citizen's arrest, Article 255 of the Portuguese Code of Criminal Procedure gives any person the right to detain another

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they have caught the person in the act of committing a felony or misdemeanour or they have encountered the person immediately after committing such an offence; or

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Security guards and others working with preventing crime but are not police officers, have this law as justification to arrest thieves and other they encounter.

995:— this last permits arrest for a past crime as well as one in progress. In addition, the Criminal Law (Jurisdiction) Act 1976 schedules offences associated with 1103:, Section 213 of the Code of Criminal Procedure allows anyone from civilians to firefighters witnessing any crime in progress to make an arrest. This is called 3361: 1827:

is issued by a court, the warrant may name people (other than police officers) who are able to use it to arrest the person against whom it has been issued.

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anyone who is in the act of committing an offence, or whom the arrestor has reasonable grounds for suspecting to be in the act of committing an offence, or

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legislation; however, the exact power granted differs depending on jurisdiction. The power to arrest for a federal offence is granted by section 3Z of the

3677:"Постановление Пленума ВС РФ о применении судами законодательства о необходимой обороне и причинении вреда при задержании лица, совершившего преступление" 2123:

Most states have codified the common law rule that a warrantless arrest may be made by a private person for a felony, misdemeanor, or "breach of peace". "

974:" and "non-arrestable" offences; arrestable offences are those punishable by at least five years' imprisonment, and private individuals may arrest those 3433: 1113:). Most criminals who attempt to flee, or refuse to identify themselves, can be held until police arrive. However, making a citizen's arrest to prevent 1698:

where an offence has been committed, anyone who is guilty of that offence or whom the arrestor has reasonable grounds for suspecting to be guilty of it

3917: 3015: 2695: 1942: 1293:. The legislation is carefully worded and only applies to offences covered in the Crimes Act 1961, not other offences such as those covered in the 1289:. Protection from criminal responsibility means those who make the arrest are not liable to any criminal proceedings. They are however liable for 70:, called "any person arrest". This legislation states "any person" has these powers, with no requirement for the person making the arrest to hold 3833: 3550: 3538: 3526: 3514: 3502: 2633: 2576: 983:

Several other statutes which define offences likewise state "any person may arrest" someone committing the offence; relevant offences include

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that an offence has actually been committed. If it later turns out that an offence had not been committed, such an arrest would be unlawful.

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A "seizable offence" is defined as an offence in which a police officer may ordinarily arrest without warrant as per defined by the Code.

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A person who, in carrying out detention, has violated conditions regarding the detention, shall be liable for violating such conditions.

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it appears to the person making the arrest that it is not reasonably practicable for a police constable to make the arrest instead, and

1008: 4231: 1922:. An officer or agent of certain companies may seize and detain any person who has committed an offence against the provisions of the 915:

Any proclaimed offender he shall without unnecessary delay take such person over to a police officer or to the nearest police station.

4401: 3902:"House of Lords - R v. Jones (Appellant) (On Appeal from the Court of Appeal (Criminal Division)) (Formerly R v. J (Appellant)), Etc" 2243: 1369:

in the commission of a crime. Private citizens who make an arrest are obligated to immediately turn over the detainee to the police.

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When a felony has been in fact committed, and he or she has reasonable cause for believing the person arrested to have committed it.

4525: 1607:– (1) In the instances listed below, any individual is entitled to make an arrest of another person temporarily without a warrant: 1004: 2493: 1117:(e.g. illegal assembly, accidental injury, accidental trespass, defamation of character, leaving a parking lot without paying) is 628:(3) Any one other than a peace officer who arrests a person without warrant shall forthwith deliver the person to a peace officer. 2049: 1799:

Although a person cannot make a citizen's arrest before an offence takes place, they may use the power provided section 3 of the

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Any person found committing any offence against this Act which the maximum punishment is not less than 3 years' imprisonment; or

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The level of responsibility that a person performing a citizen's arrest may bear depends on the jurisdiction. For instance, in

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by someone of their own husband, wife or civil partner for the offences of theft or criminal damage where they are the victim.

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In all cases a person making a citizens arrest must hand over the suspect to a police officer at the earliest possible time.

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allows for a private person to arrest a person who, in his view, has committed a seizable offence or a non-bailable offence:

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If there is a reason to believe that such person comes under the provisions of Sec 41, a police officer shall re-arrest him.

4335:"Public offenses" include infractions. (Pen.Code § 16; People v. Tennessee (1970) 4 Cal.App.3d 788, 791, 84 Cal.Rptr. 697. 4299: 2002: 1844: 1817: 1680: 4242: 2835: 2028: 1930:, who "shall proceed with all convenient dispatch to the hearing and determining of the complaint against such offender". 1560:

A person in flagrante delicto is a person who is discovered in the act of committing an offense or immediately thereafter.

1315:

Other situations where members of the public are protected from criminal responsibility when involved in arresting where:

3323: 2304: 1129: 137: 3242: 2277: 1072: 886: 3478: 1855:

only. Therefore, these offences—whether fully carried out or merely attempted—are citizen's arrestable in themselves.

809:

punishable by a jail sentence, with the obligation to immediately bring that person before the nearest officer of the

3201: 2781: 2398: 2238: 2068: 2035: 3358: 851: 3163: 186:

Generally speaking, as regards the law in Australia: Where it is clear on the evidence that a private citizen, or

4199: 3282: 3049: 1459:, any person is allowed to arrest someone in the act of committing a crime pursuant to articles 37 and 38 of the 306:, arrest the other person. The power to arrest in Queensland also allows for arrest on suspicion of an offence: 290: 3901: 2681: 2017: 2006: 947: 902:

but if there is no sufficient reason to believe that he has committed any offence he shall at once be released.

261: 257:

will also decide whether or not the force applied in making the arrest was reasonable under the circumstances.

3790: 1859:

to have reasonable grounds to suspect the guilt of the arrestee. For example, if an offender failed to attend

4259: 3134: 3104: 4060: 827:) can be made under § 127 I 1 StPO (code of penal procedures) if the arrestee is caught 4447: 4063:

of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 (Commencement No. 4 and Transitory Provision) Order 2005

3074: 1431: 1269:

committing such offence from going away or escaping and hand him or her over to the nearby police office."

540: 477: 3580: 2611: 4583: 3914: 3624: 2699: 2518: 2213:

state. Police can also detain anyone upon reasonable suspicion. However, ordinary citizens cannot claim "

407:

to prevent the continuation or repetition of the offence, or the commission of a further offence, and/or

4588: 3041: 1890: 1840: 1813: 1751: 1688: 1146: 984: 4095: 4056: 2667: 2468: 2131:", prostitution, and playing card and dice games. Texas courts have defined and interpreted the term " 1644:

offences (in this section referred to simply as "an offence"), but with some exceptions listed below.

2810: 2233: 2196: 1882: 1294: 589:(ii) is escaping from and freshly pursued by persons who have lawful authority to arrest that person. 4415: 4347: 2637: 110:, a person stopping a criminal from committing a crime, including crimes against belongings, is not 1918:

bailiffs). This ceased to have effect as a result of a general repeal of such arrest powers by the

1863:

this would satisfy two conditions for a lawful citizen's arrest at a later date – that the offence

1039: 895:

police officer, take such person or cause him to be taken in custody to the nearest police station.

3703:"Real Decreto de 14 de septiembre de 1882 por el que se aprueba la Ley de Enjuiciamiento Criminal" 2713: 3803: 3647: 2862: 2112: 1995: 1934: 1464: 1460: 1204:

The causing of harm to the detained person through negligence shall not be criminally punishable.

397:, arrest a person that they find committing an offence for one or more of the following reasons: 133: 111: 71: 4014: 3581:"Lov om rettergangsmåten i straffesaker (Straffeprosessloven) — Kap 14. Pågripelse og fengsling" 2135:" to mean an act that disturbs or threatens to disturb the tranquility enjoyed by the citizens. 2042: 1960: 1870:

Although not technically citizen's arrest powers, any person also has the power to arrest for a

1304:

states that everyone (not just New Zealand citizens) is justified in arresting without warrant:

4474: 4433: 3708: 1926:

whose name and residence shall be but unknown to such officer or agent, and take them before a

1816:. Similarly, a person who uses force to resists a citizen's arrest would commit the offence of 1247: 536: 54:

Despite the practice's name, in most countries the arresting person is usually designated as a

4545: 4376: 1083:) and the felony they are caught committing includes mandatory arrest from the police and is " 4578: 4330: 3401: 3389: 3377: 3191: 2736:

https://lawethiopia.com/index.php/volume-3/131-legislations/codes/379-criminal-procedure-code

2598: 2278:"HUDSON v. COMMONWEALTH, Record No. 022703., September 12, 2003 - VA Supreme Court - FindLaw" 1800: 1789: 1415: 943: 835: 4153:"The Police and Criminal Evidence (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2007 No. 288 (NI. 2)" 2540: 1889:

e.g. an offender on a recall to prison or in the circumstances where someone has managed to

535:'s blanket arrest authorities for crimes or violations of federal statutes are found in the 4593: 3865: 2947: 1927: 1563:

A person is considered to be in flagrante delicto under one of the following circumstances:

1439: 1365: 1252: 1139: 1109: 1080: 975: 829: 797: 778: 384: 295: 159: 3960: 3846: 2825:"Examinatorium Strafprozessrecht – Arbeitsblatt Nr. 22 - Vorläufige Festnahme, § 127 StPO" 2326: 8: 4112: 4039: 3933: 3413: 2227: 2132: 2128: 2124: 1874: 1684: 963: 939: 316: 4277: 3987: 1952:

have the additional power to restrain and remove persons from court buildings under s53

236:

the person has committed a serious indictable offence for which the person has not been

3992: 3965: 3938: 3870: 3702: 3168: 3109: 3079: 2253: 2214: 1915: 1867:

taken place and that it was obviously indictable by way of being tried in Crown Court.

1672: 1637: 1118: 971: 698:

the person is committing a crime or is discovered immediately after committing a crime;

466: 446: 167: 87: 44: 4152: 4130: 1632:

A citizen's arrest can be lawfully carried out on any person under section 24A of the

966:. The Criminal Law Act 1997 abolished the common-law distinction between felonies and 772: 4559: 4207: 3733: 3338: 3197: 2978: 2793: 2785: 2348: 1949: 1281:, some legal protection exists to those making a citizen's arrest as provided in the 858: 430: 246: 63: 4313:"California Penal Code Section 16 - California Attorney Resources - California Laws" 3224: 2863:"Reply by the Secretary for Justice, Mr Rimsky Yuen, SC, in the Legislative Council" 4598: 2920: 1804: 1676: 1469: 1423: 1019: 1000: 151: 40: 4312: 2634:"Backgrounder: Citizen's Power of Arrest and Self-Defence and Defence of Property" 2154:

When the person arrested has committed a felony, although not in his/her presence.

2143:

Consider, for an example of this codification, California Penal Code section 837:

2090:

offence occurring therefore they cannot act upon information from another person.

1136:

gives a right to any person to apprehend someone in the act of committing a crime

4533: 3921: 3420: 3365: 2880: 2742: 1953: 1774: 1660: 1427: 1411: 1311:

Any person found at night (9pm till 6am) committing any offence against this Act.

1301: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1043: 1031: 992: 811: 450: 389: 342: 207: 142: 28: 3607:"Peru: New Provisions on Police Detention and on Crimes Discovered in Flagrante" 3434:"Duane 'Dog' Chapman Says Feds Sold Him Out to Mexico in Exchange for Drug Lord" 1381:

does not have a national law covering citizen's arrest, the local government of

1363:

The Code of Criminal Procedure allows private citizens to arrest persons caught

907:

According to this section any private person may arrest or cause to be arrested

4059:

of Schedule 7 to the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005; commenced by

2894:"2017. évi XC. Törvény a büntetőeljárásról - Hatályos Jogszabályok Gyűjteménye" 2107: 1903: 1878: 1836: 1824: 1809: 1652: 1641: 935: 728: 211: 187: 32: 4027: 3643: 2908: 1557:

A person in flagrante delicto may be arrested without a warrant by any person.

4572: 4211: 2797: 2789: 2772:

République française; Secrétariat général du gouvernement (19 October 2022).

2099: 1911: 1735:

an offence has been committed, the person who makes the arrest must actually

1257: 1022:

to believe the arrested person to have committed the offence, the latter may

988: 394: 354:

to or destruction of property (whether the offence is summary or indictable).

303: 299: 227: 219: 155: 2924: 1540:, "except in case of flagrante delicto as provided by law", as shown below: 1536:

An arrest without a warrant is explicitly forbidden by the Article 8 in the

1523:

the public have been requested to assist in tracing of the person concerned.

912:

A person committing a non bailable and cognizable offence in his presence or

375:(Tas) that appear to allow a sliding scale of force in executing an arrest. 3676: 2696:"Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China (2012 Amendment)" 2167: 1725:

the person absconding before a constable can assume responsibility for them

1443: 1419: 996: 967: 147: 95: 1781:(that is, pretending to be someone else in order to vote) in elections, or 2258: 2200: 1860: 1778: 1382: 1378: 1278: 1114: 1047: 1012: 951: 806: 437:

which allowed any person to arrest without a warrant "any reputed common

191: 4074:"Companies Clauses Consolidation Act 1845 (c.16) – Statute Law Database" 2734:

Criminal Procedure Code of Ethiopia, Proclamation no. 185/1961. Art. 50

2174:

essentially the same, North Carolina law refers to it as a "detention".

1902:

Until 2006, there was an "any person" power of arrest under part of the

934:

The term "citizen's arrest" is colloquially used for arrest, without an

94:, or wrongful arrest) if the wrong person is apprehended or a suspect's 82:

Anyone who makes a citizen's arrest can find themselves facing possible

2762:

Criminal Procedure Code of Ethiopia, Proclamation no. 185/1961. Art. 50

2753:

Criminal Procedure Code of Ethiopia, Proclamation no. 185/1961. Art. 57

2195:

In some states of the United States, the courts recognize a common law

2086: 2009: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1871: 1852: 1848: 1759: 1648: 1027: 955: 792: 438: 315:

Section 260 of the Act also provides a power to arrest in preventing a

285: 254: 250: 91: 36: 3663: 3286: 2974:"Addict battled with tourist after bid to steal ring - Independent.ie" 1777:, on a person who commits or is suspected of committing an offence of 1750:

an offence occurs as long as the offence in question falls within the

732: 417:

Section 461 states that if an arrest is made under section 458 of the

4290:

Ross v. State, 802 4S.W.2d 308,314-15 (Tex.App. Dallas 1990, no pet.)

3011: 2082: 1709:

the arrestor has reasonable grounds for believing that the arrest is

1149:. The arrested person must be handed over to the police immediately. 1015:

between the jurisdictions, which would have been more controversial.

861:

and proportionate in the circumstances". Once an arrest is made, the

351: 288:, the power to arrest is granted by section 546 of Schedule 1 to the 281: 203: 129: 1984: 775:

gives a right to apprehend someone in the act of committing a crime

539:. In Canada, a criminal offence is any offence that is created by a 3437: 2948:"Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform: Citizen's Arrests" 2217:" to attempt to defend against a civil complaint for false arrest. 1907: 1886: 1691:. It is thus permissible for any person to arrest without warrant: 1664: 1442:

if and only if the latter's conduct in question is punishable with

1035: 1023: 756: 433:

parliament repealed the provisions of the former section 47 of the

368: 3075:"Criminal Justice (Theft and Fraud Offences) Act, 2001, Section 8" 2992:

American tourist Michael Lacey ... carried out a citizen's arrest.

2881:

Criminal Procedure Ordinance (Hong Kong), Chapter 221, Section 101

1702:

However, both of following two conditions must also be satisfied:

1426:

and alike), and as long as there is an impossibility to resort to

2773: 2519:"South Australia Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 Section 271" 1668: 862: 768: 744: 496: 174: 107: 83: 48: 4131:"The Police and Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1989" 3734:"¿Qué es un delito flagrante? La flagrancia en el Derecho Penal" 2151:

For a public offense committed or attempted in his/her presence.

4246: 2563:"RIS - Strafprozeßordnung 1975 § 80 - Bundesrecht konsolidiert" 2420: 2305:"Vilifying the Vigilante: A Narrowed Scope of Citizen's Arrest" 2103: 1597: 1501: 1456: 1398: 1352: 1327:

committed, and whether or not the arrested person committed it.

1133: 1059: 959: 802: 532: 516: 103: 24: 1898:

Breach of the peace § England, Wales and Northern Ireland

980:, having committed, or about to commit an arrestable offence. 4232:

In Ahmaud Arbery's Name, Georgia Repeals Citizen's Arrest Law

1956:

as well as powers of search and seizure of certain articles.

1839:

and anyone attempting to flee may be guilty of attempting to

1656: 1489: 1147:

as long as the means employed are in proportion to the threat

1100: 575:) a person whom he finds committing an indictable offence; or 442: 237: 51:

encouraged ordinary citizens to help apprehend law breakers.

2081:

While no statutory provision for citizen's arrest exists in

2776:[The public service for dissemination of the law]. 1808:

imminently smash a window. A citizen's arrest is a form of

1087:", meaning that the judicial authority, once received the " 1042:. Citizen's arrests are rare; most often they are made by 3225:"חוק סדר הדין הפלילי (סמכויות אכיפה - מעצרים), תשנ"ו-1996" 2521:. Australasian Legal Information Institute. 1 January 2014 2199:

under which a shopkeeper is allowed to detain a suspected

1812:

and anyone attempting to flee would commit the offence of

2811:§ 127 StPO (code of penal procedures) (Germany) 2577:"Art. 301 do Código Processo Penal - Decreto Lei 3689/41" 2543:. Australasian Legal Information Institute. 20 April 2014 1885:

also provides any person the power to apprehend a person

1716:

the person causing physical injury to themself or others,

1071:

Any private citizen can, according to article 383 of the

401:

to ensure the appearance of the offender in court, and/or

62:

of the country in which they are acting. For example, in

3193:

British Government Policy in Northern Ireland, 1969–2000

3020:

Select Committee on Legislation and Security proceedings

410:

for the safety or welfare of the public or the offender.

350:

indictable); or an offence involving interference with,

210:, the power to arrest is granted to anyone who is not a 166:

the other person is committing or has just committed an

2780:. Direction de l'information légale et administrative. 2774:"Légifrance Le service public de la diffusion du droit" 2474:. Government of Queensland, Australia. 27 November 2013 453:. Citizen's arrest powers are now in section 25 of the 387:, the power to arrest is granted in section 458 of the 3760:"The Swedish Code of Criminal Procedure, Ch 24 Sect 7" 2909:"Citizen's Arrest in Legal System of Iran and England" 2190: 1758:

offence, as long as the offence being attempted is an

1612:

a) If the other person was seen committing an offense,

216:

Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Act 2002

4333:. Appellate Division, Superior Court, Orange County. 2599:

What You Need to Know About Making a Citizen's Arrest

1823:

In addition to an arrest without a warrant, where an

486:(ACT), section 218, which permits a citizen's arrest. 4040:"Paragraph 2(4) of Schedule 1 to the Theft Act 1968" 3866:"section 24A, Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984" 3661:

Polish Code of Criminal Procedure Act of 6 June 1997

3650:

from the original on 2021-12-12 – via YouTube.

2942: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2934: 1722:

the person causing loss of or damage to property, or

3477:. Neighbourhood Support New Zealand. Archived from 3164:"Criminal Law (Jurisdiction) Act, 1976, Section 19" 3105:"Stamp Duties Consolidation Act, 1999, Section 149" 2170:because a felony had not, in fact, been committed. 1075:, arrest another person, provided they are caught " 4434:"Edward Thomas WILSON v. COMMONWEALTH of Virginia" 4373:Susquehanna County Office of the District Attorney 2823:Heinrich, Bernd; Reinbacher, Tobias (2020-10-01). 2822: 2207: 582:) a person who, on reasonable grounds, he believes 233:the person has just committed any such offence, or 2931: 1571:One is pursued with cries that he is an offender; 4570: 2907:Mehra, Nasrin; Jahani, Behzad (March 20, 2016). 2682:"Trespass to Property Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. T.21" 2445:. Law Society of New South Wales. Archived from 2443:"Law Society of New South Wales - Under arrest?" 842:) to the circumstances and the suspected crime. 271:inform the person of the reasons for the arrest. 268:inform the person that they are under arrest and 194:for such suspects in appropriate circumstances. 3934:"section 71, Electoral Administration Act 2006" 3611:Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA 3564:"Administration of Criminal Justice Act (2015)" 218:(NSW). Under the Act, a person may, without a 4270: 3183: 3099: 3097: 795:allows any civilian to arrest a person caught 710:the person has escaped from incarceration; and 393:(Vic). It states that a person may, without a 77: 1250:allows any person to arrest a criminal found 938:, made by someone other than a member of the 66:, the power comes from Section 24A(2) of the 4353:. Alameda County District Attorney's Office. 4096:"Standing Order 161 of the House of Commons" 3860: 3858: 3856: 3641: 3469: 3467: 3158: 3156: 3069: 3067: 958:power for private individuals to arrest for 501: 4448:"Use of Force for Law Enforcement Purposes" 4394:"Detention of offenders by private persons" 3196:. Manchester University Press. p. 26. 3094: 3006: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2906: 2832:Universität Würzburg - Juristische Fakultät 2379:. Commonwealth of Australia. 1 October 2012 2329:. The National Archives, UK. 16 August 2011 2093: 1920:Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 1176:Section 31. Detention Causing Personal Harm 158:, arrest another person if they believe on 3189: 3129: 3127: 2423:. The Law Society of New South Wales. 2009 2147:837. A private person may arrest another: 1788:or stirring up religious hatred under the 1746:"Any person" powers can be used to arrest 875:Act XC. of 2017 concerning Penal Procedure 543:statute—there are no "provincial crimes". 226:the person is in the act of committing an 39:jurisdictions, the practice dates back to 4436:. Court of Appeals of Virginia, Richmond. 3853: 3464: 3390:Criminal Procedure Code (Act 593) § 27(5) 3378:Criminal Procedure Code (Act 593) § 27(2) 3153: 3064: 2469:"Criminal Code Act 1899 - CriminCode.pdf" 2244:Powers of the police in England and Wales 2069:Learn how and when to remove this message 1713:to prevent one or more of the following: 1402:surrendered to the police without delay. 586:(i) has committed a criminal offence, and 550:property-related offence and the arrest. 341:(SA) grants arrest powers to a person in 230:under any Act or statutory instrument, or 132:, the power to arrest is granted by both 3791:Swiss Criminal Procedure Code § 218 3644:"QC ordinance allows 'citizen's arrest'" 3402:Criminal Procedure Code (Act 593) § 2(1) 2997: 2309:Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy 1924:Companies Clauses Consolidation Act 1845 716:the person is being pursued for capture. 679:Chinese criminal procedure law empowers 31:– a person who is not acting as a sworn 3124: 3034: 2660:"Criminal Code (R.S.C., 1985, c. C-46)" 2612:"Citizen's Arrest and Self-defence Act" 2327:"Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984" 611:) they make the arrest at that time; or 253:to be dealt with according to law. The 4571: 4514:Prosser and Keeton on the Law of Torts 4197: 4015:"Offences against the Person Act 1861" 3343:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3190:Cunningham, Michael (10 August 2001). 3135:"Criminal Damage Act 1991; Section 12" 2954:. KildareStreet.com. 29 September 2005 2771: 1939:House of Commons of the United Kingdom 1877:which also provides any person with a 1121:per Section 220 of the Criminal Code. 825:Jedermann-Anhalte- und -Festnahmerecht 567:(1) Any one may arrest without warrant 58:with arrest powers, who need not be a 4548:. Supreme Court of the United States. 4280:. Supreme Court of the United States. 4278:"Atwater v. Lago Vista (No. 99-1408)" 4257: 3731: 3243:"Art. 383 Codice di Procedura Penale" 2716:. retsinformation.dk. 24 October 2012 1961:Power of arrest § United Kingdom 1906:in England and Wales that related to 1754:. This act creates the offence of an 1719:the person suffering physical injury, 1634:Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 1538:Constitution of the Republic of China 1224:person to the nearest police station. 294:(Qld). Under the Act, any person who 86:or criminal charges (e.g. charges of 68:Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 4175:"Category · Ask the Scottish Police" 3503:Crimes Act 1961, Section 35 & 36 3016:"Criminal Law Bill, 1996: Section 4" 3010: 2007:adding citations to reliable sources 1978: 1845:Offences Against the Person Act 1861 1818:assault with intent to resist arrest 1681:possession of a controlled substance 1627: 1550:Article 88: Arrest without a Warrant 1463:and the Ruling of the Plenum of the 560:Arrest without warrant by any person 424: 4546:"Terry v. Ohio (392 U.S. 1 (1968))" 4416:"§19.2-81 Arrest Without a Warrant" 3475:"Citizen's Arrest and Self-defence" 2349:"REGINA -V- SELF; CACD 25 FEB 1992" 2302: 2249:Breach of the peace (England/Wales) 2191:Shopkeeper's (merchant's) privilege 1965: 1769:A citizen's arrest cannot be made: 1687:are listed under Schedule 1 of the 942:. Despite the colloquial name, non- 773:Coercive Measures Act 22.7.2011/806 339:Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 13: 4260:"Superheroes and Citizen's Arrest" 3988:"section 3, Criminal Law Act 1967" 3732:Vidal, Gerson (5 September 2023). 3625:"Peru enacts citizen's arrest law" 3414:Constitution of Mexico, Article 16 2401:. NSW Government. 15 November 2013 1073:Italian Code of Criminal Procedure 656:Arrest without warrant on premises 599:Arrest by owner, etc., of property 460: 332: 197: 118: 14: 4610: 4464: 3818:"Turkish Criminal Procedure Code" 2579:(in Portuguese). Jusbrasil.com.br 2296: 2239:Individuals with powers of arrest 2138: 1622: 1159:Section 265. Detention Procedures 946:have performed such arrests. The 722: 640: 4552: 4538: 4519: 4506: 4497: 4488: 4458: 4440: 4426: 4408: 4386: 4363: 4357: 4340: 4323: 4305: 4200:"How to Make a Citizen's Arrest" 3642:ABS-CBN News (1 November 2014). 2913:Journal of Criminal Law Research 2666:. 11 August 2016. Archived from 1983: 1835:A citizen's arrest is a form of 1600:Criminal Procedure Code states: 887:Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 404:to preserve public order, and/or 16:Arrest made by a private citizen 4398:North Carolina General Statutes 4293: 4284: 4251: 4236: 4225: 4191: 4167: 4145: 4123: 4105: 4088: 4066: 4050: 4032: 4021: 4007: 3980: 3953: 3926: 3908: 3894: 3885: 3839: 3827: 3810: 3796: 3784: 3772:from the original on 2019-08-31 3752: 3725: 3695: 3669: 3654: 3635: 3629:News from Peru - Peruvian Times 3617: 3599: 3573: 3556: 3544: 3532: 3520: 3508: 3496: 3452: 3426: 3407: 3395: 3383: 3371: 3352: 3312: 3301: 3285:. Tanteisha.net. Archived from 3275: 3264: 3253: 3235: 3217: 3141:. Dublin: Law Reform Commission 3042:"Criminal Law Act 1997; §§ 2–4" 2966: 2900: 2886: 2874: 2855: 2816: 2804: 2765: 2756: 2747: 2728: 2706: 2688: 2674: 2652: 2636:. Justice.gc.ca. Archived from 2626: 2604: 2591: 2569: 2555: 2533: 2511: 2486: 2421:"Homepage - Law Society of NSW" 2399:"Police powers - Legal Aid NSW" 2208:Differing liability from police 2181: 1994:needs additional citations for 1830: 455:Criminal Investigation Act 2006 264:, the arresting person should: 4155:. Opsi.gov.uk. 7 February 2007 3847:"Magistrates' Courts Act 1980" 2461: 2435: 2413: 2391: 2366: 2341: 2319: 2270: 1546:The Code of Criminal Procedure 1510: 1372: 1272: 948:law of the Republic of Ireland 823:Citizen's arrests (in German: 733:the Code of Criminal Procedure 527: 262:Law Society of New South Wales 249:found on the person, before a 1: 4179:www.askthe.scottish.police.uk 2952:Dáil Éireann: Written answers 2264: 2118: 1784:in relation to an offence of 1186:non-compliance or resistance. 1009:extraterritorial jurisdiction 852:Citizen's arrest in Hong Kong 429:It was only in 2004 that the 275: 4452:Criminal Law Capsule Summary 4198:Wollan, Malia (6 May 2016). 4133:. Opsi.gov.uk. 25 April 2012 3961:"section 30, Theft Act 1968" 3707:Boletín Oficial del Estado ( 1910:, which was used by private 873:According to article 273 of 845: 478:Australian Capital Territory 222:, arrest another person if: 123: 7: 4516:§ 22, at 142 (5th ed. 1984) 3587:(in Norwegian). 22 May 1981 3551:Crimes Act 1961, Section 38 3539:Crimes Act 1961, Section 43 3527:Crimes Act 1961, Section 42 3515:Crimes Act 1961, Section 34 2927:– via jclr.atu.ac.ir. 2834:(in German). Archived from 2220: 1974: 1948:Court security officers in 1405: 1210: 970:and instead distinguishes " 750: 383:In the Australian state of 378: 358: 78:Legal and political aspects 10: 4615: 1958: 1895: 1891:escape from lawful custody 1841:escape from lawful custody 1814:escape from lawful custody 1752:Criminal Attempts Act 1981 1689:Magistrates Court Act 1980 1430:. The main requirement of 1337: 985:making off without payment 929: 868: 849: 818: 762: 738: 731:, pursuant to § 76 (2) of 683:to make citizen's arrest: 666:Delivery to police officer 490: 4366:"From the Desk of the DA" 4028:Guidance: Powers of entry 2614:. Laws-lois.justice.gc.ca 1883:Criminal Justice Act 1967 1786:stirring up racial hatred 1592: 1531: 1495: 1475: 1450: 1392: 1346: 1295:Summary Offences Act 1981 1241: 1124: 1053: 787: 625:Delivery to peace officer 522: 510: 4512:W. Page, Keeton et al., 4503:Texas Penal Code 9.51(d) 4494:Texas Penal Code 9.51(b) 3915:Use of Force Guide: Kent 3713:(290). 14 September 1882 2094:United States of America 1731:Where an arrest is made 1483: 1263: 1094: 1066: 1011:, obviated the need for 880: 674: 652:TRESPASS TO PROPERTY ACT 365:Police Offences Act 1935 296:finds another committing 33:law-enforcement official 3834:Offence classifications 3459:Criminal procedure code 3022:. Oireachtas. p. 4 2925:10.22054/jclr.2016.3953 2113:murder of Ahmaud Arbery 2102:, a private person may 1465:Supreme Court of Russia 1461:Criminal Code of Russia 1410:In Portugal one is not 1358: 1246:Article 16 of the 1917 1217:Criminal Procedure Code 920: 4264:Law and the Multiverse 4117:www.legislation.gov.uk 4044:www.legislation.gov.uk 3891:R v Self 3 All ER 476 3709:Official State Gazette 2234:Shopkeeper's privilege 2197:shopkeeper's privilege 2160: 1851:offence and therefore 1683:. Further examples of 1620: 1586: 1248:Constitution of Mexico 1236: 1226: 1208: 1169: 1155:CRIMINAL PROCEDURE LAW 1130:Criminal Procedure Law 1085:perseguibile d'ufficio 1018:If the arrester lacks 905: 720: 672: 638: 502: 373:Criminal Code Act 1924 356: 326: 313: 291:Criminal Code Act 1899 214:by section 100 of the 112:criminally responsible 90:, unlawful restraint, 3050:Law Reform Commission 2702:on September 7, 2015. 2145: 1801:Criminal Law Act 1967 1790:Public Order Act 1986 1602: 1542: 1416:Portuguese Civil Code 1231: 1221: 1215:Section 27(1) of the 1170: 1151: 1077:in flagranza di reato 950:, being derived from 891: 704:the person is wanted; 685: 648: 632:For greater certainty 552: 503:Anhalterecht Privater 499:, citizen's arrests ( 347: 321: 308: 4560:"Qualified immunity" 4404:on 15 November 2012. 4382:on 3 September 2014. 3419:3 March 2007 at the 3014:(26 November 1996). 2670:on 28 February 2012. 2664:Justice Laws Website 2498:Legal Aid Queensland 2003:improve this article 1928:justice of the peace 1764:R v Jones (Margaret) 1440:in flagrante delicto 1366:in flagrante delicto 1253:in flagrante delicto 1140:in flagrante delicto 1110:in flagrante delicto 1081:In flagrante delicto 830:in flagrante delicto 798:in flagrante delicto 779:in flagrante delicto 4526:Enacted Legislation 4076:. Statutelaw.gov.uk 3440:. 19 September 2006 2982:. 20 September 2002 2449:on 20 February 2014 2228:R. v. Asante-Mensah 2133:breach of the peace 1887:unlawfully at large 1875:breach of the peace 1685:either-way offences 1679:in a public place, 1675:, possession of an 1258:Duane 'Dog' Chapman 964:breach of the peace 885:Section 43, of the 337:Section 271 of the 317:breach of the peace 146:. Under the Act, a 72:British citizenship 4584:Criminal procedure 4532:2015-08-24 at the 4467:"Citizen's Arrest" 4465:Flynn, Michael W. 4348:"Citizens' Arrest" 4331:"People v. Landis" 4258:Daily, JD, James. 4204:The New York Times 3993:legislation.gov.uk 3966:legislation.gov.uk 3939:legislation.gov.uk 3920:2018-11-23 at the 3871:legislation.gov.uk 3765:. 1 January 1999. 3364:2012-03-14 at the 3169:Irish Statute Book 3110:Irish Statute Book 3080:Irish Statute Book 2741:2022-12-02 at the 2640:on 23 October 2013 2254:Neighborhood watch 2215:qualified immunity 2106:another without a 2018:"Citizen's arrest" 1916:Environment Agency 1673:actual bodily harm 1647:A few examples of 1638:indictable offence 1300:Specifically, the 1119:false imprisonment 1007:giving reciprocal 467:Northern Territory 431:Western Australian 168:indictable offence 160:reasonable grounds 88:false imprisonment 45:English common law 4589:Legal terminology 4528:ncga.state.nc.us 4113:"Courts Act 2003" 3681:Российская газета 2979:Irish Independent 2541:"Crimes Act 1958" 2494:"Personal safety" 2079: 2078: 2071: 2053: 1950:England and Wales 1628:England and Wales 1291:civil proceedings 812:police judiciaire 447:disorderly person 445:, loose, idle or 425:Western Australia 260:According to the 64:England and Wales 4606: 4564: 4563: 4556: 4550: 4549: 4542: 4536: 4523: 4517: 4510: 4504: 4501: 4495: 4492: 4486: 4485: 4483: 4482: 4473:. Archived from 4462: 4456: 4455: 4444: 4438: 4437: 4430: 4424: 4423: 4420:Code of Virginia 4412: 4406: 4405: 4400:. Archived from 4390: 4384: 4383: 4381: 4375:. Archived from 4370: 4361: 4355: 4354: 4352: 4344: 4338: 4337: 4327: 4321: 4320: 4309: 4303: 4297: 4291: 4288: 4282: 4281: 4274: 4268: 4267: 4255: 4249: 4240: 4234: 4229: 4223: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4195: 4189: 4188: 4186: 4185: 4171: 4165: 4164: 4162: 4160: 4149: 4143: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4127: 4121: 4120: 4109: 4103: 4102: 4100: 4092: 4086: 4085: 4083: 4081: 4070: 4064: 4054: 4048: 4047: 4036: 4030: 4025: 4019: 4018: 4011: 4005: 4004: 4002: 4000: 3984: 3978: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3948: 3946: 3930: 3924: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3898: 3892: 3889: 3883: 3882: 3880: 3878: 3862: 3851: 3850: 3843: 3837: 3831: 3825: 3824: 3822: 3814: 3808: 3807: 3800: 3794: 3788: 3782: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3771: 3764: 3756: 3750: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3729: 3723: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3699: 3693: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3673: 3667: 3658: 3652: 3651: 3639: 3633: 3632: 3631:. June 10, 2009. 3621: 3615: 3614: 3603: 3597: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3568: 3560: 3554: 3548: 3542: 3536: 3530: 3524: 3518: 3512: 3506: 3500: 3494: 3493: 3491: 3489: 3483: 3471: 3462: 3456: 3450: 3449: 3447: 3445: 3430: 3424: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3393: 3387: 3381: 3375: 3369: 3359:The Criminal Law 3356: 3350: 3348: 3342: 3334: 3332: 3331: 3322:. Archived from 3316: 3310: 3305: 3299: 3298: 3296: 3294: 3279: 3273: 3268: 3262: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3239: 3233: 3232: 3221: 3215: 3214: 3212: 3210: 3187: 3181: 3180: 3178: 3176: 3160: 3151: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3131: 3122: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3101: 3092: 3091: 3089: 3087: 3071: 3062: 3061: 3059: 3057: 3038: 3032: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3008: 2995: 2994: 2989: 2987: 2970: 2964: 2963: 2961: 2959: 2944: 2929: 2928: 2904: 2898: 2897: 2890: 2884: 2878: 2872: 2870: 2859: 2853: 2852: 2847: 2846: 2840: 2829: 2820: 2814: 2808: 2802: 2801: 2769: 2763: 2760: 2754: 2751: 2745: 2732: 2726: 2725: 2723: 2721: 2710: 2704: 2703: 2698:. Archived from 2692: 2686: 2685: 2678: 2672: 2671: 2656: 2650: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2630: 2624: 2623: 2621: 2619: 2608: 2602: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2573: 2567: 2566: 2559: 2553: 2552: 2550: 2548: 2537: 2531: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2515: 2509: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2490: 2484: 2483: 2481: 2479: 2473: 2465: 2459: 2458: 2456: 2454: 2439: 2433: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2417: 2411: 2410: 2408: 2406: 2395: 2389: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2378: 2370: 2364: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2345: 2339: 2338: 2336: 2334: 2323: 2317: 2316: 2303:Robbins, Ira P. 2300: 2294: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2274: 2074: 2067: 2063: 2060: 2054: 2052: 2011: 1987: 1979: 1966:Northern Ireland 1943:Serjeant at Arms 1805:reasonable force 1677:offensive weapon 1287:civil proceeding 1173:THE CRIMINAL LAW 1089:notitia criminis 1044:store detectives 1020:reasonable cause 1001:Northern Ireland 954:, inherited the 505: 188:security officer 152:police constable 41:medieval England 21:citizen's arrest 4614: 4613: 4609: 4608: 4607: 4605: 4604: 4603: 4569: 4568: 4567: 4558: 4557: 4553: 4544: 4543: 4539: 4534:Wayback Machine 4524: 4520: 4511: 4507: 4502: 4498: 4493: 4489: 4480: 4478: 4463: 4459: 4446: 4445: 4441: 4432: 4431: 4427: 4414: 4413: 4409: 4392: 4391: 4387: 4379: 4368: 4362: 4358: 4350: 4346: 4345: 4341: 4329: 4328: 4324: 4311: 4310: 4306: 4298: 4294: 4289: 4285: 4276: 4275: 4271: 4256: 4252: 4241: 4237: 4230: 4226: 4216: 4214: 4196: 4192: 4183: 4181: 4173: 4172: 4168: 4158: 4156: 4151: 4150: 4146: 4136: 4134: 4129: 4128: 4124: 4111: 4110: 4106: 4098: 4094: 4093: 4089: 4079: 4077: 4072: 4071: 4067: 4055: 4051: 4038: 4037: 4033: 4026: 4022: 4013: 4012: 4008: 3998: 3996: 3986: 3985: 3981: 3971: 3969: 3959: 3958: 3954: 3944: 3942: 3932: 3931: 3927: 3922:Wayback Machine 3913: 3909: 3900: 3899: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3876: 3874: 3864: 3863: 3854: 3845: 3844: 3840: 3832: 3828: 3820: 3816: 3815: 3811: 3802: 3801: 3797: 3789: 3785: 3775: 3773: 3769: 3762: 3758: 3757: 3753: 3743: 3741: 3730: 3726: 3716: 3714: 3701: 3700: 3696: 3686: 3684: 3675: 3674: 3670: 3659: 3655: 3640: 3636: 3623: 3622: 3618: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3590: 3588: 3579: 3578: 3574: 3566: 3562: 3561: 3557: 3549: 3545: 3537: 3533: 3525: 3521: 3513: 3509: 3501: 3497: 3487: 3485: 3481: 3473: 3472: 3465: 3457: 3453: 3443: 3441: 3432: 3431: 3427: 3421:Wayback Machine 3412: 3408: 3400: 3396: 3388: 3384: 3376: 3372: 3366:Wayback Machine 3357: 3353: 3336: 3335: 3329: 3327: 3320:"Archived copy" 3318: 3317: 3313: 3308:b:ja:刑事訴訟法第220条 3306: 3302: 3292: 3290: 3289:on 22 June 2013 3281: 3280: 3276: 3271:b:ja:刑事訴訟法第217条 3269: 3265: 3260:b:ja:刑事訴訟法第213条 3258: 3254: 3241: 3240: 3236: 3223: 3222: 3218: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3188: 3184: 3174: 3172: 3162: 3161: 3154: 3144: 3142: 3133: 3132: 3125: 3115: 3113: 3103: 3102: 3095: 3085: 3083: 3073: 3072: 3065: 3055: 3053: 3040: 3039: 3035: 3025: 3023: 3009: 2998: 2985: 2983: 2972: 2971: 2967: 2957: 2955: 2946: 2945: 2932: 2905: 2901: 2892: 2891: 2887: 2879: 2875: 2861: 2860: 2856: 2844: 2842: 2838: 2827: 2821: 2817: 2809: 2805: 2770: 2766: 2761: 2757: 2752: 2748: 2743:Wayback Machine 2733: 2729: 2719: 2717: 2712: 2711: 2707: 2694: 2693: 2689: 2684:. 24 July 2014. 2680: 2679: 2675: 2658: 2657: 2653: 2643: 2641: 2632: 2631: 2627: 2617: 2615: 2610: 2609: 2605: 2596: 2592: 2582: 2580: 2575: 2574: 2570: 2561: 2560: 2556: 2546: 2544: 2539: 2538: 2534: 2524: 2522: 2517: 2516: 2512: 2502: 2500: 2492: 2491: 2487: 2477: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2466: 2462: 2452: 2450: 2441: 2440: 2436: 2426: 2424: 2419: 2418: 2414: 2404: 2402: 2397: 2396: 2392: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2371: 2367: 2357: 2355: 2347: 2346: 2342: 2332: 2330: 2325: 2324: 2320: 2301: 2297: 2287: 2285: 2276: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2223: 2210: 2193: 2184: 2141: 2125:Breach of peace 2121: 2096: 2075: 2064: 2058: 2055: 2012: 2010: 2000: 1988: 1977: 1968: 1963: 1954:Courts Act 2003 1935:Standing Orders 1914:(as opposed to 1900: 1833: 1775:polling station 1661:criminal damage 1630: 1625: 1619: 1595: 1585: 1584: 1581: 1564: 1552: 1548: 1534: 1526: 1513: 1498: 1486: 1478: 1472:without delay. 1453: 1432:proportionality 1428:law enforcement 1408: 1395: 1375: 1361: 1349: 1340: 1302:Crimes Act 1961 1283:Crimes Act 1961 1275: 1266: 1244: 1213: 1207: 1168: 1161: 1157: 1127: 1097: 1069: 1056: 1032:wrongful arrest 1026:the former for 1005:Westminster act 993:property damage 932: 923: 918: 883: 871: 854: 848: 840:verhältnismäßig 821: 790: 765: 753: 741: 725: 719: 677: 671: 668: 664: 663: 658: 654: 643: 637: 634: 630: 629: 627: 622: 621: 601: 596: 595: 592: 562: 558: 530: 525: 513: 493: 484:Crimes Act 1900 463: 461:The Territories 451:legal certainty 435:Police Act 1892 427: 390:Crimes Act 1958 381: 361: 343:South Australia 335: 333:South Australia 278: 208:New South Wales 200: 198:New South Wales 173:proceedings by 143:Crimes Act 1914 126: 121: 119:Laws by country 80: 29:private citizen 17: 12: 11: 5: 4612: 4602: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4566: 4565: 4551: 4537: 4518: 4505: 4496: 4487: 4457: 4439: 4425: 4407: 4385: 4356: 4339: 4322: 4317:law.onecle.com 4304: 4300:Court document 4292: 4283: 4269: 4250: 4235: 4224: 4190: 4166: 4144: 4122: 4104: 4087: 4065: 4049: 4031: 4020: 4006: 3979: 3952: 3925: 3907: 3893: 3884: 3852: 3838: 3826: 3809: 3795: 3783: 3751: 3724: 3694: 3668: 3653: 3634: 3616: 3598: 3572: 3555: 3543: 3531: 3519: 3507: 3495: 3484:on 4 June 2010 3463: 3451: 3425: 3406: 3394: 3382: 3370: 3351: 3311: 3300: 3274: 3263: 3252: 3234: 3229:www.nevo.co.il 3216: 3202: 3182: 3152: 3123: 3093: 3063: 3052:. 30 June 2016 3033: 2996: 2965: 2930: 2899: 2885: 2873: 2854: 2815: 2803: 2764: 2755: 2746: 2727: 2705: 2687: 2673: 2651: 2625: 2603: 2590: 2568: 2554: 2532: 2510: 2485: 2460: 2434: 2412: 2390: 2365: 2340: 2318: 2295: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2262: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2246: 2241: 2236: 2231: 2222: 2219: 2209: 2206: 2192: 2189: 2183: 2180: 2159: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2140: 2139:State statutes 2137: 2120: 2117: 2095: 2092: 2077: 2076: 1991: 1989: 1982: 1976: 1973: 1967: 1964: 1912:water bailiffs 1904:Theft Act 1968 1879:power of entry 1837:lawful custody 1832: 1829: 1825:arrest warrant 1810:lawful custody 1797: 1796: 1793: 1782: 1729: 1728: 1727: 1726: 1723: 1720: 1717: 1707: 1700: 1699: 1696: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1623:United Kingdom 1621: 1618: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1594: 1591: 1583: 1582: 1580: 1579: 1572: 1565: 1561: 1558: 1554: 1543: 1533: 1530: 1525: 1524: 1521: 1517: 1512: 1509: 1497: 1494: 1485: 1482: 1477: 1474: 1452: 1449: 1412:civilly liable 1407: 1404: 1394: 1391: 1387:Ordinance 2307 1374: 1371: 1360: 1357: 1348: 1345: 1339: 1336: 1332: 1331: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1313: 1312: 1309: 1274: 1271: 1265: 1262: 1243: 1240: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1205: 1199: 1193: 1187: 1179: 1152: 1126: 1123: 1107:(現行犯, meaning 1096: 1093: 1068: 1065: 1055: 1052: 1040:District Court 989:revenue stamps 944:Irish citizens 940:Garda Síochána 936:arrest warrant 931: 928: 922: 919: 917: 916: 913: 909: 904: 903: 899: 896: 882: 879: 870: 867: 850:Main article: 847: 844: 820: 817: 789: 786: 764: 761: 752: 749: 740: 737: 729:Czech Republic 724: 723:Czech Republic 721: 718: 717: 711: 705: 699: 692: 676: 673: 649: 642: 641:Provincial law 639: 620: 619: 612: 604: 594: 593: 591: 590: 587: 583: 576: 568: 553: 529: 526: 524: 521: 512: 509: 492: 489: 488: 487: 480: 474: 473: 469: 462: 459: 426: 423: 412: 411: 408: 405: 402: 380: 377: 360: 357: 334: 331: 277: 274: 273: 272: 269: 242: 241: 234: 231: 212:police officer 199: 196: 180: 179: 171: 125: 122: 120: 117: 79: 76: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4611: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4576: 4574: 4561: 4555: 4547: 4541: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4522: 4515: 4509: 4500: 4491: 4477:on 2013-06-06 4476: 4472: 4468: 4461: 4454:. LexisNexis. 4453: 4449: 4443: 4435: 4429: 4421: 4417: 4411: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4389: 4378: 4374: 4367: 4364:Legg, Jason. 4360: 4349: 4343: 4336: 4332: 4326: 4318: 4314: 4308: 4301: 4296: 4287: 4279: 4273: 4265: 4261: 4254: 4248: 4245: 4239: 4233: 4228: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4194: 4180: 4176: 4170: 4154: 4148: 4132: 4126: 4118: 4114: 4108: 4097: 4091: 4075: 4069: 4062: 4058: 4053: 4045: 4041: 4035: 4029: 4024: 4016: 4010: 3995: 3994: 3989: 3983: 3968: 3967: 3962: 3956: 3941: 3940: 3935: 3929: 3923: 3919: 3916: 3911: 3903: 3897: 3888: 3873: 3872: 3867: 3861: 3859: 3857: 3848: 3842: 3835: 3830: 3819: 3813: 3805: 3799: 3792: 3787: 3768: 3761: 3755: 3739: 3735: 3728: 3712: 3710: 3704: 3698: 3682: 3678: 3672: 3665: 3662: 3657: 3649: 3645: 3638: 3630: 3626: 3620: 3612: 3608: 3602: 3586: 3582: 3576: 3565: 3559: 3552: 3547: 3540: 3535: 3528: 3523: 3516: 3511: 3504: 3499: 3480: 3476: 3470: 3468: 3461:moljpa.gov.np 3460: 3455: 3439: 3435: 3429: 3422: 3418: 3415: 3410: 3403: 3398: 3391: 3386: 3379: 3374: 3367: 3363: 3360: 3355: 3346: 3340: 3326:on 2013-01-30 3325: 3321: 3315: 3309: 3304: 3288: 3284: 3278: 3272: 3267: 3261: 3256: 3248: 3244: 3238: 3230: 3226: 3220: 3205: 3203:9780719057670 3199: 3195: 3194: 3186: 3171: 3170: 3165: 3159: 3157: 3140: 3136: 3130: 3128: 3112: 3111: 3106: 3100: 3098: 3082: 3081: 3076: 3070: 3068: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3037: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3007: 3005: 3003: 3001: 2993: 2981: 2980: 2975: 2969: 2953: 2949: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2926: 2922: 2919:(14): 35–58. 2918: 2914: 2910: 2903: 2895: 2889: 2882: 2877: 2868: 2864: 2858: 2851: 2841:on 2022-08-09 2837: 2833: 2826: 2819: 2812: 2807: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2768: 2759: 2750: 2744: 2740: 2737: 2731: 2715: 2709: 2701: 2697: 2691: 2683: 2677: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2655: 2639: 2635: 2629: 2613: 2607: 2600: 2594: 2578: 2572: 2564: 2558: 2542: 2536: 2520: 2514: 2499: 2495: 2489: 2470: 2464: 2448: 2444: 2438: 2422: 2416: 2400: 2394: 2375: 2374:"ComLaw Home" 2369: 2354: 2350: 2344: 2328: 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