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causing the colonial administration to subsidise their activities to make up for budget deficits. The war did not adversely impact their evangelising, and the number of reported baptisms conducted increased from 1,824,000 in 1939 to a cumulative total of 2,214,000 in 1942. Healthcare was provided by a mix of government and corporate physicians, private practitioners, and missionaries. At the outbreak of the war there were 302 doctors working in the Congo. Some medical personnel accompanied the Force
Publique on its foreign deployments, but the vast majority remained in the colony for the conflict's duration. Unlike the neighboring French possessions, the war did not adversely affect the resources of healthcare providers in the Congo. Medical research continued and a new journal was created so that findings could be published while the territory was separated from Belgium.
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living in the Congo. Nevertheless, the war highlighted the precarious nature of the colonial administration, leading
Governor Ryckmans to remark that "the days of colonialism are over" in 1946. A feeling by the Belgian government prevailed that it had incurred a "war debt" to the Congo, and thus more attention was given to the concerns of the indigenous population. In the years after the war, the colonial government underwent extensive reform. Black people were granted significantly more rights and freedoms, leading to the growth of a so-called
535:, the director of Forminière, was widely suspected of maintaining German sympathies. The German government conducted secret negotiations with leaders of Forminière and the Société Générale, and reached deals that allowed them to purchase large quantities of diamonds until 1944. In 1943 Germany paid the Société Générale $ 10.5 million for diamonds. American and British agents ultimately uncovered a wide smuggling network that brought diamonds out of the Congo and to German-occupied Europe by air and sea. According to one American report, Belgian
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representatives of various Belgo-Congolese companies in
Bordeaux informed the ministers of rumours that should Belgium surrender, the United Kingdom would seize control of the Congo. Meanwhile, some circles in occupied Belgium feared that if the Congo aligned itself with the Allies it would be permanently lost as a colony to Belgium. In Brussels, the Germans established a "Kolonial Politisches BĂĽro" that attempted to forge connections with what remained of the Ministry of Colonies.
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to secure
British possessions in the continent, because the Belgian royal family had dynastic links with the Italian royal family. This attitude changed after it became known that Italian aircraft based in occupied Belgium were attacking Britain and when an Italian submarine sank a Belgian cargo ship. A Belgian declaration of war was eventually delivered against Italy on 23 November 1940. Two days later, Ryckmans proclaimed that a state of war existed between Italy and the Congo.
404:(UMHK) rose from 25,000 to 49,000 to cope with the increased demand. The colonial administration enacted ultimately successful policies aimed at increasing the size of the Congo's labour force; the number of wage labourers in the colony grew from 480,000 in 1938 to 800,000 in 1945. In order to increase production for the war effort, the colonial authorities increased the hours and the speed at which workers, both European and African, were expected to work. This led to increasing
412:, which had been banned in the 1930s, was reintroduced to keep up with demand; by 1944, the maximum number of days of forced labour per year was raised to 120 for rural Congolese. Discontent among the white population was also increased by the raising of heavy war taxes, which sometimes reached as high as 40 percent. High taxes and price controls were enforced from 1941, limiting the amount of profit that could be made and curbing
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negotiations at the town's stadium, where they were offered various concessions, including a 30% pay rise. When the workers refused, the
Governor of Katanga, Amour Maron, shot Mpoyi, killing him. The Governor then ordered his soldiers to fire on the other strikers in the stadium. Between 60 and 70 strikers were killed during the protest, although the official estimate was around 30. The miners returned to work on 10 December.
950:("evolved") class. Despite this, the Belgian policy of conscripted labour of 60 days a year from each native Congolese remained in effect until Congolese independence, whereas similar labour levies were abolished in British and French possessions after the war. Several black members of the Force Publique who were veterans of the war served in prominent roles in the army after Congolese independence, including
377:. Business leaders in the colony were disgruntled as well, and boosted production of goods not mentioned in the agreement to sell to the neutral United States at their standard market value. In 1942, after the United States joined the Allies, the Belgian government negotiated a new economic agreement with the United States and United Kingdom. Belgian officials never signed it, but it was
272:, granting de Vleeschauwer the title and conferring on him full legislative and executive power to manage the Congo. The decree also stipulated that in the event the administrator-general was unable to exercise his duties, the responsibility would be passed on to the governor-general. Though granted his own emergency powers in the Congo's colonial charter, Ryckmans interpreted the
741:. The urbanised Congolese generally experienced more financial gain during the war than their rural counterparts, though several workers who had collected large amounts of rubber earned even more money. During the war the Belgian government in exile directed propaganda at the Allied states that created a positive image of its colony in an attempt to legitimise its rule. In
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minus the amount exported to
Germany before the war. Believing that a large volume of diamonds were being smuggled out of the colony, American intelligence officials convinced British agents to inspect the security of the mines. The officer tasked with overseeing the inspection teams concluded that proper security measures were lacking and that Forminière and
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Belgian sovereignty over the Congo would be respected. Pierlot suggested that de
Vleeschauwer should be granted the new title of Administrator-general of the Congo, allowing him to pursue this cause even if the government later collapsed and his ministerial mandate became void. The government agreed to the idea, and on 18 June it passed a
319:"The Belgian Congo has entered the service of the Allies. Its economic doctrine and practices have been rapidly adapted to the new conditions and, whilst everything is being done to maintain the potentiality of the Congo wealth, there is no hesitation whatsoever when it comes to sacrificing any riches in favor of the war effort."
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comparative prosperity during the conflict led to a wave of post-war immigration from
Belgium, bringing the white population to 100,000 by 1950, as well as a period of industrialisation that continued throughout the 1950s. The role played by Congolese uranium during the hostilities caused the country to be of interest to the
572:, numbering over 40,000 men at its peak in 1943. Like other colonial armies of the time, the Force Publique was racially segregated; it was led by 280 white officers and NCOs, but otherwise comprised indigenous black Africans. The Force Publique had never received the more modern equipment supplied to the
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While willing to mobilise the Congo's economic resources for the Allied war effort, the
Belgian government in exile was initially much more hesitant to deploy Congolese troops in combat. The government also refused to declare war on Germany's ally, Italy, which had colonies in Africa and was fighting
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De
Vleeschauwer departed for London, arriving on 4 July. He spoke with members of the British government and assured them that he would place all of the Congo's raw materials at the disposal of the United Kingdom's war effort. Over the following months Pierlot and two other ministers managed to reach
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Official postwar Belgian rhetoric portrayed the Congo's attitude towards the mother country as one of "unfailing solidarity." As a result of the Congo's comparative prosperity during the conflict, the post-war period saw a wave of immigration to the country from Belgium. By 1950, 100,000 whites were
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for the first time during the war, and their demands for better pay and working conditions were often emulated by black workers. A lack of European skilled labor forced the colonial government to train and give native Congolese skilled labor positions for the first time, but they were paid less than
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to Shinkolobwe in 1942 to restore the mine and improve its transport links by renovating the local aerodromes and port facilities. In September 1944 the Belgian government reached an agreement with the United Kingdom and the United States, whereby it would sell only those two countries the Congolese
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On 10 May 1940 Belgian officials formally requested that the United Kingdom and France declare their respect for the Congo's neutrality and support for its territorial integrity in a future peace settlement. The British government refused, wanting to ensure that the Congo would not fall under German
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Food remained unrationed during the war, with only the sales of tires and automobiles restricted by the government. Nevertheless, the war did lead to a shortage of consumer goods. The devaluation of the Congolese franc also made foreign imports more expensive. One of the consequences of the Congo's
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maintained a large presence in the colony and closely monitored the foreign population. The colonial administration tried to conceal the war from the African population by censoring the media, but the Congolese noticed the internal tensions among the white population and the detention of German and
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De Vleeschauwer authorised the creation of an air service for the Force Publique, and the Belgian government secured an agreement with South Africa in March 1941 to provide training. The first recruits were drawn in by an appeal over Radio LĂ©opoldville by Captain Frans Burniaux, a Belgian pilot who
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to fund themselves, unlike most other states in exile, which operated through subsidies and donations from sympathetic governments. It also meant that the Belgian gold reserves, which had been moved to London in 1940, were not needed to fund the war effort, and therefore were still available at the
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The mutineers broke into the base's armoury on the morning of 20 February and pillaged the white quarter of the town. The town's inhabitants fled, and a Belgian officer and two white civilians were killed. The mutineers attacked visible signs of the colonial authorities and proclaimed their desire
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which the Congo could produce in abundance. On 20 June the British Foreign Secretary told the Belgian ambassador in London that the United Kingdom would not accept German dominance over the colony. Meanwhile, the Belgo-Congolese businessmen proposed that de Vleeschauwer go to London to ensure that
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Following the industrial unrest, trade unions for black workers were instituted in 1946, though they lacked power and influence. Workers at the UMHK continued to demand higher wages, and strikes were common in the colony for the next decade. Nevertheless, both wages and living conditions improved
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attitude towards the indigenous Congolese. Education was overwhelmingly controlled by Protestant and Catholic missions, which were also responsible for providing limited welfare support to the rural Congolese. The occupation of Belgium severed Belgian missionaries from their parent organisations,
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applied for the rest of the war, and Congolese trade remained directed at the two countries. The Congo's economic output became an even more valuable asset to the Allies after Japan occupied large swathes of South East Asia in 1942, halting those areas' exports of key tropical commodities such as
96:
The increasing demands placed on the Congolese population by the colonial authorities during the war, however, provoked strikes, riots and other forms of resistance, particularly from the indigenous Congolese. These were repressed, often violently, by the Belgian colonial authorities. The Congo's
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At the start of the war, the population of the Congo numbered approximately 12 million black people and 30,000 whites. The colonial government segregated the population along racial lines and there was very little mixing between the colours. The white population was highly urbanised and, in
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Diamond Syndicate. In 1940, the Syndicate reported that the Congo annually produced 10.9 million carats of diamonds. Immediately after the outbreak of war reported production sharply declined, and by 1942 production had officially fallen to 5 million carats–roughly the original production number
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600,000 in early 1940 to $ 2,700,000 by 1942. Despite the Allied cooperation, many officials of the colonial administration treated American and British diplomats with suspicion, fearing the potential economic rivalry posed by their countries to Belgian enterprises. The United Kingdom and United
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released numerous publications which asserted that the Belgians had rescued the Congolese from "terrible conditions" and improved life in the territory. Wider Allied propaganda also downplayed internal political tensions within the Congo and in its relations with the Belgian government so as to
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and other tropical diseases, but successfully defeated the Italians in a number of engagements. Gilliaert subsequently accepted the surrender of Gazzera and 7,000 Italian troops. Over the course of the campaign in Ethiopia, the Force Publique received the surrender of nine Italian generals, 370
352:
Soon after the establishment of the Belgian government in exile in London, negotiations began between the Belgians and the British about the role which the Congo would play in the Allied war effort. The two parties came to an arrangement on 21 January 1941, in which all the British demands were
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From the start, the colonial authorities attempted to persuade the strikers to disperse and go back to work. When they refused, they were fired on. In Jadotville, 15 strikers were shot dead by the military. In Élisabethville, the strikers, including their leader Léonard Mpoyi, were invited to
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The Congo had become increasingly centralised economically during the Great Depression of the 1930s, as the Belgian government encouraged the production there of cotton, which had value on the international market. The greatest economic demands on the Congo during the war were related to raw
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believed that it lacked the resources to continue to fight and thus it would be better to negotiate a peace with Germany instead of going into exile in the United Kingdom. Most of the ministers agreed, though de Vleeschauwer dissented. While the government prepared to negotiate with Germany,
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to be difficult. According to the Belgian government, by 1942 the colony's entire output of industrial diamonds was being shipped to the United Kingdom. In reality, many industrial diamonds were smuggled to Nazi Germany for use in the German war effort. Most Congolese diamonds were mined by
373:) were pleased at the entry into the sterling area, which guaranteed an export market for the territory, they strongly disliked the fixed prices the agreement entailed which were favourable to the United Kingdom and worried that only trading with sterling could negatively impact the Congo's
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The Germans were upset by the Congo's support for the Allies, and threatened to apply sanctions to Belgian colonial enterprises. Leopold III expressed his discontent with Ryckman's decisions, believing that the colony should remain neutral. Royalist politicians sent messages to the Belgian
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The 1941 Élisabethville massacre is a recurrent theme in Congolese art and folklore, and was later incorporated into the popular Congolese anti-colonial narrative. Historiographic discussion of the Congo's role in World War II is generally limited to mentions of the uranium extracted from
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Italian nationals. To better counter external influences in the colony, the administration established a Bureau of Information and Propaganda. About 3,000 Greek refugees were settled in the Congo during the war. Some European Jews, particularly those of Italian nationality, also
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to 2 francs to compensate for rising living costs. The strike started on 3 December, and by the next day 1,400 workers had downed tools. All UMHK sites were affected by 9 December. The strike was also fueled by other grievances against the colonial order and segregation.
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before and during the war to avoid anti-Semitic discrimination and find economic opportunities, though the Italian Jews in Katanga Province were interned by order of the governor in 1940. Some Jewish merchants in Élisabethville had swastikas graffitied on their stores.
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to warn him of the possibility of a German atomic bomb program, he advised him that the Congo was a main source of the mineral. Uranium extracted from the disused Shinkolobwe mine ultimately proved instrumental in the development of an atomic bomb during the Allied
159:. The Belgian colonial military numbered 18,000 soldiers, making it one of the largest standing colonial armies in Africa at the time. The Congo underwent an economic boom in the 1920s and mines, plantations, and transportation networks were greatly developed. The
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proposed sending troops to occupy strategic locations in the Congo, but this was quickly ruled unfeasible due to other military commitments. The British government then resolved that if the Belgian government collapsed, it would support an "independent" Congo.
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in the central Congolese province of KasaĂŻ in February 1944; the trigger for this was a plan to vaccinate troops who had served at the front, though the soldiers were also unhappy about the demands placed on them and their treatment by their white officers.
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for independence. The mutineers then dispersed to their home villages, pillaging on the way; they failed to spread the insurrection to neighbouring garrisons. Two mutineers, including Mukalabushi, were executed for their part in the insurrection.
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The British were determined that the Congo should not fall into Axis hands, and planned to invade and occupy the colony if the Belgians did not come to an arrangement. This was particularly because the Allies were desperate for raw materials like
365:. With the official agreement and the Congolese declaration of support for the Allies, the economy of the Congo—in particular its production of important raw materials—was placed at the disposal of the Allies. Though Ryckmans and leaders of the
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The demands of the colonial administration fell hardest on rural residents, which were conscripted for road construction projects and rubber harvesting. Conditions were harsh for the labourers, and in some cases were conflated in the Congolese
990:, Belgian Congo to commemorate the actions of the Congolese in Ethiopia. Each face of the pyramid was inscribed with the name of each major location of fighting: Asosa, Gambela, and Saïo. Many locations throughout the country—presently the
543:, whose Diamond Committee was dominated by members of the De Beers Diamond Syndicate. After the end of the war the Belgian government demanded that Germany pay $ 25 million owed to the Société Générale for 576,676 carats of diamonds.
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On 17 June France declared an armistice with Germany. Though Ryckmans had declared that he would continue to support the Allied cause, the Belgian government in Bordeaux was deeply disheartened by the French surrender. Prime Minister
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uranium at a fixed price. That year the Americans acquired a further 1,720 long tons (1,750 t) of Uranium ore from the newly reopened mine. The mine was mostly staffed by Congolese, who laboured in unhealthy conditions.
807:"Why should a white man be paid more than a black, when all the white man does is stand there, giving orders, his arms behind his back and with his pipe in his mouth? We should take our rights, or we won't work tomorrow."
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During the war there were frequent rumors that some Belgian industrialists involved in colonial enterprises were covertly aiding Germany. American officials found working with Belgo-Congolese mining companies to secure
163:
led to a collapse of commodity prices, undermining the colony's export-based economy and leading to a large reduction in income and employment. The only industry that expanded during the time period was centered around
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alongside British forces to fight the Italians. The Belgian 1st Colonial Brigade operated in the Galla-Sidamo area in the South-West sector. In May 1941, around 8,000 men of the Force Publique, under Major-General
766:. Just 9% of the indigenous population lived in cities in 1938; by 1950, the figure stood at close to 20%. The colonial government also greatly improved transport and production facilities during the war.
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The colonial government in the Congo depended on its military to maintain civil order and, above all, it depended on the loyalty of the native troops who made up the bulk of the Force Publique. Black
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Within the Congo itself, opinion was divided on whether or not to continue to support the war. Belgian corporate officials hoped that the colony would take a neutral stance, and the staff of the
690:. The unit (which had a small body of Force Publique troops for local defense of the station) included 350 black and 20 white personnel, and continued to serve with the British until 1945.
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were smuggled to Nazi Germany with the complicity of Belgian business executives. The Congo also financially supported the Belgian government in exile. Militarily, Congolese troops of the
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authorities in London, attempting to dissuade them from allowing the Congo to support the British war effort. In October 1940 Leopold III requested permission from Nazi German leader
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who sought to be more conciliatory with regard to Allied influence in the colony. Well established and secure in the United Kingdom, the Belgian government replaced the 18 June 1940
208:, the Congolese capital. On the day of the Belgian Army's surrender, the British government, uncertain about what would happen to the territory, held a crisis meeting in London. The
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and played little role thereafter in the government. There was also conflict between de Vleeschauwer, who wanted to assure his own authority over the Congo, and Foreign Minister
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as meaning he could take measures in areas not already affected by de Vleeschauwer's orders, and he proceeded to govern the colony through a series of legislative ordinances.
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The vast majority of the Congolese-produced raw resources were exported to other Allied countries. According to the Belgian government, by 1942 the entire colony's output of
857:, provoked by the conscription of workers for the mines and deteriorating working conditions. That year the Belgians conducted a few "police operations" in the province of
187:, who had surrendered to the Germans, was kept a prisoner for the rest of the war. Just before the fall of Belgium, its government, including the Minister of the Colonies,
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London while the rest declared their intention to remain in France and resign. In October Pierlot, de Vleeschauwer, and the two other ministers officially established the
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The demands made by the colonial government on Congolese workers during the war provoked strikes and riots from the workforce. Whites in the colony were allowed to form
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978:. The war also led to a re-orientation of the Congo's trade away from Belgium and towards the United States, the United Kingdom, and the United Kingdom's colonies.
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After the Allied victory in Ethiopia, the Force Publique moved to the British colony of Nigeria, which was being used as a staging ground for a planned invasion of
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416:. While the price controls aided exports to the Allies, it adversely affected Congolese peasants, who earned less despite their increased amount of labour.
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568:(or "Public Force") was the combined police and military force of both the Congo and Ruanda-Urundi. During World War II, it constituted the bulk of the
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were being exported to the United Kingdom, while almost all the colony's lumber was sent to South Africa. Exports to the United States also rose from
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Sengier himself moved to New York, from where he directed the UMHK's operations for the rest of the war. The U.S. government sent soldiers from the
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significantly in the years after the war. The war began a second wave of industrialisation that lasted right up to Congolese independence in 1960.
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Numerous smaller strikes occurred in the Congo later in the war, though not on the same scale as in 1941. In 1944 strikes broke out in Katanga and
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high-ranking officers and 15,000 Italian colonial troops before the end of 1941. The Congolese forces in Ethiopia suffered about 500 fatalities.
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production—and for colouring ceramics. Scientists in Europe later discovered that enriched uranium could be used in the production of a supposed
236:(now Kisangani in the eastern Congo) among the white population panicking about the future of the colony and the threat of an Italian invasion.
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Geenen, Kristien (2019). "Categorizing colonial patients: Segregated medical care, space and decolonization in a Congolese city, 1931–62".
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to ensure disgruntled labourers would collect rubber. In 1945, riots and strikes occurred among the black dockworkers in the port city of
228:. Ryckmans refused to take this advice, and declared on the day of the Belgian Army's surrender that the colony would remain loyal to the
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were sometimes used for transporting the gemstones. Proposals by the Americans to stifle the illicit trade were dissuaded by the British
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to dispatch an emissary to LĂ©opoldville to persuade the colonial administration to assume neutrality, but the trip was never authorised.
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Forgotten Allies: the Military Contribution of the Colonies, Exiled Governments, and Lesser Powers to the Allied Victory in World War II
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A Small Nation in the Turmoil of the Second World War: Money, Finance and Occupation (Belgium, Its Enemies, Its Friends, 1939-1945)
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Economically, the Congo provided much-needed raw materials such as copper and rubber to the United Kingdom and the United States.
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began with the German invasion of Belgium in May 1940. Despite Belgium's surrender, the Congo remained in the conflict on the
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Rewriting Congo's Colonial Past: History, Memory, and Colonial Built Heritage in Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo
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284:, recognised by the United Kingdom. Despite his presence, de Vleeschauwer was politically marginalised by Finance Minister
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Fernández Soriano, Victor (2018). "'Travail et progrès': Obligatory 'Educational' Labour in the Belgian Congo, 1933–60".
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Transcription of the proceedings of the Council of Ministers of the government in exile, 18 December 1941, reproduced in
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As per a deal reached on 21 March 1941, loans from the Banque du Congo Belge enabled the Belgian government in exile and
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A Working Class in the Making: Belgian Colonial Labor Policy, Private Enterprise, and the African Mineworker, 1907–1951
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A Working Class in the Making: Belgian Colonial Labor Policy, Private Enterprise, and the African Mineworker, 1907–1951
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their white colleagues, generating discontent. In October 1941, white workers in the colony unsuccessfully attempted a
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3464:"The 'Settler Moment' in Belgian Africa: Europeans in the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi during the Second World War"
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3239:"Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field"
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247:(pictured) argued for continued Belgian participation in the war and pledged the Congo's resources to the Allies.
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Martin, Phyllis M. (1985). "Reviewed Work: Le Congo Belge durant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale: Recueil d'Etudes".
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McCrummen, Stephanie (9 August 2009). "In Congo, men forced to fight in World War II are neglected, forgotten".
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which did not occur, was also garrisoned by 13,000 Congolese troops. Then a part of the Force Publique went to
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after marching over 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from their bases in western Congo. The troops suffered from
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220:, the colonial army, recommended a declaration of neutrality or even independence under the authority of the
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3109:. Greenwood histories of the modern nations (illustrated, annotated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group.
845:, a Congolese artist, depicting the church and colonial state (personified at the right) as the instigators
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3560:"De buitenlandse betrekkingen an Belgisch Congo aan de vooravond van de Tweede Wereldoorlog (1939–1940)"
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Haut-Katanga : Lorsque richesses économiques et pouvoirs politiques forcent une identité régionale
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had fled from the Belgian Flying School in North Africa. Many of the pilots ultimately served with the
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Banjikila, Bakajika (April 1983). "Les Ouvriers du Haut-Katanga Pendant la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale".
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1979:"Les Belges de L'Aviation Sud-Africaine les Forces Alliees dans la Mire Des Nazis en Afrique Australe"
998:, Belgium, to the military successes of Belgian colonial forces, including those during World War II.
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before the war by the UMHK for export to Belgium. It was originally used by the medical industry—for
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control, and France followed suit. The French government briefly considered sending troops to occupy
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Colonial Exploitation and Economic Development: The Belgian Congo and the Dutch East Indies Compared
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2487:. Dakar: Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA). p. 14.
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to become interested in the territory; it was subsequently an area of Soviet interest during the
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3348:
The Belgian Campaign in Ethiopia: A Trek of 2,500 Miles through Jungle Swamps and Desert Wastes
878:
842:
324:
244:
229:
188:
184:
1125:
4578:
4553:
4511:
4280:
4250:
762:
economic mobilisation during the war, particularly for the black population, was significant
472:
366:
43:
3613:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1658:
584:. During the war the force was expanded through recruitment and the calling up of reserves.
296:
on 29 April 1942, restoring all legislative and executive powers to the government in full.
4588:
775:
683:
573:
428:
341:
74:
2881:
Apartheid, Colonialism, and the Cold War: the United States and Southern Africa, 1945–1952
2147:
1072:
8:
2151:
1776:
1748:
1655:
1028:
703:
of the city separated from the black majority. All blacks in the city had to adhere to a
667:
647:
626:
569:
510:
436:
90:
2956:
Byfield, Judith A.; Brown, Carolyn A.; Parsons, Timothy; Sikainga, Ahmad Alawad (2015).
1855:(Reprint ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. pp. 285–288.
1129:
344:
aircraft was funded by contributions from the Congo, and took its name, "Luvungi", from
3599:
3573:
L'uranium, la Belgique et les puissances: marché de dupes ou chef d'œuvre diplomatique?
3511:
Ermens, Paul (January 1947). "L'effort de guerre de la Force Publique du Congo belge".
3366:
3278:
3266:
3254:
3089:
3052:
3002:
2994:
2918:"Connecting the dot: Congo and World War II: One of the Other Forgotten Commemorations"
2587:
2460:
1843:
1781:
1753:
1535:
1181:
489:
155:
that had been taken over by Belgium in 1916 and was mandated to Belgium in 1922 by the
152:
62:
3481:
Lisolo na Bisu, 1885–1960: "Our History" the Congolese Soldier of the "Force Publique"
2674:
Le Congo-Kasaï (1865–1950): De l'exploration allemande à la consécration de Luluabourg
610:
4300:
4119:
3576:
3531:
3488:
3413:
3394:
3373:
3352:
3328:
3307:
3288:
3270:
3258:
3223:
3204:
3183:
3162:
3120:
3110:
3093:
3081:
3056:
3021:
3006:
2963:
2884:
2844:
2748:
2711:
2612:
2573:
2541:
2488:
2446:
2414:
2221:
2196:
2097:
2060:
1954:
1856:
1808:
1521:
1105:
1033:
785:
734:
477:
398:
materials. Between 1938 and 1944, the number of workers employed in the mines of the
209:
176:
156:
114:
2242:
2173:
1646:
1629:
1605:
1465:
18:
4255:
3725:
3710:
3676:
3502:
Lovens, Maurice (1975). "L'effort militaire de guerre du Congo belge (1940–1944)".
3250:
3161:. Provinces (in French). Vol. 1. Tervuren: Musée royal de l’Afrique centrale.
3073:
3044:
2986:
1145:
994:—are named for the battles. In 1970 the Belgian government dedicated a monument in
837:
818:
663:
485:
456:
413:
390:
289:
160:
144:
82:
2843:(2nd ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. pp. 59–60.
1171:
635:
592:
during the war, but their salaries were paid for by the Belgian Congo's treasury.
171:
The Belgian government followed a policy of neutrality during the interwar years.
4533:
3995:
3720:
3388:
3322:
3282:
3217:
3198:
3177:
3103:
3015:
2957:
2836:
2347:
1700:
830:
700:
532:
468:
358:
337:
3219:
The Leopard, the Lion, and the Cock: Colonial Memories and Monuments in Belgium
799:
687:
670:
and was redesignated the 1st Belgian Congo Brigade Group during 1943 and 1944.
659:
639:
614:
565:
536:
432:
States maintained large networks of spies throughout the Congo during the war.
262:
253:
217:
78:
66:
3077:
2990:
239:
4905:
3747:
3742:
3688:
3592:
Revue d'histoire de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale et des conflits contemporains
3342:
3262:
3124:
3085:
3048:
742:
737:
with the earlier atrocities committed by the Congo Free State in relation to
577:
481:
409:
405:
362:
148:
140:
123:
31:
1696:"Congolese diamanten in Belgische diplomatieke valiezen naar Nazi-Duitsland"
1346:
1344:
515:
4661:
3705:
3356:
3208:
2540:(1st ed.). Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 189.
2413:(1st ed.). Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 188.
1150:
971:
970:
Shinkolobwe. The importance of Congolese uranium during the war caused the
951:
854:
763:
370:
301:
285:
172:
98:
39:
3417:
576:
before the war, and so had to use outdated weapons and equipment like the
1341:
946:
794:
754:
708:
464:
452:
448:
354:
58:
3603:
3134:"L'exercice du pouvoir législatif colonial pendant la période 1939-1945"
1237:
2195:. Voies de la recherche. Paris: Institut national d'histoire et d'art.
995:
881:
Ngoie Mukalabushi, a veteran of the East African Campaign, mutinied at
826:
560:
Congolese enlisting in the Force Publique following the outbreak of war
2998:
2672:
Mwamba Mputu, Baudouin (2011). "IV: Mutinerie de Luluabourg de 1944".
1929:"The "Belgian Congo Air Force." The Air Force that Never Was ..."
1716:
1392:
1380:
1272:
1170:
Yapou, Eliezer (1998). "4: Belgium: Disintegration and Resurrection".
4609:
4482:
3238:
1479:
1477:
1144:(1077). Centre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques: 1–34.
682:, was formed in 1943, and served alongside British forces during the
643:
233:
139:
Following World War I, Belgium possessed two colonies in Africa: the
1284:
750:
portray the coordination of its war effort in a harmonious fashion.
3390:
Spies in the Congo: The Race for the Ore that Built the Atomic Bomb
2287:
2009:
975:
523:
424:
205:
192:
132:
102:
23:
2190:
1474:
1329:
829:, went on strike, demanding that their pay be increased from 1.50
4225:
2348:"Activity of the Social Services in the Belgian Congo in the War"
987:
882:
651:
345:
54:
2761:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2275:
2148:"Burma: The 10th Belgian Congo Casualty Clearing Station, 1945"
1356:
862:
822:
704:
460:
420:
165:
2841:
Remembering the Present: Painting and Popular History in Zaire
2218:
Planning Power: Social Control and Planning in Colonial Africa
2189:
Lagae, Johan (2005). "The built fabric of a segregated city".
1440:
1296:
1102:
Fighting for Britain: African soldiers in the Second World War
232:. Despite this assurance, disruption broke out in the city of
3715:
3643:
2311:
1494:
1492:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1206:
531:
personnel fostered a "sinister atmosphere" during the tours.
3545:
Vanderwalle, F.A. (May 1947). "Mutineries au Congo Belge".
3017:
Glitter & Greed: The Secret World of the Diamond Cartel
1936:
Société Royale des Pionniers et Anciens de l'Aviation Belge
1572:
1570:
1568:
1566:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1823:
1489:
1428:
1255:
2897:
2680:
2515:
1869:
1404:
1218:
1194:
1040:
List of massacres in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
817:
In December 1941, black mine workers at various sites in
711:
in the Congo and confiscated their property in 1940. The
4927:
Military history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2021:
1898:
1896:
1728:
1587:
1585:
1563:
1553:
1551:
1416:
1368:
1308:
678:
A medical unit from the Congo, the 10th (Belgian Congo)
3410:
Politics in the Congo: Decolonization and Independence
2932:
2806:
2485:
Politics, Religion and Power in the Great Lakes Region
2299:
2263:
1881:
1124:
143:, which it had controlled since its annexation of the
61:. At the same time, a large supply of the territory's
3287:(revised ed.). Leuven: Leuven University Press.
2883:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 92–93.
2328:
2251:
1997:
1908:
1893:
1582:
1548:
1134:"Le Congo: Du domaine de Léopold II à l'indépendance"
2358:
1005:
127:
Colonial officials, including the Governor-General,
3277:
2724:
2178:. New York: Belgian Information Center. p. 65.
2073:
2033:
1722:
1651:. New York: Belgian Information Center. p. 12.
1634:. New York: Belgian Information Center. p. 11.
1483:
1398:
1386:
1350:
1335:
1290:
1278:
484:, secretly dispatched half of its uranium stock to
179:, the Belgian Army surrendered and the country was
3365:
3102:
3066:The Journal of the International African Institute
2743:Zeilig, Leo; Renton, David; Seddon, David (2007).
2742:
2706:Zeilig, Leo; Renton, David; Seddon, David (2007).
2705:
2568:Zeilig, Leo, Renton, David; Seddon, David (2007).
2441:Zeilig, Leo, Renton, David; Seddon, David (2007).
2247:. New York: Belgian Information Center. p. 7.
1610:. New York: Belgian Information Center. p. 8.
1516:Zeilig, Leo, Renton, David; Seddon, David (2007).
1470:. New York: Belgian Information Center. p. 3.
625:Three brigades of the Force Publique were sent to
198:
81:. Congolese formations also acted as garrisons in
4564:Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo
3327:(illustrated ed.). Barnsley: Pen and Sword.
3034:
2767:
2059:. Vol. I. Jefferson: Mcfarland. p. 45.
921:Medals awarded for service in the Force Publique
753:The Belgian colonial administration maintained a
617:soldiers leaving the Congo to participate in the
151:, which was formerly the Northwestern portion of
4903:
3570:
3368:Patrimonialism and Political Change in the Congo
3151:
2807:Buelens, Frans; Cassimon, Danny (October 2011).
2293:
2281:
2094:Foreign Volunteers of the Allied Forces, 1939–45
2050:
2048:
1104:. Woodbridge, Suffolk: James Currey. p. 7.
119:German occupation of Belgium during World War II
3547:ZaĂŻre: Revue Congolaise-Congoleesch Tijdschrift
3514:ZaĂŻre. Revue Congolaise-Congoleesch Tijdschrift
3438:
2240:
2171:
1953:(1st ed.). Crewe: Selbstverl. p. 45.
1841:
1644:
1627:
1603:
1463:
3013:
2955:
2782:"Héros méconnus de la seconde guerre mondiale"
2322:
1672:
986:In 1943, a three-sided pyramid was erected in
488:in 1940; in September 1942, he sold it to the
57:from the colony was used to produce the first
4932:1940s in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
4227:History of World War II by region and country
4211:
3629:
2920:. Trondheim: Kimpavita Press & Publishers
2814:. In Frankema, Ewout; Buelens, Frans (eds.).
2779:
2478:
2476:
2045:
1095:
1093:
1091:
1089:
841:A painting of the Élisabethville massacre by
503:
3571:Buch, Pierre; Vanderlinden, Jacques (1995).
2809:"The Industrialization of the Belgian Congo"
2671:
2592:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2465:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2404:
2402:
1540:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
693:
3544:
3301:
2878:
2701:
2699:
2697:
2695:
2567:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2557:
2440:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2430:
2015:
1829:
1515:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1498:
1446:
1434:
1362:
1302:
1238:"L'Histoire du Congo vue par les Coloniaux"
1224:
1212:
1200:
1059:
1057:
1055:
4218:
4204:
3636:
3622:
3525:
3320:
2686:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2473:
2027:
1777:"Answers to Questions About New York City"
1749:"Why They Called It the Manhattan Project"
1734:
1576:
1410:
1323:
1266:
1186:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1099:
1086:
3589:
3557:
3412:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
3200:The Dumpy Book of Air Forces of the World
2863:
2636:"Grève à L'Union Minière du Haut Katanga"
2535:
2408:
2399:
2354:. Vol. IV, no. 22. 3 June 1944.
1972:
1970:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1149:
73:, and a Congolese medical unit served in
3386:
3351:. New York: Belgian Information Center.
3306:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
2736:
2692:
2554:
2427:
2305:
2085:
1887:
1875:
1805:"Manhattan-Uranium Connection sidenotes"
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1504:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1052:
836:
784:
723:
609:
595:
555:
384:
331:
307:
238:
122:
17:
3478:
3448:. New York: Belgian Information Center.
3372:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
3363:
3236:
3215:
3196:
3100:
2938:
2818:. University of Antwerp. Archived from
2650:
2506:
2504:
2482:
2334:
2269:
2003:
1914:
1902:
1774:
1591:
1016:Democratic Republic of the Congo portal
546:
361:and the entrance of the Congo into the
69:fought alongside British forces in the
4904:
3510:
3501:
3341:
3063:
3020:(revised ed.). Red Wheel Weiser.
2976:
2915:
2903:
2835:
2377:
2375:
2373:
2257:
2091:
2079:
2039:
1976:
1967:
1948:
1638:
1614:
1557:
1452:
175:invaded Belgium on 10 May 1940. After
4199:
3617:
3407:
3175:
3131:
2730:
2364:
2188:
2054:
1747:Broad, William J. (30 October 2007).
1746:
1693:
1678:
1422:
1374:
1169:
1158:
3152:Omasombo Tshonda, Jean, ed. (2018).
2773:
2606:
2501:
2234:
2220:. New York: Routledge. p. 217.
2215:
1977:Bailly, Michel (12 September 1999).
1230:
868:
707:. The colonial authorities arrested
602:East African Campaign (World War II)
522:, which was in turn a member of the
26:, capital of the Belgian Congo, 1943
3461:
2780:Mobé Fansiama, Anicet (June 2007).
2512:"The Story of Africa: World War II"
2370:
13:
3426:
3255:10.14321/frencolohist.15.2014.0087
1775:Pollack, Michael (25 March 2011).
1675:, Chapter 7 – Diamonds for Hitler.
673:
14:
4948:
3736:Transitional Government (2003–06)
3575:(in French). Brussels: De Boeck.
3530:(in French). Paris: L'Harmattan.
2916:Boneza, RaĂŻs Neza (7 June 2014).
2747:. London: Zed Books. p. 71.
2745:The Congo: Plunder and Resistance
2710:. London: Zed Books. p. 70.
2708:The Congo: Plunder and Resistance
2572:. London: Zed Books. p. 69.
2570:The Congo: Plunder and Resistance
2445:. London: Zed Books. p. 68.
2443:The Congo: Plunder and Resistance
1951:Commonwealth Divisions: 1939–1945
1926:
1807:. Amherst College. Archived from
1520:. London: Zed Books. p. 66.
1518:The Congo: Plunder and Resistance
728:Congolese worker housing, c. 1943
582:Saint Chamond 70 mm howitzer
551:
353:accepted, including a 30 percent
312:
3645:Democratic Republic of the Congo
3321:Veranneman, Jean-Michel (2014).
3304:Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980
1802:
1008:
992:Democratic Republic of the Congo
981:
911:
902:
327:, Minister of the Colonies, 1942
36:Democratic Republic of the Congo
3324:Belgium in the Second World War
3037:Journal of Contemporary History
3014:Farrell-Robert, Janine (2007).
2909:
2872:
2857:
2829:
2800:
2627:
2607:Mobe, Anicet (18 August 2011).
2600:
2529:
2340:
2209:
2182:
2165:
2140:
2110:
1942:
1920:
1835:
1796:
1768:
1740:
1723:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009
1597:
1484:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009
1399:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009
1387:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009
1351:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009
1336:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009
1291:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009
1279:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009
1173:Governments in Exile, 1939–1945
929:and in the colonial war effort
686:and in the Far East during the
336:A Belgian pilot in the British
199:Entry of the Congo into the war
4937:Labour history of World War II
3672:Colonial governors (1885–1960)
3182:. Cambridge University Press.
2979:The Journal of African History
2962:. Cambridge University Press.
2948:
2124:. 16 June 2006. Archived from
2096:. London: Osprey. p. 17.
1138:Courrier Hebdomadaire du CRISP
1118:
1:
4912:Belgian Congo in World War II
3526:Brousmiche, Philippe (2011).
3364:Willame, Jean-Claude (1972).
1694:Barbé, Luc (25 August 2016).
1045:
401:Union Minière du Haut Katanga
243:Belgian Minister of Colonies
222:Governor-General of the Congo
108:
3753:M23 offensive (2022–present)
3726:Second Congo War (1998–2003)
3701:Congo-Léopoldville (1960–65)
3677:Congo Free State (1885–1908)
3564:Thesis (University of Ghent)
3528:BortaĂŻ: Campagne d'Abyssinie
3281:; Verbreyt, Monique (2009).
3237:Stanard, Matthew G. (2014).
3101:Gondola, Ch. Didier (2002).
2879:Borstelmann, Thomas (1993).
812:LĂ©onard Mpoyi, December 1941
739:its rubber collection system
541:Ministry of Economic Warfare
520:Société Générale de Belgique
7:
3868:Foreign policy under Mobutu
3393:. Oxford University Press.
3222:. Leuven University Press.
2788:(in French). pp. 34–35
2609:"L'armée au Congo ..."
1949:Bellis, Malcolm A. (1999).
1001:
282:Belgian government in exile
48:Belgian government in exile
10:
4953:
4917:1940s in the Belgian Congo
3711:State of Katanga (1960–63)
3558:Van Maele, Benoît (1999).
3468:Journal of Belgian History
2483:Rutanga, Murindwa (2011).
1100:Killingray, David (2010).
780:
773:
747:Belgian Information Center
599:
504:German diamond trafficking
451:was mined in the Congo at
443:
389:Sheets of copper from the
112:
4846:
4597:
4460:
4414:
4336:
4233:
4157:
4105:
4037:
4028:
3971:
3962:
3838:
3829:
3772:
3763:
3721:First Congo War (1996–98)
3652:
3479:Peeters, Natasja (2010).
3302:Vanthemsche, Guy (2012).
3216:Stanard, Matthew (2009).
3078:10.1017/S0001972018000724
2991:10.1017/S0021853700028905
893:
875:non-commissioned officers
769:
694:Life in the Belgian Congo
680:Casualty Clearing Station
632:Auguste-Édouard Gilliaert
529:Société minière du Bécéka
375:foreign exchange reserves
3843:Administrative divisions
3408:Young, Crawford (1965).
3387:Williams, Susan (2018).
3203:. London: Sampson, Low.
3049:10.1177/0022009417697807
2536:Higginson, John (1989).
2409:Higginson, John (1989).
2244:The Belgian Congo at War
2241:Various authors (1942).
2175:The Belgian Congo at War
2172:Various authors (1942).
2018:, pp. 126, 128–129.
1849:The New World, 1939–1946
1648:The Belgian Congo at War
1645:Various authors (1942).
1631:The Belgian Congo at War
1628:Various authors (1942).
1607:The Belgian Congo at War
1604:Various authors (1942).
1467:The Belgian Congo at War
1464:Various authors (1942).
660:Vichy-controlled Dahomey
480:. The director of UMHK,
4922:Belgium in World War II
3748:M23 rebellion (2012–13)
3689:Belgian Congo (1908–60)
3445:Belgian Colonial Policy
3440:de Vleeschauwer, Albert
3243:French Colonial History
3197:Sampson, Henry (1957).
3176:Pepin, Jacques (2011).
2959:Africa and World War II
2388:International Socialism
1065:"Empire Colonial Belge"
1024:Belgium in World War II
699:LĂ©opoldville, lived in
638:the retreat of General
590:South African Air Force
497:Army Corps of Engineers
30:The involvement of the
3706:Congo Crisis (1960–65)
3667:Colonization (1867–85)
3506:(in French) (6): 1–34.
2768:Fernández Soriano 2018
2216:Njoh, Ambe J. (2007).
2092:Thomas, Nigel (1991).
2055:Ready, J. Lee (1985).
1353:, pp. 73–74, 232.
1151:10.3917/cris.1077.0001
846:
843:Tshibumba Kanda-Matulu
809:
790:
729:
713:State Security Service
684:invasion of Madagascar
622:
561:
518:, a subsidiary of the
394:
349:
325:Albert de Vleeschauwer
321:
248:
245:Albert de Vleeschauwer
189:Albert de Vleeschauwer
136:
46:, administered by the
27:
22:A busy city square in
3141:Bulletins des SĂ©ances
2786:Le Monde diplomatique
2676:. Paris: L'Harmattan.
2294:Omasombo Tshonda 2018
2282:Omasombo Tshonda 2018
840:
805:
788:
727:
619:East African Campaign
613:
596:East African Campaign
559:
473:Franklin D. Roosevelt
471:wrote U.S. President
388:
367:Banque du Congo Belge
335:
317:
308:Economic contribution
242:
126:
71:East African Campaign
21:
3504:Les cahiers du CEDAF
3105:The History of Congo
1842:Anderson, Oscar E.;
1811:on 18 September 2006
1365:, pp. 123, 132.
1126:GĂ©rard-Libois, Jules
879:First Sergeant-Major
776:Masisi-Lubutu revolt
718:settled in the Congo
574:Belgian Armed Forces
547:Military involvement
4676:Carpathian Ruthenia
3279:Van der Wee, Herman
3179:The Origins of AIDS
2906:, pp. 423–424.
2825:on 28 January 2015.
2383:"Congo (Editorial)"
2323:Byfield et al. 2015
2296:, pp. 175–176.
2152:Imperial War Museum
2118:"Epilogue Oriental"
1844:Hewlett, Richard G.
1725:, pp. 236–237.
1673:Farrell-Robert 2007
1449:, pp. 128–129.
1425:, pp. 282–283.
1401:, pp. 237–238.
1389:, pp. 232–233.
1377:, pp. 277–278.
1305:, pp. 124–125.
1281:, pp. 72, 231.
1215:, pp. 125–126.
1069:Online Encyclopedia
1029:Free Belgian forces
802:across the colony.
668:Mandatory Palestine
648:Ethiopian Highlands
627:Italian East Africa
570:Free Belgian Forces
511:industrial diamonds
437:Free Belgian Forces
408:across the colony.
177:18 days of fighting
63:industrial diamonds
4266:French West Africa
4246:British Somaliland
4006:Telecommunications
3853:Court of Cassation
3817:Former place names
3132:Heyse, T. (1946).
2128:on 9 February 2007
1803:Hunt, Margaret R.
1782:The New York Times
1754:The New York Times
847:
791:
730:
623:
562:
490:United States Army
395:
350:
346:the Congolese town
249:
183:by German forces.
153:German East Africa
137:
28:
4899:
4898:
4490:Dutch East Indies
4328:Southern Rhodesia
4261:French Somaliland
4193:
4192:
4153:
4152:
4072:Human trafficking
4024:
4023:
3958:
3957:
3926:Political parties
3919:National Assembly
3863:Foreign relations
3825:
3824:
3582:978-2-8041-1993-5
3537:978-2-296-13069-2
3494:978-2-87051-049-0
3462:Bud, Guy (2020).
3379:978-0-8047-0793-0
3313:978-0-521-19421-1
3168:978-9-4926-6907-0
3116:978-0-313-31696-8
2754:978-1-84277-485-4
2717:978-1-84277-485-4
2613:La Libre Belgique
2579:978-1-84277-485-4
2494:978-2-86978-492-5
2452:978-1-84277-485-4
2395:(2). Autumn 1960.
2352:News From Belgium
2227:978-1-84472-160-3
2202:978-2-917902-64-6
2103:978-1-85532-136-6
1878:, pp. 49–50.
1527:978-1-84277-485-4
1293:, pp. 72–73.
1269:, pp. 84–85.
1132:(26 April 1985).
1130:Verhaegen, Benoît
1111:978-1-84701-015-5
1073:Éditions Larousse
1034:Ruzagayura famine
869:Luluabourg mutiny
735:collective memory
478:Manhattan Project
467:. When physicist
157:League of Nations
115:Battle of Belgium
4944:
4650:Military history
4404:Native Americans
4220:
4213:
4206:
4197:
4196:
4173:
4166:
4035:
4034:
3996:Franc (currency)
3969:
3968:
3836:
3835:
3770:
3769:
3638:
3631:
3624:
3615:
3614:
3607:
3586:
3567:
3554:
3541:
3522:
3507:
3498:
3475:
3455:Thematic studies
3449:
3421:
3404:
3383:
3371:
3360:
3338:
3317:
3298:
3274:
3233:
3212:
3193:
3172:
3160:
3148:
3138:
3128:
3108:
3097:
3060:
3031:
3010:
2973:
2942:
2936:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2925:
2913:
2907:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2876:
2870:
2869:
2866:The Boston Globe
2861:
2855:
2854:
2837:Fabian, Johannes
2833:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2813:
2804:
2798:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2777:
2771:
2765:
2759:
2758:
2740:
2734:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2703:
2690:
2684:
2678:
2677:
2669:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2620:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2591:
2583:
2565:
2552:
2551:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2522:
2508:
2499:
2498:
2480:
2471:
2470:
2464:
2456:
2438:
2425:
2424:
2406:
2397:
2396:
2379:
2368:
2362:
2356:
2355:
2344:
2338:
2332:
2326:
2320:
2309:
2303:
2297:
2291:
2285:
2279:
2273:
2267:
2261:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2133:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2089:
2083:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2052:
2043:
2037:
2031:
2025:
2019:
2016:Vanthemsche 2012
2013:
2007:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1974:
1965:
1964:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1933:
1924:
1918:
1912:
1906:
1900:
1891:
1885:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1854:
1839:
1833:
1830:Vanthemsche 2012
1827:
1821:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1800:
1794:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1744:
1738:
1732:
1726:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1691:
1676:
1670:
1653:
1652:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1625:
1612:
1611:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1580:
1574:
1561:
1555:
1546:
1545:
1539:
1531:
1513:
1502:
1499:Vanthemsche 2012
1496:
1487:
1481:
1472:
1471:
1461:
1450:
1447:Vanthemsche 2012
1444:
1438:
1435:Vanthemsche 2012
1432:
1426:
1420:
1414:
1408:
1402:
1396:
1390:
1384:
1378:
1372:
1366:
1363:Vanthemsche 2012
1360:
1354:
1348:
1339:
1333:
1327:
1321:
1306:
1303:Vanthemsche 2012
1300:
1294:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1270:
1264:
1253:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1242:
1234:
1228:
1225:Vanthemsche 2012
1222:
1216:
1213:Vanthemsche 2012
1210:
1204:
1201:Vanthemsche 2012
1198:
1192:
1191:
1185:
1177:
1167:
1156:
1155:
1153:
1122:
1116:
1115:
1097:
1084:
1083:
1081:
1079:
1061:
1018:
1013:
1012:
1011:
915:
906:
819:Katanga Province
813:
440:end of the war.
391:Katanga Province
328:
290:Paul-Henri Spaak
185:King Leopold III
161:Great Depression
145:Congo Free State
34:(the modern-day
4952:
4951:
4947:
4946:
4945:
4943:
4942:
4941:
4902:
4901:
4900:
4895:
4891:Pacific Islands
4886:Solomon Islands
4866:Gilbert Islands
4848:
4842:
4821:Channel Islands
4593:
4456:
4410:
4332:
4229:
4224:
4194:
4189:
4176:
4169:
4162:
4149:
4145:Public holidays
4101:
4020:
3954:
3892:Law enforcement
3821:
3759:
3716:Zaire (1965–97)
3648:
3642:
3610:
3598:(130): 91–108.
3583:
3538:
3495:
3452:
3432:Primary sources
3429:
3427:Further reading
3424:
3401:
3380:
3335:
3314:
3295:
3230:
3190:
3169:
3158:
3136:
3117:
3028:
2970:
2951:
2946:
2945:
2937:
2933:
2923:
2921:
2914:
2910:
2902:
2898:
2891:
2877:
2873:
2862:
2858:
2851:
2834:
2830:
2822:
2811:
2805:
2801:
2791:
2789:
2778:
2774:
2766:
2762:
2755:
2741:
2737:
2729:
2725:
2718:
2704:
2693:
2687:Veranneman 2014
2685:
2681:
2670:
2651:
2641:
2639:
2634:
2632:
2628:
2618:
2616:
2605:
2601:
2585:
2584:
2580:
2566:
2555:
2548:
2534:
2530:
2520:
2518:
2510:
2509:
2502:
2495:
2481:
2474:
2458:
2457:
2453:
2439:
2428:
2421:
2407:
2400:
2381:
2380:
2371:
2363:
2359:
2346:
2345:
2341:
2333:
2329:
2321:
2312:
2304:
2300:
2292:
2288:
2280:
2276:
2268:
2264:
2256:
2252:
2239:
2235:
2228:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2187:
2183:
2170:
2166:
2156:
2154:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2131:
2129:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2104:
2090:
2086:
2078:
2074:
2067:
2053:
2046:
2038:
2034:
2028:Veranneman 2014
2026:
2022:
2014:
2010:
2002:
1998:
1988:
1986:
1975:
1968:
1961:
1947:
1943:
1931:
1925:
1921:
1913:
1909:
1901:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1874:
1870:
1863:
1852:
1840:
1836:
1828:
1824:
1814:
1812:
1801:
1797:
1787:
1785:
1773:
1769:
1759:
1757:
1745:
1741:
1735:Veranneman 2014
1733:
1729:
1721:
1717:
1707:
1705:
1701:Mondiaal Nieuws
1692:
1679:
1671:
1656:
1643:
1639:
1626:
1615:
1602:
1598:
1590:
1583:
1577:Veranneman 2014
1575:
1564:
1556:
1549:
1533:
1532:
1528:
1514:
1505:
1497:
1490:
1482:
1475:
1462:
1453:
1445:
1441:
1433:
1429:
1421:
1417:
1411:Veranneman 2014
1409:
1405:
1397:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1373:
1369:
1361:
1357:
1349:
1342:
1334:
1330:
1324:Veranneman 2014
1322:
1309:
1301:
1297:
1289:
1285:
1277:
1273:
1267:Veranneman 2014
1265:
1256:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1223:
1219:
1211:
1207:
1199:
1195:
1179:
1178:
1168:
1159:
1123:
1119:
1112:
1098:
1087:
1077:
1075:
1063:
1062:
1053:
1048:
1014:
1009:
1007:
1004:
984:
941:
940:
939:
938:
918:
917:
916:
908:
907:
896:
871:
815:
811:
789:Katangese miner
783:
778:
772:
696:
676:
674:Medical support
642:'s Italians at
634:, successfully
604:
598:
554:
549:
537:diplomatic bags
533:Firmin van Bree
506:
469:Albert Einstein
446:
359:Congolese franc
338:Royal Air Force
330:
323:
315:
310:
226:Pierre Ryckmans
201:
129:Pierre Ryckmans
121:
113:Main articles:
111:
12:
11:
5:
4950:
4940:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4897:
4896:
4894:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4852:
4850:
4844:
4843:
4841:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4829:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4811:British Empire
4806:United Kingdom
4803:
4798:
4793:
4792:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4779:Basque Country
4771:
4770:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4669:
4664:
4659:
4658:
4657:
4655:Basque Country
4652:
4642:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4625:Czechoslovakia
4622:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4601:
4599:
4595:
4594:
4592:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4525:
4524:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4503:
4502:
4497:
4487:
4486:
4485:
4475:
4470:
4464:
4462:
4458:
4457:
4455:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4418:
4416:
4412:
4411:
4409:
4408:
4407:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4340:
4338:
4334:
4333:
4331:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4309:
4308:
4303:
4293:
4288:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4237:
4235:
4231:
4230:
4223:
4222:
4215:
4208:
4200:
4191:
4190:
4188:
4187:
4182:
4175:
4174:
4167:
4159:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4151:
4150:
4148:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4111:
4109:
4103:
4102:
4100:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4042:Child marriage
4038:
4032:
4026:
4025:
4022:
4021:
4019:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3972:
3966:
3960:
3959:
3956:
3955:
3953:
3952:
3951:
3950:
3943:Prime Minister
3940:
3939:
3938:
3928:
3923:
3922:
3921:
3916:
3906:
3905:
3904:
3902:Chief of Staff
3894:
3889:
3888:
3887:
3877:
3872:
3871:
3870:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3839:
3833:
3827:
3826:
3823:
3822:
3820:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3773:
3767:
3761:
3760:
3758:
3757:
3756:
3755:
3750:
3740:
3739:
3738:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3697:
3696:
3686:
3685:
3684:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3658:
3656:
3650:
3649:
3647: articles
3641:
3640:
3633:
3626:
3618:
3609:
3608:
3587:
3581:
3568:
3555:
3542:
3536:
3523:
3508:
3499:
3493:
3476:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3451:
3450:
3435:
3434:
3433:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3422:
3405:
3399:
3384:
3378:
3361:
3343:Weller, George
3339:
3333:
3318:
3312:
3299:
3293:
3275:
3234:
3228:
3213:
3194:
3188:
3173:
3167:
3149:
3129:
3115:
3098:
3072:(1): 100–124.
3061:
3043:(2): 292–314.
3032:
3026:
3011:
2985:(4): 422–424.
2974:
2968:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2944:
2943:
2941:, p. 112.
2931:
2908:
2896:
2889:
2871:
2856:
2849:
2828:
2799:
2772:
2770:, p. 293.
2760:
2753:
2735:
2723:
2716:
2691:
2689:, p. 133.
2679:
2649:
2626:
2599:
2578:
2553:
2546:
2528:
2500:
2493:
2472:
2451:
2426:
2419:
2398:
2369:
2367:, p. 145.
2357:
2339:
2327:
2325:, p. 176.
2310:
2298:
2286:
2284:, p. 173.
2274:
2272:, p. 102.
2262:
2260:, p. 114.
2250:
2233:
2226:
2208:
2201:
2181:
2164:
2139:
2109:
2102:
2084:
2072:
2065:
2044:
2032:
2020:
2008:
1996:
1966:
1959:
1941:
1919:
1907:
1892:
1880:
1868:
1861:
1834:
1832:, p. 134.
1822:
1795:
1767:
1739:
1727:
1715:
1677:
1654:
1637:
1613:
1596:
1581:
1562:
1560:, p. 423.
1547:
1526:
1503:
1501:, p. 130.
1488:
1486:, p. 235.
1473:
1451:
1439:
1437:, p. 128.
1427:
1415:
1413:, p. 131.
1403:
1391:
1379:
1367:
1355:
1340:
1338:, p. 231.
1328:
1307:
1295:
1283:
1271:
1254:
1229:
1227:, p. 127.
1217:
1205:
1203:, p. 122.
1193:
1157:
1117:
1110:
1085:
1050:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1037:
1031:
1026:
1020:
1019:
1003:
1000:
983:
980:
920:
919:
910:
909:
901:
900:
899:
898:
897:
895:
892:
870:
867:
827:Élisabethville
804:
800:general strike
782:
779:
771:
768:
695:
692:
688:Burma Campaign
675:
672:
640:Pietro Gazzera
615:Force Publique
600:Main article:
597:
594:
566:Force Publique
553:
552:Force Publique
550:
548:
545:
505:
502:
445:
442:
316:
314:
313:Allied support
311:
309:
306:
254:Hubert Pierlot
218:Force Publique
200:
197:
110:
107:
79:Burma Campaign
67:Force Publique
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4949:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4909:
4907:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4853:
4851:
4845:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4808:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4776:
4775:
4772:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4754:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4702:Liechtenstein
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4677:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4647:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4602:
4600:
4596:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4523:
4520:
4519:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4492:
4491:
4488:
4484:
4481:
4480:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4465:
4463:
4459:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4437:Latin America
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4419:
4417:
4415:South America
4413:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4376:
4375:
4374:United States
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4341:
4339:
4337:North America
4335:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4298:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4241:Belgian Congo
4239:
4238:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4221:
4216:
4214:
4209:
4207:
4202:
4201:
4198:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4177:
4172:
4168:
4165:
4161:
4160:
4156:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4108:
4104:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4092:Social issues
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4039:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4027:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3973:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3961:
3949:
3946:
3945:
3944:
3941:
3937:
3934:
3933:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3911:
3910:
3907:
3903:
3900:
3899:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3886:
3883:
3882:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3869:
3866:
3865:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3840:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3828:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3787:Deforestation
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3774:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3762:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3745:
3744:
3743:Kivu conflict
3741:
3737:
3734:
3733:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3695:
3692:
3691:
3690:
3687:
3683:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3662:Early history
3660:
3659:
3657:
3655:
3651:
3646:
3639:
3634:
3632:
3627:
3625:
3620:
3619:
3616:
3612:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3594:(in French).
3593:
3588:
3584:
3578:
3574:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3556:
3553:(2): 485–514.
3552:
3549:(in French).
3548:
3543:
3539:
3533:
3529:
3524:
3520:
3517:(in French).
3516:
3515:
3509:
3505:
3500:
3496:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3460:
3459:
3454:
3453:
3447:
3446:
3441:
3437:
3436:
3431:
3430:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3406:
3402:
3400:9781787380653
3396:
3392:
3391:
3385:
3381:
3375:
3370:
3369:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3334:9781783376070
3330:
3326:
3325:
3319:
3315:
3309:
3305:
3300:
3296:
3294:9789058677594
3290:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3235:
3231:
3229:9789462701793
3225:
3221:
3220:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3201:
3195:
3191:
3189:9781139501415
3185:
3181:
3180:
3174:
3170:
3164:
3157:
3156:
3150:
3147:(1): 269–288.
3146:
3143:(in French).
3142:
3135:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3112:
3107:
3106:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3033:
3029:
3027:9781609258801
3023:
3019:
3018:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2975:
2971:
2969:9781107053205
2965:
2961:
2960:
2954:
2953:
2940:
2935:
2919:
2912:
2905:
2900:
2892:
2890:0-19-507942-6
2886:
2882:
2875:
2868:. p. A8.
2867:
2860:
2852:
2850:0-520-20376-3
2846:
2842:
2838:
2832:
2821:
2817:
2810:
2803:
2787:
2783:
2776:
2769:
2764:
2756:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2733:, p. 77.
2732:
2727:
2719:
2713:
2709:
2702:
2700:
2698:
2696:
2688:
2683:
2675:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2662:
2660:
2658:
2656:
2654:
2637:
2630:
2615:
2614:
2610:
2603:
2595:
2589:
2581:
2575:
2571:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2549:
2547:0-299-12070-8
2543:
2539:
2532:
2517:
2513:
2507:
2505:
2496:
2490:
2486:
2479:
2477:
2468:
2462:
2454:
2448:
2444:
2437:
2435:
2433:
2431:
2422:
2420:0-299-12070-8
2416:
2412:
2405:
2403:
2394:
2390:
2389:
2384:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2366:
2361:
2353:
2349:
2343:
2337:, p. 98.
2336:
2331:
2324:
2319:
2317:
2315:
2308:, p. 32.
2307:
2306:Williams 2018
2302:
2295:
2290:
2283:
2278:
2271:
2266:
2259:
2254:
2246:
2245:
2237:
2229:
2223:
2219:
2212:
2204:
2198:
2194:
2193:
2185:
2177:
2176:
2168:
2153:
2149:
2143:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2113:
2105:
2099:
2095:
2088:
2081:
2076:
2068:
2066:0-7864-7168-9
2062:
2058:
2051:
2049:
2041:
2036:
2030:, p. 84.
2029:
2024:
2017:
2012:
2006:, p. 36.
2005:
2000:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1971:
1962:
1960:0-9529693-0-0
1956:
1952:
1945:
1937:
1930:
1927:Buzin, Jean.
1923:
1917:, p. 62.
1916:
1911:
1905:, p. 98.
1904:
1899:
1897:
1890:, p. 50.
1889:
1888:Williams 2018
1884:
1877:
1876:Williams 2018
1872:
1864:
1862:0-520-07186-7
1858:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1838:
1831:
1826:
1810:
1806:
1799:
1784:
1783:
1778:
1771:
1756:
1755:
1750:
1743:
1737:, p. 83.
1736:
1731:
1724:
1719:
1703:
1702:
1697:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1674:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1650:
1649:
1641:
1633:
1632:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1609:
1608:
1600:
1594:, p. 99.
1593:
1588:
1586:
1579:, p. 82.
1578:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1559:
1554:
1552:
1543:
1537:
1529:
1523:
1519:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1500:
1495:
1493:
1485:
1480:
1478:
1469:
1468:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1448:
1443:
1436:
1431:
1424:
1419:
1412:
1407:
1400:
1395:
1388:
1383:
1376:
1371:
1364:
1359:
1352:
1347:
1345:
1337:
1332:
1326:, p. 81.
1325:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1312:
1304:
1299:
1292:
1287:
1280:
1275:
1268:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1239:
1233:
1226:
1221:
1214:
1209:
1202:
1197:
1189:
1183:
1175:
1174:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1152:
1147:
1143:
1140:(in French).
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1121:
1113:
1107:
1103:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1051:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1006:
999:
997:
993:
989:
982:Commemoration
979:
977:
973:
967:
963:
961:
957:
953:
949:
948:
936:
934:
928:
926:
914:
905:
891:
887:
884:
880:
876:
866:
864:
860:
856:
851:
844:
839:
835:
832:
828:
824:
820:
814:
808:
803:
801:
796:
787:
777:
767:
765:
759:
756:
755:paternalistic
751:
748:
744:
743:New York City
740:
736:
726:
722:
719:
714:
710:
706:
702:
691:
689:
685:
681:
671:
669:
665:
661:
656:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
628:
620:
616:
612:
608:
603:
593:
591:
585:
583:
579:
578:Stokes mortar
575:
571:
567:
558:
544:
542:
538:
534:
530:
525:
521:
517:
512:
501:
498:
493:
491:
487:
483:
482:Edgar Sengier
479:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
441:
438:
433:
430:
426:
422:
417:
415:
411:
410:Forced labour
407:
406:labour unrest
403:
402:
392:
387:
383:
380:
376:
372:
369:(the Congo's
368:
364:
363:sterling area
360:
356:
348:of that name.
347:
343:
339:
334:
329:
326:
320:
305:
303:
297:
295:
291:
287:
283:
277:
275:
271:
270:
264:
258:
255:
246:
241:
237:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
214:
211:
207:
196:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
169:
167:
162:
158:
154:
150:
149:Ruanda-Urundi
147:in 1908, and
146:
142:
141:Belgian Congo
134:
130:
125:
120:
116:
106:
104:
100:
94:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
51:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
32:Belgian Congo
25:
20:
16:
4833:Vatican City
4752:Soviet Union
4500:West Sumatra
4369:Newfoundland
4323:South Africa
4318:Sierra Leone
4296:North Africa
4240:
4082:Prostitution
4057:Demographics
3981:Central Bank
3880:Human rights
3848:Constitution
3782:Conservation
3694:World War II
3693:
3611:
3595:
3591:
3572:
3563:
3550:
3546:
3527:
3518:
3512:
3503:
3483:. Brussels:
3480:
3471:
3467:
3444:
3409:
3389:
3367:
3347:
3323:
3303:
3283:
3246:
3242:
3218:
3199:
3178:
3154:
3144:
3140:
3104:
3069:
3065:
3040:
3036:
3016:
2982:
2978:
2958:
2939:Stanard 2009
2934:
2922:. Retrieved
2911:
2899:
2880:
2874:
2865:
2859:
2840:
2831:
2820:the original
2815:
2802:
2790:. Retrieved
2785:
2775:
2763:
2744:
2738:
2726:
2707:
2682:
2673:
2640:. Retrieved
2638:. Expo Congo
2629:
2617:. Retrieved
2611:
2602:
2569:
2537:
2531:
2519:. Retrieved
2484:
2442:
2410:
2392:
2386:
2360:
2351:
2342:
2335:Stanard 2014
2330:
2301:
2289:
2277:
2270:Gondola 2002
2265:
2253:
2243:
2236:
2217:
2211:
2191:
2184:
2174:
2167:
2155:. Retrieved
2142:
2130:. Retrieved
2126:the original
2121:
2112:
2093:
2087:
2082:, p. 3.
2075:
2056:
2042:, p. 5.
2035:
2023:
2011:
2004:Sampson 1957
1999:
1987:. Retrieved
1982:
1950:
1944:
1935:
1922:
1915:Willame 1972
1910:
1903:Gondola 2002
1883:
1871:
1848:
1837:
1825:
1813:. Retrieved
1809:the original
1798:
1786:. Retrieved
1780:
1770:
1758:. Retrieved
1752:
1742:
1730:
1718:
1706:. Retrieved
1704:(in Flemish)
1699:
1647:
1640:
1630:
1606:
1599:
1592:Gondola 2002
1517:
1466:
1442:
1430:
1418:
1406:
1394:
1382:
1370:
1358:
1331:
1298:
1286:
1274:
1245:. Retrieved
1232:
1220:
1208:
1196:
1176:. Jerusalem.
1172:
1141:
1137:
1120:
1101:
1076:. Retrieved
1068:
985:
972:Soviet Union
968:
964:
960:Norbert Muké
956:Eugene Ebeya
952:Louis Bobozo
945:
942:
930:
922:
888:
872:
852:
848:
821:, including
816:
810:
806:
795:trade unions
792:
764:urbanisation
760:
752:
731:
709:enemy aliens
697:
677:
666:and British
657:
624:
605:
586:
563:
507:
494:
447:
434:
418:
414:profiteering
399:
396:
378:
371:central bank
351:
340:, 1942. His
322:
318:
302:Adolf Hitler
298:
293:
286:Camille Gutt
278:
273:
267:
259:
250:
234:Stanleyville
215:
206:LĂ©opoldville
202:
173:Nazi Germany
170:
168:production.
138:
133:LĂ©opoldville
99:Soviet Union
95:
59:atomic bombs
52:
40:World War II
29:
24:LĂ©opoldville
15:
4881:New Zealand
4847:Oceania and
4801:Switzerland
4762:Byelorussia
4717:Netherlands
4559:Philippines
4399:Puerto Rico
4354:El Salvador
3976:Agriculture
3566:(in Dutch).
3474:(1): 38–58.
2949:Works cited
2904:Martin 1985
2258:Geenen 2019
2080:Weller 1942
2040:Weller 1942
1985:(in French)
1788:3 September
1760:9 September
1558:Martin 1985
621:in Ethiopia
465:atomic bomb
453:Shinkolobwe
449:Uranium-235
355:devaluation
195:in France.
101:during the
77:and in the
44:Allied side
4906:Categories
4876:New Guinea
4856:Antarctica
4849:Antarctica
4838:Yugoslavia
4757:Azerbaijan
4712:Luxembourg
4495:New Guinea
4394:New Mexico
4384:California
4291:Madagascar
4276:Gold Coast
4271:The Gambia
4047:Corruption
3909:Parliament
3875:Government
3792:Ecoregions
3682:Atrocities
3521:(1): 7–34.
3249:: 87–109.
2731:Young 1965
2365:Pepin 2011
1423:Heyse 1946
1375:Heyse 1946
1243:. Urome.be
1046:References
996:Schaerbeek
883:Luluabourg
823:Jadotville
774:See also:
516:Forminière
294:arrêté-loi
274:arrêté-loi
269:arrêté-loi
191:, fled to
109:Background
75:Madagascar
4861:Australia
4826:Gibraltar
4784:Catalonia
4707:Lithuania
4569:Singapore
4517:Indochina
4507:Hong Kong
4483:Manchuria
4452:Venezuela
4422:Argentina
4359:Greenland
4313:Nyasaland
4077:Languages
4062:Education
4016:Transport
3986:Companies
3931:President
3858:Elections
3807:Volcanoes
3797:Mountains
3765:Geography
3271:145671886
3263:1543-7787
3125:1096-2905
3094:151174421
3086:1750-0184
3057:220318599
3007:245917939
2588:cite book
2461:cite book
1536:cite book
1182:cite book
1036:(1943–44)
701:a quarter
646:, in the
210:Admiralty
91:Palestine
4747:Slovenia
4742:Slovakia
4732:Portugal
4620:Bulgaria
4574:Thailand
4549:Mongolia
4522:Cambodia
4442:Suriname
4432:Colombia
4256:Ethiopia
4180:Category
4130:Football
4087:Religion
3897:Military
3831:Politics
3812:Wildlife
3604:25729091
3442:(1943).
3345:(1942).
2924:10 March
2839:(1996).
2642:8 August
2619:8 August
1989:20 April
1846:(1990).
1815:9 August
1002:See also
976:Cold War
859:Équateur
580:and the
524:De Beers
486:New York
425:palm oil
393:'s mines
382:rubber.
379:de facto
342:Spitfire
193:Bordeaux
181:occupied
135:in 1938.
103:Cold War
4789:Galicia
4767:Ukraine
4737:Romania
4687:Ireland
4682:Iceland
4672:Hungary
4662:Germany
4640:Finland
4635:Estonia
4630:Denmark
4615:Belgium
4610:Austria
4605:Albania
4447:Uruguay
4379:Arizona
4306:Morocco
4301:Tunisia
4286:Liberia
4164:Outline
4120:Cuisine
4107:Culture
4030:Society
4011:Tourism
3964:Economy
3654:History
3485:KLM-MRA
3357:1452395
3209:8912360
2792:13 June
2521:18 July
1983:Le Soir
1247:19 July
1078:17 July
988:Faradje
877:led by
781:Strikes
652:malaria
636:cut off
457:Katanga
444:Uranium
357:of the
87:Nigeria
55:Uranium
4796:Sweden
4727:Poland
4722:Norway
4697:Latvia
4667:Greece
4645:France
4598:Europe
4584:Turkey
4544:Malaya
4473:Ceylon
4427:Brazil
4389:Nevada
4364:Mexico
4344:Canada
4234:Africa
4185:Portal
4115:Cinema
4067:Health
4001:Mining
3991:Energy
3914:Senate
3802:Rivers
3777:Cities
3602:
3579:
3534:
3491:
3418:307971
3416:
3397:
3376:
3355:
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3310:
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3186:
3165:
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2999:181666
2997:
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2224:
2199:
2157:2 July
2132:2 July
2100:
2063:
1957:
1859:
1708:26 May
1524:
1108:
947:Évolué
894:Legacy
863:Matadi
831:francs
770:Unrest
745:, the
705:curfew
461:radium
421:copper
263:rubber
230:Allies
166:cotton
4871:Nauru
4816:Wales
4774:Spain
4692:Italy
4579:Tibet
4554:Nepal
4539:Japan
4512:India
4478:China
4468:Burma
4281:Kenya
4251:Egypt
4171:Index
4140:Music
4135:Media
4097:Women
4052:Crime
3731:2000s
3600:JSTOR
3267:S2CID
3159:(PDF)
3137:(PDF)
3090:S2CID
3053:S2CID
3003:S2CID
2995:JSTOR
2823:(PDF)
2812:(PDF)
1932:(PDF)
1853:(PDF)
1241:(PDF)
933:right
855:KasaĂŻ
664:Egypt
131:, in
83:Egypt
38:) in
4589:Tuva
4534:Iraq
4529:Iran
4461:Asia
4349:Cuba
4125:Flag
3948:List
3936:List
3885:LGBT
3577:ISBN
3532:ISBN
3489:ISBN
3414:OCLC
3395:ISBN
3374:ISBN
3353:OCLC
3329:ISBN
3308:ISBN
3289:ISBN
3259:ISSN
3224:ISBN
3205:OCLC
3184:ISBN
3163:ISBN
3121:ISSN
3111:ISBN
3082:ISSN
3022:ISBN
2964:ISBN
2926:2017
2885:ISBN
2845:ISBN
2794:2019
2749:ISBN
2712:ISBN
2644:2013
2621:2013
2594:link
2574:ISBN
2542:ISBN
2523:2013
2489:ISBN
2467:link
2447:ISBN
2415:ISBN
2222:ISBN
2197:ISBN
2159:2013
2134:2013
2098:ISBN
2061:ISBN
1991:2020
1955:ISBN
1857:ISBN
1817:2013
1790:2013
1762:2013
1710:2020
1542:link
1522:ISBN
1249:2013
1188:link
1142:1077
1106:ISBN
1080:2013
958:and
925:left
825:and
644:SaĂŻo
564:The
423:and
117:and
89:and
3251:doi
3074:doi
3045:doi
2987:doi
2516:BBC
2122:VOX
1146:doi
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