Roman–Persian Wars

2950:, who succeeded in seizing the throne and then killed Maurice and his family. Khosrau II used the murder of his benefactor as a pretext for war and reconquer the Roman province of Mesopotamia. In the early years of the war the Persians enjoyed overwhelming and unprecedented success. They were aided by Khosrau's use of a pretender claiming to be Maurice's son, and by the revolt against Phocas led by the Roman general Narses. In 603 Khosrau defeated and killed the Roman general Germanus in Mesopotamia and laid siege to Dara. Despite the arrival of Roman reinforcements from Europe, he won another victory in 604, while Dara fell after a nine-month siege. Over the following years the Persians gradually overcame the fortress cities of Mesopotamia by siege, one after another. At the same time they won a string of victories in Armenia and systematically subdued the Roman garrisons in the Caucasus. 10123: 2244: 2868: 1947: 2815: 2367:. The dilapidated fortifications were also upgraded at Edessa, Batnac and Amida. Although no further large-scale conflict took place during Anastasius' reign, tensions continued, especially while work continued at Dara. This construction project was to become a key component of the Roman defenses, and also a lasting source of controversy with the Persians, who complained that it violated the treaty of 422, by which both empires had agreed not to establish new fortifications in the frontier zone. Anastasius, however, pursued the project, and the walls were completed by 507/508. 3040: 2906: 2284: 7973: : "The Parthian tactics gradually became the standard method of warfare in the Roman empire. The ancient Persian tradition of large-scale hydraulic engineering was thus combined with the unique Roman experience in masonry. The Greco-Roman picture of the Persians as a nation of fierce and indomitable warriors contrasts strangely with another stereotype, the Persians as past masters of the art of refined living, of luxuriose vivere. The Persian influence on Roman religion would be enormous, were people allowed to call Mithraism a Persian religion." 4123:

the Medes and the Parthians rather than of ourselves, we are always, one might say, fighting the battles of those peoples." In the long series of wars between the two powers, the frontier in upper Mesopotamia remained more or less constant. Historians point out that the stability of the frontier over the centuries is remarkable, although Nisibis, Singara, Dara and other cities of upper Mesopotamia changed hands from time to time, and the possession of these frontier cities gave one empire a trade advantage over the other. As Frye states:

3896: 2643: 2292: 4206: 2914: 2880: 1388: 2131: 938: 847: 836: 1833: 2623: 10417: 3141: 2382: 2510: 4623: 4558: 4537: 4516: 3977: 3127: 1717: 3169:(newly united by Islam), which, according to Howard-Johnston, "can only be likened to a human tsunami". According to George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam". The Sasanian Empire rapidly succumbed to these attacks and was completely conquered. During the Byzantine–Arab wars, the exhausted Roman Empire's recently regained eastern and southern provinces of 2780: 4197:). A characteristic of the final phase of the conflict, when what had begun in 611–612 as a raid was soon transformed into a war of conquest, was the pre-eminence of the Cross as a symbol of imperial victory and of the strong religious element in the Roman imperial propaganda; Heraclius himself cast Khosrau as the enemy of God, and authors of the 6th and 7th centuries were fiercely hostile to Persia. 1510: 10187: 3162:. The Byzantine Empire was also severely affected, with its financial reserves exhausted by the war and the Balkans now largely in the hands of the Slavs. Additionally, Anatolia was devastated by repeated Persian invasions; the Empire's hold on its recently regained territories in the Caucasus, Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt was loosened by many years of Persian occupation. 3967:), and by the 5th century AD they were no longer a mercenary unit, and were slightly superior individually in comparison to the Persian ones, as Procopius claims; however, the Persian horse-archer units as a whole always remained a challenge for the Romans, which suggests the Roman horse-archers were smaller in numbers. By the time of Khosrow I the composite cavalrymen ( 2560:, whose population was deported to Persian territory. The successful campaigns of Belisarius in the west encouraged the Persians to return to war, both taking advantage of Roman preoccupation elsewhere and seeking to check the expansion of Roman territory and resources. In 539 the resumption of hostilities was foreshadowed by a Lakhmid raid led by 2772:, a one-year truce in Mesopotamia (eventually extended to five years) was arranged, but in the Caucasus and on the desert frontiers the war continued. In 575, Khosrau I attempted to combine aggression in Armenia with discussion of a permanent peace. He invaded Anatolia and sacked Sebasteia, but to take Theodosiopolis, and after a clash near 4011:. Use of complex torsion equipment was rare, since traditional Persian expertise in archery reduced their apparent benefits. Elephants were employed (e.g. as siege towers) where the terrain was unfavorable for machines. Recent assessments comparing the Sasanians and Parthians have reaffirmed the superiority of Sasanian siegecraft, 2859:, but Bahram pressed on with his revolt regardless and the defeated Khosrau was soon forced to flee for safety to Roman territory, while Bahram took the throne as Bahram VI. With support from Maurice, Khosrau raised a rebellion against Bahram, and in 591 the combined forces of his supporters and the Romans defeated Bahram at the 3019:, to raise the necessary funds to continue the war. In 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son. He assembled his forces in Asia Minor and, after conducting exercises to revive their morale, he launched a new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a 1410:, "from the third century BC to the early seventh century AD, the rival players were grand polities with imperial pretensions, which had been able to establish and secure stable territories transcending regional divides". The Romans and Parthians came into contact through their respective conquests of parts of the 3023:. In the Caucasus he inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz. Following a lull in 623, while he negotiated a truce with the Avars, Heraclius resumed his campaigns in the East in 624 and routed an army led by Khosrau at 2482:

in 531, which resulted in his dismissal. In the same year the Romans gained some forts in Armenia, while the Persians had captured two forts in eastern Lazica. Immediately after the Battle of Callinicum, unsuccessful negotiations between Justinian's envoy, Hermogenes, and Kavadh took place. A Persian

3185:

were also lost, reducing the Empire to a territorial rump consisting of Anatolia and a scatter of islands and footholds in the Balkans and Italy. These remaining lands were thoroughly impoverished by frequent attacks, marking the transition from classical urban civilization to a more rural, medieval

2614:

to Khosrau, and the Persians departed after nearly two months. In the wake of the Persian retreat, two Roman envoys, the newly appointed magister militum, Constantinus, and Sergius proceeded to Ctesiphon to arrange a truce with Khosrau. (The war dragged on under other generals and was to some extent

2555:

The Persians broke the "Treaty of Eternal Peace" in 540 AD, probably in response to the Roman reconquest of much of the former western empire, which had been facilitated by the cessation of war in the East. Khosrau I invaded and devastated Syria, extorting large sums of money from the cities of

2355:

from the Caucasus. Negotiations between the two powers took place, but such was their distrust that in 506 the Romans, suspecting treachery, seized the Persian officials. Once released, the Persians preferred to stay in Nisibis. In November 506, a treaty was finally agreed upon, but little is known

4122:

noted their "never-ending cycle of armed confrontations" and observed that "it is shown by the facts themselves that conquest has been a source of constant wars and great expense to us. For it yields very little and uses up vast sums; and now that we have reached out to peoples who are neighbor of

2322:

through the autumn and winter (502–503). The siege of the fortress-city proved to be far more difficult than Kavadh expected; the defenders repelled the Persian assaults for three months before they were beaten. In 503, the Romans attempted an ultimately unsuccessful siege of the Persian-held Amida

2165:

and taking Singara, both cities were soon regained by the Romans. Following a lull during the 350s while Shapur fought off nomad attacks on Persia's eastern and then northern frontiers, he launched a new campaign in 359 with the aid of the eastern tribes which he had meanwhile defeated, and after a

4893: 1330:

ensued: towns, fortifications, and provinces were continually sacked, captured, destroyed, and traded. Neither side had the logistical strength or manpower to maintain such lengthy campaigns far from their borders, and thus neither could advance too far without risking stretching its frontiers too

7905:

Rawlinson (2007), 199: "The Parthian military system had not the elasticity of the Romans ... However loose and seemingly flexible, it was rigid in its uniformity; it never altered; it remained under the thirtieth Arsaces such as it had been under the first, improved in details perhaps, but

3157:

The devastating impact of this last war, added to the cumulative effects of a century of almost continuous conflict, left both empires crippled. When Kavadh II died only months after coming to the throne, Persia was plunged into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. The Sasanians were

2343:

and Amida. Although no further large-scale conflict took place during Anastasius' reign, tensions continued, especially while work proceeded at Dara. This was because the construction of new fortifications in the border zone by either empire had been prohibited by a treaty concluded some decades

1331:

thin. Both sides did make conquests beyond the border, but in time the balance was almost always restored. Although initially different in military tactics, the armies of both sides gradually adopted from each other and by the second half of the 6th century, they were similar and evenly matched.

7362:

gives an additional reason for the outbreak of the war: " contentiousness increased even further ... when Justin did not deem to pay the Medians the five hundred pounds of gold each year previously agreed to under the peace treaties and let the Roman State remain forever a tributary of the

4192:

underscores that "although the conflicts between Persia and East Rome revolved around issues of strategic control around the eastern frontier, yet there was always a religious-ideological element present". From the time of Constantine on, Roman emperors appointed themselves as the protectors of

6345:

Lightfoot (1990), 115: "Trajan succeeded in acquiring territory in these lands with a view to annexation, something which had not seriously been attempted before ... Although Hadrian abandoned all of Trajan's conquests ... the trend was not to be reversed. Further wars of annexation

3876:

From the 4th century AD onwards, the Sasanians grew in strength and adopted the role of aggressor. They considered much of the land added to the Roman Empire in Parthian and early Sasanian times to rightfully belong to the Persian sphere. Everett Wheeler argues that "the Sassanids,

2696:

occupied eastern Lazica. The truce that had been established in 545 was renewed outside Lazica for a further five years on condition that the Romans pay 2,000 lb of gold each year. The Romans failed to completely expel the Sasanians from Lazica, and in 554 AD Mihr-Mihroe launched

2016:

With the Roman Empire debilitated by Germanic invasions and a series of short-term emperors, Shapur I soon resumed his attacks. In the early 250s, Philip was involved in a struggle over the control of Armenia; Shapur conquered Armenia and killed its king, defeated the Romans at the

2572:

in Persia; as he withdrew, he extorted large sums of money from the cities of Syria and Mesopotamia and systematically looted the key cities. In 541 he invaded Lazica in the north. Belisarius was quickly recalled by Justinian to the East to deal with the Persian threat, while the

4265:

narrates the effects of the Roman–Persian Wars in Syria from the reign of Gordian III to the domination of the province by Odaenathus of Palmyra. With the end of Herodian's record, all contemporary chronological narratives of Roman history are lost, until the narratives of

3998:

that destroyed Antony's siege train in 36 BC. The situation changed with the rise of the Sasanians, when Rome encountered an enemy equally capable in siege warfare. The Sasanians mainly used mounds, rams, mines, and to a lesser degree siege towers, artillery, and also

7906:

essentially the same system." According to Michael Whitby (2000), 310, "the eastern armies preserved the Roman military reputation through to the end of the 6th century by capitalizing on available resources and showing a capacity to adapt to a variety of challenges".

1418:. Although subdued for a time by the Seleucids, in the 2nd century BC they broke away, and established an independent state that steadily expanded at the expense of their former rulers, and through the course of the 2nd and early 1st century BC, they had conquered 1334:

The expense of resources during the Roman–Persian Wars ultimately proved catastrophic for both empires. The prolonged and escalating warfare of the 6th and 7th centuries left them exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the

1934:

set out against Ardashir in 232. One column of his army marched into Armenia, while two other columns operated to the south and failed. In 238–240, towards the end of his reign, Ardashir attacked again, taking several cities in Syria and Mesopotamia, including

2195:

made peace, agreeing to major concessions in exchange for safe passage out of Sasanian territory. The Romans surrendered their former possessions east of the Tigris, as well as Nisibis and Singara, and Shapur soon conquered Armenia, abandoned by the Romans.

4137:"How could it be a good thing to hand over one's dearest possessions to a stranger, a barbarian, the ruler of one's bitterest enemy, one whose good faith and sense of justice were untried, and, what is more, one who belonged to an alien and heathen faith?" 3872:

never fell, as the Roman expeditions had always exhausted their offensive impetus by the time they reached lower Mesopotamia, and their extended line of communications through territory not sufficiently pacified exposed them to revolts and counterattacks.

2836:(governor). During the 580s, the war continued inconclusively with victories on both sides. In 582, Maurice won a battle at Constantia over Adarmahan and Tamkhusro, who was killed, but the Roman general did not follow up his victory; he had to hurry to 3031:

in Armenia, and in a surprise attack that winter he stormed Shahrbaraz's headquarters and attacked his troops in their winter billets. Supported by a Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, together with the Avars and Slavs, the three unsuccessfully

3959:

units were introduced into the Roman army; as a result, heavily armed cavalry grew in importance in both the Roman and Persian armies after the 3rd century AD and until the end of the wars. The Roman army also gradually incorporated horse-archers

4329:

are primary sources. These were isolated attempts at approaching written historiography however, and by the end of the 4th century AD, even the practice of carving rock reliefs and leaving short inscriptions was abandoned by the Sasanians.

2765:

and invaded Persian Mesopotamia, where they defeated local forces. Marcian's sudden dismissal and the arrival of troops under Khosrau resulted in a ravaging of Syria, the failure of the Roman siege of Nisibis and the fall of Dara. At a cost of

2174:

and Singara, and repelled the counter-attack of Constantius II. But the enormous cost of these victories weakened him, and he was soon deserted by his barbarian allies, leaving him vulnerable to the major offensive in 363 by the Roman Emperor

2103:. The Roman victory was the most decisive for many decades: all the territories that had been lost, all the debatable lands, and control of Armenia lay in Roman hands. Many cities east of the Tigris were given to the Romans including 1760:

to place his son on the vacant Armenian throne triggered a war with Rome in 36 AD, which ended when Artabanus III abandoned claims to a Parthian sphere of influence in Armenia. War erupted in 58 AD, after the Parthian King

2495:(11,000 lb of gold). The Romans recovered the Lazic forts, Iberia remained in Persian hands, and the Iberians who had left their country were given the choice of remaining in Roman territory or returning to their native land. 1683:

to oppose Labienus, who had invaded Anatolia. Soon Labienus was driven back to Syria by Roman forces, and, although reinforced by the Parthians, was defeated, taken prisoner, and killed. After suffering a further defeat near the

4128:

One has the impression that the blood spilled in the warfare between the two states brought as little real gain to one side or the other as the few meters of land gained at terrible cost in the trench warfare of the First World

4187:

cherished by the Roman emperors Caracalla, Alexander Severus, and Julian. Roman sources reveal long-standing prejudices with regard to the Eastern powers' customs, religious structures, languages, and forms of government.

2590:. He soon withdrew in the face of an army under Belisarius, en route sacking the city of Callinicum. Attacks on a number of Roman cities were repulsed and the Persian general Mihr-Mihroe was defeated and captured at 7837:

Howard-Johnston (2006), 9: " victories in the field over the following years and its political repercussions ... saved the main bastion of Christianity in the Near East and gravely weakened its old Zoroastrian

2863:

and restored Khosrau II to power. In exchange for their help, Khosrau not only returned Dara and Martyropolis but also agreed to cede the western half of Iberia and more than half of Persian Armenia to the Romans.

2199:

In 383 or 384 Armenia again became a bone of contention between the Roman and the Sasanian empires, but hostilities did not occur. With both empires preoccupied by barbarian threats from the north, in 384 or 387,

8574: 8555: 5612: 4022:, was annexed to the Sasanian Empire. Frye notes that in the 3rd century AD such client states played an important role in Roman–Sasanian relations, but both empires gradually replaced them by an organized 2585:

in 541. In the same year, Lazica switched its allegiance to Persia and Khosrau led an army to secure the kingdom. In 542 Khosrau launched another offensive in Mesopotamia and unsuccessfully attempted to capture

3864:'s time onwards, and were by the time of Pacorus able to take the offensive against the Parthians. Like the Sasanians in the late 3rd and 4th centuries, the Parthians generally avoided any sustained defense of 6941: 2701:, dislodging a newly arrived Byzantine army from Telephis. In Lazica the war dragged on inconclusively for several years, with neither side able to make any major gains. Khosrau, who now had to deal with the 4193:

Christians of Persia. This attitude created intense suspicions of the loyalties of Christians living in Sasanian Iran and often led to Roman–Persian tensions or even military confrontations (e.g. in

3079:

in the Caucasus. Late in 627, Heraclius launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia, where, despite the desertion of the Turkish contingent that had accompanied him, he defeated the Persians at the

4018:

By the beginning of Sasanian rule, a number of buffer states existed between the empires. These were absorbed by the central state over time, and by the 7th century the last buffer state, the Arab

3186:

form of society. However, unlike Persia, the Roman Empire ultimately survived the Arab assault, holding onto its residual territories and decisively repulsing two Arab sieges of its capital in

1812:

on the throne as a client ruler, he withdrew his armies and returned to Syria. Trajan died in 117, before he was able to reorganize and consolidate Roman control over the Parthian provinces.

2064:

launched a successful invasion of Persia, sacking its capital, Ctesiphon; they would probably have extended their conquests if Carus had not died in December of the same year. His successor

2799:

won a victory in Armenia, where Roman actions had alienated local inhabitants. In the spring of 578 the war in Mesopotamia resumed with Persian raids on Roman territory. The Roman general

3935:

quality was inferior to that of the Romans. The combined forces of horse archers and heavy cavalry inflicted several defeats on the Roman foot-soldiers, including those led by Crassus

2658:, having found Persian protection oppressive, asked Justinian to restore the Roman protectorate. The emperor seized the chance, and in 548–549 combined Roman and Lazic forces with the 5107:. In Bayne Fisher, William; Gershevitch, Ilya; Yarshater, Ehsan; Frye, R. N.; Boyle, J. A.; Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence; Avery, Peter; Hambly, Gavin; Melville, Charles (eds.). 1777:. This came to an end in 63 AD after the Romans agreed to allow Tiridates and his descendants to rule Armenia on condition that they receive the kingship from the Roman emperor. 1688:, the Parthians withdrew from Syria. They returned in 38 BC but were decisively defeated by Ventidius, and Pacorus was killed. In Judaea, Antigonus was ousted with Roman help by 1756:

Roman protectorate there. Nonetheless, Roman–Persian rivalry over control and influence in Armenia continued unabated for the next several decades. The decision of the Parthian King

7970: 2965:, to claim the throne in 610. Phocas, an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in Byzantine sources as a "tyrant", was eventually deposed by Heraclius, having sailed from 2564:, which was defeated by the Ghassanids under al-Harith ibn Jabalah. In 540, the Persians broke the "Treaty of Eternal Peace" and Khosrau I invaded Syria, destroying the city of 3892:

was employed by both Byzantines and the Sasanians as an alternative to direct confrontation, particularly through Arab kingdoms in the south and nomadic nations in the north.

9134:

Die Römisch-persischen Kriege des 3. Jahrhunderts. n. Chr. Nach der Inschrift Sāhpuhrs I. an der Ka'be-ye Zartošt (ŠKZ). Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients B 55

9647: 3083:. Continuing south along the Tigris, he sacked Khosrau's great palace at Dastagird and was prevented from attacking Ctesiphon only by the destruction of the bridges on the 1700:

allies deserted. Failing to make progress against Parthian positions, the Romans withdrew with heavy casualties. Antony was again in Armenia in 33 BC to join with the

9953: 2705:, renewed the truce in 557, this time without excluding Lazica; negotiations continued for a definite peace treaty. Finally, in 562, the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau – 975: 9038:""Es war allerdings nicht so, dass sie es im Sinne eines Tributes erhielten, wie viele meinten ..." Anlässe und Funktion der persischen Geldforderungen an die Römer" 2427:

region and upper Mesopotamia by 526–527. The early years of war favored the Persians: by 527, the Iberian revolt had been crushed, a Roman offensive against Nisibis and

3015:

During these years, Heraclius strove to rebuild his army, slashing non-military expenditures, devaluing the currency and melting down Church plate, with the backing of

2183:

before the walls Julian was unable to take the Persian capital or advance any farther and retreated along the Tigris. Harried by the Persians, Julian was killed in the

9156: 8758: 1632: 1496: 1009: 2335:. Although the two powers negotiated, it was not until November 506 that a treaty was agreed to. In 505, Anastasius ordered the building of a great fortified city at 9998: 3831: 2491:

in September 532, which lasted less than eight years. Both powers agreed to return all occupied territories, and the Romans agreed to make a one-time payment of 110

8906: 1326:

Although warfare between the Romans and Persians continued over seven centuries, the frontier, aside from shifts in the north, remained largely stable. A game of

2973:. Having expelled the Persians from Anatolia in 612, Heraclius launched a major counter-offensive in Syria in 613. He was decisively defeated outside Antioch by 1926:'s foundation of the Sasanian Empire. Ardashir (r. 226–241) raided Mesopotamia and Syria in 230 and demanded the cession of all the former territories of the 2969:. Around the same time, the Persians completed their conquest of Mesopotamia and the Caucasus, and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia, occupying 1624: 5278: 3885:". In general, the Romans regarded the Sasanians as a more serious threat than the Parthians, while the Sasanians regarded the Roman Empire as the enemy 2619:, because of which Khosrau temporarily withdrew from Roman territory) A five-year truce was agreed to in 545, secured by Roman payments to the Persians. 2451:

tried unsuccessfully to protect Roman workers in Thannuris, undertaking the construction of a fort right on the frontier. Damaging raids on Syria by the

8571: 8552: 5622: 10089: 2737:

War broke again shortly after Armenia and Iberia revolted against Sasanian rule in 571 AD, following clashes involving Roman and Persian proxies

1796:

broke out in Roman territory, severely stretching Roman military resources. Parthian forces attacked key Roman positions, and the Roman garrisons at

2415:, and the Romans recruited Huns from the north of the Caucasus to assist them. To start with, the two sides preferred to wage war by proxy, through 1565:, but a dispute soon arose over the Euphrates boundary. Finally, Phraates asserted his control over Mesopotamia, except for the western district of 4395:, contribute to the coherent narrative of Heraclius' war and are regarded by Howard-Johnston as "the most important of extant non-Muslim sources". 4325:

is neither contemporary nor reliable, but it is the chief narrative source for Severus and Carus. The trilingual (Middle Persian, Parthian, Greek)

2439:

were prevented from doing so by Persian attacks. Attempting to remedy the deficiencies revealed by these Persian successes, the new Roman emperor,

1402:

in 200 BC. Soon both the Romans and the Parthians would invade the Seleucid-held territories, and become the strongest states in western Asia.

968: 1671:. For a moment, the whole of the Roman East seemed lost to the Parthians or about to fall into their hands. However, the conclusion of the second 9778: 3844:

When the Roman and Parthian Empires first collided in the 1st century BC, it appeared that Parthia had the potential to push its frontier to the

2855:, having been dismissed and humiliated by Hormizd IV, raised a rebellion. Hormizd was overthrown in a palace coup in 590 and replaced by his son 2411:

king Gourgen to the Romans: in 524/525 the Iberians rose in revolt against Persia, following the example of the neighboring Christian kingdom of

2314:; the emperor refused to provide it and the Persian king tried to take it by force. In 502 AD, he quickly captured the unprepared city of 1339:, whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the end of the last Roman–Persian war. Benefiting from their weakened condition, the 9755: 9147: 6946: 3986:

On the other hand, the Persians adopted war engines from the Romans. The Romans had achieved and maintained a high degree of sophistication in

7541: 6005: 3856:, was adapted for national defense but ill-suited for conquest. The Romans, on the other hand, were continually modifying and evolving their " 2145:

began a series of offensives against the Romans. Despite a string of victories in battle, culminating in the overthrow of a Roman army led by

6688: 6662: 6615: 3824: 2216:

by Germanic, Alanic, and Hunnic peoples, while Persia's northern borders were threatened first by a number of Hunnic peoples and then by the

1780:

A fresh series of conflicts began in the 2nd century AD, during which the Romans consistently held the upper hand over Parthia. The Emperor

1750:

worked out a compromise in 1 AD. According to the agreement, Parthia undertook to withdraw its forces from Armenia and to recognize a

9334: 2323:

while Kavadh invaded Osroene and laid siege to Edessa with the same results. Finally in 504, the Romans gained control through the renewed

8300: 3852:

by Pacorus and Labienus, and were gradually able to take advantage of the weaknesses of the Parthian military system, which, according to

9245: 8717: 1596:. The Parthians raided Syria the following year, and mounted a major invasion in 51 BC, but their army was caught in an ambush near 961: 17: 8918: 7533: 7500: 7456: 7425: 5753: 10469: 2436: 2428: 1581: 10454: 10111: 9218: 8889: 8503: 4099: 3688: 2933: 2788: 2732: 2287:

Map of the Roman–Persian frontier after the division of Armenia in 384. The frontier remained stable throughout the 5th century.

1255: 1250: 569: 8235: 5589: 3158:

further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation from Khosrau II's campaigns, religious unrest, and the increasing power of the

10464: 10449: 8981:

Bruderzwist. Strukturen und Methoden der Diplomatie zwischen Rom und Iran von der Teilung Armeniens bis zum Fünfzigjährigen Frieden

3817: 2060:

respectively planned to invade Persia, but they were both murdered before they were able to fulfil their plans. In 283 the emperor

1819:, decided that it was in Rome's interest to re-establish the Euphrates as the limit of its direct control. Hadrian returned to the 2351:

of Amida, leading to the hand-over of the city. That year an armistice was agreed to as a result of an invasion of Armenia by the

10314: 10138: 9863: 9590: 9482: 9343: 5299: 3849: 3308: 2776:

the army suffered heavy losses while fleeing across the Euphrates under Roman attack and the Persian royal baggage was captured.

1652: 1557:

to dissuade him from intervening. Although the Parthians remained neutral, Lucullus considered attacking them. In 66–65 BC,

1500: 1474:

conquered the remaining Seleucid territories in Syria, extinguishing their state and advancing the Roman eastern frontier to the

1014: 8099: 7323:, frag. 6.1. According to Greatrex (2005), 489, to many Romans this arrangement "appeared dangerous and indicative of weakness". 2397:, but the negotiations soon broke down. The proposal was initially greeted with enthusiasm by the Roman emperor and his nephew, 9637: 9351: 7961:

According to Reno E. Gabba, the Roman army was reorganized over time after the impact of the Battle of Carrhae (Gabba , 51–73).

3322:

against Parthia. Subsequent campaign in Armenia successful, but followed by withdrawal. Parthians take control of whole region.

3203: 1085: 7949: 6447: 6414: 6389: 6368: 2487:

was interrupted by Kavadh I's death and the new Persian king, Khosrau I, re-opened talks in spring 532 and finally signed the

2220:. With both empires preoccupied by these threats, a largely peaceful period followed, interrupted only by two brief wars, the 9162: 9026: 8988: 8766: 8471: 8342: 8161: 8047: 6776: 6755: 6015: 5958: 5925: 5892: 5681: 5574: 5149: 5014: 4958: 4862: 4194: 3191: 3187: 2327:

of Amida, which led to the fall of the city. That year an armistice was reached as a result of an invasion of Armenia by the

1844: 1733: 1225: 1051: 5840: 4873: 3877:

administratively more centralized than the Parthians, formally organized defense of their territory, although they lacked a

1815:

Trajan's Parthian War initiated a "shift of emphasis in the 'grand strategy of the Roman empire' ", but his successor,

5445: 4118:

The Roman–Persian Wars have been characterized as "futile" and too "depressing and tedious to contemplate". Prophetically,

2598:. An invasion of Armenia in 543 by the Roman forces in the East, numbering 30,000, against the capital of Persian Armenia, 2221: 1808:

were expelled by the local inhabitants. Trajan subdued the rebels in Mesopotamia, but having installed the Parthian prince

1451: 1080: 206: 1784:

invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia during 114 and 115 and annexed them as Roman provinces. He captured the Parthian capital,

9676: 8788: 7355: 3373: 3036:, while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius' brother Theodore. 1774: 1725: 1041: 9070: 6221: 6187: 5498: 5456: 5211: 4229:, which assured the corruption of their history once they had been vanquished. The main sources of this period are thus 2723:). Both sides agreed not to build new fortifications near the frontier and to ease restrictions on diplomacy and trade. 2646:

The Eastern Roman–Persian border at the time of Justinian's death in 565, with Lazica in Eastern Roman (Byzantine) hands

10119: 9905: 9748: 9197: 5969: 5861: 5532: 5332: 4993: 4769: 4277:

The principal sources for the early Sasanian period are not contemporary. Among them the most important are the Greeks

3199: 1137: 5882: 5543: 5104: 2303:

The Anastasian War ended the longest period of peace the two powers ever enjoyed. War broke out when the Persian King

10062: 10030: 9883: 9228: 9207: 9186: 9122: 9101: 9080: 9007: 8422: 8395: 8310: 8084: 8012: 5979: 5871: 5850: 5829: 5801: 5742: 5721: 5700: 5645: 5553: 5522: 5508: 5487: 5466: 5420: 5362: 5311: 5288: 5264: 5240: 5221: 5200: 5181: 5116: 5035: 4883: 4835: 4705: 2233: 1230: 6305: 6287: 5004: 4333:

For the period between 353 and 378, there is an eyewitness source to the main events on the eastern frontier in the

2068:

was forced by his own army to retreat, being frightened by the belief that Carus had died of a strike of lightning.

9878: 9723: 9711: 9327: 4157:

Both sides attempted to justify their respective military goals in both active and reactive ways. According to the

2698: 1708:

and the Parthians. Other preoccupations obliged him to withdraw, and the whole region came under Parthian control.

1636: 852: 6157: 4221:

The sources for the history of Parthia and the wars with Rome are scant and scattered. The Parthians followed the

2137:'s unsuccessful campaign in 363 resulted in the loss of the Roman territorial gains under the peace treaty of 299. 10439: 10272: 10143: 8133: 6233: 5711: 4036:. Towards the end of the 1st century AD, Rome organized the protection of its eastern frontiers through the 2296: 2171: 1913: 1504: 1157: 1036: 897: 9920: 9915: 6119: 5410: 5352: 5025: 4908: 10251: 8530: 6807: 6102: 4056:

of the Syrian and Mesopotamian frontiers of the Roman Empire. The Roman and Persian border units were known as

3857: 3182: 3165:

Neither empire was given any chance to recover, as within a few years they were struck by the onslaught of the

2407:, Proculus, opposed the move. Tensions between the two powers were further heightened by the defection of the 1917: 1855:

defeated the Parthians in Armenia and installed a favored candidate on the Armenian throne. The following year

1659:, a former supporter of Brutus and Cassius. They swiftly overran the Roman province of Syria and advanced into 1562: 1463: 1434:, the Parthians fended off several Seleucid attempts to regain their lost territories, and established several 1427: 1368: 1179: 342: 211: 4387:

are useful sources for the last Roman–Persian war. In addition to Byzantine sources, two Armenian historians,

10444: 10304: 10299: 10236: 10104: 10035: 10008: 9858: 9741: 9381: 8743: 4326: 4107: 3775: 3386: 3033: 2954: 2943: 2937: 2823: 2758: 2627: 2408: 2360:

states that peace was agreed for seven years, and it is likely that some payments were made to the Persians.

2344:

earlier. Anastasius pursued the project despite Persian objections, and the walls were completed by 507–508.

1729: 1356: 1046: 892: 5477: 4695: 10459: 10294: 10256: 10023: 10003: 9805: 8642: 5631: 3132:

Byzantine Empire (green) by 626 under Heraclius; striped areas are lands still threatened by the Sasanians.

2953:

Phocas' brutal repression sparked a succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew

2689: 1863:

and Seleucia and sacking Ctesiphon in 165. An epidemic which was sweeping Parthia at the time, possibly of

1019: 907: 877: 725: 9091: 9019:

Prokop und die Perser. Untersuchungen zu den Römisch-Sasanidischen Kontakten in der ausgehenden Spätantike

8668: 8362: 6426: 6332: 6251: 5564: 4631: 2807:, and sacking Singara. Khosrau again opened peace negotiations but he died early in 579 and his successor 1323:

and huge territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire, shortly after the end of the last war between them.

10386: 9991: 9706: 9320: 5732: 4176: 4004: 3994:. On the other hand, the Parthians were inept at besieging; their cavalry armies were more suited to the 3453: 3091:, who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories. Heraclius restored the 3016: 2738: 2484: 1871:

that raged for a generation throughout the Roman Empire. In 195–197, a Roman offensive under the Emperor

1320: 1218: 1127: 9112: 8500: 5322: 3911:

Militarily, the Sasanians continued the Parthians' heavy dependence on cavalry troops: a combination of

10171: 9943: 9783: 4827: 3174: 1443: 1360: 9853: 4179:, which was thought to be the cause of the subsequent Iranian disarray; this is matched by the notion 3672:

begins after Persians break the "Eternal Peace" by invading Syria. Ends with the Roman acquisition of

2212:

dividing Armenia between the two states. Meanwhile, the northern territories of the Roman Empire were

10319: 10309: 10241: 10067: 10018: 9958: 9948: 9938: 9681: 9664: 9406: 9294: 5821: 5455:

Greatrex, Geoffrey B. (2005). "Byzantium and the East in the Sixth Century". In Maas, Michael (ed.).

3566: 3436: 3112: 3048: 2681: 2180: 1837: 1809: 1737: 1534: 1447: 1414:. During the 3rd century BC, the Parthians migrated from the Central Asian steppe into northern 1348: 1194: 1142: 1061: 1056: 657: 642: 8814: 6981: 6914: 6896: 6839: 6041: 4357:

are especially valuable. The single most important source for Justinian's Persian wars up to 553 is

3707:, Hormizd's son, by Roman and Persian forces and restoration of Roman rule in northern Mesopotamia ( 2179:, who advanced down the Euphrates to Ctesiphon with a major army. Despite a tactical victory at the 10420: 10391: 10097: 9910: 9838: 9691: 9657: 9610: 9361: 9275: 8151: 4638: 4374: 4210: 4008: 3940: 3319: 3178: 3170: 3072: 2750: 2315: 1757: 1680: 1644: 1530: 1364: 1029: 766: 751: 697: 632: 311: 4151:, 4.26.6, translated by Averil Cameron) about the Persians, a judgment typical of the Roman view. 3146:

Byzantine Empire (orange) by 650. By this point the Sasanian Empire had fallen to the Arab Muslim

1883:

and the third sacking of Ctesiphon. A final war against the Parthians was launched by the Emperor

1851:

defeated the Romans there, captured Edessa and ravaged Syria. In 163 a Roman counter-attack under

10045: 9963: 9696: 9595: 9386: 9366: 8218: 7381:

The great bastion of the Roman frontier was in Persian hands for the first time (Whitby , 92–94).

5659: 5061: 4918:

Cameron, Averil (1979). "Images of Authority: Elites and Icons in Late Sixth-century Byzantium".

3786: 3677: 3444: 3361: 3231: 3116: 3080: 2867: 2710: 2582: 2466:

In 530 a major Persian offensive in Mesopotamia was defeated by Roman forces under Belisarius at

2084: 1896: 1692:

in 37 BC. With Roman control of Syria and Judaea restored, Mark Antony led a huge army into

1668: 1577: 1459: 1352: 1204: 1162: 1147: 1073: 1066: 998: 841: 574: 435: 8281: 5617: 4898:

Diwan. Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean

4052:

that the Persian system was extended, probably in imitation of Diocletian's construction of the

2243: 2091:, sacked the capital Ctesiphon and captured the Persian treasury and royal harem. The resulting 1993:

in 243; Carrhae and Nisibis were retaken by the Romans. Encouraged by this success, the emperor

1619:. However, they maintained relations with Pompey, and after his defeat and death, a force under 10282: 10226: 10050: 10040: 9573: 9472: 5351:

Levi, A. H. T. (1994). "Ctesiphon". In Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon (eds.).

4045: 3947:. The Parthian tactics gradually became the standard method of warfare in the Roman empire and 3748: 3108: 3076: 2610:

in 544 without success and was eventually bought off by the defenders. The Edessenes paid five

2403: 2092: 2088: 2057: 1821: 1766: 1660: 1640: 1538: 1344: 1316: 1172: 1152: 1122: 1112: 1090: 857: 756: 652: 637: 8412: 8385: 8002: 6502: 5950:

The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XIV: Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425–600

5917:

The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XIV: Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425–600

5497:

McDonough, S. J. (2006). "Persecutions in the Sasanian Empire". In Drake, Harold Allen (ed.).

5300:"The Army in the Late Roman East: The Persian Wars and the Defense of the Byzantine Provinces" 4813: 10201: 9795: 9790: 9686: 9600: 9578: 9568: 9465: 9455: 9413: 9391: 8925: 8447: 8302:

East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity: Historiographical and Historical Studies

7530: 7497: 7453: 7422: 6507: 5791: 5760: 5518: 5280:

East Rome, Sasanian Persia And the End of Antiquity: Historiographical And Historical Studies

5274: 5159:

Gabba, Reno E. (1965). "Sulle Influenze Reciproche Degli Ordinamenti de Parti e Dei Romani".

4652: 4458: 4370: 3924: 3658: 3508: 2851:

through treachery in 589, but that year the stalemate was shattered when the Persian general

2631: 2607: 2488: 2460: 2348: 2324: 2018: 1604: 1407: 1189: 1117: 1024: 720: 221: 3712: 3039: 2848: 2112: 10164: 9968: 9558: 9460: 9450: 9376: 9090:

Isaac, Benjamin (1998). "The Eastern Frontier". In Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.).

5324:

he Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia

4969: 4611: 4338: 4246: 4230: 4088: 4028: 4012: 3654: 3627: 3605: 2978: 2905: 2814: 2795:. Khosrau sought peace but abandoned this initiative when Persian confidence revived after 2669: 2651: 2479: 2311: 2167: 2162: 1792:. However, uprisings erupted in 115 AD in the occupied Parthian territories, while a major 1372: 1167: 943: 932: 902: 872: 746: 710: 692: 672: 647: 564: 8893: 8438: 5839:

Verbruggen, J. F.; Willard, Sumner; Southern, R. W. (1997). "Historiographical Problems".

4087:, which led to the decline of the former. These deportations also initiated the spread of 1985:, a buffer state which had recently shifted its loyalty but his forces were defeated at a 1946: 8: 8864: 6576: 5673:

The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume IX: The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146–43 B.C.

5655: 5597: 4346: 4309: 4303: 4094:

The Persians seem to have been reluctant to resort to naval action. There was some minor

4040:

system, which lasted until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century after improvements by

3995: 3991: 3980: 3907:, equipped with both lance and archery equipment. Both rider and horse are fully armored. 3797:

The Persians assassinate Khosrow II and agree to withdraw from all occupied territories.

3768: 2860: 2783:

The Sasanian Empire and its neighbors (including the Eastern Roman Empire) in 600 AD

2706: 2616: 2599: 1184: 919: 687: 677: 9000:

East Roman Foreign Policy. Formation and Conduct from Diocletian to Anastasius (ARCA 30)

8691: 9873: 9848: 9539: 9371: 9253: 9141: 9057: 8276: 5940: 5907: 5881:

Wheeler, Everett (2007). "The Army and the Limes in the East". In Erdkamp, Paul (ed.).

5787: 5409:

Liska, George (1998). "Projection contra Prediction: Alternative Futures and Options".

5397: 5389: 4823:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

4748: 4740: 4494: 4484: 4441: 4379: 4366: 4341:. For the events covering the period between the 4th and the 6th century, the works of 4242: 4084: 4075:

to new cities as a tool of policy, not just the prisoners-of-war (such as those of the

4033: 3708: 3527: 3056: 2985: 2841: 2713:. The Persians agreed to evacuate Lazica and received an annual subsidy of 30,000 2591: 2569: 2364: 2336: 2319: 2256: 2201: 2026: 1958: 1648: 1580:

led an invasion of Mesopotamia in 53 BC with catastrophic results; he and his son

1550: 1518: 1514: 1467: 1336: 730: 501: 8178: 2283: 10360: 10057: 10013: 9890: 9830: 9552: 9544: 9534: 9440: 9224: 9203: 9182: 9118: 9097: 9076: 9061: 9022: 9003: 8984: 8737: 8467: 8418: 8391: 8338: 8306: 8286: 8201: 8157: 8080: 8043: 8008: 7344: 6772: 6751: 6680: 6654: 6607: 6542: 6011: 5975: 5954: 5921: 5888: 5867: 5846: 5825: 5797: 5738: 5717: 5696: 5677: 5641: 5570: 5549: 5528: 5504: 5483: 5462: 5441: 5416: 5401: 5372:

Lightfoot, C. S. (1990). "Trajan's Parthian War and the Fourth-Century Perspective".

5358: 5328: 5307: 5284: 5260: 5236: 5217: 5196: 5177: 5170: 5145: 5112: 5031: 5010: 4989: 4954: 4879: 4858: 4831: 4800: 4765: 4762:

Emulating Alexander: How Alexander the Great's Legacy Fuelled Rome's Wars With Persia

4752: 4732: 4701: 4592: 4392: 4384: 4262: 4222: 4214: 3936: 3732: 3574: 3495: 3483: 3470: 3418: 3295: 2800: 2746: 2308: 2191:. With the Roman army stuck on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, Julian's successor 2184: 2002: 1986: 1931: 1927: 1872: 1597: 1593: 1585: 1492: 1276: 1211: 1199: 1105: 1100: 1004: 715: 579: 483: 468: 372: 367: 337: 296: 281: 261: 8116: 6444: 6411: 6386: 6365: 5583: 1291:

began in 54 BC; wars began under the late Republic, and continued through the

10381: 10350: 10211: 10079: 9895: 9652: 9563: 9487: 9428: 9049: 8193: 7099:

Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 102; see H. Börm, "Der Perserkönig im Imperium Romanum",

6483: 5811: 5667: 5381: 5091: 4923: 4792: 4724: 4674: 4545: 4321: 4159: 4076: 4000: 3944: 3895: 3853: 3744: 3720: 3716: 3570: 3531: 2660: 2603: 2577:

in Italy, who were in touch with the Persian King, launched a counter-attack under

2213: 2192: 2176: 2134: 2038: 2030: 1899:. In exchange for peace, he was obliged to pay for the damage caused by Caracalla. 1672: 1656: 1296: 1132: 923: 830: 701: 554: 545: 541: 522: 492: 439: 362: 271: 251: 216: 177: 8617: 8442: 5778:

Speck, Paul (1984). "Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance".

1513:

A sculpted head (broken off from a larger statue) of a Parthian warrior wearing a

10335: 10216: 10127: 10122: 9978: 9930: 9843: 9800: 9669: 9507: 9445: 9433: 9423: 8578: 8559: 8507: 7537: 7504: 7460: 7429: 7359: 6451: 6418: 6393: 6372: 6225: 6191: 5948: 5915: 5815: 5671: 5254: 5139: 5095: 4948: 4821: 4817: 4524: 4420: 4354: 4164: 4048:

opposite the territory of their opponents. According to R. N. Frye, it was under

3869: 3406: 3252: 2890: 2827: 2742: 2642: 2339:. At the same time, the dilapidated fortifications were also upgraded at Edessa, 2260: 2033:. He advanced into Anatolia but was defeated by Roman forces there; attacks from 2006: 1966: 1868: 1867:, spread to the Roman army and forced its withdrawal; this was the origin of the 1856: 1852: 1769:

on the Armenian throne. Roman forces overthrew Tiridates and replaced him with a

1689: 1411: 1399: 1300: 1284: 1280: 911: 627: 619: 607: 505: 382: 347: 186: 166: 146: 126: 64: 9053: 8949: 8839: 8197: 7987: 6580: 6546: 4796: 2291: 1635:

against Parthia, but his assassination averted the war. The Parthians supported

10376: 10340: 10246: 10231: 10221: 10176: 10159: 9900: 9616: 9519: 9492: 5944: 5936: 5911: 5903: 5663: 5637: 5585: 5131: 5127: 4940: 4936: 4846: 4667: 4566: 4238: 4226: 4205: 4189: 4103: 3949: 3646: 3631: 3339: 3084: 3001: 2913: 2837: 2768: 2757:

brought Armenia under his protection, while Roman troops under Justin's cousin

2749:) and the Syrian desert, and after Roman negotiations for an alliance with the 2467: 2444: 2278: 2248: 2146: 1573: 1288: 1235: 536: 231: 117: 61: 8792: 7352: 5476:

Mackay, Christopher S. (2004). "Caesar and the End of Republican Government".

2879: 2692:, demolishing its fortifications. In the same year a Persian offensive led by 1957:'s victories on the Western front, depicting him on horseback with a captured 1387: 10433: 10277: 9868: 9627: 9605: 9502: 9497: 9254:"Sixth Century Alania: between Byzantium, Sasanian Iran and the Turkic World" 8205: 8035: 7333: 7253: 6474:

Overlaet, Bruno (30 June 2009). "A Roman Emperor at Bishapur and Darabgird".

6218: 6184: 5968:

Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerald (1999). "Imperial Wealth and Expenditure".

5431: 5141:

The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193-337

5135: 5066: 5046: 4950:

The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193-337

4944: 4850: 4804: 4736: 4615: 4315: 4095: 3987: 3920: 3889: 3878: 3694: 3260: 3020: 2852: 2673: 2595: 2561: 2432: 2424: 2153:(348), his campaigns achieved little lasting effect: three Persian sieges of 1982: 1875:

led to Rome's acquisition of northern Mesopotamia as far as the areas around

1628: 1608: 1546: 1526: 1340: 1095: 937: 846: 835: 816: 72: 8815:"Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle composed in Syriac in AD 507 (1882) pp. 1-76" 7234: 7122: 6487: 5435: 1696:, but his siege train and its escort were isolated and wiped out, while his 10206: 9820: 9810: 9770: 9622: 9529: 9524: 9477: 9396: 7857: 6346:

followed under Lucius Verus and Septimius Severus."; Sicker (2000), 167–168

5082:

Foss, Clive (1975). "The Persians in Asia Minor and the End of Antiquity".

5023: 4294: 4023: 3928: 3912: 3904: 3616: 3589: 3277: 3052: 3028: 2886:

and Heraclius receiving the submission of Khosrau II; plaque from a cross (

2677: 2455:

in 529 encouraged Justinian to strengthen his own Arab allies, helping the

2237: 2229: 2217: 2209: 2120: 2104: 1860: 1848: 1789: 1685: 1616: 1554: 1308: 1304: 1292: 801: 771: 463: 407: 157: 137: 7860:

may have lessened local resistance to the Arab expansion (Haldon , 49–50).

4927: 2887: 2470:, while a second Persian thrust in the Caucasus was defeated by Sittas at 2005:

in 244. Gordian either died in the battle or was murdered by his own men;

1832: 10397: 10345: 9585: 9514: 9401: 5971:

The Rome that Did Not Fall: The Survival of the East in the Fifth Century

5250: 4855:

The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425

4571: 4550: 4529: 4430: 4254: 4119: 4072: 4026:

run by the central government and based on a line of fortifications (the

3865: 3642: 3487: 2702: 2693: 2665: 2581:. Belisarius took the field and waged an inconclusive campaign against 2556:

Syria and Mesopotamia, and systematically looting other cities including

2514: 2440: 2376: 2158: 2130: 2124: 1994: 1962: 1762: 1676: 1664: 1454:. Meanwhile, the Romans expelled the Seleucids from their territories in 1423: 1240: 662: 603: 488: 448: 57: 5838: 4585: 4274:

at the beginning of the 4th century, both from a Christian perspective.

9815: 9733: 9418: 8153:

Siege Warfare and Counter-Siege Tactics in Late Antiquity (ca. 250–640)

5344:

Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century A.D

4904: 4635:. Translation based on Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb. 4597: 4504: 4267: 4168: 4041: 3976: 3963: 3955: 3916: 3845: 3802: 3704: 3698: 3585: 3466: 3092: 3044: 2997: 2974: 2856: 2808: 2803:

retaliated by raiding Persian Mesopotamia, capturing the stronghold of

2792: 2622: 2574: 2448: 2295:

Relief of a Sasanian delegation in Byzantium, marble, 4th–5th century,

2205: 2072: 2042: 2034: 1923: 1770: 1747: 1693: 1327: 867: 862: 811: 776: 682: 392: 357: 241: 88: 80: 76: 6710: 5393: 4764:(First ed.). Great Britain: Pen and Sword Military. p. 232. 4744: 3027:

in Atropatene. In 625 he defeated the generals Shahrbaraz, Shahin and

9312: 7640: 5213:

The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD)

4577: 4358: 4342: 4286: 4172: 4079:), but also the cities they captured, such as the deportation of the 4058: 4049: 3882: 3806: 3798: 3669: 3491: 3432: 3282: 3147: 3096: 3088: 3064: 2962: 2796: 2754: 2715: 2504: 2456: 2398: 2394: 2381: 2357: 2142: 2100: 1998: 1884: 1793: 1785: 1697: 1620: 1475: 1435: 1312: 1245: 953: 882: 791: 667: 589: 473: 352: 226: 8123:, Vol. 63, No. 1, January/February 2010, (accessed October 3, 2014) 8077:

The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity: A Political and Military History

7647:

fell to the invaders in 622–623 (Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 193–197).

5430:

Louth, Andrew (2005). "The Eastern Empire in the Sixth Century". In

5027:

The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part I, 226–363 AD)

5024:

Dodgeon, Michael H.; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002).

4780: 4071:

The Sasanians, and to a lesser extent the Parthians, practiced mass

2363:

In 505 Anastasius ordered the building of a great fortified city at

10355: 9037: 6593:

Dodgeon-Greatrex-Lieu (2002), I, 108–109, 112; Southern (2001), 241

5863:

The Evolution of Middle Eastern Landscapes: An Outline to A.D. 1840

5691:

Sicker, Martin (2000). "The Struggle over the Euphrates Frontier".

5385: 4728: 4662: 4561: 4540: 4519: 4468: 4448: 4410: 4362: 4290: 4278: 4271: 4258: 4250: 4143: 4019: 3973:) appeared, who were skilled in both archery and the use of lance. 3932: 3772: 3756: 3601: 3554: 3523: 3440: 3335: 3331: 3256: 3140: 3060: 3005: 2966: 2762: 2509: 2452: 2390: 2332: 2304: 2252: 2225: 2161:, were repulsed, and while Shapur succeeded in 359 in successfully 2080: 2079:

renewed hostilities with the Romans invading Armenia, and defeated

2065: 2053: 2041:

forced the Persians to withdraw from Roman territory, surrendering

1978: 1954: 1950: 1892: 1864: 1826: 1797: 1752: 1743: 1705: 1631:

Valley by Caesarian forces. With the civil war over, Julius Caesar

1561:

reached agreement with Phraates, and Roman–Parthian troops invaded

1542: 1455: 1439: 796: 781: 761: 531: 478: 417: 412: 332: 236: 6080: 4622: 4557: 4536: 4515: 3075:, who took advantage of the dwindling strength of the Persians to 2688:

and the rest of Lazica under control, and finally subjected Petra

2602:, was defeated by a meticulous ambush by a small Persian force at 2347:

Finally in 504, the Romans gained the upper hand with the renewed

2340: 1922:

Conflict resumed shortly after the overthrow of Parthian rule and

9093:

The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425 XIII

5542:

Potter, David Stone (2004). "The Failure of the Severan Empire".

5253:(1999). "Fighting for Peace: Attitudes to Warfare in Byzantium". 5233:

Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture

4715:

Barnes, T. D (1985). "Constantine and the Christians of Persia".

4626: 4603: 4350: 4282: 4234: 4175:'s invasions, respectively, of Roman territories, were to avenge 4080: 4064: 4015:, and organization, as well as ability to build defensive works. 3969: 3900: 3390: 3009: 2970: 2832: 2804: 2773: 2685: 2565: 2557: 2475: 2423:

in the north. Overt Roman–Persian fighting had broken out in the

2154: 2150: 2046: 2022: 2010: 1990: 1970: 1936: 1880: 1876: 1816: 1801: 1566: 1431: 1395: 806: 615: 513: 397: 327: 301: 291: 286: 266: 84: 7237:" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7125:" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2668:

won a series of victories against Persian armies, although they

1977:

The struggle resumed and intensified under Ardashir's successor

1716: 10403: 7644: 5168:

Garnsey, Peter; Saller, Richard P. (1987). "The Roman Empire".

4388: 3861: 3752: 3673: 3650: 3273: 3159: 3126: 3024: 2993: 2947: 2898: 2883: 2779: 2655: 2587: 2578: 2471: 2412: 2228:

persecuted high-ranking Persian officials who had converted to

2188: 2127:, and Arzan. Also, control of Armenia was given to the Romans. 2116: 2096: 2087:

in 296 or 297. However, in 298 Galerius defeated Narseh at the

2076: 1825:, and surrendered the territories of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and 1805: 1781: 1612: 1589: 1558: 1471: 1419: 887: 786: 741: 584: 559: 458: 402: 387: 276: 256: 8106:, November 26, 2009 (online feature), accessed October 3, 2014 7662: 5161:

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4896:". In Binder, Carsten; Börm, Henning; Luther, Andreas (eds.): 3848:

and the Mediterranean. However, the Romans repulsed the great

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With tensions between the two powers threatening renewed war,

1509: 6926: 6924: 5751: 5412:

Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics

4659:. Books I and V. Translated by Michael and Mary Whitby. (PDF) 4313:, most of whom depended on late Sasanian sources, especially 3542: 3482:

Ardashir's invasion of Mesopotamia and Persian defeat at the

3195: 3166: 3087:. Khosrau was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son 2989: 2958: 2894: 2635: 2385:

Roman and Persian Empires in 477, as well as their neighbors.

2108: 2061: 1940: 1888: 1701: 1376: 518: 306: 246: 201: 68: 27:

Series of wars between ancient Greco-Roman and Iranian states

8693:

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3630:

refuses to support the Persians financially, triggering the

2984:

Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer

2431:

in that year was unsuccessful, and forces trying to fortify

1655:

Roman territory in 40 BC in conjunction with the Roman

8134:"Buried Soldiers May Be Victims of Ancient Chemical Weapon" 8004:

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5842:

The Art of Warfare in Western Europe During the Middle Ages

5256:

Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204

4857:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 411–436. 3469:

raids Mesopotamia and Syria, but is eventually repulsed by

2840:

to pursue his imperial ambitions. Another Roman victory at

2420: 2416: 2328: 1651:

in 42 BC. After the Liberators' defeat, the Parthians

1415: 1391: 453: 377: 10186: 8542:

Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 5; Potter (2004), 232–233

7478: 6921: 6455:* Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 24–28; Frye (1993), 124 5935:

Whitby, Michael (2000). "The Successors of Justinian". In

5209: 4894:

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to the Persians in a hastily negotiated peace settlement.

1541:

for a Roman–Parthian alliance (c. 105 BC). When

8387:

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6004:

Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Stewart, Sarah (March 24, 2010).

5437:

The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 1, c.500–c.700

5167: 3012:, bringing the Roman Empire to the brink of destruction. 2352: 5006:

Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and rivals

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provided by the aristocracy. They added a contingent of

2141:

The arrangements of 299 lasted until the mid-330s, when

7914: 7912: 7003:* Greatrex (2005), 487; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 81–82 6719: 5002: 3691:

breaks out when Armenians revolt against Sasanian rule.

3421:

leads to the Roman acquisition of northern Mesopotamia.

3389:

against Parthia. Trajan's conquests later abandoned by

1497:

Julius Caesar's planned invasion of the Parthian Empire

8464:

Julian (Routledge Revivals): An Intellectual Biography

5967: 5731:

Southern, Pat (2001). "Beyond the Eastern Frontiers".

2818:

The Roman-Persian frontier in the 4th to 7th centuries

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attempted to gain financial support by force from the

1517:, from the Parthian royal residence and necropolis of 9280:

History Articles – Classical Europe and Mediterranean

9161:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Archived from 8667:(sieur), Charles Du Fresne Du Cange (31 March 2018). 7224:* Greatrex (2005), 489; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 113 6698: 6042:"Byzantine–Iranian Relations – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 5500:

Violence in Late Antiquity: Perceptions and Practices

3309:

Pompeian–Parthian invasion of the Levant and Anatolia

1283:: the Parthian and the Sasanian. Battles between the 9248:– Roman, Parthian and Sasanid military organisation. 9179:

A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641

8279:, Erich Kettenhofen, John R. Perry, “DEPORTATIONS,” 7909: 6086: 5105:"The Political History of Iran under the Sassanians" 5062:"Excavations In Iran Unravel Mystery Of "Red Snake"" 4983: 4845:

Blockley, R. C. (1997). "Warfare and Diplomacy". In

4465:. Book IX. Translated by the Rev. John Selby Watson. 1720:

Parthia, its subkingdoms, and neighbors in 1 AD

1647:

and sent a contingent to fight on their side at the

7650: 6810:; Frye (1968), 145; Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 37–51 6035: 6033: 5902:Whitby, Michael (2000). "The Army, c. 420–602". In 4671:. Book III. See original text in the Latin Library. 4501:. Book XLI. See original text in the Latin Library. 4373:is the main source for the reign of Maurice, while 3401:After initial Parthian successes, war over Armenia 3000:, as well as to devastate Anatolia. Meanwhile, the 1275:, were a series of conflicts between states of the 8287:http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/deportations 8219:Excavations In Iran Unravel Mystery Of "Red Snake" 7466: 7090:Evans (2000), 118; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 96–97 6068: 5380:. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 80: 115–116. 5169: 4935:Campbell, Brian (2005). "The Severan Dynasty". In 4814:"The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids" 4723:. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 75: 126–136. 3209: 2626:Hunting scene showing king Khosrau I (7th century 1997:advanced down the Euphrates but was defeated near 1458:in the early 2nd century BC, after defeating 7856:Ambivalence toward Byzantine rule on the part of 4875:Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing 4697:Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire 3071:Meanwhile, Heraclius formed an alliance with the 2787:The Romans exploited Persian disarray as general 1907: 10431: 8100:"Death Underground: Gas Warfare at Dura-Europos" 8062:Campbell–Hook (2005), 57–59; Gabba (1966), 51–73 7390:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 152; Louth (2005), 113 6030: 5193:L'Iconoclasme Byzantin: le Dossier Archéologique 3194:. The Roman Empire also lost its territories in 3150:as well as Byzantine Syria, Palestine and Egypt. 2463:turn a loose coalition into a coherent kingdom. 2095:gave the Romans control of the area between the 1891:in 216. After his assassination, his successor, 9779:Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire 8724:. Archived from the original on October 3, 2003 8298: 7896:Haldon (1997), 61–62; Howard-Johnston (2006), 9 7869:Foss (1975), 746–47; Howard-Johnston (2006), xv 7668: 7507:(PDF); Treadgold (1997), 226; Whitby (2000), 96 7463:(PDF); Treadgold (1997), 225; Whitby (2000), 96 6376:Campbell (2005), 6–7; Rawlinson (2007), 337–338 6123:* Mackay (2004), 149; Sherwin-White (1994), 262 5752:Soward, Warren; Whitby, Michael; Whitby, Mary. 5458:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian 5304:The Near East Under Roman Rule: Selected Papers 5273: 5210:Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). 4970:"An Overview of the Sassanian Persian Military" 3008:took advantage of the situation to overrun the 2844:in 586 likewise failed to break the stalemate. 2791:invaded deep into Persian territory and raided 2170:Amida (359). In the following year he captured 2025:. Between 258 and 260, Shapur captured Emperor 1478:, where it met the territory of the Parthians. 1315:also played a role. The wars were ended by the 8258:Shahîd (1984), 24–25; Wagstaff (1985), 123–125 8117:"Early Chemical Warfare – Dura-Europos, Syria" 7546:* Louth (2005), 115; Treadgold (1997), 231–232 6464:Frye (1993), 124–125; Southern (2001), 234–235 5630:Shahîd, Irfan (1984). "Arab-Roman Relations". 5479:Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History 5172:The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture 1603:The Parthians largely remained neutral during 10105: 9749: 9328: 8186:Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 7950:An Overview of the Sassanian Persian Military 7363:Persians." See also, Greatrex (2005), 503–504 6003: 5796:(Second ed.). Indiana University Press. 5654: 5610: 4984:De Blois, Lukas; van der Spek, R. J. (2008). 4213:, 1521, pen and black ink on a chalk sketch, 4032:) and the fortified frontier cities, such as 3825: 1486: 969: 9712:Wars of the fall of the Western Roman Empire 8643:"LacusCurtius • Cassius Dio's Roman History" 8461: 6666:* Frye (1993), 130–131; Southern (2001), 243 6039: 5817:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 5734:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine 5716:. Continuum International Publishing Group. 5658:(1994). "Lucullus, Pompey and the East". In 2811:(r. 578–590) preferred to continue the war. 1592:; this was the worst Roman defeat since the 1371:. Over the following centuries, more of the 9131: 8417:. Cambridge University Press. p. 475. 8079:. Cambridge University Press. p. 326. 7484: 7443:Treadgold (1997), 224; Whitby (2000), 95–96 7310:Greatrex (2005), 489; Treadgold (1997), 211 7227: 5584:Rekavandi, Hamrid Omrani; Sauer, Eberhard; 5517: 5354:International Dictionary of Historic Places 4781:"The restoration of the Cross at Jerusalem" 4181: 2917:The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent 1829:to their previous rulers and client-kings. 1711: 10112: 10098: 9756: 9742: 9335: 9321: 9146:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 8437: 8285:, VII/3, pp. 297–312, available online at 8245: 8243: 7115: 6693:Frye (1968), 130–131; Southern (2001), 243 6562:Frye (1993), 125; Southern (2001), 235–236 6101:Ball (2000), 12–13; Dignas–Winter (2007), 4475:. Book VI. Translated by Edward C. Echols. 3832: 3818: 3202:in later conflicts, though these too were 2267: 1840:, built to commemorate the Roman victories 1836:Reliefs depicting war with Parthia on the 1600:by the Romans, and they were driven back. 1307:and allied nomadic nations in the form of 976: 962: 8718:"Eutropius: Abridgement of Roman History" 8410: 8140:, March 8, 2011, accessed October 3, 2014 8070: 8068: 7991:* Verbruggen–Willard–Southern (1997), 4–5 7926: 7924: 7187: 7185: 7093: 6634: 5953:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5920:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5810: 5710:Sidnell, Philip (2006). "Imperial Rome". 5562: 5496: 5440:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5371: 5144:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5126:Frye, R. N. (2005). "The Sassanians". In 5003:Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007). 4953:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4511:. See original text in the Latin Library. 4427:. See original text in the Latin Library. 2996:and several other islands in the eastern 2871:Late Roman silver coin showing the words 2474:. Belisarius was defeated by Persian and 2389:In 524–525 AD, Kavadh proposed that 2021:in 253, then probably took and plundered 9763: 9301:. All Empires – Online History Community 9282:. All Empires – Online History Community 9176: 9068: 8997: 8689: 8564: 8299:Howard-Johnston, J. D. (31 March 2018). 8179:"Elephants in Warfare in Late Antiquity" 7434:Treadgold (1997), 224; Whitby (2000), 95 7240: 7194: 7015: 6725: 6584:* Frye (1993), 126; Southern (2001), 238 6500: 6473: 5859: 5754:"Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians" 5730: 5527:(2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. 5454: 4934: 4844: 4437:. Book LXXX. Translated by Earnest Cary. 4204: 4177:Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia 3975: 3894: 3038: 2912: 2909:Byzantine and Sasanian Empires in 600 AD 2904: 2878: 2866: 2813: 2778: 2641: 2621: 2508: 2380: 2290: 2282: 2242: 2129: 1945: 1859:invaded Mesopotamia, winning battles at 1831: 1715: 1508: 1386: 1382: 9483:Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula 8666: 8332: 8240: 8034: 7716:* Cameron (1979), 23; Grabar (1984), 37 7413: 7411: 7235:Justinian I – Foreign Policies and Wars 7212: 7123:Justinian I – Foreign Policies and Wars 7066: 6991: 6007:The Age of the Parthians – Google Knihy 5880: 5709: 5676:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5049:. Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors 4917: 4759: 4445:. See the original text in Google Books 4209:The Humiliation of Valerian by Shapur ( 3553:Roman defeat at Carrhae in 296 or 297. 2726: 2187:, during a difficult retreat along the 912: 620: 608: 506: 14: 10432: 9796:Medo-Persian conflict (Persian Revolt) 9342: 9216: 9195: 9154: 8978: 8865:"Lactantius: de Mortibus Persecutorum" 8335:The No-nonsense Guide to World History 8149: 8065: 8000: 7939:Greatrex (2005), 478; Frye (2005), 472 7921: 7630:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 190–193, 196 7498:Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians 7454:Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians 7182: 6750:University of California Press (1978) 6716:Frye (1993), 130; Southern (2001), 242 6704: 6640:Frye (1968), 130; Southern (2001), 242 6620:Frye (1968), 128; Southern (2001), 241 6551:Frye (1968), 125; Southern (2001), 235 5934: 5901: 5713:Warhorse, Cavalry in the Ancient World 5690: 5629: 5541: 5475: 5341: 5249: 5230: 5190: 4778: 4714: 4369:offer many important details as well. 3731:Khosrow II conquers Mesopotamia after 3634:. Ends with a seven-year peace treaty. 3494:but is repelled near Ctesiphon at the 3378:made with Parthians over its kingship. 2356:of what the terms of the treaty were. 1902: 1481: 983: 10093: 9737: 9316: 9263:. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I 9220:The Emperor Maurice and his Historian 9158:The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337 9110: 9089: 8690:Corippus, Flavius Cresconius (1836). 8176: 8074: 8042:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 42. 7603:Haldon (1997), 41; Speck (1984), 178. 7006: 6430:* Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 16 6097: 6095: 5777: 5613:"Historiography – Pre-Islamic Period" 5429: 5408: 5297: 5158: 4967: 4811: 3439:against the Parthians. His successor 2709:and Izedh Gushnap – put together the 2071:After a brief period of peace during 1895:, was defeated by the Parthians near 1675:soon revived Roman strength in Asia. 1537:, who negotiated unsuccessfully with 957: 9591:Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain 9035: 9016: 8520:Haldon (1999), 20; Isaak (1998), 441 8234:Rekavandi–Sauer–Wilkinson–Nokandeh, 7847:Haldon (1997), 43–45, 66, 71, 114–15 7680: 7472: 7437: 7408: 7326: 7295: 7075: 7033: 7024: 6951:A Companion to Procopius of Caesarea 6321: 6312: 5786: 5350: 5125: 5102: 5081: 4986:An Introduction to the Ancient World 4903: 4871: 4693: 4686: 3443:, however, is defeated by them near 2981:, and the Roman position collapsed. 1553:in 69 BC, he corresponded with 1452:Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania 9251: 9199:The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 8812: 7815:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 217–227 7761:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 202–205 7746:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 199–202 7656: 7585:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 185–186 7570:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 183–184 6501:Overlaet, Bruno (3 November 2017). 6074: 5782:. Rudolf Halbelt. pp. 175–210. 5545:The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 5320: 3320:Mark Antony's unsuccessful campaign 1615:and the traditional faction of the 1607:, fought between forces supporting 1569:, which became a Roman dependency. 1501:Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC 24: 9299:History Articles – Medieval Europe 9202:. London und New York: Routledge. 8971: 8756: 8589:Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 7 8267:Frye (1993), 139; Levi (1994), 192 8150:Whitby, Michael (1 January 2013). 8040:Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224–642 7824:Haldon (1997), 46; Baynes (1912), 7045:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 83, 86 6385:Herodian, Roman History, IV, 6092: 5176:. University of California Press. 4403: 3743:Persians gradually conquer Syria, 2513:Roman and Sasanian Empires during 2318:and besieged the fortress-city of 2157:, in that age known as the key to 1788:, before sailing downriver to the 25: 10481: 10470:Wars involving the Roman Republic 9239: 8001:Haldon, John F. (31 March 1999). 7800:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 209–212 7621:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 189–190 7612:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 188–189 7594:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 186–187 7516:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 168-169 7141:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 109–110 6953:. Brill, Boston 2022, pp. 310 ff. 6631:Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), 114 5793:The Making of the Georgian Nation 5346:. University of California Press. 5163:. Accademia Nazionale del Lincei. 5070:. February 26, 2008. Science News 5044: 4910:History of the Later Roman Empire 4872:Boyd, Kelly (2004). "Byzantium". 4200: 4044:. Like the Romans, the Sasanians 3868:against the Romans. However, the 3330:Settlement with the Parthians by 3099:with a majestic ceremony in 629. 2946:mutinied under the leadership of 2934:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 2826:monarchy, and turned Iberia into 2822:In 580, Hormizd IV abolished the 2733:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591 2272: 2009:became emperor, and paid 500,000 1965:, and a kneeling emperor, either 1353:deprived the Eastern Roman Empire 10455:Near East in classical antiquity 10416: 10415: 10185: 10121: 9724:Military history of ancient Rome 8942: 8911: 8900: 8882: 8857: 8832: 8806: 8781: 8750: 8710: 8683: 8660: 8635: 8610: 8601: 8592: 8583: 8551:Frye (2005), 461–463; Shahbazi, 8545: 8536: 8523: 8514: 8489: 8480: 8455: 8431: 8404: 8378: 8369: 8351: 8326: 8292: 8270: 8261: 8252: 8228: 8212: 8170: 8143: 8126: 8109: 8093: 8056: 8028: 7994: 7976: 7964: 7955: 7942: 7933: 7899: 7890: 7881: 7872: 7863: 7850: 7841: 7831: 7818: 7803: 7794: 7779: 7764: 7749: 7734: 7719: 7704: 7695: 7686: 7674: 7633: 7624: 7615: 7606: 7597: 7588: 7573: 7558: 7549: 7519: 7510: 7490: 7233:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 110; " 6939:On Procopius, see Henning Börm: 6867:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I I, 69–71 6087:De Blois & van der Spek 2008 5524:Historical Dictionary of Georgia 4621: 4556: 4535: 4514: 3364:renounces his claims to Armenia. 3139: 3125: 2568:and deporting its population to 2029:after defeating his army at the 1930:. After fruitless negotiations, 1663:, overthrowing the Roman client 936: 853:Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene 845: 834: 10465:Wars involving the Roman Empire 10450:Ancient history of the Caucasus 10273:Military of the Sasanian Empire 9707:Civil wars of the Third Century 9114:Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium 9072:Rome and Persia at War, 502–532 8462:Athanassiadi, Polymnia (2014). 8289:(accessed on 30 December 2012). 8177:Rance, Philip (December 2003). 7731:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 199 7446: 7393: 7384: 7375: 7366: 7338: 7313: 7304: 7286: 7277: 7268: 7259: 7256:; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 113 7164: 7146: 7128: 7106: 7084: 7072:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 92–96 7057: 7048: 7021:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 81–82 6974: 6956: 6933: 6903: 6885: 6870: 6861: 6846: 6828: 6813: 6800: 6791: 6782: 6761: 6740: 6731: 6669: 6643: 6625: 6596: 6587: 6565: 6556: 6531: 6522: 6494: 6467: 6458: 6433: 6400: 6379: 6358: 6349: 6339: 6294: 6276: 6267: 6258: 6240: 6207: 6198: 6173: 6164: 6146: 6134:* Sherwin-White (1994), 262–263 4491:. Translated by William Wright. 3417:An offensive under the emperor 3210:Strategies and military tactics 2532: Acquisitions by Justinian 2297:Istanbul Archaeological Museums 1765:forcibly installed his brother 1588:by the Parthians under General 9117:. Cambridge University Press. 9096:. Cambridge University Press. 9069:Greatrex, Geoffrey B. (1998). 8703:– via Internet Archive. 6918:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77 6900:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 74 6882:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77 6858:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 63 6843:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62 6825:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62 6364:Herodian, Roman History, III, 6137: 6126: 6108: 6059: 5997: 5695:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 5611:Shahbazi, A. SH. (1996–2007). 5482:. Cambridge University Press. 5461:. Cambridge University Press. 5111:. Cambridge University Press. 5009:. Cambridge University Press. 4113: 3850:invasion of Syria and Anatolia 3034:besieged Constantinople in 626 2526: Roman (Byzantine) Empire 2370: 1908:Early Roman–Sasanian conflicts 1623:assisted the Pompeian general 13: 1: 9177:Mitchell, Stephen B. (2006). 8607:Howard-Johnston (2006), 42–43 8414:The Cambridge History of Iran 8236:"The Enigma of the Red Snake" 7971:The Cambridge History of Iran 7701:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 196 7643:ceased operating in 613, and 7207:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 113 7191:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 113 7177:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 111 7159:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 110 7112:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 102 5884:A Companion to the Roman Army 5780:Varia 1 (Poikila Byzantina 4) 5615:. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). 5590:"The Enigma of the Red Snake" 5109:The Cambridge History of Iran 5084:The English Historical Review 4785:The English Historical Review 4398: 4108:Siege of Constantinople (626) 3990:and had developed a range of 3715:) followed by expansion into 3517: 2938:Siege of Constantinople (626) 2918: 2893:over gilt copper, 1160–1170, 1981:; he invaded Mesopotamia and 1847:broke out again in 161, when 1734:Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 1086:Campaign of Severus Alexander 143:27 BC – 224 AD 134:27 BC – 224 AD 9806:Battle of the Persian Border 9021:. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. 8983:. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. 8979:Andres, Hansjoachim (2022). 8390:. BRILL. 2018. p. 214. 7776:* Cameron (1979), 5–6, 20–22 7081:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 93 7063:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 86 7054:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 85 7030:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 84 7012:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 82 6986:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 74 6969:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 77 6930:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 77 6771:Routledge; 2 edition (2001) 5990: 5866:. Rowman & Littlefield. 5415:. Rowman & Littlefield. 5374:The Journal of Roman Studies 4717:The Journal of Roman Studies 3693:In 589, the Persian general 3592:divide Armenia between them. 3557:defeats the Persians in 298. 3102: 2684:who replaced Dagistheus put 2672:to take the key garrison of 2498: 1505:Antony's Atropatene campaign 908:Al-Mundhir IV ibn al-Mundhir 898:Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man 726:Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Harith 7: 9896:Revolt of Cyrus the Younger 9223:. Oxford University Press. 9132:Kettenhofen, Erich (1982). 9054:10.25162/historia-2008-0019 8998:Blockley, Roger C. (1992). 8305:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 8198:10.1556/aant.43.2003.3-4.10 7334:Justinian (527–565 AD) 7254:Justinian (527–565 AD) 6685:Abridgment of Roman History 6659:Abridgment of Roman History 6612:Abridgment of Roman History 6579:; Sibylline Oracles, XIII, 6545:; Sibylline Oracles, XIII, 6309:* Rawlinson (2007), 286–287 5693:The Pre-Islamic Middle East 5563:Rawlinson, George (2007) . 5503:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 5298:Isaak, Benjamin H. (1998). 4913:. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 4596:. Book XIII. Translated by 4473:History of the Roman Empire 4463:Abridgment of Roman History 4225:tradition and favored oral 4046:constructed defensive walls 3697:raises a rebellion against 3657:. Ends with the treaty of " 3200:southern Italy to the Arabs 2961:, enabling his younger son 2875:("May God help the Romans") 2251:, depicting the triumph of 1918:Julian's Persian expedition 1914:Perso-Roman wars of 337–361 1726:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 1525:Parthian enterprise in the 1321:fall of the Sasanian Empire 1180:Julian's Persian expedition 1158:Perso-Roman wars of 337–361 888:Urnayr of Caucasian Albania 10: 10486: 9246:Cataphracts and Siegecraft 8907:DocumentaCatholicaOmnia.eu 8759:"Herodian's Roman History" 8466:. Routledge. p. 192. 8366:* Garnsey–Saller (1987), 8 7692:Howard-Johnston (2006), 85 5759:. Sasanika. Archived from 5096:10.1093/ehr/XC.CCCLVII.721 4828:Cambridge University Press 4779:Baynes, Norman H. (1912). 3600:Roman retaliation against 3405:ended by a Roman victory. 3106: 3047:, in a manuscript of the 2944:campaigning in the Balkans 2931: 2730: 2502: 2374: 2276: 1911: 1730:Trajan's Parthian campaign 1723: 1667:and installing his nephew 1549:and led an attack against 1490: 1487:Roman Republic vs. Parthia 1444:Arsacid dynasty of Armenia 1047:Trajan's Parthian campaign 1015:Pompeian–Parthian invasion 893:Al-Mundhir I ibn al-Nu'man 10413: 10369: 10328: 10320:Muslim conquest of Persia 10300:Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars 10265: 10194: 10183: 10152: 10134: 10076: 9977: 9939:Parni conquest of Parthia 9929: 9829: 9769: 9720: 9665:Roman conquest of Britain 9636: 9350: 9295:"Sassanids vs Byzantines" 9276:"Rome and Parthia at War" 9196:Potter, David S. (2004). 9111:Kaegi, Walter E. (2003). 9002:. Leeds: Francis Cairns. 8742:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 8679:– via Google Books. 8411:Yarshater, Ehsan (1983). 8322:– via Google Books. 8024:– via Google Books. 7283:Treadgold (1997), 204–207 7274:Treadgold (1997), 205–207 7265:Treadgold (1997), 204–205 6769:The Roman World, Volume 1 6215:Historiarum Philippicarum 6181:Historiarum Philippicarum 6143:Sherwin-White (1994), 264 6065:Howard-Johnston (2006), 1 5822:Stanford University Press 5598:current archaeology.co.uk 4797:10.1093/ehr/XXVII.CVI.287 4647:Documenta Catholica Omnia 4610:, Book II. Translated by 4584:, Book II. Translated by 4499:Historiarum Philippicarum 4106:'s action was during the 3813: 3793: 3781: 3763: 3739: 3727: 3684: 3665: 3638: 3623: 3612: 3596: 3581: 3565:After an initial victory 3561: 3549: 3538: 3516: 3502: 3478: 3459: 3452: 3425: 3413: 3397: 3382: 3374:Roman invasion of Armenia 3368: 3356: 3346: 3338:; return of the captured 3326: 3315: 3303: 3289: 3267: 3247: 3237: 3230: 3216: 3113:Muslim conquest of Persia 3049:Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp 2927: 2202:a definitive peace treaty 1838:Arch of Septimius Severus 1738:Parthian war of Caracalla 1470:. Finally, in 64 BC 1448:Arsacid dynasty of Iberia 1357:territories in the Levant 1297:Eastern Roman (Byzantine) 1062:Parthian war of Caracalla 1010:Caesar's planned invasion 995: 658:Parthamaspates of Parthia 643:Antiochus IV of Commagene 426: 107: 37: 32: 10392:Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom 9992:Against Byzantine Empire 9864:Conquest of Indus Valley 9854:Revolts against Darius I 9811:Siege of Pasargadae Hill 9217:Whitby, Michael (1988). 9181:. Blackwell Publishing. 9075:. Rome: Francis Cairns. 8375:Greatrex (2005), 477–478 6573:De Mortibus Persecutorum 6336:* Sicker (2000), 167–168 5887:. Blackwell Publishing. 5845:. Boydell & Brewer. 5820:. Stanford, California: 5357:. Taylor & Francis. 5047:"Justinian (AD 527–565)" 4878:. Taylor & Francis. 4812:Bivar, A. D. H. (1983). 4639:Theophanes the Confessor 4509:De Mortibus Persecutorum 4261:). The 13th book of the 4211:Hans Holbein the Younger 3387:Major campaign of Trajan 3360:Defeated by the Romans, 3077:ravage their territories 3073:Western Turkic Khaganate 2751:Western Turkic Khaganate 2419:allies in the south and 1953:Relief II commemorating 1712:Roman Empire vs. Parthia 1515:Hellenistic-style helmet 863:Monobazus II of Adiabene 698:Jabalah IV ibn al-Harith 633:Artavasdes II of Armenia 312:Western Turkic Khaganate 10387:Roman–Iranian relations 9849:First conquest of Egypt 9362:Roman conquest of Italy 9155:Millar, Fergus (1982). 8954:www.thelatinlibrary.com 8869:www.thelatinlibrary.com 8844:www.thelatinlibrary.com 8622:www.thelatinlibrary.com 8333:Brazier, Chris (2001). 6503:"Šāpur I: Rock Reliefs" 6488:10.2143/IA.44.0.2034386 4892:Börm, Henning (2016). " 4760:Barnett, Glenn (2017). 4645:. See original text in 3776:siege of Constantinople 3678:fifty-year peace treaty 3645:. Romans victorious at 3409:sacks Ctesiphon in 165. 2711:Fifty-Year Peace Treaty 2268:Byzantine–Sasanian wars 2255:over the Roman Emperor 1578:Marcus Licinius Crassus 1460:Antiochus III the Great 1303:Empires. A plethora of 1219:Byzantine–Sasanian wars 1052:Lucius Verus' campaigns 842:Antigonus II Mattathias 575:Tiberius II Constantine 18:Byzantine–Sassanid Wars 10315:Revolts and civil wars 9839:Conquest of Asia Minor 9036:Börm, Henning (2008). 9017:Börm, Henning (2007). 8529:Dignas–Winter (2007), 8511:* McDonough (2006), 73 8497:Ecclesiastical History 8443:"ARDAŠĪR I i. History" 8156:. Brill. p. 446. 7405:* Whitby (2000), 92–94 7041:Historia Ecclesiastica 6949:, Federico Montinaro: 6942:Procopius and the East 6854:Historia Ecclesiastica 6273:Sicker (2000), 162–163 5519:Mikaberidze, Alexander 5283:. Ashgate Publishing. 5275:Howard-Johnston, James 5191:Grabar, André (1984). 4694:Ball, Warwick (2000). 4679:Historia Ecclesiastica 4608:Ecclesiastical History 4327:inscriptions of Shapur 4285:, the Persian Muslims 4218: 4182: 4163:and the Muslim writer 4132: 4089:Christianity in Persia 3983: 3908: 3160:provincial landholders 3109:Early Muslim conquests 3068: 2942:In 602 the Roman army 2924: 2910: 2902: 2876: 2847:The Persians captured 2819: 2784: 2680:). In 551 AD, general 2647: 2639: 2552: 2546: Sasanian vassals 2386: 2300: 2288: 2264: 2247:A rock-face relief at 2240:raided Roman Armenia. 2166:difficult siege again 2138: 1974: 1841: 1773:prince, triggering an 1721: 1627:, who was besieged at 1611:and forces supporting 1539:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 1522: 1403: 1349:entire Sasanian Empire 1317:early Muslim conquests 1037:Mark Antony's campaign 878:'Amr ibn Imru' al-Qays 868:Meharaspes of Adiabene 858:Tiridates I of Armenia 653:Aristobulus of Chalcis 638:Tigranes VI of Armenia 427:Commanders and leaders 10310:Aksumite–Persian wars 9911:Great Satraps' Revolt 9791:Battle of the Eclipse 9692:Domitian's Dacian War 9611:Liberators' civil war 8813:Stylite, Joshua the. 8705:Corippus. Johannidos. 8671:. Impensis Ed. Weberi 8647:penelope.uchicago.edu 8618:"LIBER DE CAESARIBUS" 8448:Encyclopaedia Iranica 8337:. Verso. p. 42. 7984:Epitoma Rei Militaris 7952:; Sidnell (2006), 273 7372:Treadgold (1997), 222 7292:Treadgold (1997), 209 6508:Encyclopaedia Iranica 6255:* Bivar (1993), 58–65 6237:* Bivar (1993), 57–58 6195:* Bivar (1993), 56–57 6046:www.iranicaonline.org 5588:; Nokandeh, Jebrael. 5342:Lenski, Noel (2002). 5321:Kia, Mehrdad (2016). 5259:. London: UCL Press. 5231:Haldon, John (1997). 4668:Epitoma Rei Militaris 4653:Theophylact Simocatta 4371:Theophylact Simocatta 4208: 4125: 4102:, and the only major 3979: 3921:heavy armored cavalry 3898: 3676:and the signing of a 3526:defeats and captures 3509:Battle of Barbalissos 3043:The assassination of 3042: 2916: 2908: 2882: 2870: 2817: 2782: 2731:Further information: 2690:after fierce fighting 2645: 2632:Cabinet des Medailles 2625: 2540: Sasanian Empire 2512: 2485:siege of Martyropolis 2461:Al-Harith ibn Jabalah 2384: 2294: 2286: 2246: 2163:laying siege to Amida 2133: 2019:Battle of Barbalissos 1949: 1835: 1719: 1645:Liberators' civil war 1529:began in the time of 1512: 1408:James Howard-Johnston 1390: 1383:Historical background 1042:Armenian War of 58–63 721:Al-Harith ibn Jabalah 10445:Geopolitical rivalry 10305:Göktürk–Persian wars 10063:Civil war of 628–632 10031:Civil war of 589–591 9916:Abdashtart I' revolt 9816:Battle of Pasargadae 9764:Ancient Iranian wars 9697:Trajan's Dacian Wars 9382:Roman–Hernician wars 8950:"Vegetius Liber III" 8919:"Humanities.uci.edu" 8722:www.forumromanum.org 8669:"Chronicon paschale" 8282:Encyclopædia Iranica 8075:Elton, Hugh (2018). 8007:. Psychology Press. 7887:Haldon (1997), 49–50 7669:Howard-Johnston 2006 7319:Menander Protector, 6980:Joshua the Stylite, 6909:Joshua the Stylite, 6891:Joshua the Stylite, 6834:Joshua the Stylite, 6291:* Sicker (2000), 163 6161:* Mackay (2004), 150 5656:Sherwin-White, A. N. 5618:Encyclopædia Iranica 5103:Frye, R. N. (1993). 5045:Evans, James Allan. 4612:Chester D. Hartranft 4339:Ammianus Marcellinus 4013:military engineering 3689:War for the Caucasus 3619:raids Roman Armenia. 3507:Roman defeat at the 3294:Roman defeat at the 3204:ultimately recovered 2727:War for the Caucasus 2480:Battle of Callinicum 1373:Eastern Roman Empire 1369:rest of North Africa 1271:, also known as the 944:Benjamin of Tiberias 933:Nehemiah ben Hushiel 903:Gubazes II of Lazica 873:Mirian III of Iberia 711:Gubazes II of Lazica 693:Vakhtang I of Iberia 673:Mushegh I Mamikonian 668:Arshak II of Armenia 648:Polemon II of Pontus 10460:Wars involving Iran 10024:Annexation of Yemen 10004:Against Arab tribes 9874:Invasions of Greece 9596:Roman–Parthian Wars 9387:Roman–Volscian wars 9367:Roman–Etruscan Wars 8104:Current Archaeology 7918:Wheeler (2007), 259 7828:; Speck (1984), 178 7301:Farrokh (2007), 236 6677:Liber de Caesaribus 6651:Liber de Caesaribus 6604:Liber de Caesaribus 6539:Liber de Caesaribus 6397:Campbell (2005), 20 5941:Ward-Perkins, Bryan 5908:Ward-Perkins, Bryan 5788:Suny, Ronald Grigor 4928:10.1093/past/84.1.3 4582:History of the Wars 4478:John of Epiphania. 4425:Liber de Caesaribus 4361:. His continuators 3996:hit-and-run tactics 3981:Roman siege engines 3901:Sasanian cavalryman 3490:advances along the 3454:Roman–Sasanian Wars 3232:Roman–Parthian Wars 3117:Arab–Byzantine wars 2873:Deus adiuta Romanis 2861:Battle of Blarathon 2707:Peter the Patrician 2650:Early in 548, King 2617:Plague of Justinian 2181:Battle of Ctesiphon 1903:Roman–Sasanian wars 1643:during the ensuing 1633:prepared a campaign 1625:Q. Caecilius Bassus 1584:were killed at the 1533:and was revived by 1482:Roman–Parthian wars 1319:, which led to the 1279:and two successive 1074:Roman–Sasanian wars 999:Roman–Parthian Wars 920:Stephen I of Iberia 688:Gubazes I of Lazica 678:Pharas the Herulian 10440:Roman–Persian Wars 10290:Roman–Persian Wars 10172:Seven Great Houses 10068:Fall of the Empire 9969:Fall of the Empire 9921:Fall of the Empire 9702:Roman–Persian Wars 9601:Caesar's civil war 9473:Roman–Seleucid war 9372:Roman-Aequian wars 9344:Ancient Roman wars 8819:www.tertullian.org 8789:"AncientSites.com" 8577:2009-01-29 at the 8558:2009-01-29 at the 8506:2011-05-22 at the 8486:Barnes (1985), 126 8441:(11 August 2011). 8439:Wiesehöfer, Joseph 8277:A. Shapur Shahbazi 8132:Stephanie Pappas, 7791:McBride (2005), 56 7536:2011-06-10 at the 7503:2011-06-10 at the 7459:2011-06-10 at the 7428:2011-06-10 at the 7358:2011-06-21 at the 7353:2 AncientSites.com 7039:Zacharias Rhetor, 6852:Zacharias Rhetor, 6748:The Emperor Julian 6450:2015-04-03 at the 6417:2014-11-05 at the 6392:2015-05-04 at the 6371:2014-11-07 at the 6355:Sicker (2000), 169 6318:Sicker (2000), 167 6264:Sicker (2000), 162 6228: ; Plutarch, 6224:2008-05-11 at the 6190:2008-05-11 at the 6040:electricpulp.com. 5633:Rome and the Arabs 4968:Cornuelle, Chris. 4905:Bury, John Bagnall 4900:. Wellem, 615–646. 4830:. pp. 21–99. 4485:Joshua the Stylite 4442:Chronicon Paschale 4380:Chronicon Paschale 4367:Menander Protector 4219: 4183:imitatio Alexandri 4085:Weh Antiok Khosrow 4005:Dura-Europos (256) 3984: 3927:obtained from the 3919:; the latter were 3909: 3785:Persian defeat at 3606:Christian Persians 3604:'s persecution of 3224:Roman–Persian Wars 3069: 2925: 2922: 620 AD 2911: 2903: 2877: 2828:a Persian province 2820: 2785: 2648: 2640: 2570:Weh Antiok Khosrow 2553: 2443:, reorganized the 2387: 2301: 2289: 2265: 2139: 1975: 1842: 1722: 1649:Battle of Philippi 1605:Caesar's Civil War 1523: 1519:Nisa, Turkmenistan 1404: 1337:Rashidun Caliphate 1273:Roman–Iranian Wars 1269:Roman–Persian Wars 987:Roman–Persian Wars 33:Roman–Persian Wars 10427: 10426: 10266:Military and wars 10087: 10086: 10058:Battle of Dhi Qar 9906:Cadusian campaign 9891:Peloponnesian War 9859:Scythian campaign 9831:Achaemenid Empire 9731: 9730: 9687:Jewish–Roman wars 9559:Sulla's civil war 9553:Bellum Octavianum 9441:Illyro-Roman Wars 9414:Roman–Gallic wars 9392:Roman–Sabine wars 9252:Alemani, Agustí. 9028:978-3-515-09052-0 8990:978-3-515-13363-0 8473:978-1-317-69652-0 8344:978-1-8598-4355-0 8163:978-90-04-25258-5 8049:978-1-78200-848-4 7878:Liska (1998), 170 7345:John of Epiphania 7103:36 (2006), 299ff. 6777:978-0-415-26315-3 6756:978-0-520-03731-1 6746:Browning, Robert 6675:Aurelius Victor, 6649:Aurelius Victor, 6602:Aurelius Victor, 6537:Aurelius Victor, 6017:978-18-4511-406-0 5960:978-0-5213-2591-2 5927:978-0-5213-2591-2 5894:978-1-4051-2153-8 5812:Treadgold, Warren 5683:978-0-5212-5603-2 5668:Rawson, Elizabeth 5594:World Archaeology 5576:978-1-60206-136-1 5151:978-0-5213-0199-2 5016:978-3-515-09052-0 4960:978-0-5213-0199-2 4864:978-0-5213-0200-5 4687:Secondary sources 4593:Sibylline Oracles 4385:George of Pisidia 4383:and the poems of 4297:, and the Syriac 4263:Sibylline Oracles 4215:Kunstmuseum Basel 4155: 4154: 4068:s, respectively. 3842: 3841: 3575:Battle of Samarra 3573:is killed at the 3567:outside Ctesiphon 3496:Battle of Misiche 3484:Battle of Resaena 3471:Alexander Severus 3419:Septimius Severus 3296:Battle of Carrhae 3081:Battle of Nineveh 3017:Patriarch Sergius 2824:Caucasian Iberian 2551: 2550: 2309:Byzantine Emperor 2185:Battle of Samarra 2003:Battle of Misiche 1932:Alexander Severus 1928:Achaemenid Empire 1873:Septimius Severus 1594:battle of Arausio 1586:Battle of Carrhae 1493:Battle of Carrhae 1277:Greco-Roman world 1264: 1263: 952: 951: 716:Tzath I of Lazica 484:Alexander Severus 469:Septimius Severus 103: 102: 16:(Redirected from 10477: 10419: 10418: 10351:Banu al-Munajjim 10189: 10139:List of monarchs 10126: 10125: 10114: 10107: 10100: 10091: 10090: 10080:Military history 10009:Hephthalite Wars 9821:Fall of Ecbatana 9758: 9751: 9744: 9735: 9734: 9653:Marcomannic Wars 9564:Mithridatic Wars 9488:Celtiberian Wars 9377:Roman–Latin wars 9337: 9330: 9323: 9314: 9313: 9309: 9307: 9306: 9290: 9288: 9287: 9271: 9269: 9268: 9258: 9234: 9213: 9192: 9173: 9171: 9170: 9151: 9145: 9137: 9128: 9107: 9086: 9065: 9032: 9013: 8994: 8965: 8964: 8962: 8960: 8946: 8940: 8939: 8937: 8936: 8930: 8924:. Archived from 8923: 8915: 8909: 8904: 8898: 8897: 8896:on May 22, 2011. 8892:. Archived from 8886: 8880: 8879: 8877: 8875: 8861: 8855: 8854: 8852: 8850: 8836: 8830: 8829: 8827: 8825: 8810: 8804: 8803: 8801: 8800: 8791:. Archived from 8785: 8779: 8778: 8776: 8774: 8765:. Archived from 8754: 8748: 8747: 8741: 8733: 8731: 8729: 8714: 8708: 8707: 8702: 8700: 8687: 8681: 8680: 8678: 8676: 8664: 8658: 8657: 8655: 8653: 8639: 8633: 8632: 8630: 8628: 8614: 8608: 8605: 8599: 8598:Boyd (1999), 160 8596: 8590: 8587: 8581: 8568: 8562: 8549: 8543: 8540: 8534: 8527: 8521: 8518: 8512: 8493: 8487: 8484: 8478: 8477: 8459: 8453: 8452: 8435: 8429: 8428: 8408: 8402: 8401: 8382: 8376: 8373: 8367: 8355: 8349: 8348: 8330: 8324: 8323: 8321: 8319: 8296: 8290: 8274: 8268: 8265: 8259: 8256: 8250: 8249:Frye (1993), 139 8247: 8238: 8232: 8226: 8225:Levi (1994), 192 8216: 8210: 8209: 8192:(3–4): 369–370. 8183: 8174: 8168: 8167: 8147: 8141: 8130: 8124: 8115:Samir S. Patel, 8113: 8107: 8097: 8091: 8090: 8072: 8063: 8060: 8054: 8053: 8032: 8026: 8025: 8023: 8021: 7998: 7992: 7980: 7974: 7968: 7962: 7959: 7953: 7946: 7940: 7937: 7931: 7930:Frye (2005), 473 7928: 7919: 7916: 7907: 7903: 7897: 7894: 7888: 7885: 7879: 7876: 7870: 7867: 7861: 7854: 7848: 7845: 7839: 7835: 7829: 7822: 7816: 7807: 7801: 7798: 7792: 7783: 7777: 7768: 7762: 7753: 7747: 7738: 7732: 7723: 7717: 7708: 7702: 7699: 7693: 7690: 7684: 7678: 7672: 7666: 7660: 7654: 7648: 7637: 7631: 7628: 7622: 7619: 7613: 7610: 7604: 7601: 7595: 7592: 7586: 7577: 7571: 7562: 7556: 7555:Foss (1975), 722 7553: 7547: 7525:Theophylact, V, 7523: 7517: 7514: 7508: 7494: 7488: 7485:Mikaberidze 2015 7482: 7476: 7470: 7464: 7450: 7444: 7441: 7435: 7415: 7406: 7397: 7391: 7388: 7382: 7379: 7373: 7370: 7364: 7342: 7336: 7330: 7324: 7317: 7311: 7308: 7302: 7299: 7293: 7290: 7284: 7281: 7275: 7272: 7266: 7263: 7257: 7244: 7238: 7231: 7225: 7216: 7210: 7198: 7192: 7189: 7180: 7168: 7162: 7150: 7144: 7132: 7126: 7119: 7113: 7110: 7104: 7097: 7091: 7088: 7082: 7079: 7073: 7070: 7064: 7061: 7055: 7052: 7046: 7037: 7031: 7028: 7022: 7019: 7013: 7010: 7004: 6995: 6989: 6978: 6972: 6960: 6954: 6937: 6931: 6928: 6919: 6907: 6901: 6889: 6883: 6874: 6868: 6865: 6859: 6850: 6844: 6832: 6826: 6817: 6811: 6804: 6798: 6797:Frye (1968), 141 6795: 6789: 6788:Frye (1993), 138 6786: 6780: 6765: 6759: 6744: 6738: 6737:Frye (1993), 137 6735: 6729: 6723: 6717: 6714: 6708: 6702: 6696: 6673: 6667: 6647: 6641: 6638: 6632: 6629: 6623: 6600: 6594: 6591: 6585: 6569: 6563: 6560: 6554: 6535: 6529: 6528:Frye (1968), 125 6526: 6520: 6519: 6517: 6515: 6498: 6492: 6491: 6471: 6465: 6462: 6456: 6437: 6431: 6404: 6398: 6383: 6377: 6362: 6356: 6353: 6347: 6343: 6337: 6325: 6319: 6316: 6310: 6298: 6292: 6280: 6274: 6271: 6265: 6262: 6256: 6244: 6238: 6211: 6205: 6204:Bivar (1993), 57 6202: 6196: 6177: 6171: 6170:Bivar (1993), 56 6168: 6162: 6150: 6144: 6141: 6135: 6132:Bivar (1993), 46 6130: 6124: 6112: 6106: 6099: 6090: 6084: 6078: 6072: 6066: 6063: 6057: 6056: 6054: 6052: 6037: 6028: 6027: 6025: 6024: 6001: 5985: 5964: 5931: 5898: 5877: 5856: 5835: 5807: 5783: 5774: 5772: 5771: 5765: 5758: 5748: 5727: 5706: 5687: 5651: 5626: 5621:. Archived from 5607: 5605: 5604: 5580: 5559: 5538: 5514: 5493: 5472: 5451: 5447:978-1-13905393-8 5426: 5405: 5368: 5347: 5338: 5317: 5294: 5270: 5246: 5227: 5206: 5187: 5175: 5164: 5155: 5122: 5099: 5078: 5076: 5075: 5057: 5055: 5054: 5041: 5020: 4999: 4980: 4978: 4977: 4964: 4931: 4920:Past and Present 4914: 4889: 4868: 4841: 4818:Yarshater, Ehsan 4808: 4791:(106): 287–299. 4775: 4756: 4711: 4675:Zacharias Rhetor 4625: 4570:. Translated by 4560: 4549:. Translated by 4539: 4528:. Translated by 4518: 4322:Augustan History 4247:Greek historians 4185: 4160:Letter of Tansar 4134: 4133: 4077:Battle of Edessa 4001:chemical weapons 3854:George Rawlinson 3834: 3827: 3820: 3735:is assassinated. 3653:but defeated at 3545:sacks Ctesiphon. 3519: 3512: 3404: 3377: 3299: 3280: 3272:Dispute between 3261:southern Armenia 3226: 3220: 3214: 3213: 3143: 3129: 2923: 2920: 2753:against Persia. 2661:magister militum 2615:hindered by the 2545: 2539: 2531: 2525: 2519: 2518: 2222:first in 421–422 2093:peace settlement 2089:Battle of Satala 2085:far from Carrhae 2075:'s early reign, 2031:Battle of Edessa 1845:War over Armenia 1775:inconclusive war 1657:Quintus Labienus 1547:Southern Armenia 1521:, 2nd century BC 1438:branches in the 1430:. Ruled by the 990: 988: 978: 971: 964: 955: 954: 940: 928: 914: 849: 838: 831:Quintus Labienus 706: 622: 610: 550: 527: 508: 497: 444: 393:Media Atropatene 178:Byzantine Empire 48:(681 years) 47: 39: 38: 30: 29: 21: 10485: 10484: 10480: 10479: 10478: 10476: 10475: 10474: 10430: 10429: 10428: 10423: 10409: 10365: 10324: 10261: 10190: 10181: 10148: 10130: 10128:Sasanian Empire 10120: 10118: 10088: 10083: 10072: 10014:Armenian revolt 9979:Sasanian Empire 9973: 9931:Parthian Empire 9925: 9844:Fall of Babylon 9825: 9801:Battle of Hyrba 9784:Fall of Nineveh 9765: 9762: 9732: 9727: 9716: 9682:Civil war of 69 9670:Boudican revolt 9639: 9632: 9508:Cantabrian Wars 9446:Macedonian Wars 9353: 9346: 9341: 9304: 9302: 9293: 9285: 9283: 9274: 9266: 9264: 9256: 9242: 9237: 9231: 9210: 9189: 9168: 9166: 9139: 9138: 9125: 9104: 9083: 9029: 9010: 8991: 8974: 8972:Further reading 8969: 8968: 8958: 8956: 8948: 8947: 8943: 8934: 8932: 8928: 8921: 8917: 8916: 8912: 8905: 8901: 8888: 8887: 8883: 8873: 8871: 8863: 8862: 8858: 8848: 8846: 8838: 8837: 8833: 8823: 8821: 8811: 8807: 8798: 8796: 8787: 8786: 8782: 8772: 8770: 8755: 8751: 8735: 8734: 8727: 8725: 8716: 8715: 8711: 8698: 8696: 8688: 8684: 8674: 8672: 8665: 8661: 8651: 8649: 8641: 8640: 8636: 8626: 8624: 8616: 8615: 8611: 8606: 8602: 8597: 8593: 8588: 8584: 8579:Wayback Machine 8569: 8565: 8560:Wayback Machine 8550: 8546: 8541: 8537: 8528: 8524: 8519: 8515: 8510: 8508:Wayback Machine 8494: 8490: 8485: 8481: 8474: 8460: 8456: 8436: 8432: 8425: 8409: 8405: 8398: 8384: 8383: 8379: 8374: 8370: 8365: 8356: 8352: 8345: 8331: 8327: 8317: 8315: 8313: 8297: 8293: 8275: 8271: 8266: 8262: 8257: 8253: 8248: 8241: 8233: 8229: 8217: 8213: 8181: 8175: 8171: 8164: 8148: 8144: 8131: 8127: 8114: 8110: 8098: 8094: 8087: 8073: 8066: 8061: 8057: 8050: 8033: 8029: 8019: 8017: 8015: 7999: 7995: 7990: 7982:Vegetius, III, 7981: 7977: 7969: 7965: 7960: 7956: 7947: 7943: 7938: 7934: 7929: 7922: 7917: 7910: 7904: 7900: 7895: 7891: 7886: 7882: 7877: 7873: 7868: 7864: 7855: 7851: 7846: 7842: 7836: 7832: 7823: 7819: 7814: 7808: 7804: 7799: 7795: 7790: 7784: 7780: 7775: 7769: 7765: 7760: 7754: 7750: 7745: 7739: 7735: 7730: 7724: 7720: 7715: 7709: 7705: 7700: 7696: 7691: 7687: 7679: 7675: 7667: 7663: 7655: 7651: 7638: 7634: 7629: 7625: 7620: 7616: 7611: 7607: 7602: 7598: 7593: 7589: 7584: 7578: 7574: 7569: 7563: 7559: 7554: 7550: 7545: 7538:Wayback Machine 7524: 7520: 7515: 7511: 7505:Wayback Machine 7495: 7491: 7483: 7479: 7471: 7467: 7461:Wayback Machine 7451: 7447: 7442: 7438: 7433: 7430:Wayback Machine 7416: 7409: 7404: 7398: 7394: 7389: 7385: 7380: 7376: 7371: 7367: 7360:Wayback Machine 7343: 7339: 7331: 7327: 7318: 7314: 7309: 7305: 7300: 7296: 7291: 7287: 7282: 7278: 7273: 7269: 7264: 7260: 7251: 7245: 7241: 7232: 7228: 7223: 7217: 7213: 7199: 7195: 7190: 7183: 7169: 7165: 7151: 7147: 7133: 7129: 7120: 7116: 7111: 7107: 7098: 7094: 7089: 7085: 7080: 7076: 7071: 7067: 7062: 7058: 7053: 7049: 7044: 7038: 7034: 7029: 7025: 7020: 7016: 7011: 7007: 7002: 6996: 6992: 6979: 6975: 6961: 6957: 6938: 6934: 6929: 6922: 6917: 6908: 6904: 6899: 6890: 6886: 6881: 6875: 6871: 6866: 6862: 6857: 6851: 6847: 6842: 6833: 6829: 6824: 6818: 6814: 6805: 6801: 6796: 6792: 6787: 6783: 6766: 6762: 6745: 6741: 6736: 6732: 6724: 6720: 6715: 6711: 6703: 6699: 6674: 6670: 6665: 6648: 6644: 6639: 6635: 6630: 6626: 6601: 6597: 6592: 6588: 6583: 6570: 6566: 6561: 6557: 6536: 6532: 6527: 6523: 6513: 6511: 6499: 6495: 6476:Iranica Antiqua 6472: 6468: 6463: 6459: 6454: 6452:Wayback Machine 6438: 6434: 6429: 6421:; Cassius Dio, 6419:Wayback Machine 6405: 6401: 6396: 6394:Wayback Machine 6384: 6380: 6375: 6373:Wayback Machine 6363: 6359: 6354: 6350: 6344: 6340: 6335: 6326: 6322: 6317: 6313: 6308: 6299: 6295: 6290: 6281: 6277: 6272: 6268: 6263: 6259: 6254: 6245: 6241: 6236: 6226:Wayback Machine 6212: 6208: 6203: 6199: 6194: 6192:Wayback Machine 6178: 6174: 6169: 6165: 6160: 6151: 6147: 6142: 6138: 6133: 6131: 6127: 6122: 6113: 6109: 6100: 6093: 6085: 6081: 6077:, p. liii. 6073: 6069: 6064: 6060: 6050: 6048: 6038: 6031: 6022: 6020: 6018: 6002: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5982: 5961: 5945:Whitby, Michael 5937:Cameron, Averil 5928: 5912:Whitby, Michael 5904:Cameron, Averil 5895: 5874: 5853: 5832: 5804: 5769: 5767: 5763: 5756: 5745: 5724: 5703: 5684: 5664:Lintott, Andrew 5648: 5602: 5600: 5586:Wilkinson, Tony 5577: 5569:. Cosimo, Inc. 5556: 5535: 5511: 5490: 5469: 5448: 5423: 5365: 5335: 5314: 5291: 5267: 5243: 5224: 5203: 5184: 5152: 5132:Cameron, Averil 5128:Bowman, Alan K. 5119: 5073: 5071: 5060: 5052: 5050: 5038: 5017: 4996: 4975: 4973: 4972:. Thomas Harlan 4961: 4941:Cameron, Averil 4937:Bowman, Alan K. 4886: 4865: 4847:Cameron, Averil 4838: 4772: 4708: 4689: 4684: 4618:and Henry Wace. 4598:Milton S. Terry 4421:Aurelius Victor 4406: 4404:Primary sources 4401: 4293:, the Armenian 4203: 4116: 4009:Petra (550–551) 3943:, and Valerian 3887:par excellence. 3870:Iranian plateau 3838: 3703:Restoration of 3702: 3692: 3659:Perpetual Peace 3506: 3474: 3462: 3448: 3428: 3407:Avidius Cassius 3402: 3372: 3340:Roman standards 3293: 3271: 3255:contacts, when 3222: 3221:Timeline of the 3218: 3217: 3212: 3155: 3154: 3153: 3152: 3151: 3144: 3135: 3134: 3133: 3130: 3119: 3105: 3059:poems are from 2940: 2930: 2921: 2735: 2729: 2608:besieged Edessa 2547: 2543: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2507: 2501: 2489:Perpetual Peace 2401:, but Justin's 2393:adopt his son, 2379: 2373: 2281: 2275: 2270: 2261:Philip the Arab 2052:In 275 and 282 1967:Philip the Arab 1920: 1912:Main articles: 1910: 1905: 1869:Antonine Plague 1857:Avidius Cassius 1853:Statius Priscus 1822:status quo ante 1740: 1724:Main articles: 1714: 1673:Roman civil war 1507: 1491:Main articles: 1489: 1484: 1432:Arsacid dynasty 1412:Seleucid Empire 1400:Seleucid Empire 1385: 1341:Rashidun armies 1305:vassal kingdoms 1285:Parthian Empire 1281:Iranian empires 1265: 1260: 991: 986: 984: 982: 948: 924: 827: 826: 821: 735: 702: 600: 599: 594: 546: 523: 493: 440: 422: 324: 323: 316: 198: 197: 187:Sasanian Empire 185: 176: 167:Sasanian Empire 165: 156: 147:Parthian Empire 145: 136: 127:Parthian Empire 125: 116: 91: 65:Southern Levant 45: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10483: 10473: 10472: 10467: 10462: 10457: 10452: 10447: 10442: 10425: 10424: 10414: 10411: 10410: 10408: 10407: 10394: 10389: 10384: 10379: 10373: 10371: 10367: 10366: 10364: 10363: 10358: 10353: 10348: 10343: 10338: 10332: 10330: 10326: 10325: 10323: 10322: 10317: 10312: 10307: 10302: 10297: 10292: 10287: 10286: 10285: 10280: 10269: 10267: 10263: 10262: 10260: 10259: 10254: 10249: 10244: 10239: 10234: 10229: 10224: 10219: 10214: 10209: 10204: 10198: 10196: 10192: 10191: 10184: 10182: 10180: 10179: 10174: 10169: 10168: 10167: 10160:House of Sasan 10156: 10154: 10150: 10149: 10147: 10146: 10141: 10135: 10132: 10131: 10117: 10116: 10109: 10102: 10094: 10085: 10084: 10077: 10074: 10073: 10071: 10070: 10065: 10060: 10055: 10054: 10053: 10048: 10043: 10033: 10028: 10027: 10026: 10016: 10011: 10006: 10001: 9996: 9995: 9994: 9983: 9981: 9975: 9974: 9972: 9971: 9966: 9961: 9956: 9951: 9946: 9941: 9935: 9933: 9927: 9926: 9924: 9923: 9918: 9913: 9908: 9903: 9901:Corinthian War 9898: 9893: 9888: 9887: 9886: 9881: 9871: 9866: 9861: 9856: 9851: 9846: 9841: 9835: 9833: 9827: 9826: 9824: 9823: 9818: 9813: 9808: 9803: 9798: 9793: 9788: 9787: 9786: 9775: 9773: 9767: 9766: 9761: 9760: 9753: 9746: 9738: 9729: 9728: 9721: 9718: 9717: 9715: 9714: 9709: 9704: 9699: 9694: 9689: 9684: 9679: 9674: 9673: 9672: 9662: 9661: 9660: 9655: 9644: 9642: 9634: 9633: 9631: 9630: 9625: 9620: 9617:Bellum Siculum 9613: 9608: 9603: 9598: 9593: 9588: 9583: 9582: 9581: 9576: 9571: 9561: 9556: 9549: 9548: 9547: 9542: 9537: 9527: 9522: 9520:Jugurthine War 9517: 9512: 9511: 9510: 9505: 9500: 9495: 9493:Lusitanian War 9490: 9480: 9475: 9470: 9469: 9468: 9463: 9458: 9453: 9443: 9438: 9437: 9436: 9431: 9426: 9416: 9411: 9410: 9409: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9389: 9384: 9379: 9374: 9369: 9358: 9356: 9354:Roman Republic 9348: 9347: 9340: 9339: 9332: 9325: 9317: 9311: 9310: 9291: 9272: 9261:Ēran ud Anērān 9249: 9241: 9240:External links 9238: 9236: 9235: 9229: 9214: 9208: 9193: 9187: 9174: 9152: 9129: 9123: 9108: 9102: 9087: 9081: 9066: 9033: 9027: 9014: 9008: 8995: 8989: 8975: 8973: 8970: 8967: 8966: 8941: 8910: 8899: 8890:"Freewebs.com" 8881: 8856: 8831: 8805: 8780: 8763:www.livius.org 8749: 8709: 8682: 8659: 8634: 8609: 8600: 8591: 8582: 8572:Historiography 8563: 8553:Historiography 8544: 8535: 8522: 8513: 8488: 8479: 8472: 8454: 8430: 8423: 8403: 8396: 8377: 8368: 8350: 8343: 8325: 8311: 8291: 8269: 8260: 8251: 8239: 8227: 8211: 8169: 8162: 8142: 8125: 8108: 8092: 8085: 8064: 8055: 8048: 8036:Farrokh, Kaveh 8027: 8013: 7993: 7975: 7963: 7954: 7941: 7932: 7920: 7908: 7898: 7889: 7880: 7871: 7862: 7849: 7840: 7830: 7817: 7802: 7793: 7778: 7763: 7748: 7733: 7729:, 304.25–306.7 7718: 7714:, 303–304, 307 7703: 7694: 7685: 7673: 7661: 7659:, p. 223. 7649: 7632: 7623: 7614: 7605: 7596: 7587: 7572: 7557: 7548: 7518: 7509: 7489: 7487:, p. 529. 7477: 7465: 7445: 7436: 7407: 7392: 7383: 7374: 7365: 7337: 7325: 7312: 7303: 7294: 7285: 7276: 7267: 7258: 7239: 7226: 7211: 7209: 7208: 7193: 7181: 7179: 7178: 7163: 7161: 7160: 7156:, II.21.30–32 7145: 7143: 7142: 7138:, II.20.17–19 7127: 7114: 7105: 7092: 7083: 7074: 7065: 7056: 7047: 7032: 7023: 7014: 7005: 6990: 6988: 6987: 6973: 6971: 6970: 6955: 6932: 6920: 6902: 6884: 6869: 6860: 6845: 6827: 6812: 6799: 6790: 6781: 6760: 6739: 6730: 6728:, p. 423. 6718: 6709: 6707:, p. 162. 6697: 6695: 6694: 6668: 6642: 6633: 6624: 6622: 6621: 6595: 6586: 6564: 6555: 6553: 6552: 6530: 6521: 6493: 6466: 6457: 6432: 6399: 6378: 6357: 6348: 6338: 6320: 6311: 6293: 6275: 6266: 6257: 6239: 6206: 6197: 6172: 6163: 6145: 6136: 6125: 6107: 6091: 6089:, p. 137. 6079: 6067: 6058: 6029: 6016: 6010:. I.B.Tauris. 5995: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5986: 5980: 5965: 5959: 5932: 5926: 5899: 5893: 5878: 5872: 5857: 5851: 5836: 5830: 5808: 5802: 5784: 5775: 5749: 5743: 5728: 5722: 5707: 5701: 5688: 5682: 5652: 5646: 5638:Dumbarton Oaks 5627: 5625:on 2009-01-29. 5608: 5581: 5575: 5560: 5554: 5539: 5534:978-1442241466 5533: 5515: 5509: 5494: 5488: 5473: 5467: 5452: 5446: 5432:Fouracre, Paul 5427: 5421: 5406: 5386:10.2307/300283 5369: 5363: 5348: 5339: 5334:978-1610693912 5333: 5318: 5312: 5295: 5289: 5271: 5265: 5247: 5241: 5228: 5222: 5207: 5201: 5195:. Flammarion. 5188: 5182: 5165: 5156: 5150: 5136:Garnsey, Peter 5123: 5117: 5100: 5079: 5058: 5042: 5036: 5021: 5015: 5000: 4995:978-1134047925 4994: 4981: 4965: 4959: 4945:Garnsey, Peter 4932: 4915: 4901: 4890: 4884: 4869: 4863: 4851:Garnsey, Peter 4842: 4836: 4809: 4776: 4771:978-1526703002 4770: 4757: 4729:10.2307/300656 4712: 4706: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4682: 4672: 4660: 4650: 4636: 4619: 4601: 4589: 4575: 4554: 4533: 4512: 4502: 4492: 4482: 4476: 4466: 4456: 4446: 4438: 4428: 4418: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4400: 4397: 4239:Marius Maximus 4227:historiography 4202: 4201:Historiography 4199: 4190:John F. Haldon 4153: 4152: 4139: 4138: 4115: 4112: 4104:Byzantine navy 4096:Sasanian naval 4024:defense system 3992:siege machines 3950:cataphractarii 3945:in 260 AD 3939:, Mark Antony 3858:grand strategy 3840: 3839: 3837: 3836: 3829: 3822: 3814: 3811: 3810: 3795: 3791: 3790: 3783: 3779: 3778: 3765: 3761: 3760: 3741: 3737: 3736: 3729: 3725: 3724: 3686: 3682: 3681: 3667: 3663: 3662: 3640: 3636: 3635: 3632:Anastasian War 3625: 3621: 3620: 3614: 3610: 3609: 3598: 3594: 3593: 3583: 3579: 3578: 3563: 3559: 3558: 3551: 3547: 3546: 3540: 3536: 3535: 3521: 3514: 3513: 3504: 3500: 3499: 3480: 3476: 3475: 3465: 3463: 3460: 3457: 3456: 3450: 3449: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3423: 3422: 3415: 3411: 3410: 3399: 3395: 3394: 3384: 3380: 3379: 3376:; arrangements 3370: 3366: 3365: 3358: 3354: 3353: 3350: 3344: 3343: 3328: 3324: 3323: 3317: 3313: 3312: 3305: 3301: 3300: 3291: 3287: 3286: 3269: 3265: 3264: 3249: 3245: 3244: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3228: 3227: 3211: 3208: 3145: 3138: 3137: 3136: 3131: 3124: 3123: 3122: 3121: 3120: 3104: 3101: 3085:Nahrawan Canal 3055:c. 1535. 2929: 2926: 2838:Constantinople 2728: 2725: 2549: 2548: 2542: 2536: 2534: 2528: 2522: 2500: 2497: 2478:forces at the 2445:eastern armies 2375:Main article: 2372: 2369: 2316:Theodosiopolis 2279:Anastasian War 2277:Main article: 2274: 2273:Anastasian War 2271: 2269: 2266: 2249:Naqsh-e Rostam 2204:was signed by 2147:Constantius II 1983:captured Hatra 1939:, Nisibis and 1909: 1906: 1904: 1901: 1810:Parthamaspates 1713: 1710: 1535:Mithridates II 1488: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1384: 1381: 1289:Roman Republic 1262: 1261: 1259: 1258: 1256:War of 602–628 1253: 1251:War of 572–591 1248: 1243: 1238: 1236:Anastasian War 1233: 1228: 1226:War of 421–422 1215: 1214: 1209: 1208: 1207: 1202: 1197: 1192: 1187: 1177: 1176: 1175: 1170: 1165: 1155: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1138:Caesarea (260) 1135: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1115: 1110: 1109: 1108: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1088: 1070: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1033: 1032: 1027: 1022: 1020:Cilician Gates 1012: 1007: 996: 993: 992: 981: 980: 973: 966: 958: 950: 949: 947: 946: 941: 930: 917: 905: 900: 895: 890: 885: 880: 875: 870: 865: 860: 855: 850: 839: 825:Clients/allies 824: 823: 822: 820: 819: 814: 809: 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 779: 774: 769: 764: 759: 754: 749: 744: 738: 736: 734: 733: 728: 723: 718: 713: 708: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 655: 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 613: 598:Clients/allies 597: 596: 595: 593: 592: 587: 582: 577: 572: 567: 562: 557: 552: 539: 537:Constantius II 534: 529: 516: 511: 499: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 432: 429: 428: 424: 423: 421: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 345: 340: 335: 330: 322:Clients/allies 321: 320: 319: 317: 315: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 274: 269: 264: 259: 254: 249: 244: 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 196:Clients/allies 195: 194: 193: 190: 189: 180: 170: 169: 160: 150: 149: 140: 130: 129: 120: 118:Roman Republic 110: 109: 105: 104: 101: 100: 97: 93: 92: 56: 54: 50: 49: 46:54 BC – 628 AD 43: 35: 34: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10482: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10461: 10458: 10456: 10453: 10451: 10448: 10446: 10443: 10441: 10438: 10437: 10435: 10422: 10412: 10406: 10405: 10400: 10399: 10395: 10393: 10390: 10388: 10385: 10383: 10380: 10378: 10375: 10374: 10372: 10368: 10362: 10359: 10357: 10354: 10352: 10349: 10347: 10344: 10342: 10339: 10337: 10334: 10333: 10331: 10327: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10306: 10303: 10301: 10298: 10296: 10293: 10291: 10288: 10284: 10283:Defense lines 10281: 10279: 10276: 10275: 10274: 10271: 10270: 10268: 10264: 10258: 10255: 10253: 10250: 10248: 10245: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10228: 10225: 10223: 10220: 10218: 10215: 10213: 10210: 10208: 10205: 10203: 10200: 10199: 10197: 10193: 10188: 10178: 10175: 10173: 10170: 10166: 10163: 10162: 10161: 10158: 10157: 10155: 10151: 10145: 10142: 10140: 10137: 10136: 10133: 10129: 10124: 10115: 10110: 10108: 10103: 10101: 10096: 10095: 10092: 10082: 10081: 10075: 10069: 10066: 10064: 10061: 10059: 10056: 10052: 10049: 10047: 10044: 10042: 10039: 10038: 10037: 10034: 10032: 10029: 10025: 10022: 10021: 10020: 10019:Aksumite Wars 10017: 10015: 10012: 10010: 10007: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9997: 9993: 9990: 9989: 9988: 9985: 9984: 9982: 9980: 9976: 9970: 9967: 9965: 9962: 9960: 9957: 9955: 9954:Scythian Wars 9952: 9950: 9947: 9945: 9944:Seleucid Wars 9942: 9940: 9937: 9936: 9934: 9932: 9928: 9922: 9919: 9917: 9914: 9912: 9909: 9907: 9904: 9902: 9899: 9897: 9894: 9892: 9889: 9885: 9882: 9880: 9877: 9876: 9875: 9872: 9870: 9869:Ionian Revolt 9867: 9865: 9862: 9860: 9857: 9855: 9852: 9850: 9847: 9845: 9842: 9840: 9837: 9836: 9834: 9832: 9828: 9822: 9819: 9817: 9814: 9812: 9809: 9807: 9804: 9802: 9799: 9797: 9794: 9792: 9789: 9785: 9782: 9781: 9780: 9777: 9776: 9774: 9772: 9768: 9759: 9754: 9752: 9747: 9745: 9740: 9739: 9736: 9726: 9725: 9719: 9713: 9710: 9708: 9705: 9703: 9700: 9698: 9695: 9693: 9690: 9688: 9685: 9683: 9680: 9678: 9675: 9671: 9668: 9667: 9666: 9663: 9659: 9656: 9654: 9651: 9650: 9649: 9648:Germanic wars 9646: 9645: 9643: 9641: 9635: 9629: 9628:War of Actium 9626: 9624: 9621: 9619: 9618: 9614: 9612: 9609: 9607: 9606:War of Mutina 9604: 9602: 9599: 9597: 9594: 9592: 9589: 9587: 9584: 9580: 9577: 9575: 9572: 9570: 9567: 9566: 9565: 9562: 9560: 9557: 9555: 9554: 9550: 9546: 9543: 9541: 9538: 9536: 9533: 9532: 9531: 9528: 9526: 9523: 9521: 9518: 9516: 9513: 9509: 9506: 9504: 9503:Sertorian War 9501: 9499: 9498:Numantine War 9496: 9494: 9491: 9489: 9486: 9485: 9484: 9481: 9479: 9476: 9474: 9471: 9467: 9464: 9462: 9459: 9457: 9454: 9452: 9449: 9448: 9447: 9444: 9442: 9439: 9435: 9432: 9430: 9427: 9425: 9422: 9421: 9420: 9417: 9415: 9412: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9390: 9388: 9385: 9383: 9380: 9378: 9375: 9373: 9370: 9368: 9365: 9364: 9363: 9360: 9359: 9357: 9355: 9349: 9345: 9338: 9333: 9331: 9326: 9324: 9319: 9318: 9315: 9300: 9296: 9292: 9281: 9277: 9273: 9262: 9255: 9250: 9247: 9244: 9243: 9232: 9230:0-19-822945-3 9226: 9222: 9221: 9215: 9211: 9209:0-415-10058-5 9205: 9201: 9200: 9194: 9190: 9188:1-4051-0857-6 9184: 9180: 9175: 9165:on 2011-06-04 9164: 9160: 9159: 9153: 9149: 9143: 9135: 9130: 9126: 9124:0-521-81459-6 9120: 9116: 9115: 9109: 9105: 9103:0-521-30200-5 9099: 9095: 9094: 9088: 9084: 9082:0-905205-93-6 9078: 9074: 9073: 9067: 9063: 9059: 9055: 9051: 9047: 9044:(in German). 9043: 9039: 9034: 9030: 9024: 9020: 9015: 9011: 9009:0-905205-83-9 9005: 9001: 8996: 8992: 8986: 8982: 8977: 8976: 8955: 8951: 8945: 8931:on 2011-06-10 8927: 8920: 8914: 8908: 8903: 8895: 8891: 8885: 8870: 8866: 8860: 8845: 8841: 8835: 8820: 8816: 8809: 8795:on 2011-06-21 8794: 8790: 8784: 8769:on 4 May 2015 8768: 8764: 8760: 8753: 8745: 8739: 8723: 8719: 8713: 8706: 8695: 8694: 8686: 8670: 8663: 8648: 8644: 8638: 8623: 8619: 8613: 8604: 8595: 8586: 8580: 8576: 8573: 8567: 8561: 8557: 8554: 8548: 8539: 8532: 8526: 8517: 8509: 8505: 8502: 8498: 8492: 8483: 8475: 8469: 8465: 8458: 8450: 8449: 8444: 8440: 8434: 8426: 8424:9780521200929 8420: 8416: 8415: 8407: 8399: 8397:9789004359932 8393: 8389: 8388: 8381: 8372: 8364: 8360: 8359:Roman History 8357:Cassius Dio, 8354: 8346: 8340: 8336: 8329: 8314: 8312:9780860789925 8308: 8304: 8303: 8295: 8288: 8284: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8264: 8255: 8246: 8244: 8237: 8231: 8224: 8223:Science Daily 8220: 8215: 8207: 8203: 8199: 8195: 8191: 8187: 8180: 8173: 8165: 8159: 8155: 8154: 8146: 8139: 8135: 8129: 8122: 8118: 8112: 8105: 8101: 8096: 8088: 8086:9780521899314 8082: 8078: 8071: 8069: 8059: 8051: 8045: 8041: 8037: 8031: 8016: 8014:9781857284959 8010: 8006: 8005: 7997: 7989: 7985: 7979: 7972: 7967: 7958: 7951: 7945: 7936: 7927: 7925: 7915: 7913: 7902: 7893: 7884: 7875: 7866: 7859: 7853: 7844: 7834: 7827: 7821: 7812: 7806: 7797: 7788: 7782: 7773: 7767: 7758: 7752: 7743: 7737: 7728: 7722: 7713: 7707: 7698: 7689: 7683:, p. 725 7682: 7677: 7671:, p. 33. 7670: 7665: 7658: 7653: 7646: 7642: 7636: 7627: 7618: 7609: 7600: 7591: 7582: 7576: 7567: 7561: 7552: 7543: 7539: 7535: 7532: 7528: 7522: 7513: 7506: 7502: 7499: 7493: 7486: 7481: 7475:, p. 25. 7474: 7469: 7462: 7458: 7455: 7449: 7440: 7431: 7427: 7424: 7420: 7417:Theophylact, 7414: 7412: 7402: 7396: 7387: 7378: 7369: 7361: 7357: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7341: 7335: 7329: 7322: 7316: 7307: 7298: 7289: 7280: 7271: 7262: 7255: 7249: 7243: 7236: 7230: 7221: 7215: 7206: 7205: 7203: 7197: 7188: 7186: 7176: 7175: 7173: 7167: 7158: 7157: 7155: 7149: 7140: 7139: 7137: 7131: 7124: 7118: 7109: 7102: 7096: 7087: 7078: 7069: 7060: 7051: 7042: 7036: 7027: 7018: 7009: 7000: 6994: 6985: 6984: 6983: 6977: 6968: 6967: 6965: 6959: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6943: 6936: 6927: 6925: 6916: 6912: 6906: 6898: 6894: 6888: 6879: 6873: 6864: 6855: 6849: 6841: 6837: 6831: 6822: 6816: 6809: 6806:Bury (1923), 6803: 6794: 6785: 6778: 6774: 6770: 6767:Wacher, J.S. 6764: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6743: 6734: 6727: 6726:Blockley 1997 6722: 6713: 6706: 6701: 6692: 6691: 6690: 6686: 6683:; Eutropius, 6682: 6678: 6672: 6664: 6660: 6657:; Eutropius, 6656: 6652: 6646: 6637: 6628: 6619: 6618: 6617: 6613: 6610:; Eutropius, 6609: 6605: 6599: 6590: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6568: 6559: 6550: 6549: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6534: 6525: 6510: 6509: 6504: 6497: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6470: 6461: 6453: 6449: 6446: 6442: 6441:Roman History 6436: 6428: 6424: 6423:Roman History 6420: 6416: 6413: 6409: 6408:Roman History 6403: 6395: 6391: 6388: 6382: 6374: 6370: 6367: 6361: 6352: 6342: 6334: 6330: 6329:Roman History 6327:Cassius Dio, 6324: 6315: 6307: 6303: 6297: 6289: 6285: 6279: 6270: 6261: 6253: 6249: 6248:Roman History 6246:Cassius Dio, 6243: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6220: 6216: 6210: 6201: 6193: 6189: 6186: 6182: 6176: 6167: 6159: 6155: 6149: 6140: 6129: 6121: 6117: 6111: 6104: 6098: 6096: 6088: 6083: 6076: 6071: 6062: 6047: 6043: 6036: 6034: 6019: 6013: 6009: 6008: 6000: 5996: 5983: 5981:0-415-15403-0 5977: 5974:. Routledge. 5973: 5972: 5966: 5962: 5956: 5952: 5951: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5933: 5929: 5923: 5919: 5918: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5900: 5896: 5890: 5886: 5885: 5879: 5875: 5873:0-389-20577-X 5869: 5865: 5864: 5858: 5854: 5852:0-85115-570-7 5848: 5844: 5843: 5837: 5833: 5831:0-8047-2630-2 5827: 5823: 5819: 5818: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5803:0-253-20915-3 5799: 5795: 5794: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5776: 5766:on 2011-06-10 5762: 5755: 5750: 5746: 5744:0-415-23943-5 5740: 5737:. Routledge. 5736: 5735: 5729: 5725: 5723:1-85285-374-3 5719: 5715: 5714: 5708: 5704: 5702:0-275-96890-1 5698: 5694: 5689: 5685: 5679: 5675: 5674: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5647:0-88402-115-7 5643: 5639: 5635: 5634: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5582: 5578: 5572: 5568: 5567: 5561: 5557: 5555:0-415-10057-7 5551: 5548:. Routledge. 5547: 5546: 5540: 5536: 5530: 5526: 5525: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5510:0-7546-5498-2 5506: 5502: 5501: 5495: 5491: 5489:0-521-80918-5 5485: 5481: 5480: 5474: 5470: 5468:0-521-81746-3 5464: 5460: 5459: 5453: 5449: 5443: 5439: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5424: 5422:0-8476-8680-9 5418: 5414: 5413: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5370: 5366: 5364:1-884964-03-6 5360: 5356: 5355: 5349: 5345: 5340: 5336: 5330: 5326: 5325: 5319: 5315: 5313:90-04-10736-3 5309: 5305: 5301: 5296: 5292: 5290:0-86078-992-6 5286: 5282: 5281: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5266:1-85728-495-X 5262: 5258: 5257: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5242:0-521-31917-X 5238: 5235:. Cambridge. 5234: 5229: 5225: 5223:0-415-14687-9 5219: 5216:. Routledge. 5215: 5214: 5208: 5204: 5202:2-08-081634-9 5198: 5194: 5189: 5185: 5183:0-520-06067-9 5179: 5174: 5173: 5166: 5162: 5157: 5153: 5147: 5143: 5142: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5124: 5120: 5118:0-521-20092-X 5114: 5110: 5106: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5080: 5069: 5068: 5067:Science Daily 5063: 5059: 5048: 5043: 5039: 5037:0-415-00342-3 5033: 5030:. Routledge. 5029: 5028: 5022: 5018: 5012: 5008: 5007: 5001: 4997: 4991: 4988:. Routledge. 4987: 4982: 4971: 4966: 4962: 4956: 4952: 4951: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4916: 4912: 4911: 4906: 4902: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4885:1-884964-33-8 4881: 4877: 4876: 4870: 4866: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4843: 4839: 4837:0-521-20092-X 4833: 4829: 4826:. Cambridge: 4825: 4824: 4819: 4815: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4777: 4773: 4767: 4763: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4713: 4709: 4707:0-415-24357-2 4703: 4700:. Routledge. 4699: 4698: 4692: 4691: 4680: 4676: 4673: 4670: 4669: 4664: 4661: 4658: 4654: 4651: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4637: 4634: 4633: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4617: 4616:Philip Schaff 4613: 4609: 4605: 4602: 4599: 4595: 4594: 4590: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4576: 4573: 4569: 4568: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4552: 4548: 4547: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4531: 4527: 4526: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4510: 4506: 4503: 4500: 4496: 4493: 4490: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4477: 4474: 4470: 4467: 4464: 4460: 4457: 4454: 4450: 4447: 4444: 4443: 4439: 4436: 4435:Roman History 4432: 4429: 4426: 4422: 4419: 4416: 4412: 4409: 4408: 4396: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4381: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4331: 4328: 4324: 4323: 4318: 4317: 4316:Khwaday-Namag 4312: 4311: 4306: 4305: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4275: 4273: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4216: 4212: 4207: 4198: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4184: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4161: 4150: 4146: 4145: 4141: 4140: 4136: 4135: 4131: 4130: 4124: 4121: 4111: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4092: 4090: 4086: 4083:'s people to 4082: 4078: 4074: 4069: 4067: 4066: 4061: 4060: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4030: 4025: 4021: 4016: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4003:, such as in 4002: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3988:siege warfare 3982: 3978: 3974: 3972: 3971: 3966: 3965: 3958: 3957: 3952: 3951: 3946: 3942: 3941:in 36 BC 3938: 3937:in 53 BC 3934: 3930: 3926: 3925:war elephants 3922: 3918: 3914: 3913:horse-archers 3906: 3902: 3897: 3893: 3891: 3890:Proxy warfare 3888: 3884: 3880: 3879:standing army 3874: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3835: 3830: 3828: 3823: 3821: 3816: 3815: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3801:restores the 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3777: 3774: 3770: 3767:Unsuccessful 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3700: 3696: 3695:Bahram Chobin 3690: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3522: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3458: 3455: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3385: 3381: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3297: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3279: 3275: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3240: 3236: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3215: 3207: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3163: 3161: 3149: 3142: 3128: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3100: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3037: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3013: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2982: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2951: 2949: 2945: 2939: 2935: 2915: 2907: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2874: 2869: 2865: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2853:Bahram Chobin 2850: 2845: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2834: 2829: 2825: 2816: 2812: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2781: 2777: 2775: 2771: 2770: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2741:(between the 2740: 2734: 2724: 2722: 2718: 2717: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2676:(present-day 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2662: 2657: 2653: 2644: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2624: 2620: 2618: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2596:John Troglita 2593: 2589: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2562:al-Mundhir IV 2559: 2535: 2521: 2520: 2516: 2511: 2506: 2496: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2464: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2425:Transcaucasus 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2405: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2383: 2378: 2368: 2366: 2361: 2359: 2354: 2350: 2345: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2310: 2306: 2298: 2293: 2285: 2280: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2245: 2241: 2239: 2235: 2234:second in 440 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2197: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2069: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2014: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1919: 1915: 1900: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1887:, who sacked 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1839: 1834: 1830: 1828: 1824: 1823: 1818: 1813: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1794:Jewish revolt 1791: 1787: 1783: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1759: 1758:Artabanus III 1755: 1754: 1749: 1745: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1718: 1709: 1707: 1704:king against 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1609:Julius Caesar 1606: 1601: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1570: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1531:Mithridates I 1528: 1520: 1516: 1511: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1442:, namely the 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1406:According to 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1332: 1329: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1309:buffer states 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1223: 1222: 1221: 1220: 1213: 1210: 1206: 1203: 1201: 1198: 1196: 1193: 1191: 1188: 1186: 1183: 1182: 1181: 1178: 1174: 1171: 1169: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1160: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1148:Carrhae (296) 1146: 1144: 1143:3rd Ctesiphon 1141: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1114: 1113:Nisibis (252) 1111: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1091:Nisibis (235) 1089: 1087: 1084: 1083: 1082: 1079: 1078: 1077: 1076: 1075: 1068: 1065: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1057:2nd Ctesiphon 1055: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1031: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1017: 1016: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1002: 1001: 1000: 994: 989: 979: 974: 972: 967: 965: 960: 959: 956: 945: 942: 939: 934: 931: 929: 927: 921: 918: 915: 909: 906: 904: 901: 899: 896: 894: 891: 889: 886: 884: 881: 879: 876: 874: 871: 869: 866: 864: 861: 859: 856: 854: 851: 848: 843: 840: 837: 832: 829: 828: 818: 815: 813: 810: 808: 805: 803: 800: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 783: 780: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 767:Sinatruces II 765: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 752:Artabanus III 750: 748: 745: 743: 740: 739: 737: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 719: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 705: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 681: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 656: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 623: 617: 614: 611: 605: 602: 601: 591: 588: 586: 583: 581: 578: 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Dewing 4581: 4565: 4544: 4523: 4508: 4498: 4488: 4479: 4472: 4462: 4452: 4440: 4434: 4424: 4414: 4378: 4334: 4332: 4320: 4314: 4308: 4302: 4298: 4295:Agathangelos 4276: 4220: 4180: 4165:Al-Tha'alibi 4158: 4156: 4148: 4142: 4127: 4126: 4117: 4093: 4073:deportations 4070: 4063: 4057: 4053: 4037: 4027: 4017: 3985: 3968: 3961: 3954: 3948: 3931:, but their 3929:Indus Valley 3910: 3905:Taq-e Bostan 3899:Statue of a 3886: 3875: 3843: 3713:Martyropolis 3628:Anastasius I 3617:Yazdegerd II 3590:Theodosius I 3362:Artabanus II 3347: 3311:is defeated. 3278:Phraates III 3251:First Roman- 3238: 3223: 3183:North Africa 3164: 3156: 3070: 3053:Abd al-Samad 3029:Shahraplakan 3014: 2983: 2952: 2941: 2872: 2849:Martyropolis 2846: 2831: 2821: 2786: 2767: 2766:45,000 2736: 2720: 2714: 2699:a new attack 2678:Tsikhisdziri 2659: 2649: 2628:Sasanian art 2611: 2554: 2492: 2465: 2402: 2388: 2362: 2346: 2312:Anastasius I 2302: 2238:Yazdegerd II 2230:Christianity 2218:Hephthalites 2210:Theodosius I 2198: 2140: 2113:Martyropolis 2070: 2051: 2015: 1976: 1921: 1861:Dura-Europos 1849:Vologases IV 1843: 1820: 1814: 1790:Persian Gulf 1779: 1751: 1741: 1686:Syrian Gates 1617:Roman Senate 1602: 1571: 1555:Phraates III 1524: 1405: 1361:the Caucasus 1333: 1325: 1272: 1268: 1266: 1217: 1216: 1190:Maiozamalcha 1128:Dura-Europos 1072: 1071: 997: 985: 925: 802:Yazdegerd II 772:Vologases IV 703: 565:Anastasius I 547: 524: 494: 464:Lucius Verus 441: 182: 173: 162: 158:Roman Empire 153: 142: 138:Roman Empire 133: 122: 113: 108:Belligerents 99:Inconclusive 10346:Baduspanids 10329:Descendants 10295:Arab tribes 10165:Family tree 9638:Wars of the 9586:Gallic Wars 9515:Achaean War 9402:Pyrrhic War 9352:Wars of the 9048:: 327–346. 8361:, LXXV, 3. 8138:LiveScience 8121:Archaeology 7948:Cornuelle, 7858:miaphysites 7403:, 246.11–27 7246:Procopius, 7218:Procopius, 7200:Procopius, 7152:Procopius, 7134:Procopius, 6997:Procopius, 6962:Procopius, 6876:Procopius, 6819:Procopius, 6705:Lenski 2002 6514:25 February 6482:: 461–530. 6331:, LXVIII, 5090:: 721–747. 4572:John Dryden 4551:John Dryden 4530:John Dryden 4431:Cassius Dio 4255:Cassius Dio 4120:Cassius Dio 4114:Assessments 3917:cataphracts 3866:Mesopotamia 3643:Iberian War 3488:Gordian III 2830:ruled by a 2694:Mihr-Mihroe 2664:of Armenia 2588:Sergiopolis 2441:Justinian I 2377:Iberian War 2371:Iberian War 2159:Mesopotamia 2105:Tigranokert 2101:Greater Zab 1995:Gordian III 1963:Gordian III 1771:Cappadocian 1763:Vologases I 1677:Mark Antony 1665:Hyrcanus II 1464:Thermopylae 1424:Mesopotamia 1375:came under 1241:Iberian War 1173:2nd Singara 1163:1st Singara 1118:Barbalissos 1081:Mesopotamia 1030:Mt Gindarus 1025:Amanus Pass 757:Vologases I 663:Sanatruq II 604:Hyrcanus II 489:Gordian III 449:Mark Antony 58:Mesopotamia 10434:Categories 10252:Punishment 10242:Literature 9999:Kushan War 9987:Roman Wars 9964:Roman Wars 9658:Gothic War 9419:Punic Wars 9407:Social War 9305:2008-05-16 9286:2008-05-16 9267:2008-05-06 9169:2017-09-11 8935:2008-04-27 8799:2008-06-08 8570:Shahbazi, 7204:, 28.7–11 7174:, I.68–98 7172:Johannidos 7170:Corripus, 6915:XCIII–XCIV 6856:, VII, 3–4 6439:Herodian, 6406:Herodian, 6152:Plutarch, 6114:Plutarch, 6023:2019-06-09 5770:2008-04-27 5603:2008-05-27 5074:2008-06-03 5053:2007-05-19 4976:2013-09-23 4632:The Annals 4505:Lactantius 4399:References 4375:Theophanes 4335:Res Gestae 4299:Chronicles 4268:Lactantius 4223:Achaemenid 4169:Ardashir I 4042:Diocletian 3964:Sagittarii 3956:clibanarii 3803:True Cross 3755:and enter 3705:Khosrow II 3699:Hormizd IV 3655:Callinicum 3586:Shapur III 3467:Ardashir I 3107:See also: 3093:True Cross 3045:Khosrau II 2975:Shahrbaraz 2957:to attack 2932:See also: 2857:Khosrau II 2809:Hormizd IV 2793:Atropatene 2747:Himyarites 2703:White Huns 2666:Dagistheus 2612:centenaria 2606:. Khosrau 2575:Ostrogoths 2503:See also: 2493:centenaria 2449:Belisarius 2349:investment 2325:investment 2232:, and the 2206:Shapur III 2073:Diocletian 2043:Cappadocia 2035:Odaenathus 1924:Ardashir I 1748:Phraataces 1694:Atropatene 1450:, and the 1367:, and the 1328:tug of war 1231:War of 440 1185:Pirisabora 812:Khosrow II 777:Ardashir I 683:Odaenathus 358:Daylamites 242:Ghassanids 222:Cappadocia 89:Aegean Sea 81:Asia Minor 77:Atropatene 10361:Qarinvand 10232:Glassware 10227:Education 9142:cite book 9062:252458547 8495:Sozomen, 8206:1588-2543 7813:, 317–327 7811:Chronicle 7789:, 315–316 7787:Chronicle 7772:Chronicle 7759:, 308–312 7757:Chronicle 7744:, 306–308 7742:Chronicle 7727:Chronicle 7712:Chronicle 7681:Foss 1975 7641:Nicomedia 7583:, 292–293 7581:Chronicle 7568:, 290–293 7566:Chronicle 7473:Suny 1994 7401:Chronicle 7252:* Evans, 7250:, 28.7–11 7222:, 28.7–11 6966:, I.9.24 6911:Chronicle 6893:Chronicle 6836:Chronicle 6823:, I.7.1–2 6387:10.1–15.9 6300:Tacitus, 6282:Tacitus, 5991:Citations 5402:162863957 5306:. Brill. 4805:0013-8266 4753:162744718 4737:0013-8266 4643:Chronicle 4578:Procopius 4489:Chronicle 4459:Eutropius 4417:. Book 4. 4415:Histories 4359:Procopius 4343:Sozomenus 4287:al-Tabari 4173:Pacorus I 4149:Histories 4100:in 620–23 4059:limitanei 4050:Shapur II 3883:Khosrau I 3807:Jerusalem 3799:Heraclius 3771:–Persian– 3745:Palestine 3670:Lazic War 3492:Euphrates 3437:a new war 3435:launches 3433:Caracalla 3403:(161–163) 3285:boundary. 3283:Euphrates 3148:Caliphate 3103:Aftermath 3097:Jerusalem 3089:Kavadh II 3065:Shahnameh 2986:Palestine 2963:Heraclius 2888:Champlevé 2797:Tamkhusro 2789:Justinian 2755:Justin II 2716:nomismata 2517:'s reign 2515:Justinian 2505:Lazic War 2499:Lazic War 2457:Ghassanid 2447:. In 528 2433:Thannuris 2399:Justinian 2358:Procopius 2331:from the 2143:Shapur II 1999:Ctesiphon 1961:, a dead 1885:Caracalla 1786:Ctesiphon 1767:Tiridates 1681:Ventidius 1679:had sent 1669:Antigonus 1621:Pacorus I 1598:Antigonea 1476:Euphrates 1436:eponymous 1345:conquered 1246:Lazic War 1212:Bagrevand 1195:Ctesiphon 883:Grumbates 817:Bahram VI 792:Shapur II 747:Orodes II 590:Heraclius 570:Justinian 474:Caracalla 403:Pompeians 353:Commagene 227:Commagene 10421:Category 10356:Mikalids 10336:Dabuyids 10222:Dressing 10144:Timeline 9042:Historia 8959:31 March 8874:31 March 8849:31 March 8824:31 March 8773:31 March 8757:Livius. 8738:cite web 8728:31 March 8699:31 March 8675:31 March 8652:31 March 8627:31 March 8575:Archived 8556:Archived 8504:Archived 8318:31 March 8038:(2012). 8020:31 March 7657:Kia 2016 7534:Archived 7501:Archived 7496:Soward, 7457:Archived 7452:Soward, 7426:Archived 7356:Archived 6880:, I.9.24 6448:Archived 6425:, LXXX, 6415:Archived 6390:Archived 6369:Archived 6250:, XLIX, 6222:Archived 6217:, XLII. 6213:Justin, 6188:Archived 6183:, XLII. 6179:Justin, 6075:Kia 2016 6051:31 March 5947:(eds.). 5914:(eds.). 5814:(1997). 5790:(1994). 5670:(eds.). 5521:(2015). 5277:(2006). 5138:(eds.). 4947:(eds.). 4907:(1923). 4853:(eds.). 4663:Vegetius 4562:Plutarch 4541:Plutarch 4520:Plutarch 4469:Herodian 4453:Johannis 4449:Corippus 4411:Agathias 4363:Agathias 4291:Ferdowsi 4279:Agathias 4272:Eusebius 4259:Plutarch 4251:Herodian 4144:Agathias 4065:marzoban 4020:Lakhmids 3962:Equites 3933:infantry 3757:Anatolia 3555:Galerius 3528:Valerian 3524:Shapur I 3441:Macrinus 3336:Tiberius 3332:Augustus 3307:A great 3259:invades 3257:Lucullus 3253:Parthian 3061:Ferdowsi 3051:made by 3021:holy war 2971:Caesarea 2967:Carthage 2842:Solachon 2774:Melitene 2763:Arzanene 2745:and the 2743:Axumites 2739:in Yemen 2453:Lakhmids 2437:Melabasa 2429:Thebetha 2404:quaestor 2391:Justin I 2333:Caucasus 2305:Kavadh I 2257:Valerian 2253:Shapur I 2226:Bahram V 2168:captured 2117:Balalesa 2099:and the 2081:Galerius 2066:Numerian 2054:Aurelian 2027:Valerian 1979:Shapur I 1959:Valerian 1955:Shapur I 1951:Bishapur 1893:Macrinus 1865:smallpox 1827:Adiabene 1798:Seleucia 1753:de facto 1744:Octavian 1706:Octavian 1698:Armenian 1576:general 1551:Tigranes 1545:invaded 1543:Lucullus 1468:Magnesia 1456:Anatolia 1440:Caucasus 1343:swiftly 1301:Sasanian 1287:and the 797:Bahram V 782:Shapur I 762:Osroes I 532:Galerius 502:Valerian 479:Macrinus 418:Xionites 413:Sclaveni 383:Lakhmids 333:Adiabene 123:54–27 BC 114:54–27 BC 53:Location 10382:Economy 10370:Related 10341:Bavands 10212:Coinage 10195:Culture 10153:Dynasty 7838:rival." 7527:History 7419:History 7349:History 7332:Evans, 7321:History 7043:, IX, 2 6689:24–25.1 6663:24–25.1 6581:155–171 6286:, XII. 6154:Crassus 5566:Parthia 5434:(ed.). 4820:(ed.). 4657:History 4649:. 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