England in the Middle Ages

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building programmes or to reward their followers, and this meant exercising their feudal rights to interfere in the land-holdings of nobles. This was contentious and a frequent issue of complaint, as there was a growing belief that land should be held by hereditary right, not through the favour of the king. Property and wealth became increasingly focused in the hands of a subset of the nobility, the great magnates, at the expense of the wider baronage, encouraging the breakdown of some aspects of local feudalism. As time went by, the Norman nobility intermarried with many of the great Anglo-Saxon families, and the links with the Duchy began to weaken. By the late 12th century, mobilising the English barons to fight on the continent was proving difficult, and John's attempts to do so ended in civil war. Civil strife re-emerged under Henry III, with the rebel barons in 1258–59 demanding widespread reforms, and an early version of Parliament was summoned in 1265 to represent the rebel interests.

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houses with the halls on the first floor; master and servants frequently lived in the same spaces. Wealthier town-houses were also built using stone, and incorporated business and domestic arrangements into a single functional design. By the 14th century grander houses and castles were sophisticated affairs: expensively tiled, often featuring murals and glass windows, these buildings were often designed as a set of apartments to allow greater privacy. Fashionable brick began to be used in some parts of the country, copying French tastes. Architecture that emulated the older defensive designs remained popular. Less is known about the houses of peasants during this period, although many peasants appear to have lived in relatively substantial, timber-framed long-houses; the quality of these houses improved in the prosperous years following the Black Death, often being built by professional craftsmen.

1882:. Major nobles in turn granted lands to smaller landowners in return for homage and further military support, and eventually the peasantry held land in return for local labour services, creating a web of loyalties and resources enforced in part by new honorial courts. This system had been used in Normandy and concentrated more power in the king and the upper elite than the former Anglo-Saxon system of government. The practice of slavery declined in the years after the conquest, as the Normans considered the practice backward and contrary to the teachings of the church. The more prosperous peasants, however, lost influence and power as the Normans made holding land more dependent on providing labour services to the local lord. They sank down the economic hierarchy, swelling the numbers of unfree 2429: 3385:; Cnut's fleet had as many as 40 vessels, while Edward the Confessor could muster 80 ships. Some ships were manned by sailors called lithesmen and bustsecarls, probably drawn from the coastal towns, while other vessels were mobilised as part of a national levy and manned by their regular crews. Naval forces played an important role during the rest of the Middle Ages, enabling the transportation of troops and supplies, raids into hostile territory and attacks on enemy fleets. English naval power became particularly important after the loss of Normandy in 1204, which turned the English Channel from a friendly transit route into a contested and critical border region. English fleets in the 13th and 14th centuries typically comprised specialist vessels, such as 2226: 1494: 1835: 3955: 2547: 2195:

possibly as early as the 1150, contemporary commentators believed the two peoples to be blending, and the loss of the Duchy in 1204 reinforced this trend. The resulting society still prized wider French cultural values, however, and French remained the language of the court, business and international affairs, even if Parisians mocked the English for their poor pronunciation. By the 14th century, however, French was increasingly having to be formally taught, rather than being learnt naturally in the home, although the aristocracy would typically spend many years of their lives in France and remained entirely comfortable working in French.

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daughter priories and monastic cells across the kingdom. The monasteries were brought firmly into the web of feudal relations, with their holding of land linked to the provision of military support to the crown. The Normans adopted the Anglo-Saxon model of monastic cathedral communities, and within seventy years the majority of English cathedrals were controlled by monks; every English cathedral, however, was rebuilt to some extent by the new rulers. England's bishops remained powerful temporal figures, and in the early 12th-century raised armies against Scottish invaders and built up extensive holdings of castles across the country.

3072: 1945: 3362: 2157: 2912: 3976:'s plays on the lives of the medieval kings have proved to have had long lasting appeal, heavily influencing both popular interpretations and histories of figures such as King John and Henry V. Other playwrights have since taken key medieval events, such as the death of Thomas Becket, and used them to draw out contemporary themes and issues. The medieval mystery plays continue to be enacted in key English towns and cities. Film-makers have drawn extensively on the medieval period, often taking themes from Shakespeare or the Robin Hood ballads for inspiration. 8673: 8535: 1305: 1654: 3024:. The Great Famine shook the English economy severely and population growth ceased; the first outbreak of the Black Death in 1348 then killed around half the English population. The agricultural sector shrank rapidly, with higher wages, lower prices and diminishing profits leading to the final demise of the old demesne system and the advent of the modern farming system centring on the charging of cash rents for lands. As returns on land fell, many estates, and in some cases entire settlements, were simply abandoned, and nearly 1,500 3512: 2253:. During the 12th century, the Jewish financial community grew richer still, operating under royal protection and providing the king with a source of ready credit. All major towns had Jewish centres, and even the smaller towns saw visits by travelling Jewish merchants. Towards the end of Henry II's reign, however, the king ceased to borrow from the Jewish community and instead turned to extracting money from them through arbitrary taxation and fines. The Jews became vilified and accusations were made that they conducted 11630: 2069: 3863: 2296: 11654: 11618: 30: 1140: 2763: 3265: 3786: 2389:. The process was largely complete by the end of the 7th century, but left a confusing and disparate array of local practices and religious ceremonies. This new Christianity reflected the existing military culture of the Anglo-Saxons: as kings began to convert in the 6th and 7th centuries, conversion began to be used as a justification for war against the remaining pagan kingdoms, for example, while Christian saints were imbued with martial properties. 1976:. Edward used Parliament even more than his predecessors to handle general administration, to legislate and to raise the necessary taxes to pay for the wars in France. The royal lands—and incomes from them—had diminished over the years, and increasingly frequent taxation was required to support royal initiatives. Edward held elaborate chivalric events in an effort to unite his supporters around the symbols of knighthood. The ideal of 1859:(successors to the ealdermen), sheriffs and church seniors were all drawn from their ranks. In many areas of society there was continuity, as the Normans adopted many of the Anglo-Saxon governmental institutions, including the tax system, mints and the centralisation of law-making and some judicial matters; initially sheriffs and the hundred courts continued to function as before. The existing tax liabilities were captured in the 11699: 11642: 821: 3428: 3637: 11682: 2207:

lived in the special enclaves in London in the Late Middle Ages; the position of the Jews is described below, but Italian and Baltic traders were also regarded as aliens and were frequently the targets of violence during economic downturns. Even within England, different identities abounded, each with their own sense of status and importance. Regional identities could be important – men and women from

86: 1453:, inherited England in 1199 but lost Normandy and most of Aquitaine after several years of war with France. John fought successive, increasingly expensive, campaigns in a bid to regain these possessions. John's efforts to raise revenues, combined with his fractious relationships with many of the English barons, led to confrontation in 1215, an attempt to restore peace through the signing of 2096:

the 9th century. Anglo-Saxon queens began to hold lands in their own right in the 10th century and their households contributed to the running of the kingdom. Although women could not lead military forces, in the absence of their husbands some noblewomen led the defence of manors and towns. Most Anglo-Saxon women, however, worked on the land as part of the agricultural community, or as

2640:". The English bishops were charged to control and counter this trend, disrupting Lollard preachers and to enforcing the teaching of suitable sermons in local churches. By the early 15th century, combating Lollard teachings had become a key political issue, championed by Henry IV and his Lancastrian followers, who used the powers of both the church and state to combat the 3045:: trade collapsed, driving down agricultural prices, rents and ultimately the acceptable levels of royal taxation. The resulting tensions and discontent played an important part in Jack Cade's popular uprising in 1450 and the subsequent Wars of the Roses. By the end of Middle Ages the economy had begun to recover and considerable improvements were being made in 3488:

Smaller defensible structures called tower houses emerged in the north of England to protect against the Scottish threat. By the late medieval period, town walls were increasingly less military in character and more often expressions of civic pride or part of urban governance: many grand gatehouses were built in the 14th and 15th centuries for these purposes.

3808:- and round-houses were constructed in some settlements, while in others timber buildings were built imitating the older Roman styles. The Germanic immigrants constructed small rectangular buildings from wood, and occasionally grander halls. However, the conversion to Christianity in the 6th and 7th centuries reintroduced Italian and French 3606:, were also famous in this period, featuring rich decoration, a combination of grotesque and natural figures and rich colours. The quality of illuminated art in England declined significantly in the face of competition from Flanders in the 14th century, and later English illuminated medieval pieces generally imitated Flemish styles. 2984:. The next two centuries saw huge growth in the English economy, driven in part by the increase in the population from around 1.5 million in 1086 to between 4 and 5 million in 1300. More land, much of it at the expense of the royal forests, was brought into production to feed the growing population and to produce 3275:

Warfare was endemic in early Anglo-Saxon England, and major conflicts still occurred approximately every generation in the later period. Groups of well-armed noblemen and their households formed the heart of these armies, supported by larger numbers of temporary troops levied from across the kingdom,

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William the Conqueror acquired the support of the Church for the invasion of England by promising ecclesiastical reform. William promoted celibacy amongst the clergy and gave ecclesiastical courts more power, but also reduced the Church's direct links to Rome and made it more accountable to the king.

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carried out against Jewish communities in the reign of Richard I. After an initially peaceful start to John's reign, the king again began to extort money from the Jewish community and, with the breakdown in order in 1215, the Jews were subject to fresh attacks. Henry III restored some protection

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became an essential feature for a fashionable castle. The economics of maintaining castles meant that many were left to decline or abandoned; in contrast, a small number of castles were developed by the very wealthy into palaces that hosted lavish feasts and celebrations amid elaborate architecture.

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Many of the fortifications built by the Romans in England survived into the Middle Ages, including the walls surrounding their military forts and cities. These defences were often reused during the unstable post-Roman period. The Anglo-Saxon kings undertook significant planned urban expansion in the

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After the Norman invasion, the position of women in society changed. The rights and roles of women became more sharply defined, in part as a result of the development of the feudal system and the expansion of the English legal system; some women benefited from this, while others lost out. The rights

2046:. Law and order deteriorated, and the crown was unable to intervene in the factional fighting between different nobles and their followers. The resulting Wars of the Roses saw a savage escalation of violence between the noble leaderships of both sides: captured enemies were executed and family lands 1963:

On becoming king in 1272, Edward I reestablished royal power, overhauling the royal finances and appealing to the broader English elite by using Parliament to authorise the raising of new taxes and to hear petitions concerning abuses of local governance. This political balance collapsed under Edward

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were performed to communicate the Bible in various locations. By the late 14th century, these had been extended into vernacular mystery plays which performed annually over several days, broken up into various cycles of plays; a handful have survived into the 21st century. Guilds competed to produce

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The 1066 Norman conquest brought a new set of Norman and French churchmen to power; some adopted and embraced aspects of the former Anglo-Saxon religious system, while others introduced practices from Normandy. Extensive English lands were granted to monasteries in Normandy, allowing them to create

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industry in the 15th century. Higher status jobs and apprenticeships, however, remained closed to women. As in earlier times, noblewomen exercised power on their estates in their husbands' absence and again, if necessary, defended them in sieges and skirmishes. Wealthy widows who could successfully

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The years after the Black Death left many women widows; in the wider economy labour was in short supply and land was suddenly readily available. In rural areas peasant women could enjoy a better standard of living than ever before, but the amount of work being done by women may have increased. Many

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remarried against their wishes. The growth of governmental institutions under a succession of bishops reduced the role of queens and their households in formal government. Married or widowed noblewomen remained significant cultural and religious patrons and played an important part in political and

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was introduced in 1377 that spread the costs of the war in France more widely across the whole population. The tensions spilled over into violence in the summer of 1381 in the form of the Peasants' Revolt; a violent retribution followed, with as many as 7,000 alleged rebels executed. A new class of

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rapidly became the norm for succession. The kings further bolstered their status by adopting Christian ceremonies and nomenclature, introducing ecclesiastical coronations during the 8th century and terming themselves "Christ's deputy" by the 11th century. Huge estates were initially built up by the

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and promoting the Anglo-Norman colonisation of the country. Henry strengthened England's borders with Wales and Scotland, and used the country's wealth to fund a long-running war with his rivals in France, but arrangements for his succession once again proved problematic. Several revolts broke out,

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were also fashionable, due in part to the interest of Henry II. English continued to be used on a modest scale to write local religious works and some poems in the north of England, but most major works were produced in Latin or French. In the reign of Richard II there was an upsurge in the use of

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in 1346. Soldiers began to be contracted for specific campaigns, a practice which may have hastened the development of the armies of retainers that grew up under bastard feudalism. By the late 15th century, however, English armies were somewhat backward by wider European standards; the Wars of the

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was not new in England, however, as the idea of religiously justified warfare went back to Anglo-Saxon times. Many of those who took up the Cross to go on a Crusade never actually left, often because the individual lacked sufficient funds to undertake the journey. Raising funds to travel typically

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was considered lazy, barbarous and backward. Following the invasion of Ireland in the late 12th century, similar feelings were expressed about the Irish, with the distinctions clarified and reinforced in 14th-century English legislation. The English also felt strongly about the foreign traders who

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An English cultural identity first emerged from the interaction of the Germanic immigrants of the 5th and 6th centuries and the indigenous Romano-British inhabitants. Although early medieval chroniclers described the immigrants as Angles and Saxons, they came from a much wider area across Northern

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In Anglo-Saxon society, noblewomen enjoyed considerable rights and status, although the society was still firmly patriarchal. Some exercised power as abbesses, exerting widespread influence across the early English Church, although their wealth and authority diminished with the monastic reforms of

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became a distinctive form of English art during this later medieval period, although the coloured glass for these works was almost entirely imported from Europe. Little early stained glass in England has survived, but it typically had both an ornamental and educational function, while later works

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to become a small standing army, forming the core of much larger armies up to 28,700 strong, largely comprising foot soldiers, for campaigns in Scotland and France. By the time of Edward III, armies were smaller in size, but the troops were typically better equipped and uniformed, and the archers

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industry grew considerably at the start of the 15th century, and a new class of international English merchant emerged, typically based in London or the South-West, prospering at the expense of the older, shrinking economies of the eastern towns. These new trading systems brought about the end of

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and promoted greater influence for the papacy in church matters. Despite the bishops continuing to play a major part in royal government, tensions emerged between the kings of England and key leaders within the English Church. Kings and archbishops clashed over rights of appointment and religious

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By the time that Richard II was deposed in 1399, the power of the major noble magnates had grown considerably; powerful rulers such as Henry IV would contain them, but during the minority of Henry VI they controlled the country. The magnates depended upon their income from rent and trade to allow

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of monks. These institutions were badly affected in the 9th century by Viking raids and predatory annexations by the nobility. By the start of the 10th century, monastic lands, financial resources and the quality of monasteries' religious work had been much diminished. Reforms followed under the

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and had their own distinctive culture. For many years, to be English was to be associated with military failure and serfdom. During the 12th century, the divisions between the English and Normans began to dissolve as a result of intermarriage and cohabitation. By the end of the 12th century, and

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Many tensions existed within the system of government. Royal landownings and wealth stretched across England, and placed the king in a privileged position above even the most powerful of the noble elite. Successive kings, though, still needed more resources to pay for military campaigns, conduct

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arrived in England. The losses from the epidemic, and the recurring plagues that followed it, significantly affected events in England for many years to come. Meanwhile, Edward, under pressure from France in Aquitaine, made a challenge for the French throne. Over the next century, English forces

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Meanwhile, domestic architecture had continued to develop, with the Normans, having first occupied the older Anglo-Saxon dwellings, rapidly beginning to build larger buildings in stone and timber. The elite preferred houses with large, ground-floor halls but the less wealthy constructed simpler

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territories. By the time of William's death in 1087, England formed the largest part of an Anglo-Norman empire, ruled over by a network of nobles with landholdings across England, Normandy, and Wales. England's growing wealth was critical in allowing the Norman kings to project power across the

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style developed throughout the period, featuring characteristic circular arches. By the 10th and 11th centuries, much larger churches and monastery buildings were being built, featuring square and circular towers after the contemporary European fashion. The palaces constructed for the nobility

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Poetry and stories written in French were popular after the Norman conquest, and by the 12th century some works on English history began to be produced in French verse. Romantic poems about tournaments and courtly love became popular in Paris and this fashion spread into England in the form of

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Medieval England produced art in the form of paintings, carvings, books, fabrics and many functional but beautiful objects. A wide range of materials was used, including gold, glass and ivory, the art usually drawing overt attention to the materials utilised in the designs. Anglo-Saxon artists

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military campaigns, in which commanders tried to raid enemy lands and seize castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries' territory, ultimately winning slow but strategic victories. Pitched battles were occasionally fought between armies but these were considered risky

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societies, each based on ties of allegiance between powerful lords and their immediate followers. At the top of the social structure was the king, who stood above many of the normal processes of Anglo-Saxon life and whose household had special privileges and protection. Beneath the king were

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shrines were converted to Christian use and few pagan sites still operated by the 5th century. The collapse of the Roman system in the late 5th century, however, brought about the end of formal Christian religion in the east of England, and the new Germanic immigrants arrived with their own

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to control the major centres of power, granting extensive lands to his main Norman followers and co-opting or eliminating the former Anglo-Saxon elite. Major revolts followed, which William suppressed before intervening in the north-east of England, establishing Norman control of York and

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With the conversion of much of England in the 6th and 7th centuries, there was an explosion of local church building. English monasteries formed the main basis for the church, however, and were often sponsored by local rulers, taking various forms, including mixed communities headed by

3888:'s 18th-century writings were influential, presenting the medieval period as a dark age between the glories of Rome and the rebirth of civilisation in the Early Modern period. Late Victorian historians continued to use the chroniclers as sources, but also deployed documents such as 2557:

The Church had a close relationship with the English state throughout the Middle Ages. The bishops and major monastic leaders played an important part in national government, having key roles on the king's council. Bishops often oversaw towns and cities, managing local taxation and

2092:; whether they were unmarried, married, widowed or remarried; and in which part of the country they lived. Significant gender inequalities persisted throughout the period, as women typically had more limited life-choices, access to employment and trade, and legal rights than men. 1772:

The Anglo-Saxon kings built up a set of written laws, issued either as statutes or codes, but these laws were never written down in their entirety and were always supplemented by an extensive oral tradition of customary law. In the early part of the period local assemblies called

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The Norman conquest introduced northern French artistic styles, particular in illuminated manuscripts and murals, and reduced the demand for carvings. In other artistic areas, including embroidery, the Anglo-Saxon influence remained evident into the 12th century, and the famous

1553:. Despite the challenges involved in raising the revenues to pay for the war, Edward's military successes brought an influx of plundered wealth to many parts of England and enabled substantial building work by the king. Many members of the English elite, including Edward's son 1025:. At times England enjoyed huge military success, with the economy buoyed by profits from the international wool and cloth trade, but by 1450 the country was in crisis, facing military failure in France and an ongoing recession. More social unrest broke out, followed by the 2003:

and the Black Death. The economic and demographic crisis created a sudden surplus of land, undermining the ability of landowners to exert their feudal rights and causing a collapse in incomes from rented lands. Wages soared, as employers competed for a scarce workforce.

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and other medieval institutions which governed the growing trade. Jewish financiers played a significant role in funding the growing economy, along with the new Cistercian and Augustinian religious orders that emerged as major players in the wool trade of the north.

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land, and the majority of the fields that would be cultivated by local peasants. These peasants would pay rent to the landowner either through agricultural labour on the lord's demesne fields or through rent in the form of cash and produce. By the 11th century, a

2632:, combined with the abuses of wealth within the Church and the role of senior churchmen in government, distracted from that study. A loose movement that included many members of the gentry pursued these ideas after Wycliffe's death in 1384 and attempted to pass a 1076:. At the end of the 4th century, however, Roman forces had been largely withdrawn, and this economy collapsed. Germanic settlers began to arrive in increasing numbers during the 5th and 6th centuries, establishing small farms and settlements, and their language, 2838:—which criss-crossed the entire country. The road system was adequate for the needs of the period, although it was significantly cheaper to transport goods by water. The major river networks formed key transport routes, while many English towns formed navigable 2860:

Even at the start of the Middle Ages the English landscape had been shaped by human occupation over many centuries. Much woodland was new, the result of fields being reclaimed by brush after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Human intervention had established

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Academics have discussed the fate of Edward II at length. The majority opinion is that Edward died in 1327 at Berkeley Castle, possibly murdered; a minority opinion holds that Edward was either released or escaped, and lived on elsewhere in Europe for many

3841:, were built in many English buildings. In the 15th century the architectural focus turned away from cathedrals and monasteries in favour of parish churches, often decorated with richly carved woodwork; in turn, these churches influenced the design of new 2849:, a prolonged period of warmer temperatures; in the early 13th century, for example, summers were around 1 °C warmer than today and the climate was slightly drier. These warmer temperatures allowed poorer land to be brought into cultivation and for 3028:

during this period. A new class of gentry emerged who rented farms from the major nobility. Unsuccessful government attempts were made to regulate wages and consumption, but these largely collapsed in the decades following the Peasants' Revolt of 1381.

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levies, drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign. Mercenaries were increasingly employed, driving up the cost of warfare considerably, and adequate supplies of ready cash became essential for the success of campaigns.

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during the late 15th century. Transport links were also improved; many road bridges were either erected or rebuilt in stone during the long economic boom of the 12th and 13th centuries. England's maritime trade benefited from the introduction of

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Europe, and represented a range of different ethnic groups. Over the 6th century, however, these different groups began to coalesce into stratified societies across England, roughly corresponding to the later Angle and Saxon kingdoms recorded by

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Although the Norman invasion caused some damage as soldiers looted the countryside and land was confiscated for castle building, the English economy was not greatly affected. Taxes were increased, however, and the Normans established extensive

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lived wild in England, bears being hunted to extinction by the 11th century and beavers by the 12th. Of the 10,000 miles of roads that had been built by the Romans, many remained in use and four were of particular strategic importance—the

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During the Anglo-Saxon period, many shrines were built on former pagan sites which became popular pilgrimage destinations, while other pilgrims visited prominent monasteries and sites of learning. Senior nobles or kings would travel to

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used by the wealthier nobles; cavalry was probably less common than in wider Europe, but some Anglo-Saxons did fight from horseback. The Viking attacks on England in the 9th century led to developments in tactics, including the use of

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is controversial in current academic debate on the medieval period; depending on the definition used, feudalism may have pre-dated the Conquest instead of being imported by the Normans, and some academics consider the term unreliable

1903:, the military household, emerged to act as a bodyguard and military staff. England's bishops continued to form an important part in local administration, alongside the nobility. Henry I and Henry II both implemented significant 3927:

analysis became influential in the 1970s and 1980s, focusing on identity, gender, interpretation and culture. Many studies focused on particular regions or groups, drawing on new records and new scientific approaches, including

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The Jewish community played an important role in England throughout much of the period. The first Jews arrived in England in the aftermath of the Norman invasion, when William the Conqueror brought over wealthy members of the

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By the 14th century, castles were combining defences with luxurious, sophisticated living arrangements and landscaped gardens and parks. Early gunpowder weapons were used to defend castles by the end of the 14th century and

2955:. In the late Anglo-Saxon period many peasants moved away from living in isolated hamlets and instead came together to form larger villages engaged in arable cultivation. Agricultural land became typically organised around 2674:

were a popular religious practice throughout the Middle Ages in England, with the tradition dating back to the Roman period. Typically pilgrims would travel short distances to a shrine or a particular church, either to do

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then popular on the Continent. A reformed network of around 40 monastic institutions across the south and east of England, under the protection of the king, helped re-establish royal control over the reconquered Danelaw.

2869:, a more intensive approach to managing woodlands. Other agricultural lands included arable fields and pastorage, while in some parts of the country, such as the South-West, waste moorland remained testament to earlier 3677:, but still showing signs of the new Christian influences in England. Old English was also used for academic and courtly writing from the 9th century onwards, including translations of popular foreign works, including 1793:

in which the value of different individuals swearing on behalf of the plaintiff or defendant varied according to their social status – the word of a companion of the king, for example, was worth twelve times that of a

1711:, but in the 9th and 10th centuries these were slowly broken up as a consequence of inheritance arrangements, marriage settlements and church purchases. In the 11th century, the royal position worsened further, as the 3824:

The Normans brought with them architectural styles from their own duchy, where austere stone churches were preferred. Under the early Norman kings this style was adapted to produce large, plain cathedrals with ribbed

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became an important form of music in the 15th century; originally these had been a song sung during a dance with a prominent refrain — the 15th century form lost the dancing and introduced strong religious overtones.

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occur in 851, when chroniclers described Wessex ships defeating a Viking fleet. These early fleets were limited in size but grew in size in the 10th century, allowing the power of Wessex to be projected across the

2857:; by the 14th century spring temperatures had dropped considerably, reaching their coldest in the 1340s and 1350s. This cold end to the Middle Ages significantly affected English agriculture and living conditions. 2578:

in 664; some issues were resolved, but arguments between the archbishops of Canterbury and York as to which had primacy across Britain began shortly afterwards and continued throughout most of the medieval period.

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emerged as a result of these changes, renting land from the major nobility to farm out at a profit. The legal system continued to expand during the 14th century, dealing with an ever-wider set of complex problems.

2042:, opposing raising taxes to pay for the French wars. By the 1430s and 1440s the English government was in major financial difficulties, leading to the crisis of 1450 and a popular revolt under the leadership of 1508:

On becoming king, Edward I rebuilt the status of the monarchy, restoring and extending key castles that had fallen into disrepair. Uprisings by the princes of North Wales led to Edward mobilising a huge army,

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rapidly built up huge new estates, making them collectively much more powerful than the king—this contributed to the political instability of the final Anglo-Saxon years. As time went by, the position of the

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had been the official imperial religion of the Roman Empire, and the first churches were built in England in the second half of the 4th century, overseen by a hierarchy of bishops and priests. Many existing

3166:, one of the longest medical works ever written in Latin. Prominent historical and science texts began to be translated into English for the first time in the second half of the 14th century, including the 2612:

were variously forced into exile, arrested by royal knights or even killed. By the early 13th century, however, the church had largely won its argument for independence, answering almost entirely to Rome.

2691:, which was a popular destination from the 7th century onwards; sometimes these trips were a form of convenient political exile. Under the Normans, religious institutions with important shrines, such as 885:

was in tatters and many of the towns abandoned. After several centuries of Germanic immigration, new identities and cultures began to emerge, developing into kingdoms that competed for power. A rich

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Kowalski, Maryanne (2007). "Warfare, Shipping, and Crown Patronage: The Economic Impact of the Hundred Years War on the English Port Towns". In Armstrong, Lawrin; Elbl, Ivana; Elbl, Martin (eds.).

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other women travelled to the towns and cities, to the point where they outnumbered men in some settlements. There they worked with their husbands, or in a limited number of occupations, including

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military events, even if chroniclers were uncertain if this was appropriate behaviour. As in earlier centuries, most women worked in agriculture, but here roles became more clearly gendered, with

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and the lives of women were heavily influenced by contemporary beliefs about gender and authority. However, the position of women varied considerably according to various factors, including their

3829:. During the 12th century the Anglo-Norman style became richer and more ornate, with pointed arches derived from French architecture replacing the curved Romanesque designs; this style is termed 3041:. Fishing in the North Sea expanded into deeper waters, backed by commercial investment from major merchants. Between 1440 and 1480, however, Europe entered a recession and England suffered the 3347:

Roses were fought by inexperienced soldiers, often with outdated weapons, allowing the European forces which intervened in the conflict to have a decisive effect on the outcomes of battles.

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agriculture, while the poorer soils and colder climate of the north and west produced a predominantly pastoral economy. Slightly more land was covered by trees than in the 20th century, and

2211:, for example, had a clear identity within English society, and professional groups with a distinct identity, such as lawyers, engaged in open fighting with others in cities such as London. 2385:, kings of Northumbria, were converted in the 630s and 640s, and the wave of change carried on through the middle of the 7th century across the kingdoms of Mercia, the South Saxons and the 1855:

Within twenty years of the Norman conquest, the former Anglo-Saxon elite were replaced by a new class of Norman nobility, with around 8,000 Normans and French settling in England. The new

3884:. In the 16th century, the first academic histories began to be written, typically drawing primarily on the chroniclers and interpreting them in the light of current political concerns. 993:, catastrophic events that killed around half of England's population, throwing the economy into chaos, and undermining the old political order. Social unrest followed, resulting in the 3723:

Music and singing were important in England during the medieval period, being used in religious ceremonies, court occasions and to accompany theatrical works. Singing techniques called

1167:

covering much of England. Mercia and the remaining kingdoms, led by their warrior elites, continued to compete for territory throughout the 8th century. Massive earthworks, such as the

2249:

community in Normandy to settle in London. The Jewish community expanded out across England and provided essential money-lending and banking services that were otherwise banned by the

3596:

making and embroidery in the early 14th century were of an especially high quality; works produced by nuns and London professionals were exported across Europe, becoming known as the

3224:

transformed the brewing industry in the 14th century, and new techniques were invented to better preserve fish. Glazed pottery became widespread in the 12th and 13th centuries, with

2416:

had survived. The process was largely complete by the early 10th century and enabled England's leading Churchmen to negotiate with the warlords. As the Norse in mainland Scandinavia

1603:, backed by leading nobles and powerful French supporters, vied for power. By 1471 Edward was triumphant and most of his rivals were dead. On his death, power passed to his brother 2501:. By 1215, there were over 600 monastic communities in England, but new endowments slowed during the 13th century, creating long-term financial problems for many institutions. The 927:

seizure of power at the start of the 11th century, it can also be argued that by the 1060s England was a powerful, centralised state with a strong military and successful economy.

2703:

became an important task for ambitious institutions, as these were believed to hold curative powers and lent status to the site. Indeed, by the 12th century reports of posthumous

2108:

of widows were formally laid down in law by the end of the 12th century, clarifying the right of free women to own property, but this did not necessarily prevent women from being

1968:, the common bench and the royal household. This government was better organised and on a larger scale than ever before, and by the 14th century the king's formerly peripatetic 1438:

led by Henry's children who were eager to acquire power and lands, sometimes backed by France, Scotland and the Welsh princes. After a final confrontation with Henry, his son

1270:, had survived in exile in Normandy and returned to claim the throne in 1042. Edward was childless, and the succession again became a concern. England became dominated by the 2190:

The Normans and French who arrived after the conquest saw themselves as different from the English. They had close family and economic links to the Duchy of Normandy, spoke

2187:

was being officially used to refer to a single English people, and promoted for propaganda purposes by chroniclers and kings to inspire resistance to the Danish invasions.

3467:

castles in large numbers to control their newly occupied territories. During the 12th century the Normans began to build more castles in stone, with characteristic square

2412:. The Norse settlers in England were converted relatively quickly, assimilating their beliefs into Christianity in the decades following the occupation of York, which the 1926:

of 1215. The emerging legal system reinvigorated the institution of serfdom in the 13th century by drawing an increasingly sharp distinction between freemen and villeins.

2050:. By the time that Henry VII took the throne in 1485, England's governmental and social structures had been substantially weakened, with whole noble lines extinguished. 3475:

castles were used by the Norman lords to control their widespread estates; a feudal system called the castle-guard was sometimes used to provide garrisons. Castles and

11085: 3579:, inspired by Classical imagery, began to enter from the continent, becoming widely used in the reformed Benedictine monasteries across the south and east of England. 3280:. By the 9th century, armies of 20,000 men could be called up for campaigns, with another 28,000 men available to guard urban defences. The most common weapon was the 1829: 1009:

by their inhabitants and many men and women sought new opportunities in the towns and cities. New technologies were introduced, and England produced some of the great

270: 3456:

walls sometimes utilised older Roman fortifications, both for practical reasons and to bolster their owners' reputations through the symbolism of former Roman power.

1922:

around the country. King John extended the royal role in delivering justice, and the extent of appropriate royal intervention was one of the issues addressed in the

3837:

style was created in England, with an emphasis on verticality, immense windows and soaring arcades. Fine timber roofs in a variety of styles, but in particular the

2346:, still reflected in various English place names. Despite the resurgence of paganism in England, Christian communities still survived in more western areas such as 1568:

that broke out across the south of England in 1381. Over the coming decades, Richard and groups of nobles vied for power and control of policy towards France until

10382: 1964:

II and savage civil wars broke out during the 1320s. Edward III restored order once more with the help of a majority of the nobility, exercising power through the

1723:

The kingdom of Wessex, which eventually laid claim to England as a whole, evolved a centralised royal administration. One part of this was the king's council, the

243: 11090: 2743:

involved crusaders selling or mortgaging their lands and possessions, which affected their families and, at times, considerably affected the economy as a whole.

1576:

in 1399. Ruling as Henry IV, he exercised power through a royal council and parliament, while attempting to enforce political and religious conformity. His son,

275: 3940:, continue to challenge previous interpretations, and historical studies of England in the Middle Ages have never been so diverse as in the early 21st century. 1360:

Norman rule, however, proved unstable; successions to the throne were contested, leading to violent conflicts between the claimants and their noble supporters.

2889:

for hunting game, including deer and boars, were built as status symbols by the nobility from the 12th century onwards, but earlier versions of parks, such as

3880:

The first history of medieval England was written by Bede in the 8th century; many more accounts of contemporary and ancient history followed, usually termed

3217:

opening in 1496. New mining methods were developed and horse-powered pumps were installed in English mines by the end of the Middle Ages. The introduction of

1870:, in that the new nobles held their lands on behalf of the king; in return for promising to provide military support and taking an oath of allegiance, called 1219:

to defend his territory and mobilise royal resources. Suppressing internal opposition to his rule, Alfred contained the invaders within a region known as the

2030:

them to maintain groups of paid, armed retainers, often sporting controversial livery, and buy support amongst the wider gentry; this system has been dubbed

1072:

had once been dominated by imperial Roman spending on a large military establishment, which in turn helped to support a complex network of towns, roads, and

9497:

Hughes, Malcolm K.; Diaz, Henry F. (1997). "Was There a 'Medieval Warm Period', and if so, Where and When?". In Hughes, Malcolm K.; Diaz, Henry F. (eds.).

3673:, probably written between 650 and 750, is typical of these poems, portraying a vivid, heroic tale, ending with the protagonist's death at the hands of a 1702:

The balance of power between these different groups changed over time. Early in the period, kings were elected by members of the late king's council, but

3193:

designs; from the 12th century on many more were built, eliminating the use of hand mills, with the older horizontal mills gradually supplanted by a new

2924: 2683:

from an illness or other condition. Some pilgrims travelled further, either to more distant sites within Britain or, in a few cases, onto the continent.

7887:

Barber, Richard (2007a). "Why Did Edward III Hold the Round Table? The Chivalric Background". In Munby, Julian; Barber, Richard; Brown, Richard (eds.).

3992:. English medieval music was revived from the 1950s, with choral and musical groups attempting to authentically reproduce the original sounds. Medieval 3479:

continued to grow in military sophistication during the 12th century, and in the 13th century new defensive town walls were constructed across England.

1798:. If fines were imposed, their size similarly varied accord to the oath-value of the individual. The Anglo-Saxon authorities struggled to deal with the 3812:, and these craftsmen built stone churches, low in height, following a narrow, rectangular plan, plastered inside and fitted with glass and colourful 3543:, embroidered cloths, crosses and stone sculpture, although relatively few of these have survived to the modern period. They produced a wide range of 3293:

in battle, and the Scandinavian seizure of power in the 11th century introduced housecarls, a form of elite household soldier who protected the king.

1685:. The relationship between kings and their nobles was bound up with military symbolism and the ritual exchange of weapons and armour. Freemen, called 134: 263: 2652: 1463:. John died having fought the rebel barons and their French backers to a stalemate, and royal power was re-established by barons loyal to the young 9228: 2845:

For much of the Middle Ages, England's climate differed from that in the 21st century. Between the 9th and 13th centuries England went through the

10204: 3949: 3406: 3002: 2220: 10047:(2003). "Encrypted Visions: Style and Sense in the Anglo-Saxon Minor Arts, AD 400-900". In Karkov, Catherine E.; Hardin Brown, George (eds.). 3667:, some of which was written down as early as the 9th century, although most surviving poems were compiled in the 10th and early 11th century. 2392:

The Viking invasions of the 8th and 9th centuries reintroduced paganism to North-East England, leading in turn to another wave of conversion.

3904:

spurred interest in the various periods of English hegemony during the Middle Ages, including the Angevin Empire and the Hundred Years' War.

1529:

of 1321–22 was followed by instability and the subsequent overthrow, and possible murder, of Edward in 1327 at the hands of his French wife,

253: 8646: 3710:, was uniquely English in style. Major pieces of courtly poetry continued to be produced into the 15th century by Chaucer's disciples, and 3010: 939: 849: 9020:

Blanchard, Ian (2002). "Lothian and Beyond: the Economy of the "English Empire" of David I". In Britnell, Richard; Hatcher, John (eds.).

3189:

Technological advances proceeded in a range of areas. Watermills to grind grain had existed during most of the Anglo-Saxon period, using

923:

was established as the most powerful kingdom and promoted the growth of an English identity. Despite repeated crises of succession and a

3095:

thinking that reached England from the 12th century onwards. Many advances were made in scientific ideas, including the introduction of

2968:

was flourishing across much of England, while the eastern and southern towns were heavily involved in international trade. Around 6,000

2699:, promoted themselves as pilgrimage destinations, maximising the value of the historic miracles associated with the sites. Accumulating 1584:

became king at the age of only nine months and both the English political system and the military situation in France began to unravel.

1525:

inherited the war with Scotland and faced growing opposition to his rule as a result of his royal favourites and military failures. The

11356: 10414: 8760:

Rotherham, Ian D. (2007). "The Historical Ecology of Medieval Parks and the Implications for Conservation". In Liddiard, Robert (ed.).

3980:

set in England during the Middle Ages remains persistently popular, with the 1980s and 1990s seeing a particular growth of historical

3743:. Henry IV sponsored an extensive range of music in England, while his son Henry V brought back many influences from occupied France. 10372: 319: 3459:

Although a small number of castles had been built in England during the 1050s, after the conquest the Normans began to build timber

11729: 10821: 3563:

style, heavily influenced by Germanic fashions, in which animal shapes were distorted into flowing shapes and positioned alongside

1600: 1472: 10763: 3422: 2853:

to be cultivated relatively far north. The Warm Period was followed by several centuries of much cooler temperatures, termed the

1745:

of clergy which travelled with the king, conducting the affairs of government as it went. Under the Danish kings, a bodyguard of

447: 2142:

claim their rightful share of their late husband's property could live as powerful members of the community in their own right.

1699:, formed a lower class still. The very lowest class were slaves, who could be bought and sold and who held only minimal rights. 10869: 3150:" was one of his oft-cited conclusions. English scholars since the time of Bede had believed the world was probably round, but 2707:

by local saints were becoming increasingly common in England, adding to the attractiveness of pilgrimages to prominent relics.

2262:

and Jewish money-lending began to recover. Despite this, the Jewish community became increasingly impoverished and was finally

1765:

were tightly controlled by the kings, providing a high-quality currency, and the whole country was taxed using a system called

10119:

D'haen, Theo (2004). "Stalking Multiculturalism: Historical Sleuths at the end of the Twentieth Century". In Bak, Hans (ed.).

8262:

Vincent, Nicholas (2007). "Introduction: Henry II and the Historians". In Harper-Bill, Christopher; Vincent, Nicholas (eds.).

3834: 1429:

by marriage, and England became a key part of a loose-knit assemblage of lands spread across Western Europe, later termed the

11734: 11244: 10172: 10151: 10130: 10100: 10079: 10058: 10034: 10013: 9972: 9951: 9930: 9909: 9888: 9867: 9846: 9783: 9758: 9737: 9716: 9695: 9674: 9653: 9632: 9611: 9590: 9569: 9529: 9508: 9445: 9424: 9405: 9384: 9363: 9342: 9321: 9300: 9279: 9258: 9216: 9197: 9176: 9155: 9134: 9115: 9094: 9073: 9052: 9029: 9010: 8989: 8968: 8947: 8926: 8905: 8847: 8790: 8769: 8750: 8729: 8710: 8691: 8635: 8614: 8593: 8572: 8509: 8488: 8467: 8446: 8425: 8383: 8315: 8273: 8252: 8231: 8208: 8187: 8166: 8124: 8105: 8084: 8063: 8042: 8021: 7960: 7936: 7915: 7896: 7877: 7856: 7807: 7765: 7723: 7683: 7664: 7645: 7624: 7602: 7581: 4137: 3092: 2902: 2168: 882: 119: 2570:, exchanging some authority and revenue for assistance in defence. The early English church was racked with disagreement on 1648: 1213:, and he exploited the fear of the Viking threat to raise large numbers of men and using a network of defended towns called 11724: 10487: 4016: 2493:

reached England, creating houses with a more austere interpretation of the monastic rules and building the great abbeys of

2038:

at Parliament and through the king's council. The gentry and wealthier townsmen exercised increasing influence through the

1939: 1823: 3800:

In the century after the collapse of the Romano-British economy, very few substantial buildings were constructed and many

1513:

and undertaking a programme of English colonisation and castle building across the region. Further wars were conducted in

11670: 10491: 10197: 9334:

Healing and Society in Medieval England: A Middle English Translation of the Pharmaceutical Writings of Gilberus Anglicus

3996:

events were first held during the 19th and early 20th centuries, and the period has inspired a considerable community of

3155: 2541: 1742: 9209:

Shakespeare and the Middle Ages: Essays on the Performance and Adaptation of the Plays with Medieval Sources or Settings

3923:

analyses continued to be popular in the post-war years, producing seminal works on economic issues and social protests.

1402:, Henry's daughter. Civil war broke out across England and Normandy, resulting in a long period of warfare later termed 938:

and his successors took over the existing state system, repressing local revolts and controlling the population through

11462: 10408: 10404: 10292: 3471:

that supported both military and political functions. Royal castles were used to control key towns and forests, whilst

3174: 1518: 979: 934:

in 1066 led to the defeat and replacement of the Anglo-Saxon elite with Norman and French nobles and their supporters.

9814:

Rahtz, Philip; Watts, Lorna (2005). "Three Ages of Conversion at Kirkdale, North Yorkshire". In Carver, Martin (ed.).

3301:

engagements and usually avoided by prudent commanders. The armies of the period comprised bodies of mounted, armoured

1108:, small polities ruled over by powerful families and individuals. By the 7th century, some rulers, including those of 962:

more than doubled during the 12th and 13th centuries, fueling an expansion of the towns, cities, and trade, helped by

11479: 11198: 10940: 10685: 10377: 10307: 10288: 9825: 9804: 9548: 9518:

Humphrey, Chris (2001). "Time and Urban Culture in Late Medieval England". In Humphrey, Chris; Ormrod, W. M. (eds.).

9487: 9476:

Hooper, Nicholas (1992b). "Some Observations on the Navy in Late Anglo-Saxon England". In Strickland, Matthew (ed.).

9466: 8822: 8553: 8404: 8343: 8294: 8145: 8000: 7981: 7828: 7786: 7744: 7704: 2616:

In the 1380s, several challenges emerged to the traditional teachings of the Church, resulting from the teachings of

1534: 1384:

remained free, however, and formed the focus for fresh revolts until his death in 1128. Henry's only legitimate son,

635: 3409:

on the south of England between 1338 and 1339, could cause devastation from which some towns never fully recovered.

1580:, reinvigorated the war with France and came close to achieving strategic success shortly before his death in 1422. 11779: 11774: 11769: 11764: 11759: 11754: 11555: 10326: 10315: 10311: 10284: 8543: 7906:

Barber, Richard (2007b). "The Order of the Round Table". In Munby, Julian; Barber, Richard; Brown, Richard (eds.).

3793: 1081: 842: 17: 9558:

Johnson, Matthew (2000). "Self-made men and the staging of agency". In Dobres, Marcia-Anne; Robb, John E. (eds.).

3397:, a new form of sailing ship. Battles might be fought when one fleet found another at anchor, such as the English 1834: 1691:, formed the next level of society, often holding land in their own right or controlling businesses in the towns. 1493: 11749: 11744: 11739: 11080: 10864: 10264: 10260: 10213: 10068:

Williams, Gareth (2001). "Military Institutions and Royal Power". In Brown, Michelle P.; Farr, Carol Ann (eds.).

9083:

Coss, Peter (2002). "From Feudalism to Bastard Feudalism". In Fryde, Natalie; Monnet, Pierre; Oexle, Oto (eds.).

7564: 3402: 2417: 2357:

The movement towards Christianity began again in the late 6th and 7th centuries, helped by the conversion of the

1817: 1488: 1295: 667: 309: 258: 158: 141: 3119:

were also considered important forms of knowledge in medieval England, although some doubted their reliability.

1866:

Changes in other areas soon began to be felt. The method of government after the conquest can be described as a

1789:

were also given permission by the king to hold their own local courts. The legal system depended on a system of

11688: 11445: 10930: 10335: 10256: 10190: 10044: 9919:

Spade, Paul Vincent (1999). "Ockham's Nominalist Metaphysics: Some Main Themes". In Spade, Paul Vincent (ed.).

7866:

Aurell, Martin (2007). "Henry II and Arthurian Legend". In Harper-Bill, Christopher; Vincent, Nicholas (eds.).

3700:

in poetry, sometimes termed "Ricardian poetry", although the works still emulated French fashions. The work of

3168: 2520:

that became popular across Europe from the 12th century onwards acquired possessions in England, including the

1637: 1591:, finally broke out in 1455, spurred on by an economic crisis and a widespread perception of poor government. 1055: 727: 339: 334: 304: 129: 2198:

During the 12th and 13th centuries, the English began to consider themselves superior to the Welsh, Scots and

10894: 10343: 10339: 9455:

Hooper, Nicholas (1992a). "The Housecarls in England in the Eleventh Century". In Strickland, Matthew (ed.).

3919:

approaches, supported by a widening body of documentary, archaeological and scientific evidence. Marxist and

2000: 986: 757: 472: 2516:

orders rapidly became popular, particularly in towns, and heavily influenced local preaching. The religious

1521:, but was unable to achieve strategic victory, and the costs created tensions that nearly led to civil war. 11486: 11400: 10889: 10814: 10771: 10767: 10638: 9898:

Skinner, Patricia (2003). "Introduction: Jews in Medieval Britain and Europe". In Skinner, Patricia (ed.).

3954: 2916: 2562:. This frequently became untenable with the Viking incursions of the 9th century, and in locations such as 2275: 2202:. The English perceived themselves as civilised, economically prosperous and properly Christian, while the 1599:, removed Henry from power in 1461 but by 1469 fighting recommenced as Edward, Henry, and Edward's brother 602: 492: 329: 294: 8520: 2546: 11545: 11500: 11361: 10879: 10874: 10854: 10303: 8052:

King, Edmund (2007). "The Accession of Henry II". In Harper-Bill, Christopher; Vincent, Nicholas (eds.).

4020: 3830: 3780: 2161: 2039: 1879: 1737:; the council met to advise the king on policy and legal issues. The royal household included officials, 1537:. Isabella and Mortimer's regime lasted only a few years before falling to a coup, led by Isabella's son 835: 532: 96: 66: 8999:

Bevington, David (2002). "Literature and the theatre". In Loewenstein, David; Mueller, Janel M. (eds.).

2016:

by the lower classes, with prosecutions coming to take up most of the legal system's energy and time. A

1266:, liquidated many of the older English families following his seizure of power in 1016. Æthelred's son, 11634: 11608: 11540: 11508: 11371: 11311: 11193: 11188: 10681: 10419: 10362: 3062: 3042: 1969: 1434: 931: 762: 572: 547: 542: 462: 402: 8134:

Prestwich, J. O. (1992a). "The Military Household of the Norman Kings". In Strickland, Matthew (ed.).

3087:

Technology and science in England advanced considerably during the Middle Ages, driven in part by the

151: 11351: 11203: 10737: 10567: 10424: 10270: 9793:

Prestwich, J. O. (1992b). "War and Finance in the Anglo-Norman State". In Strickland, Matthew (ed.).

8894:

Aston, Margaret; Richmond, Colin (1997). "Introduction". In Aston, Margaret; Richmond, Colin (eds.).

8242: 3933: 3833:

and continued, with variation, throughout the rest of the Middle Ages. In the early 14th century the

3627: 3623: 3025: 2512:

arrived in England during the 1220s, establishing 150 friaries by the end of the 13th century; these

2151: 2005: 1907:, extending and widening the scope of centralised, royal law; by the 1180s, the basis for the future 1422: 1283: 1239:, York was finally permanently retaken from the Vikings. The West Saxon rulers were now kings of the 1006: 622: 612: 537: 507: 467: 407: 8813:

From the Brink of the Apocalypse: Confronting Famine, War, Plague and Death in the Later Middle Ages

8672: 8534: 1557:, were heavily involved in campaigning in France and administering the new continental territories. 1510: 11440: 11346: 11316: 11261: 11213: 10331: 10321: 10298: 10275: 10247: 9394:

Happé, Peter (2003). "A Guide to Criticism of Medieval English Theatre". In Beadle, Richard (ed.).

9207:

Driver, Martha W.; Ray, Sid (2009). "General Introduction". In Driver, Martha W.; Ray, Sid (eds.).

3776: 3088: 2517: 2374: 2290: 2059: 1993: 1554: 1418: 1395: 1349: 1274:, who had taken advantage of the Danish killings to acquire huge wealth. When Edward died in 1066, 955: 722: 592: 577: 487: 482: 362: 8372:

Cantor, Leonard (1982). "Introduction: The English Medieval Landscape". In Cantor, Leonard (ed.).

8284: 2591:, which advocated greater autonomy from royal authority for the clergy, condemned the practice of 11452: 11326: 10925: 10807: 10703: 10669: 9352:

Hackett, Jeremiah (1997). "Roger Bacon: His Career, Life and Works". In Hackett, Jeremiah (ed.).

8394: 5205:

Rubin, pp. 109–112; Barber (2007a), pp. 84–86, 95–96; Barber (2007b), pp. 151–152.

3958: 3817: 3790: 3619: 2906: 2370: 1619:

in 1485, bringing an end to the majority of the fighting, although lesser rebellions against his

959: 597: 512: 387: 199: 10616: 2225: 1777:

were gathered to apply the laws to particular cases; in the 10th century these were replaced by

1662: 1247: 11469: 11381: 11251: 11116: 11111: 10756: 10752: 10664: 10531: 9434:

Hillaby, Joe (2003). "Jewish Colonisation in the Twelfth Century". In Skinner, Patricia (ed.).

3997: 3644: 3615: 3540: 3356: 3151: 2890: 1604: 1231:, Wessex expanded further north into Mercia and the Danelaw, and by the 950s and the reigns of 1199: 1184: 1113: 924: 777: 647: 607: 552: 452: 324: 163: 2877:. England's environment continued to be shaped throughout the period, through the building of 2489:

spread quickly from the beginning of the 12th century onwards, while later in the century the

1944: 11518: 11513: 11457: 11266: 3929: 3754: 2628:

was the best guide to understanding God's intentions, and that the superficial nature of the

2378: 2156: 1949: 1669: 1573: 1561: 1550: 1544:

Like his grandfather, Edward III took steps to restore royal power, but during the 1340s the

1538: 1497: 1468: 1450: 1372:. In 1100, William II died while hunting. Despite Robert's rival claims, his younger brother 1361: 1337: 1316: 1022: 935: 772: 752: 732: 712: 687: 672: 642: 562: 522: 502: 427: 2911: 2428: 2366: 1808:, a payment of blood money, as a way of providing an alternative to long-running vendettas. 1720:

deteriorated, as their rights were slowly eroded and their duties to their lords increased.

1564:, faced political and economic problems, many resulting from the Black Death, including the 1445:

Richard spent his reign focused on protecting his possessions in France and fighting in the

1084:

as more settlers arrived and those of the previous inhabitants who had not moved west or to

11658: 11474: 11428: 11331: 11256: 11183: 11166: 11142: 10711: 10522: 9726:

Normore, Calvin G. (1999). "Some Aspects of Ockham's Logic". In Spade, Paul Vincent (ed.).

3962: 3826: 3716: 3656: 3648: 3179: 3017: 2972:

were built to grind flour, freeing up labour for other more productive agricultural tasks.

2846: 2757: 2696: 2665: 2597: 2382: 2164: 1867: 1612: 1592: 1522: 1464: 1460: 1439: 1411: 1377: 1299: 1267: 1030: 963: 943: 874: 797: 782: 767: 707: 697: 617: 477: 392: 4064:

has been extensively discussed by historians, with many different conclusions being drawn.

3016:

Economic growth began to falter at the end of the 13th century, owing to a combination of

2571: 8: 11435: 11388: 11227: 11178: 11006: 11001: 10910: 10607: 10602: 10591: 10571: 10541: 9999: 8011: 3973: 3937: 3767:

the best plays in each town and performances were often an expression of civic identity.

3575:

of form and incorporating both animals and people into the designs. In the 10th century,

3183: 3154:

estimated the circumference of the earth in the 13th century. Despite the limitations of

3066: 2793:. Despite this, medieval England broadly formed two zones, roughly divided by the rivers 2529: 2377:

and started to build new churches across the South-East, reusing existing pagan shrines.

2126: 2068: 1985: 1957: 1608: 1581: 1569: 1565: 1501: 1476: 1407: 1038: 1010: 994: 802: 792: 742: 677: 652: 567: 417: 412: 380: 214: 182: 104: 50: 10438: 8936:

Bailey, Mark (1996). "Population and Economic Resources". In Given-Wilson, Chris (ed.).

3201:

began to be built in the late 12th century and slowly became more common. Water-powered

1802:

between families that emerged following violent killings, attempting to use a system of

1364:

inherited the throne but faced revolts attempting to replace him with his older brother

1331:

on 14 October 1066 and rapidly occupied the south of England. William used a network of

11622: 11581: 11423: 11280: 11239: 11208: 11147: 11026: 10958: 10859: 10839: 10733: 10632: 10597: 10587: 10581: 10575: 10553: 10549: 10512: 10483: 10430: 10280: 9241: 9063: 8937: 8882: 8874: 8832:

Airlie, Stuart (2001). "Strange Eventful Histories: The Middle Ages in the Cinema". In

8811: 8220: 7818: 7635: 4024: 3977: 3897: 3727:

were introduced in England in the 13th century, accompanied by instruments such as the

3603: 3159: 3127: 3112: 2959:, and was divided between some fields that the landowner would manage directly, called 2886: 2767: 2563: 2551: 2465: 2413: 2263: 2073: 1844: 1616: 1615:, aided by French and Scottish troops, returned to England and defeated Richard at the 1577: 1530: 1426: 1373: 1328: 1309: 1304: 1236: 1210: 1191: 866: 787: 717: 662: 657: 582: 557: 527: 422: 397: 357: 314: 209: 75: 10545: 9943:

The English and the Normans: Ethnic Hostility, Assimilation, and Identity, 1066-c.1220

9645:

Money, Markets and Trade in Late Medieval Europe: Essays in Honour of John H. A. Munro

8915:

Bachrach, Bernard S. (2005). "On Roman Ramparts 300-1300". In Parker, Geoffrey (ed.).

3896:, alongside newly discovered financial, legal and commercial records. They produced a 3343: 2981: 2481:

New orders began to be introduced into England. As ties to Normandy waned, the French

997:

of 1381, while the changes in the economy resulted in the emergence of a new class of

11393: 11126: 11121: 11021: 10973: 10783: 10748: 10744: 10722: 10699: 10695: 10628: 10624: 10563: 10527: 10517: 10507: 10502: 10479: 10168: 10147: 10126: 10096: 10075: 10054: 10030: 10009: 9987: 9968: 9947: 9926: 9905: 9884: 9863: 9842: 9821: 9800: 9779: 9754: 9733: 9712: 9691: 9670: 9649: 9628: 9607: 9586: 9565: 9544: 9525: 9504: 9483: 9462: 9441: 9420: 9401: 9380: 9359: 9338: 9317: 9296: 9275: 9254: 9212: 9193: 9172: 9151: 9130: 9127:

The Birth of Nobility: Constructing Aristocracy in England and France : 900–1300

9111: 9090: 9069: 9048: 9041: 9025: 9006: 8985: 8964: 8943: 8922: 8901: 8886: 8843: 8818: 8786: 8765: 8746: 8725: 8706: 8687: 8631: 8610: 8589: 8568: 8549: 8505: 8484: 8463: 8442: 8421: 8400: 8379: 8360: 8339: 8311: 8290: 8269: 8248: 8227: 8204: 8183: 8162: 8141: 8120: 8101: 8080: 8059: 8038: 8017: 7996: 7977: 7956: 7946: 7932: 7911: 7892: 7873: 7852: 7824: 7803: 7782: 7776: 7761: 7740: 7734: 7719: 7700: 7679: 7660: 7641: 7620: 7598: 7577: 4061: 3981: 3966: 3736: 3641: 3568: 3556: 3297: 3147: 3143: 3139: 2989: 2940: 2692: 2633: 2621: 2584: 2420:, many mainland rulers recruited missionaries from England to assist in the process. 2286: 2063: 2031: 1919: 1653: 1588: 1369: 1251: 1156: 1096:

to the migrants' language. New political and social identities emerged, including an

1026: 1018: 1002: 966:

across Northern Europe. A new wave of monasteries and friaries was established while

737: 702: 587: 517: 442: 437: 194: 124: 6893:

Turner (1971), pp. 19–20: Lavelle, p. 10; Creighton and Higham, pp. 56–58.

1479:, defeated the rebel factions between 1265 and 1267, restoring his father to power. 978:, infighting between the Anglo-Norman elite resulted in multiple civil wars and the 11590: 11530: 11415: 11336: 11106: 10718: 10707: 10677: 10656: 10537: 10442: 10393: 10387: 10367: 10242: 9901:

The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary, and Archaeological Perspectives

9666:

Alfred's Wars: Sources and Interpretations of Anglo-Saxon Warfare in the Viking Age

9580: 9437:

The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary, and Archaeological Perspectives

9237: 8866: 8665: 8661: 3985: 3706: 3701: 3652: 3631: 3511: 3460: 3436: 3259: 3021: 2588: 2559: 2470: 1999:

Society and government in England in the early 14th century were challenged by the

1275: 1224: 1203: 1117: 1089: 967: 747: 692: 682: 457: 432: 248: 204: 38: 9961:

Timmons, Daniel (2000). "Introduction". In Clark, George; Timmons, Daniel (eds.).

3821:

centred on great timber halls, while manor houses began to appear in rural areas.

907:. The Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity in the 7th century, and a network of 11523: 11321: 11011: 10963: 10884: 10779: 10691: 10559: 10182: 10162: 10141: 10120: 10090: 10069: 10048: 10024: 10003: 9962: 9941: 9920: 9899: 9878: 9857: 9836: 9815: 9794: 9773: 9748: 9727: 9706: 9685: 9664: 9643: 9622: 9601: 9559: 9519: 9498: 9477: 9456: 9435: 9395: 9374: 9353: 9332: 9311: 9290: 9269: 9189:

Domination and Conquest: The Experience of Ireland, Scotland and Wales, 1100–1300

9187: 9166: 9145: 9105: 9084: 9000: 8979: 8958: 8916: 8895: 8837: 8780: 8740: 8681: 8625: 8604: 8583: 8499: 8478: 8457: 8436: 8415: 8373: 8354: 8305: 8263: 8222:

The Reign of Stephen: Kingship, Warfare and Government in Twelfth-Century England

8198: 8177: 8156: 8135: 8095: 8074: 8053: 8032: 7971: 7950: 7926: 7867: 7797: 7755: 7694: 7657:

Archaeology, Economy and Society: England from the Fifth to the Fifteenth Century

7592: 7571: 3838: 3598: 3584: 3576: 3502: 3432: 3418: 3398: 3382: 3269: 3233: 3182:

were established during the 11th and 12th centuries, drawing on the model of the

3146:

helped to fuse Latin, Greek and Islamic writing into a general theory of logic; "

3096: 2814: 2609: 2601: 2575: 2502: 2498: 2432: 2347: 2303: 2254: 2109: 1981: 1894: 1871: 1679:, nobles, the more powerful of which maintained their own courts and were termed 1399: 1365: 1320: 1279: 1271: 1255: 1209:

However, in the same year Alfred won a decisive victory against the Danes at the

1160: 1121: 1069: 1014: 886: 807: 497: 299: 177: 146: 34: 9708:

The Greatest Traitor: The Life of Sir Roger Mortimer, Ruler of England 1327–1330

4594:

Rubin, p. 54; Doherty, pp. 213–215; Mortimer (2004), pp. 244–264.

2801:: the south and east of England had lighter, richer soils, able to support both 1914:

had largely been established, with a standing law court in Westminster—an early

11646: 11595: 11376: 11366: 10968: 10775: 10729: 10397: 8857:

Alexander, James W. (1970). "The Becket Controversy in Recent Historiography".

4424: 3993: 3901: 3862: 3697: 3237: 3229: 3194: 3190: 3104: 3076: 3038: 2965: 2854: 2835: 2723: 2718:, was sometimes applied to both activities. While English participation in the 2636:

in 1395: the movement was rapidly condemned by the authorities and was termed "

2525: 2494: 2393: 2362: 2172: 2035: 2013: 2009: 1430: 1385: 1263: 1172: 1168: 1097: 825: 367: 46: 8417:

Castles and Landscapes: Power, Community and Fortification in Medieval England

3321:, the permanent military household of the king, which was supported in war by 2396:

were very similar to other Germanic groups, with a pantheon of gods including

2295: 1753:

played an important part in government, defence and taxation, and the post of

915:

were built across England. In the 8th and 9th centuries, England faced fierce

11718: 11296: 11152: 11059: 11054: 10996: 10915: 10434: 10122:

Uneasy Alliance: Twentieth-Century American Literature, Culture and Biography

9991: 9817:

The Cross Goes North: Processes of Conversion in Northern Europe, AD 300-1300

8833: 8582:

Marks, Richard (2001). "Window Glass". In Blair, John; Ramsay, Nigel (eds.).

7612: 5913:

Huscroft, pp. 126–127; Bradbury, p. 36; Pounds (1994), pp. 142–143.

3908: 3885: 3868: 3744: 3740: 3711: 3679: 3588: 3552: 3536: 3214: 3103:. Clocks were first built in England in the late 13th century, and the first 2831: 2731: 2727: 2719: 2680: 2617: 2605: 2482: 2461: 2386: 2203: 2191: 2118: 1980:

continued to develop throughout the 14th century, reflected in the growth of

1899: 1860: 1778: 1703: 1620: 1596: 1526: 1446: 1381: 1133: 1093: 1061: 238: 233: 189: 109: 9835:

Ramsay, Nigel (2001). "Introduction". In Blair, John; Ramsay, Nigel (eds.).

9022:

Progress and Problems in Medieval England: Essays in Honour of Edward Miller

5070:

Carpenter, p. 291; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 41; Postan, pp. 167–169.

3900:

account of political and economic development in England. The growth of the

11617: 11550: 11405: 11031: 11016: 10991: 10983: 10497: 9541:

Noblewomen, Aristocracy and Power in the Twelfth-Century Anglo-Norman Realm

8364: 6021:

Hollister, p. 168; Alexander, pp. 2–3, 10; Barlow (1986), pp. 83–84, 88–89.

3989: 3873: 3809: 3763: 3572: 3560: 3524: 3506: 3393:

merchant vessels conscripted into action; the latter increasingly included

3373: 3209:

first appeared in the 12th century; water power was harnessed to assist in

3206: 3202: 3116: 3100: 3050: 3046: 2997: 2870: 2862: 2823: 2486: 2331: 2321: 2307: 2089: 2017: 1915: 1904: 1353: 1246:

With the death of Edgar, however, the royal succession became problematic.

1065: 890: 878: 221: 172: 54: 42: 29: 3245:, and many docks were improved and fitted with cranes for the first time. 2722:

between 1095 and 1099 was limited, England played a prominent part in the

1842:, illustrating soldiers presenting a sheep to a figure seated on a throne. 1549:

fought many campaigns in a long-running conflict that became known as the

1228: 1163:. Mercia invaded neighbouring lands until it loosely controlled around 50 11306: 11049: 11041: 8480:

Norwich Cathedral Close: The Evolution of the English Cathedral Landscape

5577:

Davies, pp. 18–20; Carpenter, p. 9; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 219.

3924: 3920: 3916: 3801: 3692: 3664: 3555:

particularly favoured designs. Early designs, such as those found at the

3440: 3390: 3361: 3290: 3123: 2956: 2839: 2806: 2802: 2778: 2490: 2436: 2229: 2130: 1973: 1908: 1762: 1725: 1545: 1455: 1403: 1345: 1341: 1176: 1144: 1139: 1077: 1073: 1034: 990: 975: 894: 870: 226: 11705: 8683:

The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: A Social and Political History

7952:

The Empress Matilda: Queen Consort, Queen Mother and Lady of the English

3592:

also commemorated the sponsors of the windows into the designs. English

3264: 2762: 2361:

in Northern France, who carried considerable influence in England. Pope

1258:, the son of a Danish king. Attempts to bribe Sweyn not to attack using 11562: 11301: 10612: 9226:

Duggan, Charles (1962). "The Becket Dispute and the Criminous Clerks".

8438:

Medieval Town Walls: An Archaeology and Social History of Urban Defence

5106:

Carpenter, p. 87; Barlow (1999), p. 320; Dyer (2009), pp. 108–109.

3785: 3759: 3394: 3366: 3242: 2874: 2810: 2798: 2735: 2714:

was also seen as a form of pilgrimage, and indeed the same Latin word,

2671: 2661: 2506: 2314: 2085: 1989: 1911: 1839: 1782: 1467:. England's power structures remained unstable and the outbreak of the 1390: 1340:. Some Norman lords used England as a launching point for attacks into 1175:, helped to defend key frontiers and towns. In 789, however, the first 1148: 971: 9292:

The Military Orders From the Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries

8878: 8117:

The Perfect King: The Life of Edward III, Father of the English Nation

4567:

Carpenter, pp. 477, 524; Prestwich (1988), pp. 412–415; 554.

3907:

By the 1930s, older historical analyses were challenged by a range of

3431:

A reconstruction of the city of York in the 15th century, showing the

3107:

were certainly being installed in cathedrals and abbeys by the 1320s.

2738:

during the intervening years. The idea of undertaking a pilgrimage to

2137:

brewers, until they were pushed out of business by the male-dominated

1500:

meets the rebels calling for economic and political reform during the

1394:

disaster of 1120, sparking a fresh succession crisis: Henry's nephew,

1376:

immediately seized power. War broke out, ending in Robert's defeat at

11064: 10935: 8606:

The Origins of Medieval Architecture: Building in Europe, A.D 600-900

7799:

Restoration and Reform, 1153–1165: Recovery From Civil War in England

4047: 4019:, but she still used the title of Empress from her first marriage to 3881: 3805: 3587:

is an example of older styles being reemployed under the new regime.

3564: 3544: 3520: 3378: 3225: 3131: 3108: 2969: 2866: 2850: 2827: 2818: 2794: 2790: 2739: 2625: 2513: 2457: 2300: 2250: 2208: 2114: 2047: 2043: 1965: 1953: 1893:

At the centre of power, the kings employed a succession of clergy as

1848: 1799: 1746: 1681: 1357:

region, including funding campaigns along the frontiers of Normandy.

908: 904: 6875:

Turner (1971), pp. 20–21; Creighton and Higham, pp. 56–58.

3752:

were also popular from the late 14th century onwards, including the

3228:

pots largely replacing wooden plates and bowls by the 15th century.

2485:

became fashionable and their houses were introduced in England. The

10799: 9310:

Geddes, Jane (2001). "Iron". In Blair, John; Ramsay, Nigel (eds.).

8870: 6437:

Jordan, p. 12; Bailey, p. 46; Aberth, pp. 26–7; Cantor 1982, p. 18.

6012:

Barlow (1999), p. 104; Duggan (1965), p. 67, cited Alexander, p. 3.

4015:

At the time of the succession crisis, Matilda was married to Count

3813: 3593: 3516: 3464: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3210: 3198: 3080: 3071: 2881:

to drain marshes, tree clearance and the large-scale extraction of

2786: 2774: 2711: 2637: 2521: 2409: 2351: 1977: 1804: 1774: 1514: 1433:. Henry reasserted royal authority and rebuilt the royal finances, 1259: 1085: 1001:, and the nobility began to exercise power through a system termed 9271:

Making a Living in the Middle Ages: The People of Britain 850-1520

7594:

The Struggle for Mastery: The Penguin History of Britain 1066–1284

6433: 6431: 5115:

Pounds (1994), pp. 146–147; Carpenter, pp. 399–401, 410.

3972:

The period has also been used in a wide range of popular culture.

3427: 10920: 10830: 10474: 10146:. Cardiff, UK: National Museums and Galleries of Wales and Cadw. 9964:

J.R.R. Tolkien and His Literary Resonances: Views of Middle-Earth

9603:

The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century

7505:

Airlie, pp. 163–164, 177-179; Driver and Ray, pp. 7–14.

3912: 3842: 3669: 3636: 3484: 3335: 3135: 2980:

that were exploited for their natural resources and protected by

2960: 2773:

England had a diverse geography in the medieval period, from the

2704: 2676: 2657: 2629: 2199: 2077: 1890:, forbidden to leave their manor or seek alternative employment. 1883: 1754: 1324: 1220: 1017:. English kings in the 14th and 15th centuries laid claim to the 947: 912: 899: 11341: 9778:. Berkeley and Los Angeles, US: University of California Press. 9168:

The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature

8981:

London in the Later Middle Ages: Government and People 1200–1500

8545:

Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500

8161:. Berkeley and Los Angeles, US: University of California Press. 7184:

Happé, p. 335–336; Danziger and Gillingham, pp. 29–30.

3704:

from the 1370s onwards, however, culminating in the influential

2117:

and managing the fields defined as men's work, for example, and

6929:

Pounds (1994), pp. 107–112; Turner (1971), pp. 23–25.

6428: 3749: 3728: 3674: 3548: 3386: 3339: 3322: 3302: 3006: 2988:

for export to Europe. Many hundreds of new towns, some of them

2977: 2948: 2932: 2641: 2592: 2453: 2445: 2408:, combined with a belief in a final, apocalyptic battle called 2358: 2339: 2310: 2266:

in 1290 by Edward I, being replaced by foreign merchants.

2258: 2237: 2097: 2022: 1785:

dealing with larger regions of the kingdom. Many churchmen and

1766: 1687: 1675: 1658: 1332: 1319:, took advantage of the English succession crisis to begin the 1308:

Section of the Bayeux Tapestry showing the final stages of the

1232: 1180: 1109: 998: 920: 919:

attacks, and the fighting lasted for many decades. Eventually,

916: 3313:

become more numerous in the 12th century, alongside the older

2343: 1262:

payments failed, and he took the throne in 1013. Swein's son,

873:, from the end of the 5th century through to the start of the 11664: 10620: 9065:

The Medieval Universities: Their Development and Organization

8326: 5949:

Carpenter, pp. 448–450; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 209.

3724: 3476: 3472: 3285: 3281: 3033: 2993: 2944: 2928: 2878: 2782: 2734:

over the next two centuries, with many crusaders leaving for

2700: 2509: 2335: 2326: 2246: 2101: 1887: 1758: 1611:

before seizing the throne himself as Richard III. The future

1128:, royal centres, and collecting tribute from the surrounding 1101: 9838:

English Medieval Industries: Craftsmen, Techniques, Products

9313:

English Medieval Industries: Craftsmen, Techniques, Products

8585:

English Medieval Industries: Craftsmen, Techniques, Products

6530:

Gillingham and Danziger, p. 237; Humphrey, pp. 106–107.

2566:

the local bishops came to new accommodations with the local

2369:

and his household, starting the process of converting Kent.

1278:

claimed the throne, defeating his rival Norwegian claimant,

950:, but creating a much wider body of unfree labourers called 4612:

Mortimer (2008), pp. 84–90; Rubin, pp. 89, 92–93.

3732: 3527: 3468: 3277: 3221: 3218: 2985: 2936: 2882: 2688: 2449: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2233: 2180: 2138: 1875: 1856: 1790: 1398:, claimed the throne in 1135, but this was disputed by the 1215: 1195: 951: 9750:

In Search of The Holy Grail: The Quest for the Middle Ages

9503:. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 7757:

The Hollow Crown: The Penguin History of Britain 1272–1485

6854:

Turner (2009), p. 106; Warren (1991), p. 123; Rose, p. 69.

6057:

Rubin, pp. 150–151; Aston and Richmond, pp. 1–4.

4693:

Rubin, pp. 213–214, 220–223; Myers, pp. 120–121.

3984:. The period has also inspired fantasy writers, including 1830:

List of nobles and magnates of England in the 13th century

11535: 8742:

Castles and Tower Houses of the Scottish Clans, 1450–1650

8521:"Twelfth Century Great Towers – The Case for the Defence" 8310:(Yale ed.). New Haven, U.S.: Yale University Press. 8037:(Yale ed.). New Haven, U.S.: Yale University Press. 6463: 6461: 4980:

Carpenter, pp. 84–85; Barlow (1999), pp. 88–89.

4630:

Rubin, pp. 74–75; Mortimer (2008), pp. 134–136.

2952: 2134: 1029:, fought between rival factions of the English nobility. 9002:

The Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature

8501:

A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times

6260:

Danziger and Gillingham, p. 33; Hughes and Diaz, p. 111.

4845:

Whitelock, pp. 54–55; Barlow (1999), pp. 27, 34–35.

3126:, a philosopher and Franciscan friar, produced works on 2992:, were built across England, supporting the creation of 2865:, an ancient system for managing woods and animals, and 1897:, responsible for running the royal chancery, while the 6871: 6869: 4778: 4776: 4269: 4267: 3122:

The period produced some influential English scholars.

2919:, originally built with the profits from European trade 2660:'s flask, carried as a protective talisman, containing 1060:

At the start of the Middle Ages, England was a part of

1033:'s victory in 1485 conventionally marks the end of the 877:

in 1485. When England emerged from the collapse of the

11086:

Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)

9880:

Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe, AD 700-1100

8179:

The Three Edwards: War and State in England, 1272–1377

6956:

Pounds (1994), pp. 250–251, 271; Johnson, p. 226.

6458: 5421:

Johns, pp. 30, 69; Johns, pp. 22–25; Mate, p. 25.

1250:

took power in 978 following the murder of his brother

271:

Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)

11606: 8013:

William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England

7561:

England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings, 1075–1225

6392: 5133:

Carpenter, pp. 369–370; Stenton, pp. 56–57.

4395:

Huscroft, pp. 65, 69–71; Carpenter, pp. 124, 138-140.

4126:(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013), pp. 97–101. 3342:

were first used by English forces at battles such as

2183:

in the 8th century. By the 9th century, the term the

1425:

in Northern France. Henry had also acquired the huge

1421:

rulers of England, so-called because he was also the

1104:

culture in the south, with local groups establishing

958:

changed as laws regarding land and lordship shifted.

33:

Clockwise, from top left: Detail of the 11th-century

8722:

A Few Well-Positioned Castles: The Norman Art of War

6866: 6407:

Hodgett, p. 57; Bailey, p. 47; Pounds (2005), p. 15.

6398:

Bailey, p. 41; Bartlett, p. 321; Cantor 1982, p. 19.

6383: 6340: 6338: 5802:

Lavelle, pp. 319; Rahtz and Watts, pp. 303–305.

5612: 5610: 4773: 4264: 3138:; his work set out the theoretical basis for future 3037:

many of the international fairs and the rise of the

1198:

and defeated the kingdom of East Anglia. Mercia and

11091:

Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)

10164:

A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000

9772:Heresy". In Knighton, Tess; Fallows, David (eds.). 9397:

The Cambridge Companion to Medieval English Theatre

9274:. New Haven, US and London: Yale University Press. 9043:

Monastic and Religious Orders in Britain, 1000–1300

8435:Creighton, Oliver Hamilton; Robert, Higham (2005). 7778:

English Society in the Early Middle Ages, 1066–1307

6691: 6689: 5940:

Carpenter, p. 446; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 208.

4323:

Carpenter, pp. 74–77; Prior, pp. 225–228.

2893:, may have originated as early as the 7th century. 2464:in the European tradition or, uniquely to England, 1631: 1380:and his subsequent life imprisonment. Robert's son 974:. Despite developments in England's governance and 276:

Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)

10212: 9376:Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450-900 9355:Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays 9143: 9040: 8810: 8219: 7823:(2nd ed.). Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books. 7736:English Society in the Late Middle Ages, 1066–1307 7617:Britain After Rome: The Fall and Rise, 400 to 1070 6746:Morillo, p. 52; Prestwich (1992a), pp. 97–99. 6467:Hodgett, p. 148; Ramsay, p.xxxi; Kowalesk, p. 248. 1587:A sequence of bloody civil wars, later termed the 1183:attacks grew in number and scale until in 865 the 946:to governing England, eradicating the practice of 7345: 7343: 7301:Whitelock, pp. 88–89; Emery, pp. 21–22. 6335: 5607: 4702:Rubin, pp. 224–227; Myers, pp. 122–125. 4684:Rubin, pp. 182–183, 186; Myers, p. 133. 4167: 4165: 1933: 1811: 1757:emerged in the 10th century, administering local 1749:also accompanied the court. At a regional level, 1642: 11716: 9627:. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press. 9337:. Wisconsin, US: University of Wisconsin Press. 9229:Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 9089:. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht. 8897:Lollardy and the Gentry in the Later Middle Ages 8782:The Archaeology of the Medieval English Monarchy 8016:. Berkeley, US: University of California Press. 7676:A Social and Economic History of Medieval Europe 6791:Prestwich (2003), pp. 173–174; Coss, p. 91. 6686: 5846: 5844: 5714: 5712: 4998:Carpenter, pp. 84–85, 94; Huscroft, p. 104. 4944:Carpenter, p. 4; Davies, p. 20; Huscroft, p. 81. 3452:, often protected with earth and wood ramparts. 2072:A depiction of an English woman c. 1170 using a 1124:, had begun to term themselves kings, living in 9543:. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. 9419:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 8942:. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. 8939:An Illustrated History of Late Medieval England 8609:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 8565:Stained Glass in England During the Middle Ages 8434: 8200:England Under Edward I and Edward II, 1259–1327 7640:. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. 7637:An Illustrated History of Late Medieval England 6982: 6980: 6733: 6731: 6721: 6719: 6220: 6218: 6216: 5744: 5742: 5537: 5535: 5304:Myers, pp. 140–141; Hicks, pp. 65–72. 4675:Rubin, pp. 168–172; Myers, pp. 30–35. 4666:Rubin, pp. 120–121; Jones, pp. 21–22. 4648:Rubin, pp. 78–80, 83; Steane, p. 110. 4459:White (2000), pp. 2–7; King (2007), p. 40. 4000:, part of England's growing heritage industry. 3950:Depiction of the Middle Ages in popular culture 3329:In the late 13th century Edward I expanded the 2583:Tensions arose between these practices and the 2034:. Their influence was exerted both through the 1482: 1289: 1049: 10053:. New York, US: State University of New York. 9687:Warfare Under the Anglo-Norman Kings 1066–1135 7340: 6602:Cobban, p. 101; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 9. 6485:Myers, pp. 161–4; Raban, p. 50; Barron, p. 78. 4283: 4281: 4279: 4162: 3714:compiled the older Arthurian tales to produce 3663:The Anglo-Saxons produced extensive poetry in 3609: 10815: 10198: 9925:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 9732:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 9606:. Princeton, US: Princeton University Press. 9582:Summer of Blood: The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 9400:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 9192:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 9110:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 9047:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 9024:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 9005:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 8921:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 8893: 8686:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 7928:Stephen and Matilda: the Civil War of 1139–53 7718:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 6863:Rose, pp. 64–66, 71; Coppack, pp. 19–20. 6371:Douglas, p. 310; Dyer (2009), pp. 87–88. 5841: 5709: 5403:Johns, pp. 25, 195-196; Mate, pp. 20–21. 4621:Rubin, pp. 63–67; Myers, pp. 23–24. 4513:Turner (2009), p. 195; Barlow (1999), p. 357. 4296:Fleming, p. 311; Huscroft, pp. 11, 13, 22-24. 3009:boom in the 12th century helping to fuel the 2596:policy, and successive archbishops including 2133:and as servants. Some women became full-time 1623:would continue for several years afterwards. 1607:, who initially ruled on behalf of the young 970:led to tensions between successive kings and 843: 53:, built in the 13th century; the 9th century 10008:. Chicago, US: University of Chicago Press. 9107:Climate Change: Biological and Human Aspects 8336:English Stained Glass of the Medieval Period 8076:The Plantagenets: The Kings Who Made England 7739:(8th ed.). Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. 7633: 7514:Ortenberg, p. 175; D'haen, pp. 336–337. 7366: 7364: 7274:McClendon, pp. 60, 83-84; Whitelock, p. 225. 6977: 6764:Prestwich (1992a), p. 93; Carpenter, p. 524. 6755:Stringer, pp. 24–25; Morillo, pp. 16–17, 52. 6728: 6716: 6584:Getz, p.liii; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 9. 6449: 6213: 5739: 5532: 5028: 3567:patterns. From the 7th century onwards more 2365:sent a team of missionaries to convert King 9775:Companion to Medieval and Renaissance Music 7993:Isabella and the Strange Death of Edward II 6192:Carpenter, p. 458; Tyerman, pp. 16–17. 5727:Whitelock, pp. 21–22; Fleming, p. 127. 4276: 3053:that would shape the Early Modern economy. 2896: 2647: 2535: 1327:and mercenaries, he defeated Harold at the 1159:rose to prominence under the leadership of 10822: 10808: 10205: 10191: 10160: 10118: 9813: 9792: 9496: 9144:Danziger, Danny; Gillingham, John (2004). 8518: 8327:Architecture, castles, churches, landscape 8133: 6713:Hooper (1992a), p. 1, 11; Halsall, p. 185. 6575:Gillingham and Danziger, pp. 234–235. 4721: 4719: 4717: 3943: 3936:. Fresh archaeological finds, such as the 3551:, with brooches, buckles, sword hilts and 3296:Anglo-Norman warfare was characterised by 2221:History of the Jews in England (1066–1290) 1695:, peasants who worked land belonging to a 1471:in 1264 resulted in the king's capture by 1410:, finally agreed to a peace settlement at 1132:; these kingdoms are often referred to as 850: 836: 9746: 9206: 9019: 8998: 8856: 8759: 8602: 8476: 8413: 8175: 8154: 8030: 7816: 7802:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7590: 7361: 6920:Pounds (1994), pp. 44–45, 66, 75-77. 6380:Dyer (2009), p. 89; Barlow (1999), p. 98. 4477:Warren (2000), pp. 131–136, 619-622. 4425:Review of King Stephen, (review no. 1038) 3602:. English illuminated books, such as the 3056: 2746: 2423: 1626: 320:History of monarchy in the United Kingdom 10071:Mercia: An Anglo-Saxon Kingdom In Europe 10067: 9704: 9641: 9517: 9164: 8914: 8541: 8217: 8114: 8100:. New Haven, US: Yale University Press. 7945: 7924: 7692: 7573:The Feudal Kingdom of England, 1042–1216 7460:Hinton, pp. vii–viii; Crouch, pp. 178–9. 6965:Pounds (1994), p. 287; Reid, pp. 12, 46. 6704:Halsall, p. 185; Davidson, pp. 8–9. 6251:Prior, p. 83; Creighton, pp. 41–42. 6233:Danziger and Gillingham, pp. 48–49. 5250:Jones, pp. 41–43, 149–155, 199-201. 4872:Lavelle, pp. 2–3; Whitelock, p. 80. 4450:Carpenter, p. 191; Aurell (2003), p. 15. 3961:of English medieval events, such as the 3953: 3861: 3784: 3758:and others describing the activities of 3635: 3510: 3426: 3405:in 1350; raiding campaigns, such as the 3360: 3263: 3070: 2910: 2761: 2651: 2545: 2427: 2294: 2224: 2155: 2067: 1943: 1833: 1652: 1492: 1303: 1138: 28: 10139: 10043: 9998: 9960: 9946:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 9897: 9768:Page, Christopher (1997). "The English 9725: 9683: 9662: 9620: 9557: 9475: 9454: 9433: 9372: 9351: 8984:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 8392: 8261: 8009: 7990: 7905: 7886: 7774: 7673: 7611: 7563:(New Oxford History of England) (2002) 6902:Liddiard, pp. 22, 24, 37; Brown, p. 24. 6800:Hicks, pp. 9–10; 231-232, 234-235. 6629:Dyer (2009), pp. 212–213, 324-325. 6278:Hughes and Diaz, p. 131; Cowie, p. 194. 4714: 4122:Nicholas J. Higham and Martin J. Ryan, 3423:List of town walls in England and Wales 3317:. At the heart of these armies was the 2280: 2014:prevent the consumption of luxury goods 1761:on behalf of an ealdorman. Anglo-Saxon 1649:Social history of the Early Middle Ages 1206:was driven into internal exile in 878. 14: 11717: 10125:. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Rodopi. 10095:. London: Leicester University Press. 9981: 9939: 9876: 9834: 9599: 9309: 9225: 9185: 9124: 9061: 9038: 8977: 8956: 8935: 8831: 8808: 8801: 8778: 8764:. Macclesfield, UK: Windgather Press. 8700: 8679: 8644: 8623: 8548:. Macclesfield, UK: Windgather Press. 8462:. Risborough, UK: Shire Publications. 8396:Medieval Merchant's House, Southampton 8371: 8303: 8282: 8240: 7865: 7846: 7654: 7569: 6974:Creighton and Higham, p. 166–167. 6548:Gillingham and Danziger, pp. 239, 241. 5904:Burton, pp. 28–29; Nilson, p. 70. 5868:Fleming, p. 322; Burton, pp. 3–4. 5259:Myers, pp. 132–133; Hicks, p. 23. 4359:Prestwich (1992b), pp. 70–71, 74. 3099:and a sequence of improvements in the 2923:The English economy was fundamentally 2460:were constructed, staffed either with 1972:had to take up permanent residence in 1940:Social history of the Late Middle Ages 1824:Social history of the High Middle Ages 1572:seized the throne with the support of 10803: 10186: 10088: 9918: 9578: 9538: 9414: 9393: 9288: 9103: 8963:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 8719: 8701:Pounds, Norman John Greville (2005). 8680:Pounds, Norman John Greville (1994). 8627:Cathedral Shrines of Medieval England 8581: 8562: 8455: 8352: 8333: 8196: 8072: 7969: 7795: 7753: 7732: 7451:Aurell (2003), p. 15; Vincent, p. 16. 7157:Rubin, p. 158; Myers, pp. 98–99. 7139:Myers, p. 275; Aurell (2007), p. 363. 6353:Bartlett, p. 313; Dyer (2009), p. 14. 6314:Rotherham, p. 80; Dyer (2009), p. 13. 4504:Turner (2009), pp. 139, 173–174, 189. 4486:Carpenter, pp. 245, 261-262, 265-268. 4225:Fleming, p. 270; Yorke, pp. 114, 122. 4138:Early Germanic Literature and Culture 2927:, depending on growing crops such as 2903:Economy of England in the Middle Ages 2766:15th-century depiction of an English 2439:monasteries built in the 12th century 1435:intervening to claim power in Ireland 1243:, that is of the whole English folk. 1100:culture in the east of England and a 11671: 10829: 10167:. Hyderabad, India: Orient Longman. 10022: 9855: 9767: 9330: 9267: 9248: 9082: 8738: 8497: 8093: 8051: 7713: 6416:Hillaby, p. 16; Dyer (2009), p. 115. 5994:Burton, p. 21; Barlow (1999), p. 75. 5634:Hillaby, pp. 16–17; Douglas, p. 314. 4953:Burton, p. 21; Barlow (1999), p. 87. 4135:Fred C. Robinson, "Old English," in 3965:shown here, form part of the modern 3401:in 1340, or in more open waters, as 3338:, a potentially devastating weapon. 3213:by the 14th century, with the first 2664:from the shrine of Thomas Becket in 1044: 985:The 14th century in England saw the 10111: 10005:England and the Crusades, 1095–1588 8762:The Medieval Park: New Perspectives 8647:"Medieval English Town-House Plans" 8414:Creighton, Oliver Hamilton (2005). 8182:(2nd ed.). London: Routledge. 7970:Davis, Ralph Henry Carless (1977). 7908:Edward III's Round Table at Windsor 7889:Edward III's Round Table at Windsor 7849:L'Empire des Plantagenêt, 1154–1224 6818:Hooper (1992b), pp. 18–19, 22. 6773:Prestwich (2003), pp. 172, 176-177. 5829:Fleming, pp. 128–129, 170-173. 4422:Davis, p. 78; King (2010), p. 281; 3083:established during the 13th century 2542:Church and state in medieval Europe 2452:, and others formed around married 2053: 1874:, they were granted lands termed a 24: 10143:Re-Creations: Visualising Our Past 9984:Town Defences in England and Wales 9648:. Leiden, the Netherlands: BRILL. 9358:. Leiden, the Netherlands: BRILL. 9242:10.1111/j.1468-2281.1962.tb01411.x 7013:Whitelock, p. 224; Webster, p. 11. 4216:Fleming, p. 220; Williams, p. 327. 3571:designs became popular, showing a 3175:The Travels of Sir John Mandeville 2550:Mid-13th-century depiction of the 1918:—and travelling judges conducting 1517:and Aquitaine. Edward also fought 1459:, and finally the outbreak of the 1254:, but England was then invaded by 330:History of the politics of England 41:; 15th-century stained glass from 25: 11791: 9967:. Westport, US: Greenwood Press. 9922:The Cambridge Companion to Ockham 9904:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9859:Medieval Naval Warfare, 1000–1500 9820:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9799:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9729:The Cambridge Companion to Ockham 9690:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9669:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9524:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9482:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9461:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9440:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 9251:Everyday Life in Medieval England 9171:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 8745:. Botley, UK: Osprey Publishing. 8705:. Westport, US: Greenwood Press. 8630:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 8483:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 8268:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 8140:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 8058:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 7976:(1st ed.). London: Longman. 7931:. Stroud, UK: The History Press. 7910:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 7891:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 7872:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 7820:The Beginnings of English Society 7716:Women in Medieval English Society 7634:Given-Wilson, Chris, ed. (1996). 7576:. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education. 7424:Bevington, p. 432; Vincent, p. 3. 7175:Myers, pp. 182–183, 250-251. 6075:Rubin, pp. 188–189; 198-199. 5340:Mate, pp. 2–3; Johns, p. 14. 4549:Carpenter, pp. 495, 505–512. 4150:Fleming, pp. 76–77, 106-107. 3857: 3845:chapels for existing cathedrals. 3412: 3178:. The universities of Oxford and 2552:death of Archbishop Thomas Becket 2469:kings of Wessex who promoted the 1733:, and some of the more important 1595:, leading a faction known as the 1442:succeeded to the throne in 1189. 325:History of the economy of England 11697: 11680: 11652: 11640: 11628: 11616: 9600:Jordan, William Chester (1997). 9253:. London: Hambledon and London. 9150:. London: Hodder and Stoughton. 8918:The Cambridge History Of Warfare 8671: 8533: 8528:The Castle Studies Group Journal 7535: 7526: 7517: 7508: 7499: 7490: 7481: 7472: 7463: 7454: 7445: 7436: 7427: 7418: 7409: 7400: 7391: 7382: 7373: 7352: 7331: 7322: 7313: 7304: 7295: 7286: 7277: 7268: 7259: 7250: 7241: 7232: 7223: 7214: 7205: 7196: 7187: 7178: 7169: 7160: 7151: 7142: 7133: 7124: 7115: 7106: 7097: 7088: 7079: 7070: 7067:Baker, p. 2; Marks (1993), p. 3. 7061: 7052: 7043: 7034: 7025: 7016: 7007: 6998: 6989: 6968: 6959: 6950: 6947:Pounds (1994), pp. 253–255. 6941: 6932: 6923: 6914: 6905: 6896: 6887: 6878: 6857: 6848: 6839: 6830: 6821: 6812: 6803: 6794: 6785: 6776: 6767: 6758: 6749: 6740: 6707: 6698: 6677: 6668: 6659: 6650: 6641: 6632: 6623: 6614: 6605: 6596: 6587: 6578: 6569: 6560: 6551: 6542: 6533: 6524: 6521:Gillingham and Danziger, p. 237. 6515: 6506: 6497: 6488: 6479: 6470: 6440: 6419: 6410: 6401: 6374: 6365: 6356: 6347: 6326: 6317: 6308: 6299: 6290: 6281: 6272: 6263: 6254: 6245: 6236: 6227: 6204: 6195: 6186: 6177: 6168: 6159: 6150: 6141: 6132: 6123: 6114: 6105: 6096: 6087: 6078: 6069: 6060: 6051: 6042: 6033: 6024: 6015: 6006: 5997: 5988: 5979: 5970: 5961: 5952: 5943: 5934: 5925: 5916: 5907: 5898: 5889: 5880: 5871: 5862: 5853: 5832: 5823: 5814: 5805: 5796: 5787: 5778: 5769: 5760: 5751: 5730: 5721: 5700: 5691: 5688:Stenton, p. 200; Hillaby, p. 35. 5682: 5673: 5670:Hillaby, p. 29; Stenton, p. 200. 5664: 5655: 5646: 5637: 5628: 5619: 5598: 5589: 5580: 5571: 5562: 5553: 5544: 5523: 5514: 5505: 5496: 5487: 5478: 5469: 5460: 5451: 5442: 5433: 5424: 5415: 5406: 5397: 5388: 5379: 5370: 5361: 5352: 5343: 5334: 5325: 5316: 5307: 5298: 5289: 5280: 5271: 5262: 5253: 5244: 5235: 5226: 5217: 5208: 5199: 5190: 5181: 5172: 5163: 5154: 5145: 5136: 5127: 5124:Barlow (1999), pp. 308–309. 5118: 5109: 5100: 5091: 5082: 5073: 5064: 5055: 5046: 5037: 5019: 5010: 5001: 4992: 4603:Mortimer (2008), pp. 80–83. 4468:Warren (2000), pp. 161, 561–562. 4054: 4040: 3448:8th and 9th centuries, creating 2080:, while caring for a young child 1948:Early 15th-century depiction of 1729:, comprising the senior clergy, 1632:Governance and social structures 1037:in England and the start of the 819: 85: 11730:England in the High Middle Ages 10092:Wessex in the Early Middle Ages 9753:. London: Hambledon Continuum. 8498:Hill, Donald Routledge (1996). 8244:King John: England's Evil King? 8010:Douglas, David Charles (1962). 7547: 7442:Dyer (2009), p. 4; Coss, p. 81. 7058:Marks (2001), pp. 265–266. 6827:Hooper (1992b), pp. 20–24. 6476:Dyers (2009), pp. 291–293. 6446:Hodgett, p. 206; Bailey, p. 46. 6269:Danziger and Gillingham, p. 33. 6003:Barlow (1999), pp. 98, 103-104. 5958:Forey, pp. 98–99, 106-107. 5850:Fleming, pp. 318–319, 321. 5679:Skinner, p. 9; Stenton, p. 199. 5652:Stenton, pp. 193–194, 197. 5295:Myers, pp. 48–49, 137–138. 5016:Danziger and Gillingham, p. 40. 4983: 4974: 4965: 4956: 4947: 4938: 4929: 4920: 4911: 4902: 4893: 4884: 4875: 4866: 4857: 4848: 4839: 4830: 4821: 4812: 4803: 4794: 4785: 4764: 4755: 4746: 4737: 4728: 4705: 4696: 4687: 4678: 4669: 4660: 4651: 4642: 4633: 4624: 4615: 4606: 4597: 4588: 4579: 4570: 4561: 4552: 4543: 4534: 4525: 4516: 4507: 4498: 4489: 4480: 4471: 4462: 4453: 4444: 4435: 4416: 4407: 4398: 4389: 4380: 4371: 4362: 4353: 4344: 4335: 4326: 4317: 4308: 4299: 4290: 4255: 4246: 4237: 4234:Yorke, p. 122; Carpenter, p. 3. 4228: 4219: 4210: 4201: 4192: 4183: 4174: 4109:Richard Hogg and Rhona Alcorn, 4030: 4009: 3770: 3389:and large transport ships, and 3365:A reconstruction of a medieval 2394:Indigenous Scandinavian beliefs 1818:England in the High Middle Ages 1707:king, bishops, monasteries and 1489:England in the Late Middle Ages 1414:and succeeded as king in 1154. 1296:England in the High Middle Ages 310:History of education in England 10214:European Middle Ages by region 10026:Pilgrimage in Medieval England 9295:. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan. 9165:Davidson, Hilda Ellis (1998). 8859:The Journal of British Studies 8666:10.1080/00766097.1962.11735667 8603:McClendon, Charles B. (2005). 8375:The English Medieval Landscape 7781:. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. 7487:Driver and Ray, pp. 7–14. 7406:Dyer (2000), pp. 153–162. 6884:Turner (1971), pp. 19–20. 6638:Dyer (2009), pp. 326–327. 6566:Normore, p. 31; Spade, p. 101. 6557:Hackett, pp. 9, 16, 19, 20-21. 6305:Dyer (2009), pp. 25, 161, 236. 6242:Dyer (2000), pp. 261–263. 5568:Carpenter, pp. 3–4, p. 8. 5223:Dyer (2009), pp. 268–269. 4971:Barlow (1999), pp. 78–79. 4743:Whitelock, pp. 29–21, 33. 4585:Rubin, pp. 35–36, 52, 54. 4153: 4144: 4129: 4116: 4111:An Introduction to Old English 4103: 4094: 4085: 4076: 3804:and towns were abandoned. New 3655:, early 15th-century, showing 1668:The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were 1638:Government in medieval England 1417:Henry II was the first of the 1179:raids on England began; these 1056:History of Anglo-Saxon England 942:. The new rulers introduced a 305:Government in medieval England 13: 1: 9147:1215: The Year of Magna Carta 8338:. London: Thames and Hudson. 8265:Henry II: New Interpretations 8247:. Stroud, UK: History Press. 8055:Henry II: New Interpretations 8031:Hollister, C. Warren (2003). 7869:Henry II: New Interpretations 7433:Sreedharan, pp. 122–123. 6938:Liddiard, pp. 61–63, 98. 6674:Dyer (2009) pp. 214–215. 5586:Rubin, p. 8; Carpenter, p. 9. 4404:Chibnall, pp. 64–65, 75. 4070: 3876:; a key source for historians 3794:All Saints' Church, Brixworth 3691:; stories about the court of 3101:units used for measuring time 3011:expansion of the money supply 3005:increased in England, with a 2574:, which was addressed by the 2236:, the site of an anti-Jewish 2121:becoming dominated by women. 1560:Edward's grandson, the young 11735:History of England by period 10639:Hereditary Kingdom of Norway 9747:Ortenberg, Veronica (2006). 9621:Kessler, Herbert L. (2004). 9211:. Jefferson, US: McFarland. 8519:Hulme, Richard (2007–2008). 8399:. London: English Heritage. 8079:. HarperCollins Publishers. 7851:(in French). Paris: Tempus. 7775:Stenton, Doris Mary (1976). 7292:Whitelock, pp. 238–239. 7256:Fleming, pp. 34–35, 38. 7121:Whitelock, pp. 214–217. 7112:Whitelock, pp. 211–213. 6995:Whitelock, pp. 224–225. 6611:Dyer (2009), pp. 25–26. 5985:Whitelock, pp. 160–163. 5931:Carpenter, pp. 444–445. 5160:Carpenter, pp. 473–474. 5142:Carpenter, pp. 477–479. 5061:Carpenter, pp. 290–292. 4890:Whitelock, pp. 134–135. 4800:Whitelock, pp. 108–109. 4531:Carpenter, pp. 380–381. 4386:Carpenter, pp. 134–135. 4377:Carpenter, pp. 131–133. 4350:Carpenter, pp. 125–126. 4341:Carpenter, pp. 110–112. 3547:, frequently using gold and 3079:showing one of the many new 2751: 2448:, bishop-led communities of 2276:Religion in Medieval England 1934:Late Middle Ages (1272–1485) 1812:High Middle Ages (1066–1272) 1643:Early Middle Ages (600–1066) 1483:Late Middle Ages (1272–1485) 1290:High Middle Ages (1066–1272) 1194:, invaded England, captured 1050:Early Middle Ages (600–1066) 956:position of women in society 295:English overseas possessions 7: 11725:Medieval history of England 11362:English language in England 11357:Innovations and discoveries 11081:Postwar Britain (1945–1979) 9841:. London: Hambledon Press. 9316:. London: Hambledon Press. 8836:; Nelson, Janet L. (eds.). 8588:. London: Hambledon Press. 8477:Gilchrist, Roberta (2006). 8459:Discovering Medieval Houses 8218:Stringer, Keith J. (1993). 8176:Prestwich, Michael (2003). 8155:Prestwich, Michael (1988). 7817:Whitelock, Dorothy (1972). 7678:. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. 7659:. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. 5187:Myers, p. 38; Rubin, p. 78. 4917:Whitelock pp. 140–141. 4881:Dyer (2009), pp. 52, 55–56. 4734:Hicks, pp. 8, 238–245. 4657:Rubin, p. 96; 113–114. 4540:Carpener, pp. 468–469. 3781:English Gothic architecture 3610:Literature, drama and music 3403:off the coast of Winchelsea 3372:The first references to an 2917:restored 13th-century house 2679:for a perceived sin, or to 2269: 2145: 1781:, serving local areas, and 1064:, a former province of the 10: 11796: 11667:England in the Middle Ages 9982:Turner, Hilary L. (1971). 9521:Time in the Medieval World 9268:Dyer, Christopher (2009). 9249:Dyer, Christopher (2000). 8073:Jones, Dan (10 May 2012). 7693:Huscroft, Richard (2005). 7552: 7469:Dyer (2009), pp. 4–6. 7328:Stenton, pp. 270–271. 7310:Stenton, pp. 268–269. 7130:Stenton, pp. 274–275. 6656:Dyer (2009), pp. 214, 324. 6503:Hicks, pp. 50–51, 65. 5976:Fleming, pp. 246–247. 5967:Whitelock, pp. 54–55. 5859:Fleming, pp. 322–323. 5775:Fleming, pp. 160–161. 5757:Fleming, pp. 152–153. 5736:Fleming, pp. 156–157. 5706:Stenton, pp. 193–194. 5331:Mate, pp. 6–7, 97-99. 5052:Bartlett, pp. 395–402 4935:Whitelock, pp. 41–45. 4818:Whitelock, pp. 52–53. 4782:Whitelock, pp. 97–99. 4752:Whitelock, pp. 50–51. 4314:Carpenter, pp. 72–74. 4273:Fleming, pp. 314–315. 4180:Fleming, pp. 205–207. 3947: 3774: 3613: 3500: 3416: 3354: 3257: 3248: 3063:Science in the Middle Ages 3060: 2900: 2755: 2539: 2284: 2273: 2218: 2149: 2057: 1937: 1838:Anglo-Norman 12th-century 1827: 1821: 1815: 1646: 1635: 1511:defeating the native Welsh 1486: 1293: 1053: 932:Norman invasion of England 863:England in the Middle Ages 120:Economy in the Middle Ages 11575: 11499: 11414: 11292: 11288: 11279: 11235: 11226: 11174: 11165: 11135: 11099: 11073: 11040: 10982: 10951: 10903: 10847: 10838: 10738:Principality of Chernigov 10647: 10568:Principality of Catalonia 10465: 10456: 10353: 10233: 10220: 9711:. London: Pimlico Press. 9684:Morillo, Stephen (1994). 9331:Getz, Faye Marie (1991). 9086:The Presence of Feudalism 9039:Burton, Janet E. (1994). 8978:Barron, Caroline (2005). 8542:Liddiard, Robert (2005). 8283:Warren, W. Lewis (1991). 8241:Turner, Ralph V. (2009). 8203:. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. 7955:. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. 7796:White, Graeme J. (2000). 7696:Ruling England, 1042–1217 7619:. London: Penguin Books. 7591:Carpenter, David (2004). 7496:Tiwawi and Tiwawi, p. 90. 7397:Liddiard, pp. 64–66. 7388:Liddiard, pp. 60–62. 7379:Pantin, pp. 205–206. 7049:Thomas, pp. 372–373. 7040:Thomas, pp. 368–369. 6782:Prestwich (2003), p. 156. 4962:Huscroft, pp. 78–79. 4854:Whitelock, pp. 56–5. 4305:Carpenter, pp. 67, 72-73. 3934:environmental archaeology 3852: 3628:Music in Medieval England 3624:Middle English literature 3350: 3253: 3142:in the natural sciences. 2152:English national identity 2006:Statute of Labourers 1351 1317:William, Duke of Normandy 1284:battle of Stamford Bridge 1202:fell in 875 and 876, and 11441:The Football Association 10717:Bosnia and Herzegovina ( 9940:Thomas, Hugh M. (2003). 9585:. London: Harper Press. 9539:Johns, Susan M. (2003). 9500:The Medieval Warm Period 9104:Cowie, Jonathan (2007). 9062:Cobban, Alan B. (1975). 8353:Brown, R. Allen (1962). 7839: 7674:Hodgett, Gerald (2006). 7541:Redknap, pp. 45–46. 7358:Myers, pp. 190–192. 7247:Fleming, pp. 32–33. 7238:Myers, pp. 187–188. 7193:Myers, pp. 112–113. 7166:Myers, pp. 100–101. 7103:Whitelock, pp. 207, 213. 7085:Myers, pp. 108–109. 6332:Dyer (2009), pp. 19, 22. 6048:Rubin, pp. 149–150. 6039:Rubin, pp. 148–149. 5550:Carpenter, pp. 6–7. 5529:Fleming, pp. 62, 65, 75. 5313:Myers, pp. 142–143. 5196:Rubin, pp. 109–111. 4926:Whitelock, pp. 140, 145. 4827:Dyer (2009), pp. 27, 29. 4522:Carpenter, pp. 369, 380. 4060:The utility of the term 4003: 3777:Anglo-Saxon architecture 3075:A medieval carving from 2897:Economy and demographics 2785:, through to the upland 2648:Pilgrimages and Crusades 2536:Church, state and heresy 2375:Archbishop of Canterbury 2291:Hiberno-Scottish mission 2060:Women in the Middle Ages 1350:spreading up the valleys 1155:In the 7th century, the 448:East Riding of Yorkshire 363:Kingdom of Great Britain 11780:15th century in England 11775:14th century in England 11770:13th century in England 11765:12th century in England 11760:11th century in England 11755:10th century in England 10926:History of Anglo-Saxons 10648:Central, Eastern Europe 10354:Central, Eastern Europe 10161:Sreedharan, E. (2004). 10089:Yorke, Barbara (1995). 9415:Hicks, Michael (2012). 8563:Marks, Richard (1993). 8456:Emery, Anthony (2007). 7991:Doherty, P. C. (2003). 7847:Aurell, Martin (2003). 7714:Mate, Mavis E. (2001). 7699:. Harlow, UK: Pearson. 7565:excerpt and text search 7211:Myers, pp. 184–85. 6210:Cantor, pp. 22–23. 5922:Burton, pp. 36–38. 5886:Burton, pp. 29–30. 5877:Burton, pp. 23–24. 5643:Hillaby, pp. 16, 21-22. 5595:Davies, pp. 20–22. 5286:Myers, p. 134–135. 4558:Carpenter, p. 477. 4432:, accessed 12 May 2011. 3944:Popular representations 3620:Anglo-Norman literature 3541:illuminated manuscripts 3491: 2907:Demographics of England 2624:. Wycliffe argued that 2214: 2084:Medieval England was a 45:, showing a scene from 11750:9th century in England 11745:8th century in England 11740:7th century in England 11252:Elizabethan government 11117:Kingdom of East Anglia 11112:Kingdom of Northumbria 10532:Burgundian Netherlands 10373:Bosnia and Herzegovina 10140:Redknap, Mark (2002). 9986:. London: John Baker. 9877:Sawyer, P. H. (1982). 9705:Mortimer, Ian (2004). 9663:Lavelle, Ryan (2010). 9186:Davies, R. R. (1990). 9125:Crouch, David (2005). 8957:Barlow, Frank (1986). 8900:. Stroud, UK: Sutton. 8724:. Stroud, UK: Tempus. 8720:Prior, Stuart (2006). 8645:Pantin, W. A. (1963). 8441:. Stroud, UK: Tempus. 8393:Coppack, Glyn (2003). 8378:. London: Croon Helm. 8304:Warren, W. L. (2000). 8197:Raban, Sandra (2000). 8115:Mortimer, Ian (2008). 7925:Bradbury, Jim (2009). 7655:Hinton, David (2002). 7570:Barlow, Frank (1999). 7523:Timmons, pp. 5–6. 7148:Myers, pp. 96–98. 6845:Warren (1991), p. 123. 6809:Hooper (1992b), p. 17. 6683:Lavelle, pp. 8, 14-15. 6030:Barlow (1999), p. 361. 5784:Lavelle, pp. 8, 11-12. 5718:Fleming, pp. 121, 126. 5616:Hicks, pp. 52–53. 5268:Hicks, pp. 28–30. 5151:Rubin, pp. 34–36. 5097:Barlow (1999), p. 320. 4761:Whitelock, pp. 85, 90. 4576:Rubin, pp. 31–34. 4495:Turner (2009), p. 107. 4082:Fleming, pp. 2–3. 3998:historical re-enactors 3969: 3877: 3797: 3796:, late 7th–8th century 3660: 3645:illuminated manuscript 3616:Old English literature 3531: 3496: 3444: 3369: 3357:Medieval naval warfare 3272: 3152:Johannes de Sacrobosco 3084: 3057:Technology and science 3026:villages were deserted 2920: 2915:The central hall of a 2781:or the heavily wooded 2770: 2747:Economy and technology 2668: 2554: 2440: 2424:Religious institutions 2318: 2306:, with English-carved 2241: 2175: 2081: 1960: 1852: 1665: 1661:, showing the face of 1627:Government and society 1505: 1338:devastating the region 1312: 1152: 1007:villages were deserted 968:ecclesiastical reforms 164:Black Death in England 58: 11458:Rugby Football League 10941:Settlement of Britain 10409:Late Medieval Kingdom 10405:High Medieval Kingdom 10074:. London: Continuum. 10029:. London: Hambledon. 9883:. London: Routledge. 9862:. London: Routledge. 9564:. London: Routledge. 9561:Agency in Archaeology 9417:The Wars of the Roses 9379:. London: Routledge. 9373:Halsall, Guy (2003). 8842:. London: Routledge. 8817:. London: Routledge. 8809:Aberth, John (2001). 8785:. London: Routledge. 8779:Steane, John (1999). 8739:Reid, Stuart (2006). 8567:. London: Routledge. 8504:. London: Routledge. 8226:. London: Routledge. 8094:King, Edmund (2010). 7733:Myers, A. R. (1978). 7532:Page, pp. 25–26. 6147:Webb, pp. 35–38. 6138:Webb, pp. 24–27. 6129:Webb, pp. 19–21. 5502:Mate, pp. 81–82. 5493:Mate, pp. 64–65. 5457:Mate, pp. 46–47. 5412:Mate, pp. 21–23. 5394:Mate, pp. 14–15. 5349:Mate, pp. 98–99. 4207:Fleming, pp. 219–221. 4124:The Anglo-Saxon World 3957: 3865: 3788: 3755:Ballad of Chevy Chase 3639: 3514: 3430: 3364: 3267: 3074: 3020:, land shortages and 2914: 2765: 2710:Participation in the 2655: 2549: 2431: 2298: 2264:expelled from England 2228: 2159: 2071: 1947: 1837: 1828:Further information: 1822:Further information: 1656: 1605:Richard of Gloucester 1533:, and a rebel baron, 1519:campaigns in Scotland 1496: 1307: 1142: 1011:medieval philosophers 936:William the Conqueror 889:flourished under the 32: 11475:Rugby Football Union 11143:House of Plantagenet 10617:Caliphate of Córdoba 10523:Republic of Florence 10023:Webb, Diana (2000). 10000:Tyerman, Christopher 9856:Rose, Susan (2002). 9796:Anglo-Norman Warfare 9479:Anglo-Norman Warfare 9458:Anglo-Norman Warfare 9289:Forey, Alan (1992). 8654:Medieval Archaeology 8624:Nilson, Ben (2001). 8359:. London: Batsford. 8334:Baker, John (1978). 8137:Anglo-Norman Warfare 7995:. London: Robinson. 7754:Rubin, Miri (2006). 7337:Myers, pp. 102, 105. 6986:Kessler, pp. 14, 19. 6647:Dyer (2009), p. 323. 6620:Dyer (2009), p. 131. 6174:Tyerman, pp. 11, 13. 6093:Webb, pp. xiii, xvi. 5214:Dyer (2009), p. 228. 4711:Hicks, pp. 3–8. 4100:Fleming, pp. 30, 40. 3963:battle of Tewkesbury 3835:Perpendicular Gothic 3831:Early English Gothic 3649:the Canterbury Tales 3164:Compendium Medicinae 2847:Medieval Warm Period 2758:Geography of England 2666:Canterbury Cathedral 2456:and their families. 2313:and German gold and 2281:Rise of Christianity 1952:, shown wearing the 1863:, produced in 1086. 1663:Æthelred the Unready 1570:Henry of Bolingbroke 1300:Anglo-Norman England 1268:Edward the Confessor 1227:, and his grandson, 960:England's population 940:a network of castles 11635:Anglo-Saxon England 11027:Union with Scotland 11007:English Reformation 11002:English Renaissance 10931:Anglo-Saxon England 10608:Lordship of Ireland 10603:Kingdom of Scotland 10592:Kingdom of Portugal 10572:Kingdom of Valencia 10542:Kingdom of Asturias 9624:Seeing Medieval Art 9579:Jones, Dan (2010). 9129:. Harlow: Pearson. 9068:. London: Methuen. 8802:Specialized studies 8420:. London: Equinox. 8289:. London: Methuen. 8119:. London: Vintage. 7760:. London: Penguin. 7597:. London: Penguin. 6389:Cantor 1982, p. 18. 6362:Dyer (2009), p. 26. 6323:Dyer (2009), p. 14. 6224:Dyer (2009), p. 13. 6120:Webb, pp. 5–6. 6111:Webb, pp. 3–5. 6102:Webb, pp. xvi-xvii. 5358:Mate, pp. 6–7. 3974:William Shakespeare 3938:Staffordshire Hoard 3184:University of Paris 3067:Medieval technology 2990:planned communities 2255:ritual child murder 2086:patriarchal society 1986:Order of the Garter 1958:Order of the Garter 1151:burial, 7th century 1039:Early Modern period 1021:, resulting in the 964:warmer temperatures 875:early modern period 215:Glorious Revolution 183:English Renaissance 135:English unification 105:Prehistoric Britain 51:Salisbury Cathedral 11556:Saint George's Day 11148:House of Lancaster 10959:Kingdom of England 10860:History of England 10768:Grand Principality 10686:Kingdom of Croatia 10633:Emirate of Granada 10598:Kingdom of England 10582:Kingdom of Navarre 10576:Kingdom of Majorca 10554:Kingdom of Galicia 10550:Kingdom of Castile 10513:Republic of Venice 10484:Kingdom of Bohemia 10050:Anglo-Saxon Styles 8839:The Medieval World 7947:Chibnall, Marjorie 7559:Bartlett, Robert. 7283:Whitelock, p. 239. 7004:Whitelock, p. 224. 6183:Carpenter, p. 456. 6165:Carpenter, p. 455. 5178:Carpenter, p. 479. 5169:Carpenter, p. 475. 4908:Whitelock, p. 140. 4899:Whitelock, p. 137. 4791:Whitelock, p. 100. 4639:Myers, p. 21. 4441:Carpenter, p. 191. 4430:Reviews in History 4413:Carpenter, p. 161. 4332:Carpenter, pp. 76. 4025:Holy Roman Emperor 3978:Historical fiction 3970: 3878: 3798: 3661: 3604:Queen Mary Psalter 3577:Carolingian styles 3532: 3445: 3370: 3273: 3160:Gilbertus Anglicus 3128:natural philosophy 3085: 2921: 2771: 2669: 2634:Parliamentary bill 2585:reforming movement 2555: 2441: 2418:started to convert 2367:Æthelberht of Kent 2319: 2257:, encouraging the 2242: 2176: 2169:St George's Chapel 2129:, making clothes, 2082: 2008:was introduced to 1961: 1853: 1845:Walters Art Museum 1666: 1617:battle of Bosworth 1551:Hundred Years' War 1506: 1469:Second Barons' War 1427:duchy of Aquitaine 1388:, died aboard the 1329:Battle of Hastings 1323:. With an army of 1313: 1310:Battle of Hastings 1211:Battle of Edington 1153: 1023:Hundred Years' War 1015:natural scientists 903:and sophisticated 867:history of England 826:England portal 473:Greater Manchester 358:Kingdom of England 315:History of English 130:Anglo-Saxon period 59: 11604: 11603: 11571: 11570: 11495: 11494: 11401:Science education 11394:Church of England 11275: 11274: 11222: 11221: 11161: 11160: 11127:Kingdom of Sussex 11122:Kingdom of Mercia 10974:Wars of the Roses 10797: 10796: 10793: 10792: 10749:Novgorod Republic 10723:Kingdom of Bosnia 10661:Bulgarian Empire 10564:Kingdom of Aragon 10528:Duchy of Burgundy 10518:Republic of Genoa 10508:Kingdom of Naples 10503:Kingdom of Sicily 10492:Swiss Confederacy 10480:Holy Roman Empire 10452: 10451: 10174:978-81-250-2657-0 10153:978-0-7200-0519-6 10132:978-90-420-1611-8 10102:978-0-7185-1856-1 10081:978-0-8264-7765-1 10060:978-0-7914-5869-3 10036:978-1-85285-250-4 10015:978-0-226-82013-2 9974:978-0-313-30845-1 9953:978-0-19-925123-0 9932:978-0-521-58790-7 9911:978-0-85115-931-7 9890:978-0-415-04590-2 9869:978-0-415-23976-9 9848:978-1-85285-326-6 9785:978-0-520-21081-3 9760:978-1-85285-383-9 9739:978-0-521-58790-7 9718:978-0-7126-9715-6 9697:978-0-85115-689-7 9676:978-1-84383-569-1 9655:978-1-84383-340-6 9634:978-1-55111-535-1 9613:978-0-691-05891-7 9592:978-0-00-721393-1 9571:978-0-415-20760-7 9531:978-1-903153-08-6 9510:978-0-7923-2842-1 9447:978-0-85115-931-7 9426:978-0-300-18157-9 9407:978-0-521-45916-7 9386:978-0-415-23940-0 9365:978-90-04-10015-2 9344:978-0-299-12930-9 9323:978-1-85285-326-6 9302:978-0-333-46235-5 9281:978-0-300-10191-1 9260:978-1-85285-201-6 9218:978-0-7864-3405-3 9199:978-0-521-02977-3 9178:978-0-85115-716-0 9157:978-0-340-82475-7 9136:978-0-582-36981-8 9117:978-0-521-69619-7 9096:978-3-525-35391-2 9075:978-0-416-81250-3 9054:978-0-521-37797-3 9031:978-0-521-52273-1 9012:978-0-521-63156-3 8991:978-0-19-928441-2 8970:978-0-297-79189-8 8949:978-0-7190-4152-5 8928:978-0-521-85359-0 8907:978-0-312-17388-3 8849:978-0-415-30234-0 8792:978-0-415-19788-5 8771:978-1-905119-16-5 8752:978-1-84176-962-2 8731:978-0-7524-3651-7 8712:978-0-313-32498-7 8703:The Medieval City 8693:978-0-521-45828-3 8637:978-0-85115-808-2 8616:978-0-300-10688-6 8595:978-1-85285-326-6 8574:978-0-415-03345-9 8511:978-0-415-15291-4 8490:978-1-84383-173-0 8469:978-0-7478-0655-4 8448:978-0-7524-1445-4 8427:978-1-904768-67-8 8385:978-0-7099-0707-7 8317:978-0-300-08474-0 8275:978-1-84383-340-6 8254:978-0-7524-4850-3 8233:978-0-415-01415-1 8210:978-0-631-22320-7 8189:978-0-415-30309-5 8168:978-0-520-06266-5 8126:978-0-09-952709-1 8107:978-0-300-11223-8 8086:978-0-00-745749-6 8065:978-1-84383-340-6 8044:978-0-300-09829-7 8023:978-0-520-00348-4 7962:978-0-631-19028-8 7938:978-0-7509-3793-1 7917:978-1-84383-391-8 7898:978-1-84383-391-8 7879:978-1-84383-340-6 7858:978-2-262-02282-2 7809:978-0-521-55459-6 7767:978-0-14-014825-1 7725:978-0-521-58733-4 7685:978-0-415-37707-2 7666:978-0-203-03984-7 7647:978-0-7190-4152-5 7626:978-0-14-014823-7 7604:978-0-14-014824-4 7583:978-0-582-03081-7 7415:Whitelock, p. 11. 7265:McClendon, p. 59. 6425:Blanchard, p. 29. 6344:Bartlett, p. 313. 6296:Rotherham, p. 79. 5439:Mate, pp. 32, 36. 5079:Huscroft, p. 104. 5025:Carpenter, p. 52. 5007:Carpenter, p. 87. 4989:Carpenter, p. 84. 4863:Whitelock, p. 57. 4809:Whitelock, p. 54. 4770:Whitelock, p. 35. 4725:Hicks, p. 5. 4062:bastard feudalism 4017:Geoffrey of Anjou 3982:detective fiction 3967:heritage industry 3717:Le Morte d'Arthur 3680:The Pastoral Care 3557:Sutton Hoo burial 3268:The 15th-century 3156:medieval medicine 3144:William of Ockham 3105:mechanical clocks 3039:chartered company 2943:, and husbanding 2941:open field system 2695:, Canterbury and 2622:Oxford University 2435:, one of the new 2373:became the first 2287:Gregorian mission 2064:Anglo-Saxon women 2032:bastard feudalism 1589:Wars of the Roses 1473:Simon de Montfort 1461:First Barons' War 1406:. Matilda's son, 1370:Stephen of Aumale 1223:. Under his son, 1157:Kingdom of Mercia 1045:Political history 1027:Wars of the Roses 1003:bastard feudalism 860: 859: 195:English Civil War 125:Sub-Roman Britain 16:(Redirected from 11787: 11710: 11702: 11701: 11700: 11693: 11685: 11684: 11683: 11673: 11657: 11656: 11655: 11645: 11644: 11643: 11633: 11632: 11631: 11621: 11620: 11612: 11584: 11546:Royal supporters 11347:Landscape garden 11317:Country clothing 11290: 11289: 11286: 11285: 11233: 11232: 11172: 11171: 11107:Kingdom of Essex 10870:Local government 10845: 10844: 10824: 10817: 10810: 10801: 10800: 10719:Banate of Bosnia 10657:Byzantine Empire 10538:Crown of Castile 10488:Kingdom of Italy 10463: 10462: 10231: 10230: 10207: 10200: 10193: 10184: 10183: 10178: 10157: 10136: 10106: 10085: 10064: 10040: 10019: 9995: 9978: 9957: 9936: 9915: 9894: 9873: 9852: 9831: 9810: 9789: 9764: 9743: 9722: 9701: 9680: 9659: 9638: 9617: 9596: 9575: 9554: 9535: 9514: 9493: 9472: 9451: 9430: 9411: 9390: 9369: 9348: 9327: 9306: 9285: 9264: 9245: 9222: 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7185: 7182: 7176: 7173: 7167: 7164: 7158: 7155: 7149: 7146: 7140: 7137: 7131: 7128: 7122: 7119: 7113: 7110: 7104: 7101: 7095: 7092: 7086: 7083: 7077: 7074: 7068: 7065: 7059: 7056: 7050: 7047: 7041: 7038: 7032: 7029: 7023: 7020: 7014: 7011: 7005: 7002: 6996: 6993: 6987: 6984: 6975: 6972: 6966: 6963: 6957: 6954: 6948: 6945: 6939: 6936: 6930: 6927: 6921: 6918: 6912: 6909: 6903: 6900: 6894: 6891: 6885: 6882: 6876: 6873: 6864: 6861: 6855: 6852: 6846: 6843: 6837: 6834: 6828: 6825: 6819: 6816: 6810: 6807: 6801: 6798: 6792: 6789: 6783: 6780: 6774: 6771: 6765: 6762: 6756: 6753: 6747: 6744: 6738: 6737:Bradbury, p. 74. 6735: 6726: 6725:Bradbury, p. 71. 6723: 6714: 6711: 6705: 6702: 6696: 6695:Bachrach, p. 76. 6693: 6684: 6681: 6675: 6672: 6666: 6663: 6657: 6654: 6648: 6645: 6639: 6636: 6630: 6627: 6621: 6618: 6612: 6609: 6603: 6600: 6594: 6591: 6585: 6582: 6576: 6573: 6567: 6564: 6558: 6555: 6549: 6546: 6540: 6537: 6531: 6528: 6522: 6519: 6513: 6510: 6504: 6501: 6495: 6492: 6486: 6483: 6477: 6474: 6468: 6465: 6456: 6455:Hodgett, p. 206. 6453: 6447: 6444: 6438: 6435: 6426: 6423: 6417: 6414: 6408: 6405: 6399: 6396: 6390: 6387: 6381: 6378: 6372: 6369: 6363: 6360: 6354: 6351: 6345: 6342: 6333: 6330: 6324: 6321: 6315: 6312: 6306: 6303: 6297: 6294: 6288: 6285: 6279: 6276: 6270: 6267: 6261: 6258: 6252: 6249: 6243: 6240: 6234: 6231: 6225: 6222: 6211: 6208: 6202: 6199: 6193: 6190: 6184: 6181: 6175: 6172: 6166: 6163: 6157: 6154: 6148: 6145: 6139: 6136: 6130: 6127: 6121: 6118: 6112: 6109: 6103: 6100: 6094: 6091: 6085: 6082: 6076: 6073: 6067: 6064: 6058: 6055: 6049: 6046: 6040: 6037: 6031: 6028: 6022: 6019: 6013: 6010: 6004: 6001: 5995: 5992: 5986: 5983: 5977: 5974: 5968: 5965: 5959: 5956: 5950: 5947: 5941: 5938: 5932: 5929: 5923: 5920: 5914: 5911: 5905: 5902: 5896: 5893: 5887: 5884: 5878: 5875: 5869: 5866: 5860: 5857: 5851: 5848: 5839: 5838:Gilchrist, p. 2. 5836: 5830: 5827: 5821: 5818: 5812: 5809: 5803: 5800: 5794: 5791: 5785: 5782: 5776: 5773: 5767: 5766:Fleming, p. 153. 5764: 5758: 5755: 5749: 5748:Fleming, p. 152. 5746: 5737: 5734: 5728: 5725: 5719: 5716: 5707: 5704: 5698: 5695: 5689: 5686: 5680: 5677: 5671: 5668: 5662: 5661:Stenton, p. 194. 5659: 5653: 5650: 5644: 5641: 5635: 5632: 5626: 5623: 5617: 5614: 5605: 5602: 5596: 5593: 5587: 5584: 5578: 5575: 5569: 5566: 5560: 5559:Carpenter, p. 6. 5557: 5551: 5548: 5542: 5541:Carpenter, p. 3. 5539: 5530: 5527: 5521: 5518: 5512: 5511:Carpenter, p. 1. 5509: 5503: 5500: 5494: 5491: 5485: 5482: 5476: 5473: 5467: 5464: 5458: 5455: 5449: 5446: 5440: 5437: 5431: 5428: 5422: 5419: 5413: 5410: 5404: 5401: 5395: 5392: 5386: 5383: 5377: 5374: 5368: 5365: 5359: 5356: 5350: 5347: 5341: 5338: 5332: 5329: 5323: 5320: 5314: 5311: 5305: 5302: 5296: 5293: 5287: 5284: 5278: 5275: 5269: 5266: 5260: 5257: 5251: 5248: 5242: 5239: 5233: 5230: 5224: 5221: 5215: 5212: 5206: 5203: 5197: 5194: 5188: 5185: 5179: 5176: 5170: 5167: 5161: 5158: 5152: 5149: 5143: 5140: 5134: 5131: 5125: 5122: 5116: 5113: 5107: 5104: 5098: 5095: 5089: 5088:Huscroft, p. 95. 5086: 5080: 5077: 5071: 5068: 5062: 5059: 5053: 5050: 5044: 5043:Huscroft, p. 85. 5041: 5035: 5034:Douglas, p. 312. 5032: 5026: 5023: 5017: 5014: 5008: 5005: 4999: 4996: 4990: 4987: 4981: 4978: 4972: 4969: 4963: 4960: 4954: 4951: 4945: 4942: 4936: 4933: 4927: 4924: 4918: 4915: 4909: 4906: 4900: 4897: 4891: 4888: 4882: 4879: 4873: 4870: 4864: 4861: 4855: 4852: 4846: 4843: 4837: 4836:Huscroft, p. 22. 4834: 4828: 4825: 4819: 4816: 4810: 4807: 4801: 4798: 4792: 4789: 4783: 4780: 4771: 4768: 4762: 4759: 4753: 4750: 4744: 4741: 4735: 4732: 4726: 4723: 4712: 4709: 4703: 4700: 4694: 4691: 4685: 4682: 4676: 4673: 4667: 4664: 4658: 4655: 4649: 4646: 4640: 4637: 4631: 4628: 4622: 4619: 4613: 4610: 4604: 4601: 4595: 4592: 4586: 4583: 4577: 4574: 4568: 4565: 4559: 4556: 4550: 4547: 4541: 4538: 4532: 4529: 4523: 4520: 4514: 4511: 4505: 4502: 4496: 4493: 4487: 4484: 4478: 4475: 4469: 4466: 4460: 4457: 4451: 4448: 4442: 4439: 4433: 4428:, David Crouch, 4420: 4414: 4411: 4405: 4402: 4396: 4393: 4387: 4384: 4378: 4375: 4369: 4368:Chibnall, p. 64. 4366: 4360: 4357: 4351: 4348: 4342: 4339: 4333: 4330: 4324: 4321: 4315: 4312: 4306: 4303: 4297: 4294: 4288: 4287:Fleming, p. 315. 4285: 4274: 4271: 4262: 4261:Fleming, p. 314. 4259: 4253: 4250: 4244: 4243:Fleming, p. 270. 4241: 4235: 4232: 4226: 4223: 4217: 4214: 4208: 4205: 4199: 4198:Fleming, p. 271. 4196: 4190: 4189:Fleming, p. 208. 4187: 4181: 4178: 4172: 4171:Fleming, p. 205. 4169: 4160: 4159:Fleming, p. 110. 4157: 4151: 4148: 4142: 4133: 4127: 4120: 4114: 4107: 4101: 4098: 4092: 4089: 4083: 4080: 4065: 4058: 4052: 4044: 4038: 4034: 4028: 4013: 3986:J. R. R. Tolkien 3707:Canterbury Tales 3702:Geoffrey Chaucer 3653:Geoffrey Chaucer 3632:Medieval theatre 3461:motte and bailey 3399:victory at Sluys 3260:Medieval warfare 3236:began using the 2471:Benedictine rule 2334:gods, including 2230:Clifford's Tower 2119:dairy production 2054:Women in society 2040:House of Commons 1566:Peasants' Revolt 1555:the Black Prince 1502:Peasants' Revolt 1396:Stephen of Blois 1325:Norman followers 1276:Harold Godwinson 1225:Edward the Elder 1204:Alfred of Wessex 1147:helmet from the 1090:Common Brittonic 995:Peasants' Revolt 980:loss of Normandy 887:artistic culture 852: 845: 838: 824: 823: 822: 533:Northamptonshire 254:Second World War 159:Late Middle Ages 142:High Middle Ages 89: 79: 61: 60: 39:Harold Godwinson 21: 18:Medieval England 11795: 11794: 11790: 11789: 11788: 11786: 11785: 11784: 11715: 11714: 11713: 11703: 11698: 11696: 11686: 11681: 11679: 11676: 11672:sister projects 11669:at Knowledge's 11663: 11653: 11651: 11641: 11639: 11629: 11627: 11615: 11607: 11605: 11600: 11587: 11580: 11567: 11541:Royal standards 11491: 11410: 11271: 11218: 11157: 11131: 11095: 11069: 11036: 11012:Elizabethan era 10978: 10964:Norman Conquest 10947: 10899: 10885:English society 10834: 10828: 10798: 10789: 10734:Kingdom of Rus' 10692:Crusader states 10649: 10643: 10560:Crown of Aragon 10546:Kingdom of León 10475:Frankish Empire 10468:Northern Europe 10467: 10458: 10448: 10355: 10349: 10236:Northern Europe 10235: 10227:political units 10226: 10224: 10222: 10216: 10211: 10181: 10175: 10154: 10133: 10114: 10109: 10103: 10082: 10061: 10045:Webster, Leslie 10037: 10016: 9975: 9954: 9933: 9912: 9891: 9870: 9849: 9828: 9807: 9786: 9761: 9740: 9719: 9698: 9677: 9656: 9635: 9614: 9593: 9572: 9551: 9532: 9511: 9490: 9469: 9448: 9427: 9408: 9387: 9366: 9345: 9324: 9303: 9282: 9261: 9219: 9200: 9179: 9158: 9137: 9118: 9097: 9076: 9055: 9032: 9013: 8992: 8971: 8950: 8929: 8908: 8850: 8825: 8804: 8799: 8793: 8772: 8753: 8732: 8713: 8694: 8670: 8649: 8638: 8617: 8596: 8575: 8556: 8532: 8523: 8512: 8491: 8470: 8449: 8428: 8407: 8386: 8356:English Castles 8346: 8329: 8324: 8318: 8297: 8276: 8255: 8234: 8211: 8190: 8169: 8148: 8127: 8108: 8087: 8066: 8045: 8024: 8003: 7984: 7963: 7939: 7918: 7899: 7880: 7859: 7842: 7837: 7831: 7810: 7789: 7768: 7747: 7726: 7707: 7686: 7667: 7648: 7627: 7605: 7584: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7540: 7536: 7531: 7527: 7522: 7518: 7513: 7509: 7504: 7500: 7495: 7491: 7486: 7482: 7477: 7473: 7468: 7464: 7459: 7455: 7450: 7446: 7441: 7437: 7432: 7428: 7423: 7419: 7414: 7410: 7405: 7401: 7396: 7392: 7387: 7383: 7378: 7374: 7369: 7362: 7357: 7353: 7348: 7341: 7336: 7332: 7327: 7323: 7318: 7314: 7309: 7305: 7300: 7296: 7291: 7287: 7282: 7278: 7273: 7269: 7264: 7260: 7255: 7251: 7246: 7242: 7237: 7233: 7228: 7224: 7219: 7215: 7210: 7206: 7201: 7197: 7192: 7188: 7183: 7179: 7174: 7170: 7165: 7161: 7156: 7152: 7147: 7143: 7138: 7134: 7129: 7125: 7120: 7116: 7111: 7107: 7102: 7098: 7093: 7089: 7084: 7080: 7075: 7071: 7066: 7062: 7057: 7053: 7048: 7044: 7039: 7035: 7031:Webster, p. 20. 7030: 7026: 7022:Webster, p. 11. 7021: 7017: 7012: 7008: 7003: 6999: 6994: 6990: 6985: 6978: 6973: 6969: 6964: 6960: 6955: 6951: 6946: 6942: 6937: 6933: 6928: 6924: 6919: 6915: 6910: 6906: 6901: 6897: 6892: 6888: 6883: 6879: 6874: 6867: 6862: 6858: 6853: 6849: 6844: 6840: 6835: 6831: 6826: 6822: 6817: 6813: 6808: 6804: 6799: 6795: 6790: 6786: 6781: 6777: 6772: 6768: 6763: 6759: 6754: 6750: 6745: 6741: 6736: 6729: 6724: 6717: 6712: 6708: 6703: 6699: 6694: 6687: 6682: 6678: 6673: 6669: 6664: 6660: 6655: 6651: 6646: 6642: 6637: 6633: 6628: 6624: 6619: 6615: 6610: 6606: 6601: 6597: 6592: 6588: 6583: 6579: 6574: 6570: 6565: 6561: 6556: 6552: 6547: 6543: 6538: 6534: 6529: 6525: 6520: 6516: 6511: 6507: 6502: 6498: 6493: 6489: 6484: 6480: 6475: 6471: 6466: 6459: 6454: 6450: 6445: 6441: 6436: 6429: 6424: 6420: 6415: 6411: 6406: 6402: 6397: 6393: 6388: 6384: 6379: 6375: 6370: 6366: 6361: 6357: 6352: 6348: 6343: 6336: 6331: 6327: 6322: 6318: 6313: 6309: 6304: 6300: 6295: 6291: 6286: 6282: 6277: 6273: 6268: 6264: 6259: 6255: 6250: 6246: 6241: 6237: 6232: 6228: 6223: 6214: 6209: 6205: 6200: 6196: 6191: 6187: 6182: 6178: 6173: 6169: 6164: 6160: 6155: 6151: 6146: 6142: 6137: 6133: 6128: 6124: 6119: 6115: 6110: 6106: 6101: 6097: 6092: 6088: 6083: 6079: 6074: 6070: 6065: 6061: 6056: 6052: 6047: 6043: 6038: 6034: 6029: 6025: 6020: 6016: 6011: 6007: 6002: 5998: 5993: 5989: 5984: 5980: 5975: 5971: 5966: 5962: 5957: 5953: 5948: 5944: 5939: 5935: 5930: 5926: 5921: 5917: 5912: 5908: 5903: 5899: 5894: 5890: 5885: 5881: 5876: 5872: 5867: 5863: 5858: 5854: 5849: 5842: 5837: 5833: 5828: 5824: 5819: 5815: 5811:Sawyer, p. 140. 5810: 5806: 5801: 5797: 5793:Sawyer, p. 131. 5792: 5788: 5783: 5779: 5774: 5770: 5765: 5761: 5756: 5752: 5747: 5740: 5735: 5731: 5726: 5722: 5717: 5710: 5705: 5701: 5696: 5692: 5687: 5683: 5678: 5674: 5669: 5665: 5660: 5656: 5651: 5647: 5642: 5638: 5633: 5629: 5624: 5620: 5615: 5608: 5603: 5599: 5594: 5590: 5585: 5581: 5576: 5572: 5567: 5563: 5558: 5554: 5549: 5545: 5540: 5533: 5528: 5524: 5520:Fleming, p. 61. 5519: 5515: 5510: 5506: 5501: 5497: 5492: 5488: 5483: 5479: 5474: 5470: 5465: 5461: 5456: 5452: 5447: 5443: 5438: 5434: 5429: 5425: 5420: 5416: 5411: 5407: 5402: 5398: 5393: 5389: 5384: 5380: 5375: 5371: 5366: 5362: 5357: 5353: 5348: 5344: 5339: 5335: 5330: 5326: 5321: 5317: 5312: 5308: 5303: 5299: 5294: 5290: 5285: 5281: 5276: 5272: 5267: 5263: 5258: 5254: 5249: 5245: 5240: 5236: 5231: 5227: 5222: 5218: 5213: 5209: 5204: 5200: 5195: 5191: 5186: 5182: 5177: 5173: 5168: 5164: 5159: 5155: 5150: 5146: 5141: 5137: 5132: 5128: 5123: 5119: 5114: 5110: 5105: 5101: 5096: 5092: 5087: 5083: 5078: 5074: 5069: 5065: 5060: 5056: 5051: 5047: 5042: 5038: 5033: 5029: 5024: 5020: 5015: 5011: 5006: 5002: 4997: 4993: 4988: 4984: 4979: 4975: 4970: 4966: 4961: 4957: 4952: 4948: 4943: 4939: 4934: 4930: 4925: 4921: 4916: 4912: 4907: 4903: 4898: 4894: 4889: 4885: 4880: 4876: 4871: 4867: 4862: 4858: 4853: 4849: 4844: 4840: 4835: 4831: 4826: 4822: 4817: 4813: 4808: 4804: 4799: 4795: 4790: 4786: 4781: 4774: 4769: 4765: 4760: 4756: 4751: 4747: 4742: 4738: 4733: 4729: 4724: 4715: 4710: 4706: 4701: 4697: 4692: 4688: 4683: 4679: 4674: 4670: 4665: 4661: 4656: 4652: 4647: 4643: 4638: 4634: 4629: 4625: 4620: 4616: 4611: 4607: 4602: 4598: 4593: 4589: 4584: 4580: 4575: 4571: 4566: 4562: 4557: 4553: 4548: 4544: 4539: 4535: 4530: 4526: 4521: 4517: 4512: 4508: 4503: 4499: 4494: 4490: 4485: 4481: 4476: 4472: 4467: 4463: 4458: 4454: 4449: 4445: 4440: 4436: 4421: 4417: 4412: 4408: 4403: 4399: 4394: 4390: 4385: 4381: 4376: 4372: 4367: 4363: 4358: 4354: 4349: 4345: 4340: 4336: 4331: 4327: 4322: 4318: 4313: 4309: 4304: 4300: 4295: 4291: 4286: 4277: 4272: 4265: 4260: 4256: 4252:Fleming, p. 221 4251: 4247: 4242: 4238: 4233: 4229: 4224: 4220: 4215: 4211: 4206: 4202: 4197: 4193: 4188: 4184: 4179: 4175: 4170: 4163: 4158: 4154: 4149: 4145: 4134: 4130: 4121: 4117: 4113:(2012), pp. 3-4 4108: 4104: 4099: 4095: 4091:Fleming, p. 24. 4090: 4086: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4068: 4059: 4055: 4045: 4041: 4035: 4031: 4014: 4010: 4006: 3952: 3946: 3860: 3855: 3783: 3775:Main articles: 3773: 3634: 3614:Main articles: 3612: 3599:opus anglicanum 3585:Bayeux Tapestry 3535:created carved 3509: 3503:Anglo-Saxon art 3501:Main articles: 3499: 3494: 3425: 3419:English castles 3417:Main articles: 3415: 3383:English Channel 3359: 3353: 3305:, supported by 3270:Coventry Sallet 3262: 3256: 3251: 3234:Wynkyn de Worde 3207:powered hammers 3191:horizontal mill 3140:experimentation 3097:Arabic numerals 3069: 3061:Main articles: 3059: 2909: 2901:Main articles: 2899: 2760: 2754: 2749: 2650: 2610:Stephen Langton 2602:Theobald of Bec 2576:Synod of Whitby 2544: 2538: 2518:military orders 2433:Fountains Abbey 2426: 2348:Gloucestershire 2293: 2285:Main articles: 2283: 2278: 2272: 2232:in the city of 2223: 2217: 2165:vaulted ceiling 2154: 2148: 2066: 2058:Main articles: 2056: 1984:(including the 1982:knightly orders 1956:symbols of the 1942: 1936: 1843: 1832: 1826: 1820: 1814: 1657:An Anglo-Saxon 1651: 1645: 1640: 1634: 1629: 1498:Richard II 1491: 1485: 1475:. Henry's son, 1449:; his brother, 1400:Empress Matilda 1321:Norman Conquest 1302: 1294:Main articles: 1292: 1280:Harald Hardrada 1256:Sweyn Forkbeard 1058: 1052: 1047: 1005:. Nearly 1,500 944:feudal approach 871:medieval period 856: 820: 818: 813: 812: 638: 636:By city or town 628: 627: 573:South Yorkshire 548:Nottinghamshire 543:North Yorkshire 463:Gloucestershire 403:Buckinghamshire 398:City of Bristol 383: 373: 372: 353: 345: 344: 300:English society 290: 282: 281: 280: 259:Postwar Britain 249:Interwar period 244:First World War 178:Elizabethan era 147:Norman Conquest 115:Medieval period 99: 77: 70: 35:Bayeux Tapestry 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11793: 11783: 11782: 11777: 11772: 11767: 11762: 11757: 11752: 11747: 11742: 11737: 11732: 11727: 11712: 11711: 11694: 11665: 11662: 11661: 11649: 11637: 11625: 11602: 11601: 11599: 11598: 11593: 11586: 11585: 11577: 11576: 11573: 11572: 11569: 11568: 11566: 11565: 11560: 11559: 11558: 11548: 11543: 11538: 11533: 11528: 11527: 11526: 11516: 11511: 11505: 11503: 11497: 11496: 11493: 11492: 11490: 11489: 11484: 11483: 11482: 11477: 11467: 11466: 11465: 11460: 11450: 11449: 11448: 11443: 11433: 11432: 11431: 11420: 11418: 11412: 11411: 11409: 11408: 11403: 11398: 11397: 11396: 11386: 11385: 11384: 11374: 11369: 11367:Middle England 11364: 11359: 11354: 11349: 11344: 11339: 11334: 11329: 11324: 11319: 11314: 11309: 11304: 11299: 11293: 11283: 11277: 11276: 11273: 11272: 11270: 11269: 11264: 11259: 11254: 11249: 11248: 11247: 11236: 11230: 11224: 11223: 11220: 11219: 11217: 11216: 11211: 11206: 11201: 11196: 11191: 11186: 11181: 11175: 11169: 11163: 11162: 11159: 11158: 11156: 11155: 11150: 11145: 11139: 11137: 11133: 11132: 11130: 11129: 11124: 11119: 11114: 11109: 11103: 11101: 11100:Prior Kingdoms 11097: 11096: 11094: 11093: 11088: 11083: 11077: 11075: 11071: 11070: 11068: 11067: 11062: 11057: 11052: 11046: 11044: 11038: 11037: 11035: 11034: 11029: 11024: 11019: 11014: 11009: 11004: 10999: 10994: 10988: 10986: 10980: 10979: 10977: 10976: 10971: 10969:Angevin Empire 10966: 10961: 10955: 10953: 10949: 10948: 10946: 10945: 10944: 10943: 10938: 10933: 10923: 10918: 10913: 10907: 10905: 10901: 10900: 10898: 10897: 10895:United Kingdom 10892: 10887: 10882: 10877: 10872: 10867: 10862: 10857: 10851: 10849: 10842: 10836: 10835: 10833: articles 10827: 10826: 10819: 10812: 10804: 10795: 10794: 10791: 10790: 10788: 10787: 10760: 10745:Rus' Khaganate 10741: 10726: 10715: 10689: 10674: 10673: 10672: 10667: 10659: 10653: 10651: 10645: 10644: 10642: 10641: 10636: 10610: 10605: 10600: 10595: 10584: 10579: 10557: 10535: 10525: 10520: 10515: 10510: 10505: 10500: 10495: 10477: 10471: 10469: 10460: 10454: 10453: 10450: 10449: 10447: 10446: 10427: 10422: 10417: 10412: 10401: 10390: 10385: 10380: 10375: 10370: 10365: 10359: 10357: 10351: 10350: 10348: 10347: 10329: 10324: 10319: 10301: 10296: 10278: 10273: 10268: 10250: 10245: 10239: 10237: 10228: 10218: 10217: 10210: 10209: 10202: 10195: 10187: 10180: 10179: 10173: 10158: 10152: 10137: 10131: 10115: 10113: 10112:Historiography 10110: 10108: 10107: 10101: 10086: 10080: 10065: 10059: 10041: 10035: 10020: 10014: 9996: 9979: 9973: 9958: 9952: 9937: 9931: 9916: 9910: 9895: 9889: 9874: 9868: 9853: 9847: 9832: 9826: 9811: 9805: 9790: 9784: 9765: 9759: 9744: 9738: 9723: 9717: 9702: 9696: 9681: 9675: 9660: 9654: 9639: 9633: 9618: 9612: 9597: 9591: 9576: 9570: 9555: 9549: 9536: 9530: 9515: 9509: 9494: 9488: 9473: 9467: 9452: 9446: 9431: 9425: 9412: 9406: 9391: 9385: 9370: 9364: 9349: 9343: 9328: 9322: 9307: 9301: 9286: 9280: 9265: 9259: 9246: 9223: 9217: 9204: 9198: 9183: 9177: 9162: 9156: 9141: 9135: 9122: 9116: 9101: 9095: 9080: 9074: 9059: 9053: 9036: 9030: 9017: 9011: 8996: 8990: 8975: 8969: 8954: 8948: 8933: 8927: 8912: 8906: 8891: 8871:10.1086/385589 8854: 8848: 8834:Linehan, Peter 8829: 8823: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8797: 8791: 8776: 8770: 8757: 8751: 8736: 8730: 8717: 8711: 8698: 8692: 8677: 8642: 8636: 8621: 8615: 8600: 8594: 8579: 8573: 8560: 8554: 8539: 8530:(21): 209–229. 8516: 8510: 8495: 8489: 8474: 8468: 8453: 8447: 8432: 8426: 8411: 8405: 8390: 8384: 8369: 8350: 8344: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8322: 8316: 8301: 8295: 8280: 8274: 8259: 8253: 8238: 8232: 8215: 8209: 8194: 8188: 8173: 8167: 8152: 8146: 8131: 8125: 8112: 8106: 8091: 8085: 8070: 8064: 8049: 8043: 8028: 8022: 8007: 8001: 7988: 7982: 7967: 7961: 7943: 7937: 7922: 7916: 7903: 7897: 7884: 7878: 7863: 7857: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7835: 7829: 7814: 7808: 7793: 7787: 7772: 7766: 7751: 7745: 7730: 7724: 7711: 7705: 7690: 7684: 7671: 7665: 7652: 7646: 7631: 7625: 7613:Fleming, Robin 7609: 7603: 7588: 7582: 7567: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7543: 7534: 7525: 7516: 7507: 7498: 7489: 7480: 7478:Rubin, p. 325. 7471: 7462: 7453: 7444: 7435: 7426: 7417: 7408: 7399: 7390: 7381: 7372: 7360: 7351: 7349:Myers, p. 105. 7339: 7330: 7321: 7312: 7303: 7294: 7285: 7276: 7267: 7258: 7249: 7240: 7231: 7222: 7220:Myers, p. 186. 7213: 7204: 7202:Myers, p. 197. 7195: 7186: 7177: 7168: 7159: 7150: 7141: 7132: 7123: 7114: 7105: 7096: 7087: 7078: 7076:Myers, p. 107. 7069: 7060: 7051: 7042: 7033: 7024: 7015: 7006: 6997: 6988: 6976: 6967: 6958: 6949: 6940: 6931: 6922: 6913: 6911:Hulme, p. 213. 6904: 6895: 6886: 6877: 6865: 6856: 6847: 6838: 6829: 6820: 6811: 6802: 6793: 6784: 6775: 6766: 6757: 6748: 6739: 6727: 6715: 6706: 6697: 6685: 6676: 6667: 6665:Myers, p. 250. 6658: 6649: 6640: 6631: 6622: 6613: 6604: 6595: 6586: 6577: 6568: 6559: 6550: 6541: 6532: 6523: 6514: 6512:Geddes, p. 181 6505: 6496: 6494:Bailey, p. 53. 6487: 6478: 6469: 6457: 6448: 6439: 6427: 6418: 6409: 6400: 6391: 6382: 6373: 6364: 6355: 6346: 6334: 6325: 6316: 6307: 6298: 6289: 6287:Cowie, p. 194. 6280: 6271: 6262: 6253: 6244: 6235: 6226: 6212: 6203: 6201:Cantor, p. 22. 6194: 6185: 6176: 6167: 6158: 6149: 6140: 6131: 6122: 6113: 6104: 6095: 6086: 6077: 6068: 6066:Rubin, p. 154. 6059: 6050: 6041: 6032: 6023: 6014: 6005: 5996: 5987: 5978: 5969: 5960: 5951: 5942: 5933: 5924: 5915: 5906: 5897: 5895:Burton, p. 28. 5888: 5879: 5870: 5861: 5852: 5840: 5831: 5822: 5820:Nilson, p. 70. 5813: 5804: 5795: 5786: 5777: 5768: 5759: 5750: 5738: 5729: 5720: 5708: 5699: 5697:Stacey, p. 44. 5690: 5681: 5672: 5663: 5654: 5645: 5636: 5627: 5618: 5606: 5604:Rubin, p. 106. 5597: 5588: 5579: 5570: 5561: 5552: 5543: 5531: 5522: 5513: 5504: 5495: 5486: 5477: 5468: 5459: 5450: 5441: 5432: 5423: 5414: 5405: 5396: 5387: 5378: 5369: 5360: 5351: 5342: 5333: 5324: 5322:Hicks, p. 269. 5315: 5306: 5297: 5288: 5279: 5270: 5261: 5252: 5243: 5234: 5225: 5216: 5207: 5198: 5189: 5180: 5171: 5162: 5153: 5144: 5135: 5126: 5117: 5108: 5099: 5090: 5081: 5072: 5063: 5054: 5045: 5036: 5027: 5018: 5009: 5000: 4991: 4982: 4973: 4964: 4955: 4946: 4937: 4928: 4919: 4910: 4901: 4892: 4883: 4874: 4865: 4856: 4847: 4838: 4829: 4820: 4811: 4802: 4793: 4784: 4772: 4763: 4754: 4745: 4736: 4727: 4713: 4704: 4695: 4686: 4677: 4668: 4659: 4650: 4641: 4632: 4623: 4614: 4605: 4596: 4587: 4578: 4569: 4560: 4551: 4542: 4533: 4524: 4515: 4506: 4497: 4488: 4479: 4470: 4461: 4452: 4443: 4434: 4415: 4406: 4397: 4388: 4379: 4370: 4361: 4352: 4343: 4334: 4325: 4316: 4307: 4298: 4289: 4275: 4263: 4254: 4245: 4236: 4227: 4218: 4209: 4200: 4191: 4182: 4173: 4161: 4152: 4143: 4141:(2004), p. 205 4128: 4115: 4102: 4093: 4084: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4066: 4053: 4039: 4029: 4007: 4005: 4002: 3994:living history 3988:'s stories of 3948:Main article: 3945: 3942: 3909:neo-positivist 3902:British Empire 3859: 3858:Historiography 3856: 3854: 3851: 3772: 3769: 3698:Middle English 3611: 3608: 3553:drinking horns 3517:shoulder clasp 3498: 3495: 3493: 3490: 3414: 3413:Fortifications 3411: 3407:French attacks 3355:Main article: 3352: 3349: 3258:Main article: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3238:printing press 3230:William Caxton 3162:published the 3148:Ockham's Razor 3077:Rievaulx Abbey 3058: 3055: 3022:depleted soils 3018:overpopulation 2966:market economy 2898: 2895: 2855:Little Ice Age 2836:Watling Street 2756:Main article: 2753: 2750: 2748: 2745: 2732:Fifth Crusades 2649: 2646: 2620:, a member of 2540:Main article: 2537: 2534: 2462:secular canons 2425: 2422: 2317:cross, c. 1000 2282: 2279: 2274:Main article: 2271: 2268: 2219:Main article: 2216: 2213: 2173:Windsor Castle 2162:English Gothic 2150:Main article: 2147: 2144: 2055: 2052: 2036:House of Lords 1938:Main article: 1935: 1932: 1816:Main article: 1813: 1810: 1779:hundred courts 1647:Main article: 1644: 1641: 1636:Main article: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1535:Roger Mortimer 1487:Main article: 1484: 1481: 1431:Angevin Empire 1423:Count of Anjou 1368:or his cousin 1352:to create new 1291: 1288: 1173:Offa of Mercia 1169:defensive dyke 1126:villae regales 1088:switched from 1082:swiftly spread 1054:Main article: 1051: 1048: 1046: 1043: 858: 857: 855: 854: 847: 840: 832: 829: 828: 815: 814: 811: 810: 805: 800: 795: 790: 785: 780: 775: 770: 765: 760: 755: 750: 745: 740: 735: 730: 725: 720: 715: 710: 705: 700: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 655: 650: 645: 639: 634: 633: 630: 629: 626: 625: 623:Worcestershire 620: 615: 613:West Yorkshire 610: 605: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 545: 540: 538:Northumberland 535: 530: 525: 520: 518:City of London 515: 510: 508:Leicestershire 505: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 468:Greater London 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 425: 420: 415: 410: 408:Cambridgeshire 405: 400: 395: 390: 384: 379: 378: 375: 374: 371: 370: 368:United Kingdom 365: 360: 354: 351: 350: 347: 346: 343: 342: 337: 332: 327: 322: 317: 312: 307: 302: 297: 291: 288: 287: 284: 283: 279: 278: 273: 268: 267: 266: 264:Social history 256: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 230: 229: 219: 218: 217: 212: 207: 202: 197: 187: 186: 185: 180: 170: 169: 168: 167: 166: 156: 155: 154: 149: 139: 138: 137: 127: 122: 112: 107: 101: 100: 95: 94: 91: 90: 82: 81: 72: 71: 64: 47:the Apocalypse 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11792: 11781: 11778: 11776: 11773: 11771: 11768: 11766: 11763: 11761: 11758: 11756: 11753: 11751: 11748: 11746: 11743: 11741: 11738: 11736: 11733: 11731: 11728: 11726: 11723: 11722: 11720: 11709:from Wikidata 11708: 11707: 11695: 11691: 11690: 11678: 11677: 11674: 11668: 11660: 11659:Great Britain 11650: 11648: 11638: 11636: 11626: 11624: 11619: 11614: 11613: 11610: 11597: 11594: 11592: 11589: 11588: 11583: 11579: 11578: 11574: 11564: 11561: 11557: 11554: 11553: 11552: 11549: 11547: 11544: 11542: 11539: 11537: 11534: 11532: 11529: 11525: 11524:national flag 11522: 11521: 11520: 11517: 11515: 11512: 11510: 11507: 11506: 11504: 11502: 11498: 11488: 11485: 11481: 11480:national team 11478: 11476: 11473: 11472: 11471: 11468: 11464: 11463:national team 11461: 11459: 11456: 11455: 11454: 11451: 11447: 11446:national team 11444: 11442: 11439: 11438: 11437: 11434: 11430: 11429:national team 11427: 11426: 11425: 11422: 11421: 11419: 11417: 11413: 11407: 11404: 11402: 11399: 11395: 11392: 11391: 11390: 11387: 11383: 11380: 11379: 11378: 11375: 11373: 11370: 11368: 11365: 11363: 11360: 11358: 11355: 11353: 11350: 11348: 11345: 11343: 11340: 11338: 11335: 11333: 11330: 11328: 11325: 11323: 11320: 11318: 11315: 11313: 11310: 11308: 11305: 11303: 11300: 11298: 11297:Afternoon tea 11295: 11294: 11291: 11287: 11284: 11282: 11278: 11268: 11265: 11263: 11260: 11258: 11255: 11253: 11250: 11246: 11243: 11242: 11241: 11238: 11237: 11234: 11231: 11229: 11225: 11215: 11212: 11210: 11207: 11205: 11202: 11200: 11197: 11195: 11192: 11190: 11187: 11185: 11182: 11180: 11177: 11176: 11173: 11170: 11168: 11164: 11154: 11153:House of York 11151: 11149: 11146: 11144: 11141: 11140: 11138: 11134: 11128: 11125: 11123: 11120: 11118: 11115: 11113: 11110: 11108: 11105: 11104: 11102: 11098: 11092: 11089: 11087: 11084: 11082: 11079: 11078: 11076: 11072: 11066: 11063: 11061: 11060:Edwardian era 11058: 11056: 11055:Victorian era 11053: 11051: 11048: 11047: 11045: 11043: 11039: 11033: 11030: 11028: 11025: 11023: 11020: 11018: 11015: 11013: 11010: 11008: 11005: 11003: 11000: 10998: 10997:Stuart period 10995: 10993: 10990: 10989: 10987: 10985: 10981: 10975: 10972: 10970: 10967: 10965: 10962: 10960: 10957: 10956: 10954: 10950: 10942: 10939: 10937: 10934: 10932: 10929: 10928: 10927: 10924: 10922: 10919: 10917: 10916:Roman Britain 10914: 10912: 10909: 10908: 10906: 10902: 10896: 10893: 10891: 10890:British Isles 10888: 10886: 10883: 10881: 10878: 10876: 10873: 10871: 10868: 10866: 10863: 10861: 10858: 10856: 10853: 10852: 10850: 10846: 10843: 10841: 10837: 10832: 10825: 10820: 10818: 10813: 10811: 10806: 10805: 10802: 10785: 10781: 10777: 10773: 10769: 10765: 10761: 10758: 10754: 10750: 10746: 10742: 10739: 10735: 10731: 10727: 10724: 10720: 10716: 10713: 10709: 10705: 10701: 10697: 10693: 10690: 10687: 10683: 10679: 10675: 10671: 10668: 10666: 10663: 10662: 10660: 10658: 10655: 10654: 10652: 10650:and Near East 10646: 10640: 10637: 10634: 10630: 10626: 10622: 10618: 10614: 10611: 10609: 10606: 10604: 10601: 10599: 10596: 10593: 10589: 10585: 10583: 10580: 10577: 10573: 10569: 10565: 10561: 10558: 10555: 10551: 10547: 10543: 10539: 10536: 10533: 10529: 10526: 10524: 10521: 10519: 10516: 10514: 10511: 10509: 10506: 10504: 10501: 10499: 10496: 10493: 10489: 10485: 10481: 10478: 10476: 10473: 10472: 10470: 10464: 10461: 10455: 10444: 10440: 10436: 10432: 10428: 10426: 10423: 10421: 10418: 10416: 10413: 10410: 10406: 10402: 10399: 10395: 10391: 10389: 10386: 10384: 10381: 10379: 10376: 10374: 10371: 10369: 10366: 10364: 10361: 10360: 10358: 10356:and Near East 10352: 10345: 10341: 10337: 10333: 10330: 10328: 10325: 10323: 10320: 10317: 10313: 10309: 10305: 10302: 10300: 10297: 10294: 10290: 10286: 10282: 10279: 10277: 10274: 10272: 10269: 10266: 10262: 10258: 10254: 10251: 10249: 10246: 10244: 10241: 10240: 10238: 10232: 10229: 10219: 10215: 10208: 10203: 10201: 10196: 10194: 10189: 10188: 10185: 10176: 10170: 10166: 10165: 10159: 10155: 10149: 10145: 10144: 10138: 10134: 10128: 10124: 10123: 10117: 10116: 10104: 10098: 10094: 10093: 10087: 10083: 10077: 10073: 10072: 10066: 10062: 10056: 10052: 10051: 10046: 10042: 10038: 10032: 10028: 10027: 10021: 10017: 10011: 10007: 10006: 10001: 9997: 9993: 9989: 9985: 9980: 9976: 9970: 9966: 9965: 9959: 9955: 9949: 9945: 9944: 9938: 9934: 9928: 9924: 9923: 9917: 9913: 9907: 9903: 9902: 9896: 9892: 9886: 9882: 9881: 9875: 9871: 9865: 9861: 9860: 9854: 9850: 9844: 9840: 9839: 9833: 9829: 9827:9781843831259 9823: 9819: 9818: 9812: 9808: 9806:0-85115-327-5 9802: 9798: 9797: 9791: 9787: 9781: 9777: 9776: 9771: 9766: 9762: 9756: 9752: 9751: 9745: 9741: 9735: 9731: 9730: 9724: 9720: 9714: 9710: 9709: 9703: 9699: 9693: 9689: 9688: 9682: 9678: 9672: 9668: 9667: 9661: 9657: 9651: 9647: 9646: 9640: 9636: 9630: 9626: 9625: 9619: 9615: 9609: 9605: 9604: 9598: 9594: 9588: 9584: 9583: 9577: 9573: 9567: 9563: 9562: 9556: 9552: 9550:0-7190-6305-1 9546: 9542: 9537: 9533: 9527: 9523: 9522: 9516: 9512: 9506: 9502: 9501: 9495: 9491: 9489:0-85115-327-5 9485: 9481: 9480: 9474: 9470: 9468:0-85115-327-5 9464: 9460: 9459: 9453: 9449: 9443: 9439: 9438: 9432: 9428: 9422: 9418: 9413: 9409: 9403: 9399: 9398: 9392: 9388: 9382: 9378: 9377: 9371: 9367: 9361: 9357: 9356: 9350: 9346: 9340: 9336: 9335: 9329: 9325: 9319: 9315: 9314: 9308: 9304: 9298: 9294: 9293: 9287: 9283: 9277: 9273: 9272: 9266: 9262: 9256: 9252: 9247: 9243: 9239: 9235: 9231: 9230: 9224: 9220: 9214: 9210: 9205: 9201: 9195: 9191: 9190: 9184: 9180: 9174: 9170: 9169: 9163: 9159: 9153: 9149: 9148: 9142: 9138: 9132: 9128: 9123: 9119: 9113: 9109: 9108: 9102: 9098: 9092: 9088: 9087: 9081: 9077: 9071: 9067: 9066: 9060: 9056: 9050: 9045: 9044: 9037: 9033: 9027: 9023: 9018: 9014: 9008: 9004: 9003: 8997: 8993: 8987: 8983: 8982: 8976: 8972: 8966: 8962: 8961: 8960:Thomas Becket 8955: 8951: 8945: 8941: 8940: 8934: 8930: 8924: 8920: 8919: 8913: 8909: 8903: 8899: 8898: 8892: 8888: 8884: 8880: 8876: 8872: 8868: 8864: 8860: 8855: 8851: 8845: 8841: 8840: 8835: 8830: 8826: 8824:0-415-92715-3 8820: 8815: 8814: 8807: 8806: 8794: 8788: 8784: 8783: 8777: 8773: 8767: 8763: 8758: 8754: 8748: 8744: 8743: 8737: 8733: 8727: 8723: 8718: 8714: 8708: 8704: 8699: 8695: 8689: 8685: 8684: 8678: 8674: 8667: 8663: 8659: 8655: 8648: 8643: 8639: 8633: 8629: 8628: 8622: 8618: 8612: 8608: 8607: 8601: 8597: 8591: 8587: 8586: 8580: 8576: 8570: 8566: 8561: 8557: 8555:0-9545575-2-2 8551: 8547: 8546: 8540: 8536: 8529: 8522: 8517: 8513: 8507: 8503: 8502: 8496: 8492: 8486: 8482: 8481: 8475: 8471: 8465: 8461: 8460: 8454: 8450: 8444: 8440: 8439: 8433: 8429: 8423: 8419: 8418: 8412: 8408: 8406:1-85074-354-1 8402: 8398: 8397: 8391: 8387: 8381: 8377: 8376: 8370: 8366: 8362: 8358: 8357: 8351: 8347: 8345:0-500-27128-3 8341: 8337: 8332: 8331: 8319: 8313: 8309: 8308: 8302: 8298: 8296:0-413-45520-3 8292: 8288: 8287: 8281: 8277: 8271: 8267: 8266: 8260: 8256: 8250: 8246: 8245: 8239: 8235: 8229: 8224: 8223: 8216: 8212: 8206: 8202: 8201: 8195: 8191: 8185: 8181: 8180: 8174: 8170: 8164: 8160: 8159: 8153: 8149: 8147:0-85115-327-5 8143: 8139: 8138: 8132: 8128: 8122: 8118: 8113: 8109: 8103: 8099: 8098: 8092: 8088: 8082: 8078: 8077: 8071: 8067: 8061: 8057: 8056: 8050: 8046: 8040: 8036: 8035: 8029: 8025: 8019: 8015: 8014: 8008: 8004: 8002:1-84119-843-9 7998: 7994: 7989: 7985: 7983:0-582-48727-7 7979: 7975: 7974: 7968: 7964: 7958: 7954: 7953: 7948: 7944: 7940: 7934: 7930: 7929: 7923: 7919: 7913: 7909: 7904: 7900: 7894: 7890: 7885: 7881: 7875: 7871: 7870: 7864: 7860: 7854: 7850: 7845: 7844: 7832: 7830:0-14-020245-5 7826: 7822: 7821: 7815: 7811: 7805: 7801: 7800: 7794: 7790: 7788:0-14-020252-8 7784: 7780: 7779: 7773: 7769: 7763: 7759: 7758: 7752: 7748: 7746:0-14-020234-X 7742: 7738: 7737: 7731: 7727: 7721: 7717: 7712: 7708: 7706:0-582-84882-2 7702: 7698: 7697: 7691: 7687: 7681: 7677: 7672: 7668: 7662: 7658: 7653: 7649: 7643: 7639: 7638: 7632: 7628: 7622: 7618: 7614: 7610: 7606: 7600: 7596: 7595: 7589: 7585: 7579: 7575: 7574: 7568: 7566: 7562: 7558: 7557: 7538: 7529: 7520: 7511: 7502: 7493: 7484: 7475: 7466: 7457: 7448: 7439: 7430: 7421: 7412: 7403: 7394: 7385: 7376: 7370:Emery, p. 24. 7367: 7365: 7355: 7346: 7344: 7334: 7325: 7316: 7307: 7298: 7289: 7280: 7271: 7262: 7253: 7244: 7235: 7229:Myers, p. 97. 7226: 7217: 7208: 7199: 7190: 7181: 7172: 7163: 7154: 7145: 7136: 7127: 7118: 7109: 7100: 7094:Myers, p,255. 7091: 7082: 7073: 7064: 7055: 7046: 7037: 7028: 7019: 7010: 7001: 6992: 6983: 6981: 6971: 6962: 6953: 6944: 6935: 6926: 6917: 6908: 6899: 6890: 6881: 6872: 6870: 6860: 6851: 6842: 6833: 6824: 6815: 6806: 6797: 6788: 6779: 6770: 6761: 6752: 6743: 6734: 6732: 6722: 6720: 6710: 6701: 6692: 6690: 6680: 6671: 6662: 6653: 6644: 6635: 6626: 6617: 6608: 6599: 6593:Myers, p. 99. 6590: 6581: 6572: 6563: 6554: 6545: 6539:Hill, p. 245. 6536: 6527: 6518: 6509: 6500: 6491: 6482: 6473: 6464: 6462: 6452: 6443: 6434: 6432: 6422: 6413: 6404: 6395: 6386: 6377: 6368: 6359: 6350: 6341: 6339: 6329: 6320: 6311: 6302: 6293: 6284: 6275: 6266: 6257: 6248: 6239: 6230: 6221: 6219: 6217: 6207: 6198: 6189: 6180: 6171: 6162: 6153: 6144: 6135: 6126: 6117: 6108: 6099: 6090: 6081: 6072: 6063: 6054: 6045: 6036: 6027: 6018: 6009: 6000: 5991: 5982: 5973: 5964: 5955: 5946: 5937: 5928: 5919: 5910: 5901: 5892: 5883: 5874: 5865: 5856: 5847: 5845: 5835: 5826: 5817: 5808: 5799: 5790: 5781: 5772: 5763: 5754: 5745: 5743: 5733: 5724: 5715: 5713: 5703: 5694: 5685: 5676: 5667: 5658: 5649: 5640: 5631: 5622: 5613: 5611: 5601: 5592: 5583: 5574: 5565: 5556: 5547: 5538: 5536: 5526: 5517: 5508: 5499: 5490: 5481: 5472: 5463: 5454: 5445: 5436: 5427: 5418: 5409: 5400: 5391: 5382: 5373: 5367:Mate, pp. 78. 5364: 5355: 5346: 5337: 5328: 5319: 5310: 5301: 5292: 5283: 5277:Coss, p. 102. 5274: 5265: 5256: 5247: 5241:Jones, p. 21. 5238: 5232:Jones, p. 15. 5229: 5220: 5211: 5202: 5193: 5184: 5175: 5166: 5157: 5148: 5139: 5130: 5121: 5112: 5103: 5094: 5085: 5076: 5067: 5058: 5049: 5040: 5031: 5022: 5013: 5004: 4995: 4986: 4977: 4968: 4959: 4950: 4941: 4932: 4923: 4914: 4905: 4896: 4887: 4878: 4869: 4860: 4851: 4842: 4833: 4824: 4815: 4806: 4797: 4788: 4779: 4777: 4767: 4758: 4749: 4740: 4731: 4722: 4720: 4718: 4708: 4699: 4690: 4681: 4672: 4663: 4654: 4645: 4636: 4627: 4618: 4609: 4600: 4591: 4582: 4573: 4564: 4555: 4546: 4537: 4528: 4519: 4510: 4501: 4492: 4483: 4474: 4465: 4456: 4447: 4438: 4431: 4427: 4426: 4419: 4410: 4401: 4392: 4383: 4374: 4365: 4356: 4347: 4338: 4329: 4320: 4311: 4302: 4293: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4270: 4268: 4258: 4249: 4240: 4231: 4222: 4213: 4204: 4195: 4186: 4177: 4168: 4166: 4156: 4147: 4140: 4139: 4132: 4125: 4119: 4112: 4106: 4097: 4088: 4079: 4075: 4063: 4057: 4049: 4043: 4033: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4012: 4008: 4001: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3959:Re-enactments 3956: 3951: 3941: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3905: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3890:Domesday Book 3887: 3886:Edward Gibbon 3883: 3875: 3871: 3870: 3869:Domesday Book 3864: 3850: 3846: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3822: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3795: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3778: 3768: 3765: 3764:Miracle plays 3761: 3757: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3721: 3719: 3718: 3713: 3712:Thomas Malory 3709: 3708: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3690: 3684: 3682: 3681: 3676: 3672: 3671: 3666: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3607: 3605: 3601: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3589:Stained glass 3586: 3580: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3529: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3489: 3486: 3480: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3457: 3455: 3451: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3429: 3424: 3420: 3410: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3375: 3368: 3363: 3358: 3348: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3332: 3331:familia regis 3327: 3324: 3320: 3319:familia regis 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3299: 3294: 3292: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3246: 3244: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3220: 3216: 3215:blast furnace 3212: 3208: 3204: 3203:fulling mills 3200: 3196: 3195:vertical mill 3192: 3187: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3176: 3171: 3170: 3169:Polychronicon 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3120: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3082: 3078: 3073: 3068: 3064: 3054: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3035: 3030: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3014: 3012: 3008: 3004: 2999: 2998:charter fairs 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2973: 2971: 2967: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2918: 2913: 2908: 2904: 2894: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2863:wood pastures 2858: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2843: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2832:Ermine Street 2829: 2825: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2769: 2764: 2759: 2744: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2720:First Crusade 2717: 2713: 2708: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2684: 2682: 2678: 2673: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2645: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2618:John Wycliffe 2614: 2611: 2607: 2606:Thomas Becket 2603: 2599: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2580: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2553: 2548: 2543: 2533: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2483:Cluniac order 2479: 2475: 2472: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2390: 2388: 2387:Isle of Wight 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2355: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2328: 2323: 2316: 2312: 2309: 2305: 2302: 2297: 2292: 2288: 2277: 2267: 2265: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2222: 2212: 2210: 2205: 2204:Celtic fringe 2201: 2196: 2193: 2192:Norman French 2188: 2186: 2182: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2163: 2158: 2153: 2143: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2122: 2120: 2116: 2111: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2093: 2091: 2087: 2079: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2061: 2051: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2027: 2024: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2002: 1997: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1946: 1941: 1931: 1927: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1910: 1906: 1905:legal reforms 1902: 1901: 1900:familia regis 1896: 1891: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1868:feudal system 1864: 1862: 1861:Domesday Book 1858: 1850: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1825: 1819: 1809: 1807: 1806: 1801: 1797: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1770: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1727: 1721: 1719: 1714: 1710: 1705: 1704:primogeniture 1700: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1689: 1684: 1683: 1678: 1677: 1671: 1664: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1639: 1624: 1622: 1621:Tudor dynasty 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1585: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1547: 1542: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1527:Despenser War 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1490: 1480: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1457: 1452: 1448: 1447:Third Crusade 1443: 1441: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1392: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1358: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1311: 1306: 1301: 1297: 1287: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1272:Godwin family 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1244: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1217: 1212: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1150: 1146: 1141: 1137: 1135: 1134:the Heptarchy 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1094:British Latin 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1070:local economy 1067: 1063: 1057: 1042: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1019:French throne 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 983: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 928: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 901: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 865:concerns the 864: 853: 848: 846: 841: 839: 834: 833: 831: 830: 827: 817: 816: 809: 806: 804: 801: 799: 796: 794: 791: 789: 786: 784: 781: 779: 776: 774: 771: 769: 766: 764: 761: 759: 756: 754: 751: 749: 746: 744: 741: 739: 736: 734: 731: 729: 726: 724: 723:Milton Keynes 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 709: 706: 704: 701: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 681: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 656: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 640: 637: 632: 631: 624: 621: 619: 616: 614: 611: 609: 606: 604: 603:West Midlands 601: 599: 596: 594: 593:Tyne and Wear 591: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 578:Staffordshire 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 493:Isle of Wight 491: 489: 488:Hertfordshire 486: 484: 483:Herefordshire 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 385: 382: 377: 376: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 355: 349: 348: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 326: 323: 321: 318: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 292: 286: 285: 277: 274: 272: 269: 265: 262: 261: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 239:Edwardian era 237: 235: 234:Victorian era 232: 228: 225: 224: 223: 220: 216: 213: 211: 208: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 192: 191: 190:Stuart period 188: 184: 181: 179: 176: 175: 174: 171: 165: 162: 161: 160: 157: 153: 152:Norman period 150: 148: 145: 144: 143: 140: 136: 133: 132: 131: 128: 126: 123: 121: 118: 117: 116: 113: 111: 110:Roman Britain 108: 106: 103: 102: 98: 93: 92: 88: 84: 83: 80: 74: 73: 68: 63: 62: 56: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 31: 27: 19: 11704: 11692:from Commons 11687: 11666: 11551:Saint George 11514:Coat of arms 11453:Rugby league 11406:Sunday Roast 11327:Demographics 11257:Independence 11074:Contemporary 11032:Georgian era 11017:Jacobean era 10992:Tudor period 10984:Early Modern 10764:Principality 10498:Papal States 10252: 10223:histories of 10163: 10142: 10121: 10091: 10070: 10049: 10025: 10004: 9983: 9963: 9942: 9921: 9900: 9879: 9858: 9837: 9816: 9795: 9774: 9769: 9749: 9728: 9707: 9686: 9665: 9644: 9623: 9602: 9581: 9560: 9540: 9520: 9499: 9478: 9457: 9436: 9416: 9396: 9375: 9354: 9333: 9312: 9291: 9270: 9250: 9236:(91): 1–28. 9233: 9227: 9208: 9188: 9167: 9146: 9126: 9106: 9085: 9064: 9042: 9021: 9001: 8980: 8959: 8938: 8917: 8896: 8862: 8858: 8838: 8812: 8781: 8761: 8741: 8721: 8702: 8682: 8657: 8653: 8626: 8605: 8584: 8564: 8544: 8527: 8500: 8479: 8458: 8437: 8416: 8395: 8374: 8355: 8335: 8306: 8285: 8264: 8243: 8221: 8199: 8178: 8157: 8136: 8116: 8097:King Stephen 8096: 8075: 8054: 8033: 8012: 7992: 7973:King Stephen 7972: 7951: 7927: 7907: 7888: 7868: 7848: 7819: 7798: 7777: 7756: 7735: 7715: 7695: 7675: 7656: 7636: 7616: 7593: 7572: 7560: 7548:Bibliography 7537: 7528: 7519: 7510: 7501: 7492: 7483: 7474: 7465: 7456: 7447: 7438: 7429: 7420: 7411: 7402: 7393: 7384: 7375: 7354: 7333: 7324: 7315: 7306: 7297: 7288: 7279: 7270: 7261: 7252: 7243: 7234: 7225: 7216: 7207: 7198: 7189: 7180: 7171: 7162: 7153: 7144: 7135: 7126: 7117: 7108: 7099: 7090: 7081: 7072: 7063: 7054: 7045: 7036: 7027: 7018: 7009: 7000: 6991: 6970: 6961: 6952: 6943: 6934: 6925: 6916: 6907: 6898: 6889: 6880: 6859: 6850: 6841: 6836:Rose, p. 57. 6832: 6823: 6814: 6805: 6796: 6787: 6778: 6769: 6760: 6751: 6742: 6709: 6700: 6679: 6670: 6661: 6652: 6643: 6634: 6625: 6616: 6607: 6598: 6589: 6580: 6571: 6562: 6553: 6544: 6535: 6526: 6517: 6508: 6499: 6490: 6481: 6472: 6451: 6442: 6421: 6412: 6403: 6394: 6385: 6376: 6367: 6358: 6349: 6328: 6319: 6310: 6301: 6292: 6283: 6274: 6265: 6256: 6247: 6238: 6229: 6206: 6197: 6188: 6179: 6170: 6161: 6156:Webb, p.xii. 6152: 6143: 6134: 6125: 6116: 6107: 6098: 6089: 6080: 6071: 6062: 6053: 6044: 6035: 6026: 6017: 6008: 5999: 5990: 5981: 5972: 5963: 5954: 5945: 5936: 5927: 5918: 5909: 5900: 5891: 5882: 5873: 5864: 5855: 5834: 5825: 5816: 5807: 5798: 5789: 5780: 5771: 5762: 5753: 5732: 5723: 5702: 5693: 5684: 5675: 5666: 5657: 5648: 5639: 5630: 5625:Rubin, p. 8. 5621: 5600: 5591: 5582: 5573: 5564: 5555: 5546: 5525: 5516: 5507: 5498: 5489: 5484:Mate, p. 57. 5480: 5475:Mate, p. 41. 5471: 5466:Mate, p. 47. 5462: 5453: 5448:Mate, p. 33. 5444: 5435: 5430:Mate, p. 26. 5426: 5417: 5408: 5399: 5390: 5385:Mate, p. 12. 5381: 5376:Mate, p. 11. 5372: 5363: 5354: 5345: 5336: 5327: 5318: 5309: 5300: 5291: 5282: 5273: 5264: 5255: 5246: 5237: 5228: 5219: 5210: 5201: 5192: 5183: 5174: 5165: 5156: 5147: 5138: 5129: 5120: 5111: 5102: 5093: 5084: 5075: 5066: 5057: 5048: 5039: 5030: 5021: 5012: 5003: 4994: 4985: 4976: 4967: 4958: 4949: 4940: 4931: 4922: 4913: 4904: 4895: 4886: 4877: 4868: 4859: 4850: 4841: 4832: 4823: 4814: 4805: 4796: 4787: 4766: 4757: 4748: 4739: 4730: 4707: 4698: 4689: 4680: 4671: 4662: 4653: 4644: 4635: 4626: 4617: 4608: 4599: 4590: 4581: 4572: 4563: 4554: 4545: 4536: 4527: 4518: 4509: 4500: 4491: 4482: 4473: 4464: 4455: 4446: 4437: 4429: 4423: 4418: 4409: 4400: 4391: 4382: 4373: 4364: 4355: 4346: 4337: 4328: 4319: 4310: 4301: 4292: 4257: 4248: 4239: 4230: 4221: 4212: 4203: 4194: 4185: 4176: 4155: 4146: 4136: 4131: 4123: 4118: 4110: 4105: 4096: 4087: 4078: 4056: 4042: 4032: 4011: 3990:Middle-earth 3971: 3906: 3893: 3889: 3879: 3874:Warwickshire 3867: 3847: 3823: 3799: 3771:Architecture 3753: 3722: 3715: 3705: 3688: 3685: 3678: 3668: 3662: 3597: 3581: 3569:naturalistic 3533: 3523:designs and 3515:Anglo-Saxon 3507:Medieval art 3481: 3458: 3453: 3449: 3446: 3374:English navy 3371: 3334:carried the 3330: 3328: 3318: 3295: 3291:shield walls 3274: 3188: 3173: 3167: 3163: 3121: 3117:palm reading 3086: 3051:shipbuilding 3047:metalworking 3032:The English 3031: 3015: 2974: 2925:agricultural 2922: 2871:over-farming 2859: 2844: 2840:inland ports 2824:Icknield Way 2772: 2768:hunting park 2716:peregrinatio 2715: 2709: 2685: 2670: 2615: 2581: 2567: 2556: 2530:Hospitallers 2487:Augustinians 2480: 2476: 2442: 2391: 2356: 2332:polytheistic 2322:Christianity 2320: 2308:walrus ivory 2299:Anglo-Saxon 2243: 2197: 2189: 2184: 2177: 2123: 2106: 2094: 2090:social class 2083: 2028: 2001:Great Famine 1998: 1962: 1928: 1923: 1916:Common Bench 1898: 1892: 1865: 1854: 1840:gaming piece 1803: 1795: 1786: 1771: 1750: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1724: 1722: 1717: 1712: 1708: 1701: 1696: 1692: 1686: 1680: 1674: 1670:hierarchical 1667: 1586: 1559: 1543: 1507: 1454: 1444: 1416: 1389: 1359: 1314: 1245: 1240: 1214: 1208: 1187: 1177:Scandinavian 1164: 1154: 1129: 1125: 1105: 1066:Roman Empire 1059: 987:Great Famine 984: 976:legal system 929: 898: 893:, producing 891:Anglo-Saxons 879:Roman Empire 862: 861: 668:Christchurch 598:Warwickshire 513:Lincolnshire 388:Bedfordshire 222:Georgian era 205:Protectorate 200:Commonwealth 173:Tudor period 114: 55:Ormside Bowl 43:York Minster 26: 11623:Middle Ages 11470:Rugby union 11302:Anglophilia 11245:Middle Ages 11050:Regency era 11042:Late Modern 10952:Middle Ages 10911:Prehistoric 10730:Kievan Rus' 10466:Western and 10459:territories 10383:Czech lands 10234:Western and 8865:(2): 1–26. 8660:: 202–239. 6084:Webb, p. 1. 4051:altogether. 3925:Post-modern 3921:Neo-Marxist 3917:econometric 3898:progressive 3894:Magna Carta 3693:King Arthur 3665:Old English 3530:on the ends 3441:York Castle 3439:(left) and 3311:Crossbowmen 3298:attritional 3276:called the 3124:Roger Bacon 3043:Great Slump 2779:East Anglia 2693:Glastonbury 2681:seek relief 2672:Pilgrimages 2589:Gregory VII 2491:Cistercians 2131:victualling 2010:limit wages 1994:round table 1990:tournaments 1974:Westminster 1924:Magna Carta 1895:chancellors 1783:shire moots 1743:secretariat 1726:witenagemot 1546:Black Death 1541:, in 1330. 1456:Magna Carta 1404:the Anarchy 1346:North Wales 1200:Northumbria 1145:Anglo-Saxon 1143:Ceremonial 1114:East Anglia 1078:Old English 1035:Middle Ages 991:Black Death 972:archbishops 909:monasteries 869:during the 778:Southampton 648:Bournemouth 608:West Sussex 553:Oxfordshire 453:East Sussex 227:Regency era 210:Restoration 76:History of 11719:Categories 11563:Tudor rose 11267:Parliament 10625:Almoravids 10613:al-Andalus 10586:Portugal ( 10429:Anatolia ( 4071:References 3882:chronicles 3866:A page of 3839:hammerbeam 3818:Romanesque 3791:Romanesque 3760:Robin Hood 3657:the Knight 3573:plasticity 3561:zoomorphic 3525:zoomorphic 3433:city walls 2982:royal laws 2970:watermills 2885:. 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