Great Depression - Knowledge

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rates remained close to zero. Before March 1933, people expected further deflation and a recession so that even interest rates at zero did not stimulate investment. But when Roosevelt announced major regime changes, people began to expect inflation and an economic expansion. With these positive expectations, interest rates at zero began to stimulate investment just as they were expected to do. Roosevelt's fiscal and monetary policy regime change helped make his policy objectives credible. The expectation of higher future income and higher future inflation stimulated demand and investment. The analysis suggests that the elimination of the policy dogmas of the gold standard, a balanced budget in times of crisis and small government led endogenously to a large shift in expectation that accounts for about 70–80% of the recovery of output and prices from 1933 to 1937. If the regime change had not happened and the Hoover policy had continued, the economy would have continued its free fall in 1933, and output would have been 30% lower in 1937 than in 1933.

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two days, 19–20 June. Collapse was at hand. U.S. President Herbert Hoover called for a moratorium on payment of war reparations. This angered Paris, which depended on a steady flow of German payments, but it slowed the crisis down, and the moratorium was agreed to in July 1931. An international conference in London later in July produced no agreements but on 19 August a standstill agreement froze Germany's foreign liabilities for six months. Germany received emergency funding from private banks in New York as well as the Bank of International Settlements and the Bank of England. The funding only slowed the process. Industrial failures began in Germany, a major bank closed in July and a two-day holiday for all German banks was declared. Business failures became more frequent in July, and spread to Romania and Hungary.

2903: 1945: 495: 2237: 1099:, which required 40% gold backing of Federal Reserve Notes issued. By the late 1920s, the Federal Reserve had almost hit the limit of allowable credit that could be backed by the gold in its possession. This credit was in the form of Federal Reserve demand notes. A "promise of gold" is not as good as "gold in the hand", particularly when they only had enough gold to cover 40% of the Federal Reserve Notes outstanding. During the bank panics, a portion of those demand notes was redeemed for Federal Reserve gold. Since the Federal Reserve had hit its limit on allowable credit, any reduction in gold in its vaults had to be accompanied by a greater reduction in credit. On 5 April 1933, President Roosevelt signed 1692: 555:. This angered Paris, which depended on a steady flow of German payments, but it slowed the crisis down, and the moratorium was agreed to in July 1931. An International conference in London later in July produced no agreements but on 19 August a standstill agreement froze Germany's foreign liabilities for six months. Germany received emergency funding from private banks in New York as well as the Bank of International Settlements and the Bank of England. The funding only slowed the process. Industrial failures began in Germany, a major bank closed in July and a two-day holiday for all German banks was declared. Business failures were more frequent in July, and spread to 2376: 371: 333:, the American stock market crashed 11% at the opening bell. Actions to stabilize the market failed, and on 28 October, Black Monday, the market crashed another 12%. The panic peaked the next day on Black Tuesday, when the market saw another 11% drop. Thousands of investors were ruined, and billions of dollars had been lost; many stocks could not be sold at any price. The market recovered 12% on Wednesday, but the damage had been done. Though the market recovered from 14 November until 17 April 1930, it entered a prolonged slump. From 17 April 1930 until 8 July 1932, the market continued to lose 89% of its value. 2156:

Greece's foreign exchange reserves being almost totally wiped out in 1932. Remittances from abroad declined sharply and the value of the drachma began to plummet from 77 drachmas to the dollar in March 1931 to 111 drachmas to the dollar in April 1931. This was especially harmful to Greece as the country relied on imports from the UK, France, and the Middle East for many necessities. Greece went off the gold standard in April 1932 and declared a moratorium on all interest payments. The country also adopted protectionist policies such as import quotas, which several European countries did during the period.

821: 1170: 3165: 2922:£15 million fiduciary note slowed, but did not reverse the British crisis. The financial crisis now caused a major political crisis in Britain in August 1931. With deficits mounting, the bankers demanded a balanced budget; the divided cabinet of Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald's Labour government agreed; it proposed to raise taxes, cut spending and most controversially, to cut unemployment benefits by 20%. The attack on welfare was totally unacceptable to the Labour movement. MacDonald wanted to resign, but King George V insisted he remain and form an all-party coalition " 3059: 337: 567:

fiduciary note slowed, but did not reverse, the British crisis. The financial crisis now caused a major political crisis in Britain in August 1931. With deficits mounting, the bankers demanded a balanced budget; the divided cabinet of Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald's Labour government agreed; it proposed to raise taxes, cut spending, and most controversially, to cut unemployment benefits 20%. The attack on welfare was unacceptable to the Labour movement. MacDonald wanted to resign, but King George V insisted he remain and form an all-party coalition "

1537: 120: 994: 2245: 132: 10525: 17715: 3454: 1045:). By not lowering interest rates, by not increasing the monetary base and by not injecting liquidity into the banking system to prevent it from crumbling, the Federal Reserve passively watched the transformation of a normal recession into the Great Depression. Friedman and Schwartz argued that the downward turn in the economy, starting with the stock market crash, would merely have been an ordinary recession if the Federal Reserve had taken aggressive action. This view was endorsed in 2002 by 10489: 2271:(IRI) was formed in January 1933 and took control of the bank-owned companies, suddenly giving Italy the largest state-owned industrial sector in Europe (excluding the USSR). IRI did rather well with its new responsibilities—restructuring, modernising and rationalising as much as it could. It was a significant factor in post-1945 development. But it took the Italian economy until 1935 to recover the manufacturing levels of 1930—a position that was only 60% better than that of 1913. 2846: 2435: 1721: 1507:

unless the economy were to acquire an increase in material goods. As a result, the upswing lacks a solid base. It is not real prosperity. It is illusory prosperity. It did not develop from an increase in economic wealth, i.e. the accumulation of savings made available for productive investment. Rather, it arose because the credit expansion created the illusion of such an increase. Sooner or later, it must become apparent that this economic situation is built on sand."

1267:; a further price level decline would then result in a debt deflationary spiral. According to Bernanke, a small decline in the price level simply reallocates wealth from debtors to creditors without doing damage to the economy. But when the deflation is severe, falling asset prices along with debtor bankruptcies lead to a decline in the nominal value of assets on bank balance sheets. Banks will react by tightening their credit conditions, which in turn leads to a 3649: 2926:". The Conservative and Liberals parties signed on, along with a small cadre of Labour, but the vast majority of Labour leaders denounced MacDonald as a traitor for leading the new government. Britain went off the gold standard, and suffered relatively less than other major countries in the Great Depression. In the 1931 British election, the Labour Party was virtually destroyed, leaving MacDonald as prime minister for a largely Conservative coalition. 841: 1014: 300: 717: 1639: 584: 2663:

devastating hurricane in 1928 and the plummeting demand from global markets in the latter half of the decade. 1930 unemployment on the island was roughly 36% and by 1933 Puerto Rico's per capita income dropped 30% (by comparison, unemployment in the United States in 1930 was approximately 8% reaching a height of 25% in 1933). To provide relief and economic reform, the United States government and Puerto Rican politicians such as

1793: 10501: 3621: 3003: 3565:, had extensively studied the Great Depression as part of his doctoral work at MIT, and implemented policies to manipulate the money supply and interest rates in ways that were not done in the 1930s. Bernanke's policies will undoubtedly be analyzed and scrutinized in the years to come, as economists debate the wisdom of his choices. In 2011, one journalist contrasted the Great Depression of the 1930s as opposed to the 932: 3635: 10513: 2410:

leaving people desperate and charities unable to cope. Work relief schemes were the only government support available to the unemployed, the rate of which by the early 1930s was officially around 15%, but unofficially nearly twice that level (official figures excluded Māori and women). In 1932, riots occurred among the unemployed in three of the country's main cities (

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unemployment and hardship among peasants, labourers, colonial auxiliaries, and artisans. The budgets of colonial governments were cut, which forced the reduction in ongoing infrastructure projects, such as the building and upgrading of roads, ports and communications. The budget cuts delayed the schedule for creating systems of higher education.

3500:, though the 1929 crisis was called "The Crash", and the term "panic" has since fallen out of use. At the time of the Great Depression, the term "The Great Depression" was already used to refer to the period 1873–96 (in the United Kingdom), or more narrowly 1873–79 (in the United States), which has retroactively been renamed the 356:(privately run, no relation to the government). Unable to pay out to all of its creditors, the bank failed. Among the 608 American banks that closed in November and December 1930, the Bank of United States accounted for a third of the total $ 550 million deposits lost and, with its closure, bank failures reached a critical mass. 2114:, they remained the largest party, and Hitler was appointed as Chancellor the following January. The government formation deal was designed to give Hitler's conservative coalition partners many checks on his power, but over the next few months, the Nazis manoeuvred to consolidate a single-party dictatorship. 1930:

educational reform in which "rural schools" designed to modernize agriculture would stem the flow of under-employed farm workers to cities where unemployment was high. Students were trained in traditional arts, crafts, and farming techniques and were then expected to return to their own villages and towns.

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But on the other hand, the depression led the area governments to develop new local industries and expand consumption and production. Following the example of the New Deal, governments in the area approved regulations and created or improved welfare institutions that helped millions of new industrial

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on all civilian bureaucrats in the Japanese government. From 1934, the military's dominance of the government continued to grow. Instead of reducing deficit spending, the government introduced price controls and rationing schemes that reduced, but did not eliminate inflation, which remained a problem

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How much India was affected has been hotly debated. Historians have argued that the Great Depression slowed long-term industrial development. Apart from two sectors—jute and coal—the economy was little affected. However, there were major negative impacts on the jute industry, as world demand fell and

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Icelandic post-World War I prosperity came to an end with the outbreak of the Great Depression. The Depression hit Iceland hard as the value of exports plummeted. The total value of Icelandic exports fell from 74 million kronur in 1929 to 48 million in 1932, and was not to rise again to the

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movements, as well as with investor nervousness at harsh government financial policies, investors withdrew their short-term money from Germany as confidence spiraled downward. The Reichsbank lost 150 million marks in the first week of June, 540 million in the second, and 150 million in

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also acted energetically to modernize the legal and penal systems, stabilize prices, amortize debts, reform the banking and currency systems, build railroads and highways, improve public health facilities, legislate against traffic in narcotics and augment industrial and agricultural production. On 3

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Outstanding debts became heavier, because prices and incomes fell by 20–50% but the debts remained at the same dollar amount. After the panic of 1929 and during the first 10 months of 1930, 744 U.S. banks failed. (In all, 9,000 banks failed during the 1930s.) By April 1933, around $ 7 billion in

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agreed that monetary factors played important roles both in the worldwide economic decline and eventual recovery. Bernanke also saw a strong role for institutional factors, particularly the rebuilding and restructuring of the financial system, and pointed out that the Depression should be examined in

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The world financial crisis now began to overwhelm Britain; investors around the world started withdrawing their gold from London at the rate of £2.5 million per day. Credits of £25 million each from the Bank of France and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and an issue of £15 million

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Many economists have argued that the sharp decline in international trade after 1930 helped to worsen the depression, especially for countries significantly dependent on foreign trade. Most historians and economists blame the Act for worsening the depression by seriously reducing international trade

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dropped 8.4% on 12 August 1932. Where we have experienced great volatility with large intraday swings in the past two months, in 2011, we have not experienced any record-shattering daily percentage drops to the tune of the 1930s. Where many of us may have that '30s feeling, in light of the DJIA, the

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If we contrast the 1930s with the Crash of 2008 where gold went through the roof, it is clear that the U.S. dollar on the gold standard was a completely different animal in comparison to the fiat free-floating U.S. dollar currency we have today. Both currencies in 1929 and 2008 were the U.S. dollar,

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Producers reduced their expenditures on durable goods, and inventories declined, but personal income was only 15% lower than it had been at the peak in 1937. As unemployment rose, consumers' expenditures declined, leading to further cutbacks in production. By May 1938 retail sales began to increase,

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The Great Depression caused mass immigration to the Soviet Union, mostly from Finland and Germany. Soviet Russia was at first happy to help these immigrants settle, because they believed they were victims of capitalism who had come to help the Soviet cause. However, when the Soviet Union entered the

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In 1932, 90% of German reparation payments were cancelled (in the 1950s, Germany repaid all its missed reparations debts). Widespread unemployment reached 25% as every sector was hurt. The government did not increase government spending to deal with Germany's growing crisis, as they were afraid that

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In rural and small-town areas, women expanded their operation of vegetable gardens to include as much food production as possible. In the United States, agricultural organizations sponsored programs to teach housewives how to optimize their gardens and to raise poultry for meat and eggs. Rural women

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At the time of the Depression, the Soviet economy was growing steadily, fuelled by intensive investment in heavy industry. The apparent economic success of the Soviet Union at a time when the capitalist world was in crisis led many Western intellectuals to view the Soviet system favorably. Jennifer

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fell by 51% in 1933 and 56% in 1934, relative to 1928. However, real wages fell less due to the government's policy of decreasing cost of living, particularly food expenditures (food prices were down by 65% in 1935 compared to 1928 price levels). Material conditions deprivation led to strikes, some

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tried to adopt deflationary policies to stave off the crises that were going on in other countries, but these largely failed. For a brief period, the drachma was pegged to the U.S. dollar, but this was unsustainable given the country's large trade deficit and the only long-term effects of this were

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wrote in the 1930s: "Credit expansion cannot increase the supply of real goods. It merely brings about a rearrangement. It diverts capital investment away from the course prescribed by the state of economic wealth and market conditions. It causes production to pursue paths which it would not follow

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Keynes's basic idea was simple: to keep people fully employed, governments have to run deficits when the economy is slowing, as the private sector would not invest enough to keep production at the normal level and bring the economy out of recession. Keynesian economists called on governments during

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into sandwiches and soups. They sewed and patched clothing, traded with their neighbors for outgrown items, and made do with colder homes. New furniture and appliances were postponed until better days. Many women also worked outside the home, or took boarders, did laundry for trade or cash, and did

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and other items for themselves and their families and homes from feed sacks. In American cities, African American women quiltmakers enlarged their activities, promoted collaboration, and trained neophytes. Quilts were created for practical use from various inexpensive materials and increased social

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is credited with formalizing the phrase, though Hoover is widely credited with popularizing the term, informally referring to the downturn as a depression, with such uses as "Economic depression cannot be cured by legislative action or executive pronouncement" (December 1930, Message to Congress),

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And the great owners, who must lose their land in an upheaval, the great owners with access to history, with eyes to read history and to know the great fact: when property accumulates in too few hands it is taken away. And that companion fact: when a majority of the people are hungry and cold they

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As the Great Depression ground on and unemployment soared, intellectuals began unfavorably comparing their faltering capitalist economy to Russian Communism. Karl Marx had predicted that capitalism would fall under the weight of its own contradictions, and now with the economic crisis gripping the

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economies had been established through American and British investment in Latin American exports to the world. As a result, Latin Americans export industries felt the depression quickly. World prices for commodities such as wheat, coffee and copper plunged. Exports from all of Latin America to the

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Protectionist policies coupled with a weak drachma, stifling imports, allowed the Greek industry to expand during the Great Depression. In 1939, the Greek industrial output was 179% that of 1928. These industries were for the most part "built on sand" as one report of the Bank of Greece put it, as

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economic policy, creating a network of client states and economic allies in central Europe and Latin America. By cutting wages and taking control of labor unions, plus public works spending, unemployment fell significantly by 1935. Large-scale military spending played a major role in the recovery.

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had recently become a major export crop in Kenya and Tanganyika. During the depression, it suffered severely from low prices and marketing problems that affected all colonial commodities in Africa. Sisal producers established centralized controls for the export of their fibre. There was widespread

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According to this view, the root cause of the Great Depression was a global over-investment in heavy industry capacity compared to wages and earnings from independent businesses, such as farms. The proposed solution was for the government to pump money into the consumers' pockets. That is, it must

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I think the Austrian business-cycle theory has done the world a great deal of harm. If you go back to the 1930s, which is a key point, here you had the Austrians sitting in London, Hayek and Lionel Robbins, and saying you just have to let the bottom drop out of the world. You've just got to let it

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took office. Consumer prices turned from deflation to a mild inflation, industrial production bottomed out in March 1933, and investment doubled in 1933 with a turnaround in March 1933. There were no monetary forces to explain that turnaround. Money supply was still falling and short-term interest

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argued that the predominant factor leading to the Great Depression was a vicious circle of deflation and growing over-indebtedness. He outlined nine factors interacting with one another under conditions of debt and deflation to create the mechanics of boom to bust. The chain of events proceeded as

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In Germany, the government tried to reshape private household consumption under the Four-Year Plan of 1936 to achieve German economic self-sufficiency. The Nazi women's organizations, other propaganda agencies and the authorities all attempted to shape such consumption as economic self-sufficiency

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In France, very slow population growth, especially in comparison to Germany continued to be a serious issue in the 1930s. Support for increasing welfare programs during the depression included a focus on women in the family. The Conseil Supérieur de la Natalité campaigned for provisions enacted in

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Women's primary role was as housewives; without a steady flow of family income, their work became much harder in dealing with food and clothing and medical care. Birthrates fell everywhere, as children were postponed until families could financially support them. The average birthrate for 14 major

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had brought considerable wealth to the United States and Western Europe. The year 1929 dawned with considerable economic progress in the American economy. A small stock crash occurred on 25 March 1929, but the crash was stabilized. Despite signs of economic trouble, the market continued to improve

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Economic historians usually consider the catalyst of the Great Depression to be the devastating Wall Street Crash. However, some dispute this, seeing the crash less as a cause of the Depression and more a symptom of the rising nervousness of investors partly due to gradual price declines caused by

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had regained the levels of the late 1920s, except for unemployment, which remained high at 11%, although this was considerably lower than the 25% unemployment rate seen in 1933. In the spring of 1937, American industrial production exceeded that of 1929 and remained level until June 1937. In June

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By 1932, unemployment had reached 23.6%, peaking in early 1933 at 25%. Those releasing from prison during this period had an especially difficult time finding employment given the stigma of their criminal records, which often led to recidivism out of economic desperation. Drought persisted in the

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production noted an 89% decrease. On the other hand, electrotechnical, leather, and paper industries noted marginal increases in production output. Overall, industrial production decreased by 41%. A distinct feature of the Great Depression in Poland was the de-concentration of industry, as larger

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was especially vulnerable to worldwide depression, as it relied almost entirely on agricultural exports to the United Kingdom for its economy. The drop in exports led to a lack of disposable income from the farmers, who were the mainstay of the local economy. Jobs disappeared and wages plummeted,

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The devaluation of the currency had an immediate effect. Japanese textiles began to displace British textiles in export markets. The deficit spending proved to be most profound and went into the purchase of munitions for the armed forces. By 1933, Japan was already out of the depression. By 1934,

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Political protests were not common. However, there was a growing demand that the paternalistic claims be honored by colonial governments to respond vigorously. The theme was that economic reforms were more urgently needed than political reforms. French West Africa launched an extensive program of

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the country hardest hit by the Great Depression because 80% of government revenue came from exports of copper and nitrates, which were in low demand. Chile initially felt the impact of the Great Depression in 1930, when GDP dropped 14%, mining income declined 27%, and export earnings fell 28%. By

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World War II had a dramatic effect on many parts of the American economy. Government-financed capital spending accounted for only 5% of the annual U.S. investment in industrial capital in 1940; by 1943, the government accounted for 67% of U.S. capital investment. The massive war spending doubled

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Oral history provides evidence for how housewives in a modern industrial city handled shortages of money and resources. Often they updated strategies their mothers used when they were growing up in poor families. Cheap foods were used, such as soups, beans and noodles. They purchased the cheapest

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According to later analysis, the earliness with which a country left the gold standard reliably predicted its economic recovery. For example, The UK and Scandinavia, which left the gold standard in 1931, recovered much earlier than France and Belgium, which remained on gold much longer. Countries

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At the beginning, governments and businesses spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the corresponding period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom suffered severe losses in the stock market the previous year, cut expenditures by 10%. In addition, beginning in the

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which raised tariffs on thousands of imported items. The intent of the Act was to encourage the purchase of American-made products by increasing the cost of imported goods, while raising revenue for the federal government and protecting farmers. Most countries that traded with the U.S. increased

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The effects on the northern industrial areas of Britain were immediate and devastating, as demand for traditional industrial products collapsed. By the end of 1930 unemployment had more than doubled from 1 million to 2.5 million (20% of the insured workforce), and exports had fallen in

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The policies had the effect of driving up the cost of food imports and depleting foreign currency reserves, leading to economic impasse by 1936. Nazi Germany faced a choice of either reversing course or pressing ahead with rearmament and autarky. Hitler chose the latter route, which according to

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Economists and economic historians are almost evenly split as to whether the traditional monetary explanation that monetary forces were the primary cause of the Great Depression is right, or the traditional Keynesian explanation that a fall in autonomous spending, particularly investment, is the

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that downplay or reject the explanations of the Keynesians and monetarists. The consensus among demand-driven theories is that a large-scale loss of confidence led to a sudden reduction in consumption and investment spending. Once panic and deflation set in, many people believed they could avoid

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Among the few women in the labor force, layoffs were less common in the white-collar jobs and they were typically found in light manufacturing work. However, there was a widespread demand to limit families to one paid job, so that wives might lose employment if their husband was employed. Across

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ceased exchanging pound notes for gold and the pound was floated on foreign exchange markets. Japan and the Scandinavian countries followed in 1931. Other countries, such as Italy and the United States, remained on the gold standard into 1932 or 1933, while a few countries in the so-called "gold

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Governments around the world took various steps into spending less money on foreign goods such as: "imposing tariffs, import quotas, and exchange controls". These restrictions triggered much tension among countries that had large amounts of bilateral trade, causing major export-import reductions

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was the primary transmission mechanism of the Great Depression. Even countries that did not face bank failures and a monetary contraction first-hand were forced to join the deflationary policy since higher interest rates in countries that performed a deflationary policy led to a gold outflow in

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It cannot be emphasized too strongly that the trends we are describing are long-time trends and were thoroughly evident before 1929. These trends are in nowise the result of the present depression, nor are they the result of the World War. On the contrary, the present depression is a collapse

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and replaced him. An increasingly common view among economic historians is that the adherence of many Federal Reserve policymakers to the liquidationist position led to disastrous consequences. Unlike what liquidationists expected, a large proportion of the capital stock was not redeployed but

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in Vienna in May. This put heavy pressure on Germany, which was already in political turmoil. With the rise in violence of National Socialist ('Nazi') and Communist movements, as well as investor nervousness at harsh government financial policies, investors withdrew their short-term money from

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further losses by keeping clear of the markets. Holding money became profitable as prices dropped lower and a given amount of money bought ever more goods, exacerbating the drop in demand. Monetarists believe that the Great Depression started as an ordinary recession, but the shrinking of the

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1937, the Roosevelt administration cut spending and increased taxation in an attempt to balance the federal budget. The American economy then took a sharp downturn, lasting for 13 months through most of 1938. Industrial production fell almost 30 per cent within a few months and production of

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suffered a deep and exceptionally long depression. This depression was partly caused by the after-effects of the American stock-market crash of 1929, and partly by internal factors in the Netherlands. Government policy, especially the very late dropping of the Gold Standard, played a role in

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The liquidation of debt could not keep up with the fall of prices that it caused. The mass effect of the stampede to liquidate increased the value of each dollar owed, relative to the value of declining asset holdings. The very effort of individuals to lessen their burden of debt effectively

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did not think that the New Deal under Roosevelt single-handedly ended the Great Depression: "It is, it seems, politically impossible for a capitalistic democracy to organize expenditure on the scale necessary to make the grand experiments which would prove my case—except in war conditions."

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In the years immediately preceding the depression, negative developments in the island and world economies perpetuated an unsustainable cycle of subsistence for many Puerto Rican workers. The 1920s brought a dramatic drop in Puerto Rico's two primary exports, raw sugar and coffee, due to a

406:) is that the passage of the Smoot–Hawley Tariff exacerbated the Great Depression, although there is disagreement as to how much. In the popular view, the Smoot–Hawley Tariff was a leading cause of the depression. In a 1995 survey of American economic historians, two-thirds agreed that the 2921:

The world financial crisis began to overwhelm Britain in 1931; investors around the world started withdrawing their gold from London at the rate of £2.5 million per day. Credits of £25 million each from the Bank of France and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and an issue of

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Fisher's debt-deflation theory initially lacked mainstream influence because of the counter-argument that debt-deflation represented no more than a redistribution from one group (debtors) to another (creditors). Pure re-distributions should have no significant macroeconomic effects.

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was needed to prepare for and to sustain the coming war. The organizations, propaganda agencies and authorities employed slogans that called up traditional values of thrift and healthy living. However, these efforts were only partly successful in changing the behavior of housewives.

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as an alternative approach to the study of economics. Neoliberalism went on to challenge the dominance of the Keynesian school of Economics in the mainstream academia and policy-making in the United States, having reached its peak in popularity in the election of the presidency of

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In most countries of the world, recovery from the Great Depression began in 1933. In the U.S., recovery began in early 1933, but the U.S. did not return to 1929 GNP for over a decade and still had an unemployment rate of about 15% in 1940, albeit down from the high of 25% in 1933.

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reached such skewed extremes; half the unemployed had been out of work for over six months, something that was not repeated until the late-2000s recession. 2007 and 2008 eventually saw the world reach new levels of wealth gap inequality that rivalled the years of 1928 and 1929.

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Ireland was a largely agrarian economy, trading almost exclusively with the UK, at the time of the Great Depression. Beef and dairy products comprised the bulk of exports, and Ireland fared well relative to many other commodity producers, particularly in the early years of the

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during the depression. Not all governments enforced the same measures of protectionism. Some countries raised tariffs drastically and enforced severe restrictions on foreign exchange transactions, while other countries reduced "trade and exchange restrictions only marginally":

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Australia's dependence on agricultural and industrial exports meant it was one of the hardest-hit developed countries. Falling export demand and commodity prices placed massive downward pressures on wages. Unemployment reached a record high of 29% in 1932, with incidents of

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and construction slowed or completely ceased. In the face of bad loans and worsening future prospects, the surviving banks became even more conservative in their lending. Banks built up their capital reserves and made fewer loans, which intensified deflationary pressures. A

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called in 1938 the "world's highest standard of living". Sweden was also the first country worldwide to recover completely from the Great Depression. Taking place amid a short-lived government and a less-than-a-decade old Swedish democracy, events such as those surrounding

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The deficit spending had a transformative effect on Japan. Japan's industrial production doubled during the 1930s. Further, in 1929 the list of the largest firms in Japan was dominated by light industries, especially textile companies (many of Japan's automakers, such as

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The majority of countries set up relief programs and most underwent some sort of political upheaval, pushing them to the right. Many of the countries in Europe and Latin America that were democracies saw them overthrown by some form of dictatorship or authoritarian rule,

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developed an alternative way in which the financial crisis affected output. He builds on Fisher's argument that dramatic declines in the price level and nominal incomes lead to increasing real debt burdens, which in turn leads to debtor insolvency and consequently lowers

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pre-1930 level until after 1939. Government interference in the economy increased: "Imports were regulated, trade with foreign currency was monopolized by state-owned banks, and loan capital was largely distributed by state-regulated funds". Due to the outbreak of the

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was passed in the United States on 17 June 1930, having been proposed the year prior. Ostensibly aimed at protecting the American economy as the Depression began to take root, it backfired enormously and may have even caused the Depression. The consensus view among

534:, almost avoided the depression entirely. The connection between leaving the gold standard as a strong predictor of that country's severity of its depression and the length of time of its recovery has been shown to be consistent for dozens of countries, including 3583:; they are two completely different animals. Where we have experienced inflation since the Crash of 2008, the situation was much different in the 1930s when deflation set in. Unlike the deflation of the early 1930s, the U.S. economy currently appears to be in a " 2266:

very hard. As industries came close to failure they were bought out by the banks in a largely illusionary bail-out—the assets used to fund the purchases were largely worthless. This led to a financial crisis peaking in 1932 and major government intervention. The

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believed that the Federal Reserve had further contributed to the problems of the Depression by permitting the money supply to shrink during the earliest years of the Depression. However, during the Depression (in 1932 and in 1934) Hayek had criticized both the

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and rising nominal interest rates that Roosevelt's words and actions portended. It was the rollback of those same reflationary policies that led to the interruption of a recession beginning in late 1937. One contributing policy that reversed reflation was the

3361:

is likewise set in the Great Depression, centering on a privileged socialite's love affair with a Marxist revolutionary. The era spurred the resurgence of social realism, practiced by many who started their writing careers on relief programs, especially the

703:

In Japan, official government policy was deflationary and the opposite of Keynesian spending. Consequently, the government launched a campaign across the country to induce households to reduce their consumption, focusing attention on spending by housewives.

172:

and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment remained low. By May 1930, automobile sales declined to below the levels of 1928. Prices, in general, began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930. Then a

2487:

Poland was affected by the Great Depression longer and stronger than other countries due to inadequate economic response of the government and the pre-existing economic circumstances of the country. At that time, Poland was under the authoritarian rule of

1892:. However, the U.S. silver purchase act of 1934 created an intolerable demand on China's silver coins, and so, in the end, the silver standard was officially abandoned in 1935 in favor of the four Chinese national banks' "legal note" issues. China and the 156:

dropped from 381 to 198 over the course of two months, optimism persisted for some time. The stock market rose in early 1930, with the Dow returning to 294 (pre-depression levels) in April 1930, before steadily declining for years, to a low of 41 in 1932.

449:

which caused their balance of payments to strengthen. It also freed up monetary policy so that central banks could lower interest rates and act as lenders of last resort. They possessed the best policy instruments to fight the Depression and did not need

3043:(RFC) in 1932. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation was a Federal agency with the authority to lend up to $ 2 billion to rescue banks and restore confidence in financial institutions. But $ 2 billion was not enough to save all the banks, and 1157:, and other devices to restart the U.S. economy, but never completely gave up trying to balance the budget. According to the Keynesians, this improved the economy, but Roosevelt never spent enough to bring the economy out of recession until the start of 551:

Germany as confidence spiraled downward. The Reichsbank lost 150 million marks in the first week of June, 540 million in the second, and 150 million in two days, 19–20 June. Collapse was at hand. U.S. President Herbert Hoover called for a

1056:

Let me end my talk by abusing slightly my status as an official representative of the Federal Reserve. I would like to say to Milton and Anna: Regarding the Great Depression, you're right. We did it. We're very sorry. But thanks to you, we won't do it

732:. Many economists believe that government spending on the war caused or at least accelerated recovery from the Great Depression, though some consider that it did not play a very large role in the recovery, though it did help in reducing unemployment. 7587: 414:

and causing retaliatory tariffs in other countries. While foreign trade was a small part of overall economic activity in the U.S. and was concentrated in a few businesses like farming, it was a much larger factor in many other countries. The average

4254:

According to the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Economic Data website, based on a monthly timeseries 1929 September – 1932 June, the Dow Jones Industrial Average lost 87.1% while the Cowles Commission and S&P's all stock index lost 85.0%:

177:

started in 1931. Farmers faced a worse outlook; declining crop prices and a Great Plains drought crippled their economic outlook. At its peak, the Great Depression saw nearly 10% of all Great Plains farms change hands despite federal assistance.

1847:, which succeeded in reestablishing Chile's creditworthiness, Chileans elected to office during the 1938–58 period a succession of center and left-of-center governments interested in promoting economic growth through government intervention. 1303:, which slowed down economic recovery from the Great Depression, is explained by fears of the population that the moderate tightening of the monetary and fiscal policy in 1937 were first steps to a restoration of the pre-1933 policy regime. 604:

policies either caused or accelerated the recovery, although his policies were never aggressive enough to bring the economy completely out of recession. Some economists have also called attention to the positive effects from expectations of

2513:

for over a century. Prior to independence, the Russian part exported 91% of its exports to Russia proper, while the German part exported 68% to Germany proper. After independence, these markets were largely lost, as Russia transformed into

1925:

mining region, employment declined by 70%. In the country as a whole, the wage labour force decreased by 72,000 and many men returned to their villages. In Leopoldville, the population decreased by 33%, because of this labour migration.

1812:, Canadian industrial production had by 1932 fallen to only 58% of its 1929 figure, the second-lowest level in the world after the United States, and well behind countries such as Britain, which fell to only 83% of the 1929 level. Total 1083:

With significantly less money to go around, businesses could not get new loans and could not even get their old loans renewed, forcing many to stop investing. This interpretation blames the Federal Reserve for inaction, especially the

3086:

off their farms in the Midwest. From his inauguration onward, Roosevelt argued that restructuring of the economy would be needed to prevent another depression or avoid prolonging the current one. New Deal programs sought to stimulate

2983:

Hoover's first measures to combat the depression were based on encouraging businesses not to reduce their workforce or cut wages but businesses had little choice: wages were reduced, workers were laid off, and investments postponed.

2160:

without massive protection they would not have been able to survive. Despite the global depression, Greece managed to suffer comparatively little, averaging an average growth rate of 3.5% from 1932 to 1939. The dictatorial regime of

1071:– which produced panic and widespread runs on local banks, and the Federal Reserve sat idly by while banks collapsed. Friedman and Schwartz argued that, if the Fed had provided emergency lending to these key banks, or simply bought 587:

The overall course of the Depression in the United States, as reflected in per-capita GDP (average income per person) shown in constant year 2000 dollars, plus some of the key events of the period. Dotted red line = long-term trend

634:, the money supply growth caused by huge international gold inflows was a crucial source of the recovery of the United States economy, and that the economy showed little sign of self-correction. The gold inflows were partly due to 6233: 2500:

until his death in 1935. As a result, Poland was unable to perform a more active monetary and budget policy. Additionally, Poland was a relatively young country that emerged merely 10 years earlier after being partitioned between

746:

at the end of 1941 moved approximately ten million people out of the civilian labor force and into the war. This finally eliminated the last effects from the Great Depression and brought the U.S. unemployment rate down below 10%.

1079:

to provide liquidity and increase the quantity of money after the key banks fell, all the rest of the banks would not have fallen after the large ones did, and the money supply would not have fallen as far and as fast as it did.

575:, and suffered relatively less than other major countries in the Great Depression. In the 1931 British election, the Labour Party was virtually destroyed, leaving MacDonald as prime minister for a largely Conservative coalition. 185:

was the factor that pulled down most other countries at first; then, internal weaknesses or strengths in each country made conditions worse or better. Frantic attempts by individual countries to shore up their economies through

3223:

fell even faster. Unemployment jumped from 14.3% in 1937 to 19.0% in 1938, rising from 5 million to more than 12 million in early 1938. Manufacturing output fell by 37% from the 1937 peak and was back to 1934 levels.

194:

and retaliatory tariffs in other countries – exacerbated the collapse in global trade, contributing to the depression. By 1933, the economic decline pushed world trade to one third of its level compared to four years earlier.

106:

falling sales of consumer goods (as a result of overproduction because of new production techniques, falling exports and income inequality, among other factors) that had already been underway as part of a gradual depression.

2953:, the effects were short-lived and the later 1930s were a prosperous time. Growth in modern manufacture of electrical goods and a boom in the motor car industry was helped by a growing southern population and an expanding 3320:

The Great Depression has been the subject of much writing, as authors have sought to evaluate an era that caused both financial and emotional trauma. Perhaps the most noteworthy and famous novel written on the subject is

1129:

in the economy contributed to a massive decline in income and to employment that was well below the average. In such a situation, the economy reached equilibrium at low levels of economic activity and high unemployment.

5205: 571:". The Conservative and Liberals parties signed on, along with a small cadre of Labour, but the vast majority of Labour leaders denounced MacDonald as a traitor for leading the new government. Britain went off the 3019:

agricultural heartland, businesses and families defaulted on record numbers of loans, and more than 5,000 banks had failed. Hundreds of thousands of Americans found themselves homeless, and began congregating in

11125: 1215:

During the Crash of 1929 preceding the Great Depression, margin requirements were only 10%. Brokerage firms, in other words, would lend $ 9 for every $ 1 an investor had deposited. When the market fell, brokers

1842:

Influenced profoundly by the Great Depression, many government leaders promoted the development of local industry in an effort to insulate the economy from future external shocks. After six years of government

2704: 1587:. The economy was overbuilt, and new factories were not needed. Foster and Catchings recommended federal and state governments to start large construction projects, a program followed by Hoover and Roosevelt. 6373: 6275: 5038: 98:. Construction was virtually halted in many countries. Farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Faced with plummeting demand and few job alternatives, areas dependent on 7584: 9943: 1346:(capital and labor) to be redeployed in other more productive sectors of the dynamic economy. They argued that even if self-adjustment of the economy caused mass bankruptcies, it was still the best course. 319:

Because the Great Depression began in the United States and then spread around the world, the origins of the Great Depression are examined in the context of the United States economy. In the aftermath of

457:. Countries abandoning the gold standard relatively early experienced relatively mild recessions and early recoveries. In contrast, countries remaining on the gold standard experienced prolonged slumps." 5010: 5688:

fiscal policy was of little consequence even as late as 1942, suggests an interesting twist on the usual view that World War II caused, or at least accelerated, the recovery from the Great Depression.

5514: 2392:. The depression in the Netherlands eased off somewhat at the end of 1936, when the government finally dropped the Gold Standard, but real economic stability did not return until after World War II. 5881: 9076: 2295:. Takahashi used the Bank of Japan to sterilize the deficit spending and minimize resulting inflationary pressures. Econometric studies have identified the fiscal stimulus as especially effective. 1909:

The sharp fall in commodity prices, and the steep decline in exports, hurt the economies of the European colonies in Africa and Asia. The agricultural sector was especially hard hit. For example,

8505: 1759:

was formed. However the Great Depression was the last time when Argentina was one of the richer countries of the world as it stopped growing in the decades thereafter and became underdeveloped.

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countries fell 12% from 19.3 births per thousand population in 1930, to 17.0 in 1935. In Canada, half of Roman Catholic women defied Church teachings and used contraception to postpone births.

3427:

is in the form of a fictional journal as told by the protagonist Minnie Swift as she recounts her experiences during the era, especially when her family takes in an orphan cousin from Texas.

2711:

lived as paupers. The social discomfort caused by the depression was a contributing factor in the 1933 split between the "gesuiwerde" (purified) and "smelter" (fusionist) factions within the

1921:

economy because of the drop in international demand for raw materials and for agricultural products. For example, the price of peanuts fell from 125 to 25 centimes. In some areas, as in the

12999: 2759:

Spain had a relatively isolated economy, with high protective tariffs and was not one of the main countries affected by the Depression. The banking system held up well, as did agriculture.

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cure itself. You can't do anything about it. You will only make it worse. ... I think by encouraging that kind of do-nothing policy both in Britain and in the United States, they did harm.

438:"Countries that remained on the gold standard, keeping currencies fixed, were more likely to restrict foreign trade." These countries "resorted to protectionist policies to strengthen the 11118: 9952:(London). "America and Europe face the worst jobs crisis since the 1930s and risk 'an explosion of social unrest' unless they tread carefully, the International Monetary Fund has warned." 3244:

to stop further expansion of the New Deal and, when unemployment dropped to 2% in the early 1940s, they abolished WPA, CCC and the PWA relief programs. Social Security remained in place.

8442: 8318:

Fabrizio Mattesini and Beniamino Quintieri. "Does a reduction in the length of the working week reduce unemployment? Some evidence from the Italian economy during the Great Depression."

2999:

so that big banks could help failing banks survive. But bankers were reluctant to invest in failing banks, and the National Credit Corporation did almost nothing to address the problem.

1952:

The crisis affected France a bit later than other countries, hitting hard around 1931. While the 1920s grew at the very strong rate of 4.43% per year, the 1930s rate fell to only 0.63%.

1342:

economists. The liquidationist position held that a depression worked to liquidate failed businesses and investments that had been made obsolete by technological development – releasing

1271:

that seriously harms the economy. A credit crunch lowers investment and consumption, which results in declining aggregate demand and additionally contributes to the deflationary spiral.

13491: 8387: 3473:" to refer to an economic downturn dates to the 19th century, when it was used by varied Americans and British politicians and economists. The first major American economic crisis, the 1617:, and motorized farm machinery, and because of the rapid growth in productivity there was a lot of excess production capacity and the work week was being reduced. The dramatic rise in 10135:(Berghahn Books, 2013), 224 pp. Compares political crises in Germany, Italy, Austria, and Spain with those in Sweden, Japan, China, India, Turkey, Brazil, and the United States. 7484: 6784: 10443: 2740:

West, his predictions seem to be coming true. By contrast Russia seemed an emblematic modern nation, making the staggering leap from a feudal past to an industrial future with ease.

1230:. Government guarantees and Federal Reserve banking regulations to prevent such panics were ineffective or not used. Bank failures led to the loss of billions of dollars in assets. 5810: 3541: 2388:

prolonging the depression. The Great Depression in the Netherlands led to some political instability and riots, and can be linked to the rise of the Dutch fascist political party

1033:. They argued that the Great Depression was caused by the banking crisis that caused one-third of all banks to vanish, a reduction of bank shareholder wealth and more importantly 9988:

The Great Depression: An Inquiry into the causes, course, and Consequences of the Worldwide Depression of the Nineteen-Thirties, as Seen by Contemporaries and in Light of History

11111: 7304: 700:

sewing for neighbors in exchange for something they could offer. Extended families used mutual aid—extra food, spare rooms, repair-work, cash loans—to help cousins and in-laws.

329:

through September. Stock prices began to slump in September, and were volatile at the end of September. A large sell-off of stocks began in mid-October. Finally, on 24 October,

4229: 13364: 12029: 735:

The rearmament policies leading up to World War II helped stimulate the economies of Europe in 1937–1939. By 1937, unemployment in Britain had fallen to 1.5 million. The

71:

of October (Black Tuesday). This crisis marked the start of a prolonged period of economic hardship characterized by high unemployment rates and widespread business failures.

5253: 3595:

CPI, and the national unemployment rate, we are simply not living in the '30s. Some individuals may feel as if we are living in a depression, but for many others the current

2934:

were unemployed due to the severe decline in heavy industry. In some towns and cities in the north east, unemployment reached as high as 70% as shipbuilding fell by 90%. The

12034: 796:, and throughout Europe. In the late 1920s there was a scramble to deflate prices to get the gold standard's conversation rates back on track to pre-WWI levels, by causing 682:

the Code de la Famille (1939) that increased state assistance to families with children and required employers to protect the jobs of fathers, even if they were immigrants.

9864: 9281: 7186: 3399:, focuses on the changes brought by the Depression to the titular character's family and how the Kittredges dealt with it. A theatrical adaptation of the series entitled 2553: 2299:

Takahashi realized that the economy was in danger of overheating, and to avoid inflation, moved to reduce the deficit spending that went towards armaments and munitions.

13081: 3240:

employment improved, and industrial production turned up after June 1938. After the recovery from the Recession of 1937–38, conservatives were able to form a bipartisan

2745:

war in 1941, most of these Germans and Finns were arrested and sent to Siberia, while their Russian-born children were placed in orphanages. Their fate remains unknown.

1583:

redistribute purchasing power, maintaining the industrial base, and re-inflating prices and wages to force as much of the inflationary increase in purchasing power into

7740: 2766:. Many talented workers were forced into permanent exile. By staying neutral in the Second World War, and selling to both sides, the economy avoided further disasters. 410:

at least worsened the Great Depression. According to the U.S. Senate website, the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act is among the most catastrophic acts in congressional history.

13086: 6357: 6259: 4524: 475:, countries that lost gold but nevertheless wanted to maintain the gold standard had to permit their money supply to decrease and the domestic price level to decline ( 9225: 9213: 3807: 13181: 12521: 12391: 5036: 2576: 10333: 5202: 3171:

workers constructing drainage culvert, 1933. Over 3 million unemployed young men were taken out of the cities and placed into 2,600+ work camps managed by the CCC.

1449:

According to Rothbard, the government support for failed enterprises and efforts to keep wages above their market values actually prolonged the Depression. Unlike

506:

not only spread the downturn worldwide, but also suspended gold convertibility (devaluing the currency in gold terms) that did the most to make recovery possible.

9922: 8767: 8535: 4419: 3374:

provides insight into criminal justice ramifications of the Great Depression, especially in regard to patterns of recidivism due to lack of economic opportunity.

2975: 28: 13771: 12651: 12019: 10165: 1126: 7219: 1251:

increased it. Paradoxically, the more the debtors paid, the more they owed. This self-aggravating process turned a 1930 recession into a 1933 great depression.

90:, prices, tax revenues, and profits. International trade fell by more than 50%, unemployment in the U.S. rose to 23% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. 16858: 14530: 13258: 13026: 12860: 12516: 10150:. Chapters by economic historians cover Finland, Sweden, Belgium, Austria, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Romania, Spain, Portugal, and Ireland. 5859: 1967: 9803: 4998: 3307:

will take by force what they need. And the little screaming fact that sounds through all history: repression works only to strengthen and knit the repressed.

2183:, which cut Iceland's exports of saltfish by half, the Depression lasted in Iceland until the outbreak of World War II (when prices for fish exports soared). 13547: 13114: 13004: 6584:"Margin Requirements, Margin Loans, and Margin Rates: Practice and Principles – analysis of history of margin credit regulations – Statistical Data Included" 2302:

This resulted in a strong and swift negative reaction from nationalists, especially those in the army, culminating in his assassination in the course of the

1955:

The depression was relatively mild: unemployment peaked under 5%, the fall in production was at most 20% below the 1929 output; there was no banking crisis.

1755:, which preserved a quota in exchange for significant concessions to British exports. By 1935 the economy had recovered to 1929 levels and the same year the 1708:

gave up democracy voluntarily. There too were severe impacts across the Middle East and North Africa, including economic decline which led to social unrest.

1323:

should expand liquidity in the banking system and the government should cut taxes and accelerate spending in order to prevent a collapse in money supply and

1311:

There is common consensus among economists today that the government and the central bank should work to keep the interconnected macroeconomic aggregates of

348:

Despite the crash, the worst of the crisis did not reverberate around the world until after 1929. The crisis hit panic levels again in December 1930, with a

82:. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s. However, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of 5506: 3267:

generally remained the most influential economic school in the United States and in parts of Europe until the periods between the 1970s and the 1980s, when

2605:

scheme, employing up to 100,000 people in 1935. After Piłsudski's death, in 1936 the gold standard regime was relaxed, and launching the development of the

14603: 12882: 12009: 7401: 7089:

Conversations with Great Economists: Friedrich A. Hayek, John Hicks, Nicholas Kaldor, Leonid V. Kantorovich, Joan Robinson, Paul A.Samuelson, Jan Tinbergen

6583: 5873: 5124: 2731:

in the world and had very little international trade. Its economy was not tied to the rest of the world and was mostly unaffected by the Great Depression.

1816:

fell to 56% of the 1929 level, again worse than any country apart from the United States. Unemployment reached 27% at the depth of the Depression in 1933.

1121: 9073: 4763: 3137:(NRA) made a number of sweeping changes to the American economy. It forced businesses to work with government to set price codes through the NRA to fight 14691: 14525: 12919: 7999: 7269: 6339: 4981: 3031:, to spur new home construction, and reduce foreclosures. The final attempt of the Hoover Administration to stimulate the economy was the passage of the 9115: 8497: 2876:

Turkey was badly affected by the Great Depression and it came at a time when the state was still reforming its economic policy following the end of the

13459: 13317: 11999: 8966: 6228: 2058: 2042: 1901:

November 1935, the government instituted the fiat currency (fapi) reform, immediately stabilizing prices and also raising revenues for the government.

6314: 2601:

with currencies tied to the gold standard. Only in late 1932 did the government effect a plan to fight the economic crisis. Part of the plan was mass

1238:. Bank failures snowballed as desperate bankers called in loans that borrowers did not have time or money to repay. With future profits looking poor, 13021: 12808: 12004: 6119: 6068: 3339:

for literature. The novel focuses on a poor family of sharecroppers who are forced from their home as drought, economic hardship, and changes in the

2813:'s "summer cabinet" in 1936. During forty years of hegemony, it was the most successful political party in the history of Western liberal democracy. 10263:. 1985. 4 sound cassettes; papers. Storey discusses the Great Depression and hardships of early life, abortion, childbearing and motherhood. At the 9094: 3211:. The national debt as a proportion of GNP rose under Hoover from 20% to 40%. Roosevelt kept it at 40% until the war began, when it soared to 128%. 2039:

was hit hard by the depression, as American loans to help rebuild the German economy now stopped. The unemployment rate reached nearly 30% in 1932.

13513: 13486: 12803: 11274: 11134: 9712: 8384: 6675: 4053: 7636: 13861: 13821: 12157: 11103: 7338: 5911: 3934: 13669: 12587: 12074: 9241: 8434: 7506: 6191: 6014: 2146: 1519: 10078:

Aldcroft, Derek H. "Economic Growth in Britain in the Inter-War Years: A Reassessment." Economic History Review, 20#2, 1967, pp. 311–26.

1705: 1430:

In the Austrian view, it was this inflation of the money supply that led to an unsustainable boom in both asset prices (stocks and bonds) and

14478: 13883: 13119: 12326: 9826: 8675: 8277: 6764: 1621:

of major industries in the U.S. and the effects of productivity on output, wages and the workweek are discussed by Spurgeon Bell in his book

9153: 8727: 51:(1929–1939) was a severe global economic downturn that affected many countries across the world. It became evident after a sharp decline in 13501: 13098: 12914: 12855: 12438: 12396: 12152: 12147: 12142: 12137: 12132: 12127: 12122: 12117: 12112: 12107: 11517: 11142: 6781: 6618: 751:

economic growth rates, either masking the effects of the Depression or essentially ending the Depression. Businessmen ignored the mounting

453:"The length and depth of a country's economic downturn and the timing and vigor of its recovery are related to how long it remained on the 10154: 8573: 7697:

Westcott, Nicholas (1984). "The East African sisal industry, 1929–1949: the marketing of a colonial commodity during depression and war".

4958: 3778: 15834: 15790: 14625: 14468: 14363: 14108: 13846: 12966: 12877: 12619: 12604: 12486: 9556: 9517: 8475: 8054: 5445:(2001). "Producing Citizens, Reproducing the 'French Race': Immigration, Demography, and Pronatalism in Early Twentieth-Century France". 3954: 2207: 9478: 8829: 8182:

Samita Sen, "Labour, Organization and Gender: The Jute Industry in India in the 1930s", in Helmut Konrad and Wolfgang Maderthaner, eds.

6955: 5814: 5603:

Reagin, N. R. (2001). "Marktordnung and Autarkic Housekeeping: Housewives and Private Consumption under the Four-Year Plan, 1936–1939".

4170: 2337:

Because of high levels of U.S. investment in Latin American economies, they were severely damaged by the Depression. Within the region,

2117: 2094:

lost seats. The next two years were marked by increased street violence between Nazis and Communists, while governments under President

1434:. Therefore, by the time the Federal Reserve tightened in 1928 it was far too late to prevent an economic contraction. In February 1929 16696: 16674: 14451: 13966: 13961: 13951: 13324: 13053: 12301: 11877: 11824: 10557: 9322:, Maurice W. Lee, Chairman of Economics Dept., Washington State College, published by R.D. Irwin Inc, Homewood, Illinois, 1955, p. 236. 5745: 5321: 3988: 7776:

Lungu, Gatian F. (1993). "Educational Policy-Making in Colonial Zambia: The Case of Higher Education for Africans from 1924 to 1964".

5786: 4473:

Whaples, Robert (1995). "Where is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions".

2942:

in Britain in the 1920s and 1930s. About 200,000 unemployed men were sent to the work camps, which continued in operation until 1939.

1528:, "The idea that capitalism caused the Great Depression was widely held among intellectuals and the general public for many decades." 17600: 14620: 14563: 14456: 14285: 13727: 12230: 9005: 3673: 3395:, released to tie in with the dolls and playsets sold by the company. The stories, which take place during the early to mid 1930s in 2672: 2198:

prices plunged. Otherwise, conditions were fairly stable. Local markets in agriculture and small-scale industry showed modest gains.

1980:

France's relatively high degree of self-sufficiency meant the damage was considerably less than in neighbouring states like Germany.

1220:, which could not be paid back. Banks began to fail as debtors defaulted on debt and depositors attempted to withdraw their deposits 596:

There is no consensus among economists regarding the motive force for the U.S. economic expansion that continued through most of the

2263: 1839:

1932, GDP had shrunk to less than half of what it had been in 1929, exacting a terrible toll in unemployment and business failures.

17444: 17006: 16121: 14667: 14463: 13956: 13444: 13384: 12944: 12599: 12491: 12341: 11735: 11342: 7977: 615: 7832:

Ochonu, Moses (2009). "Critical convergence: the Great Depression and the meshing of Nigerian and British anti-colonial polemic".

3047:

and bank failures continued. Quarter by quarter the economy went downhill, as prices, profits and employment fell, leading to the

2422:). Many were arrested or injured through the tough official handling of these riots by police and volunteer "special constables". 1994: 1258:

Building on both the monetary hypothesis of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz and the debt deflation hypothesis of Irving Fisher,

17625: 14573: 14546: 14505: 14500: 14473: 14403: 14290: 14086: 13893: 13481: 13305: 13203: 12835: 11347: 11138: 10978: 10882: 9265: 9169:

Swanson, Joseph; Williamson, Samuel (1972). "Estimates of national product and income for the United States economy, 1919–1941".

8395: 5942: 3712: 3091:

and provide work and relief for the impoverished through increased government spending and the institution of financial reforms.

640: 9854: 9285: 17496: 16942: 16265: 16260: 16255: 16250: 16245: 16235: 14674: 14383: 14066: 13971: 13801: 13749: 13710: 13277: 13272: 13126: 13063: 13016: 12994: 12959: 12614: 12470: 11713: 11445: 11440: 11435: 11429: 10696: 9897: 8853: 7176: 4546: 2893: 2279:

The Great Depression did not strongly affect Japan. The Japanese economy shrank by 8% during 1929–31. Japan's Finance Minister

1813: 446: 8305:

Fabrizio Mattesini, and Beniamino Quintieri. "Italy and the Great Depression: An analysis of the Italian economy, 1929–1936."

5165:

monetary development were crucial to the recovery implies that self-correction played little role in the growth of real output

3145:, labor standards, and competitive conditions in all industries. It encouraged unions that would raise wages, to increase the 1500:, were generated by government creating a boom through easy money and credit, which was soon followed by the inevitable bust. 14490: 14378: 14248: 14152: 14061: 13985: 13530: 13496: 12511: 12501: 12496: 12354: 12349: 12213: 12178: 11718: 11247: 10887: 10877: 10701: 10147: 9589: 9550: 9511: 9056: 8565: 8087: 8030: 7736: 7608: 7470: 7252: 7129: 7059: 6916: 6813: 6661: 6447: 6245: 5839: 5396: 5363: 5315: 5222: 5185: 4669: 4648: 4350: 4109: 4084: 3836: 3119: 3032: 2966: 2111: 1973:, which won the elections in 1936. Ultra-nationalist groups also saw increased popularity, although democracy prevailed into 1867: 1751:

Decline in foreign trade hit Argentina hard. The British decision to stop importing Argentine beef led to the signing of the

1334:

and the equilibrating powers of the market, and failed to understand the severity of the Depression. Outright leave-it-alone

789: 538:. This partly explains why the experience and length of the depression differed between regions and states around the world. 20: 10127: 9744: 9595: 9210: 8652: 7370: 7153: 5860:

https://www.cato.org/blog/world-war-i-gold-great-depression#:~:text=The%20result%20was%20a%20second,4%20years%20in%20a%20row

4516: 4368:(March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions". 1944: 17501: 16389: 15871: 14686: 14583: 14520: 14510: 14393: 14184: 14147: 14076: 13908: 13873: 13424: 13154: 12887: 12658: 12609: 12582: 12506: 12465: 11966: 10992: 10968: 3800: 3099: 2923: 1896:, which followed suit in this regard in September 1935, would be the last to abandon the silver standard. In addition, the 652:

also attributed the recovery to monetary factors, and contended that it was much slowed by poor management of money by the

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dictatorship. With the budget balanced in 1929, the effects of the depression were relaxed through harsh measures towards

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in Vienna in May. This put heavy pressure on Germany, which was already in political turmoil with the rise in violence of

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should have cut short the process of monetary deflation and banking collapse, by expanding the money supply and acting as

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By far the most serious negative impact came after 1936 from the heavy destruction of infrastructure and manpower by the

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U.S. fell in value from $ 1.2 billion in 1929 to $ 335 million in 1933, rising to $ 660 million in 1940.

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took over the Greek government in 1936, and economic growth was strong in the years leading up to the Second World War.

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Steven Horwitz, "Unfortunately Unfamiliar with Robert Higgs and Others: A Rejoinder to Gauti Eggertsson on the 1930s",

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Between 1933 and 1939, federal expenditure tripled, and Roosevelt's critics charged that he was turning America into a

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Simmons, Colin (1987). "The Great Depression and Indian Industry: Changing Interpretations and Changing Perceptions".

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Insufficient spending, the money supply reduction, and debt on margin led to falling prices and further bankruptcies (

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and heavy new taxes, redoubling their efforts for greater output to take advantage of generous government contracts.

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Klassen, Tari (2008). "How Depression-Era Quiltmakers Constructed Domestic Space: An Interracial Processual Study".

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primary explanation for the onset of the Great Depression. Today there is also significant academic support for the

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The World Depression broke at a time when the United Kingdom had still not fully recovered from the effects of the

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Economic diplomacy and the origins of the Second World War: Germany, Britain, France and Eastern Europe, 1930–1939

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Metzler, Mark (2004). "Woman's Place in Japan's Great Depression: Reflections on the Moral Economy of Deflation".

4922: 3516:, and the breakdown of economic ties which followed, led to a severe economic crisis and catastrophic fall in the 2671:

created and administered first the Puerto Rico Emergency Relief Administration (PRERA) 1933 and then in 1935, the

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Britain, there was a tendency for married women to join the labor force, competing for part-time jobs especially.

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to pre-1924 levels by 1933. Milton Friedman called leave-it-alone liquidationism "dangerous nonsense". He wrote:

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Richardson, H. W. "The Basis of Economic Recovery in the Nineteen-Thirties: A Review and a New Interpretation."

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tried to keep the federal budget balanced until 1932, when he lost confidence in his Secretary of the Treasury

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and Hungary. The crisis continued to get worse in Germany, bringing political upheaval that finally led to the

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Every major currency left the gold standard during the Great Depression. The UK was the first to do so. Facing

91: 78:(GDP) fell by an estimated 15%. By comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the 7996: 6336: 4978: 2628: 125:

The unemployment rate in the U.S. during 1910–60, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–39) highlighted

17594: 17486: 16898: 16446: 15242: 15232: 14925: 14431: 14295: 14211: 14142: 14113: 14051: 13941: 13913: 13557: 12929: 12822: 12060: 11688: 11404: 10958: 10912: 10631: 10626: 9929:: A look at the value of the U.S. dollar in 1929 and 2008; what has changed and where that leaves us today". 9123: 3984: 3554: 3529: 3232: 3200: 2884:, which held an important share, were down considerably which had already started beforehand due to drought. 2712: 1768: 1691: 1411: 99: 15453: 10275: 10245: 10235: 8911:, "A Unique Chapter in the History of Democracy: The Swedish Social Democrats", in K. Misgeld et al. (eds), 6143:"Where is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions" 5966:"Where is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions" 5197:

Ben S. Bernanke, "Nonmonetary Effects of the Financial Crisis in the Propaga-tion of the Great Depression",

3207:, a strong stimulus to the growth of labor unions. In 1929, federal expenditures constituted only 3% of the 2558: 17675: 16848: 15899: 15392: 15365: 14726: 14719: 14652: 14515: 14398: 14320: 14310: 14164: 14125: 14081: 14041: 13998: 13946: 13878: 13851: 13811: 13789: 13598: 13412: 13359: 13292: 13149: 13105: 13033: 12954: 12872: 12683: 12547: 12376: 12284: 12092: 11570: 10973: 10902: 7633: 6433: 6401: 6298: 5766: 3591: 2992:

tariffs on American-made goods in retaliation, reducing international trade, and worsening the Depression.

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bloc", led by France and including Poland, Belgium and Switzerland, stayed on the standard until 1935–36.

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and limit gold losses." They hoped that these restrictions and depletions would hold the economic decline.

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Barry, Frank, and Mary E. Daly. "Irish Perceptions of the Great Depression" (No. iiisdp349. IIIS, 2011.)

5653: 4174: 4045: 3383: 3363: 3280: 3168: 3130: 2996: 2988: 2935: 2798: 2684: 2469:, the Great Depression had negative impacts on its exports. In 1933 a new concession was signed with the 2173: 2103: 1893: 998: 962: 483: 407: 386: 365: 191: 10255: 10022: 6698: 6466: 2703:

As world trade slumped, demand for South African agricultural and mineral exports fell drastically. The

600:(and the 1937 recession that interrupted it). The common view among most economists is that Roosevelt's 17589: 17471: 16947: 16399: 16091: 15999: 15794: 15370: 15060: 15050: 14551: 14421: 14253: 14233: 14221: 14031: 14021: 13703: 13608: 13221: 13211: 12738: 12733: 12723: 12718: 12240: 11941: 11916: 11771: 11766: 11725: 11693: 11480: 11398: 10963: 10942: 10872: 10867: 10857: 10852: 10651: 10641: 10636: 10605: 10479: 10299: 8020: 7181: 5764:

Induction Statistics. In Inductions (by year) from World War I Through the End of the Draft (1973)

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At the H. Parker Willis Lecture in Economic Policy, Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Virginia

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greatly exacerbated the economic situation, causing a recession to descend into the Great Depression.

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Hall of mirrors : the Great Depression, the great recession, and the uses-and misuses-of history

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Minnaar, Anthony (1994). "Unemployment and relief measures during the Great Depression (1929–1934)".

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Volkskapitalisme: class, capital, and ideology in the development of Afrikaner nationalism, 1934–1948

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Higgs, Robert (1 March 1992). "Wartime Prosperity? A Reassessment of the U.S. Economy in the 1940s".

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Worlds together, worlds apart: a history of the world from the beginnings of humankind to the present

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is another important novella about a journey during the Great Depression. Additionally, Harper Lee's

3075: 3052: 3027:" – that began to appear across the country. In response, President Hoover and Congress approved the 2754: 2470: 2231: 2192: 1825: 1756: 1497: 370: 330: 308: 149: 68: 8247:

Frank Barry and Mary E. Daly, "Irish Perceptions of the Great Depression" in Michael Psalidopoulos,

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Olubomehin, O.O. (2002). "Road Transportation and the Economy of South-Western Nigeria, 1920–1939".

7430: 6502: 6162: 5985: 4999:"A Reply to Steven Horwitz's Commentary on 'Great Expectations and the End of the Great Depression'" 2518:

that was mostly a closed economy, and Germany was in a tariff war with Poland throughout the 1920s.

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Helping the Homeless Man: Activities and Facilities of the Central Registry for Homeless Single Men

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Coquery-Vidrovitch, C. (1977). "Mutation de l'Impérialisme Colonial Français dans les Années 30".

6622: 5491:'I Was Really Proud of Them': Canned Raspberries and Home Production During the Farm Depression". 3557:

seem similar to the Great Depression, but significant differences exist. The then-chairman of the

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published a paper predicting the Federal Reserve's actions would lead to a crisis starting in the

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A number of works for younger audiences are also set during the Great Depression, among them the

2810: 2581: 2406: 2087: 1701: 1649: 1544: 923:. If they had done this, the economic downturn would have been far less severe and much shorter. 901: 10151: 9737:

See "What Can Transition Economies Learn from the First Ten Years? A New World Bank Report," in

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Productivity, Wages and National Income, The Institute of Economics of the Brookings Institution

6758: 3762: 2631:, already appointed Minister of Finance in 1928 greatly expanded his powers and in 1932 rose to 1091:

One reason why the Federal Reserve did not act to limit the decline of the money supply was the

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The common view among economic historians is that the Great Depression ended with the advent of

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Madsen, Jakob B. "Trade Barriers and the Collapse of World Trade during the Great Depression",

10199: 8498:"Wielki kryzys w Polsce. Zbankrutowało niemal 25% firm, a produkt krajowy spadł o ponad połowę" 8046: 6157: 5980: 5638: 5139: 4955: 3697: 3470: 3241: 3208: 3123: 3103: 2826: 2636: 2307: 2014:. The financial crisis escalated out of control in mid-1931, starting with the collapse of the 1963: 1959: 1897: 1576: 1556: 1540: 1459: 1416: 1312: 1169: 916: 820: 653: 518: 75: 19:

This article is about the severe worldwide economic downturn in the 1930s. For other uses, see

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Frank Barry and Mary F. Daly, "Concurrent Irish Perspectives on the Great Depression" (2010)

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and "I need not recount to you that the world is passing through a great depression" (1931).

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The financial crisis escalated out of control in mid-1931, starting with the collapse of the

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in April 1929, shortly before the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act passed the House of Representatives

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becoming common. After 1932, an increase in wool and meat prices led to a gradual recovery.

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generally argue that the Great Depression was the result of the inherent instability of the

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Washington Women’s Heritage Project Records: Ethel P. Storey Oral History Interview (13/20)

9002: 8939: 7177:"The Causes of the Economic Crisis, and Other Essays Before and After the Great Depression" 7117: 5783: 3566: 3547: 3497: 3366:

in the U.S. Nonfiction works from this time also capture important themes. The 1933 memoir

2822: 2493: 2303: 1375: 1154: 1100: 805: 635: 14790: 10260: 10189: 8435:"II RP była gospodarczą porażką. Mity na jej temat są bardzo szkodliwe [TOP 2018]" 2664: 2654:, causing social discontent but stability and, eventually, an impressive economic growth. 2006:

forced American banks to end the new loans that had been funding the repayments under the

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However, the depression had drastic effects on the local economy, and partly explains the

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as written. Hardest hit were farm commodities such as wheat, cotton, tobacco, and lumber.

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created the Production Development Corporation (Corporación de Fomento de la Producción,

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China during the Great Depression : market, state, and the world economy, 1929–1937

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José Cardozo, "The great depression and Portugal" in Michael Psalidopoulos, ed. (2012).

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These reforms, together with several other relief and recovery measures, are called the

3058: 2137:"could only be partially accomplished without territorial expansion" and therefore war. 1095:. At that time, the amount of credit the Federal Reserve could issue was limited by the 17554: 17518: 17382: 17271: 17251: 17124: 17088: 16975: 16957: 16888: 16524: 16384: 16364: 16319: 16220: 16205: 15814: 15785: 15743: 15548: 15257: 15237: 15205: 15119: 15114: 15094: 15045: 14985: 14975: 14920: 14915: 14759: 13520: 13508: 13226: 13216: 13193: 13176: 12572: 12316: 12311: 12183: 12039: 12024: 12014: 11994: 11989: 11984: 11979: 11973: 11291: 11259: 10801: 10413: 10392: 10343: 10316: 10184: 10110: 9859: 9798: 9741: 9682: 8221: 8213: 7917: 7849: 7801: 7793: 7714: 7679: 7603:

John Birmingham (2000). Leviathan: The unauthorised biography of Sydney. Random House.

7500: 6853: 6740: 6690: 6564: 6556: 6183: 6175: 6041:"Quantitative implications of a debt-deflation theory of Sudden Stops and asset prices" 6006: 5998: 5725: 5585: 5470: 5245: 5092: 5084: 4869: 4784: 4687: 4607: 4498: 4490: 4399: 4391: 4323: 3521: 3517: 3357: 3215: 2323:

had been displaced by heavy industry as the largest firms inside the Japanese economy.

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The Federal Reserve allowed some large public bank failures – particularly that of the

793: 556: 535: 510: 403: 10039: 9261: 8344:(For more on the Japanese economy in the 1930s see "MITI and the Japanese Miracle" by 5934: 482:

There is also consensus that protectionist policies, and primarily the passage of the

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Financial crises were traditionally referred to as "panics", most recently the major

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and partly due to deterioration of the political situation in Europe. In their book,

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Bernanke, Ben. "The Macroeconomics of the Great Depression: A Comparative Approach"

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Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections

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Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections

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Mishkin, Fredric (December 1978). "The Household Balance and the Great Depression".

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The term "The Great Depression" is most frequently attributed to British economist

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Unemployed men standing in line outside a depression soup kitchen in Chicago, 1931

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To adapt to the crisis, Polish government employed deflation methods such as high

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The Great Depression in Europe: Economic Thought and Policy in a National Context

10131: 10124: 9984: 9926: 9831: 9713:"The wild decade: how the 1990s laid the foundations for Vladimir Putin's Russia" 9699: 9579: 9384: 9269: 9245: 9217: 9157: 9098: 9080: 9009: 8970: 8833: 8771: 8636: 8577: 8558:

The Great Depression in Europe: Economic Thought and Policy in a National Context

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Myung Soo Cha, "Did Takahashi Korekiyo Rescue Japan from the Great Depression?",

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The Great Depression in Europe: Economic Thought and Policy in a National Context

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Eggertsson, Gauti B. (2008). "Great Expectations and the End of the Depression".

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Fisher, Irving (October 1933). "The Debt-Deflation Theory of Great Depressions".

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provided incentives to cut farm production in order to raise farming prices. The

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vanished during the first years of the Great Depression. According to a study by

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John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace

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Fletcher, T.W. (1961). "The Great Depression of English Agriculture 1873–1896".

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kicked off the economy, to over 10% annual growth rate in the 1936–1938 period.

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conglomerates were less flexible and paid their workers more than smaller ones.

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A fall in nominal interest rates and a rise in deflation adjusted interest rates

359: 17680: 17429: 17330: 17283: 16985: 16798: 16793: 16788: 16644: 16572: 16329: 16287: 15971: 15939: 15753: 15738: 15703: 15688: 15668: 15638: 15458: 15109: 14830: 14798: 14358: 14258: 13641: 12776: 12766: 12761: 12756: 12428: 12291: 12225: 11199: 11177: 11064: 10342:(2015), leading economist compares economic decline after 1929 and after 2008. 10068:(International Labour Office, 1936). Statistics of major economies; not online. 9406: 8882:

Gabriel Tortella and Jordi Palafox, "Banking and Industry in Spain 1918–1936",

7033: 7031: 6481: 5616: 5383:

Breadwinning Daughters: Young Working Women in a Depression-era City, 1929–1939

4683: 4432: 4365: 3626: 3584: 3442: 3332: 3328: 3293: 3176: 3011: 2939: 2877: 2647: 2627:, Portugal suffered no turbulent political effects of the Depression, although 2568: 2506: 2320: 2152: 2099: 2062:

The reverse of this medal supporting the German election Nazi campaigns of 1932

2032: 2015: 1883: 1560: 1358: 1193:

A still greater fall in the net worth of businesses, precipitating bankruptcies

951: 897: 514: 131: 95: 15488: 9334:, James Arthur Estey, Purdue University, Prentice-Hall, 1950, pp. 22–23 chart. 8984:

What Happened Where: A Guide To Places And Events In Twentieth-Century History

8209: 7710: 7549: 7532: 6736: 6171: 5994: 5713: 5683: 5641:

said, "One could not have had a better demonstration of the Keynesian ideas."

5153: 4603: 4486: 4387: 4274: 3453: 1888:

China was largely unaffected by the Depression, mainly by having stuck to the

17773: 17655: 17574: 17559: 17544: 17315: 17293: 17199: 17083: 17016: 16990: 16925: 16768: 16725: 16720: 16567: 16451: 16349: 16071: 15924: 15909: 15718: 15708: 15683: 15623: 15618: 15613: 15593: 15583: 15553: 15543: 15448: 15348: 15321: 15085: 13339: 12639: 12448: 12083: 11627: 11621: 11612: 11606: 11548: 11539: 11530: 11512: 11501: 11489: 11459: 11281: 11049: 10012:

The Great Depression: An International Disaster of Perverse Economic Policies

9748: 8605: 8118: 7948:

Beaudry, Paul; Portier, Franck (2002). "The French Depression in the 1930s".

7558: 7480: 6484:(1947). "The Keynesian Revolution". New York: Macmillan: 56–58, 169, 177–179. 6115: 6064: 5721: 5643: 5080: 4136: 4119: 4031: 3774: 3493: 3474: 3458: 3388: 3378: 3285: 3276: 3260: 3150: 3098:

was signed into law. It provided for a system of reopening sound banks under

2915: 2802: 2640: 2590: 2502: 2497: 2353: 1918: 1871: 1866:) to encourage with subsidies and direct investments an ambitious program of 1485: 1477: 1469: 1443: 1431: 1362: 1268: 1176: 1092: 982: 909: 825: 788:

in varying ways. There was high inflation from WWI, and in the 1920s in the

785: 572: 547: 503: 467: 454: 187: 86:. Devastating effects were seen in both rich and poor countries with falling 56: 9070:

A Rabble of Dead Money: The Great Crash and the Global Depression: 1929–1939

7300: 7028: 5458: 5072: 4585:"The Slide to Protectionism in the Great Depression: Who Succumbed and Why?" 4260: 4256: 3106:

comprehensively regulated the securities industry. This was followed by the

1234:

deposits had been frozen in failed banks or those left unlicensed after the

1107:, coins and bullion illegal, reducing the pressure on Federal Reserve gold. 875:

The two classic competing economic theories of the Great Depression are the

17690: 17670: 17650: 17640: 17615: 17369: 17204: 17184: 17169: 17139: 17129: 16908: 16763: 16745: 16681: 16659: 16617: 16607: 16504: 16494: 16466: 16197: 16187: 16014: 15954: 15748: 15693: 15588: 15578: 15573: 15498: 15343: 14868: 14808: 13646: 13618: 12673: 11371: 11364: 11359: 11228: 11223: 11167: 10529: 10517: 10044: 9850: 8016: 7961: 6511:

Economics in the Long Run: New Deal Theorists and Their Legacies, 1933–1993

5637:

Referring to the effect of World War II spending on the economy, economist

5624: 5466: 4756:"Remarks by Governor Ben S. Bernanke: Money, Gold and the Great Depression" 4448:"The protectionist temptation: Lessons from the Great Depression for today" 4427: 3654: 3640: 3590:

In terms of the stock market, nearly three years after the 1929 crash, the

3580: 3562: 3525: 3478: 3416: 3411: 3355:

is set during the Great Depression. Margaret Atwood's Booker prize-winning

3264: 3220: 3142: 3063: 3036: 2970: 2954: 2789:(who eventually committed suicide) remain infamous in Swedish history. The 2786: 2602: 2564: 2540: 2515: 2213: 2121: 1974: 1775: 1618: 1609:

The first three decades of the 20th century saw economic output surge with

1439: 1424: 1423:, they argue that the key cause of the Depression was the expansion of the 1331: 1320: 1316: 1283:, expectations are a central element of macroeconomic models. According to 1259: 1158: 1150: 1049: 1006: 889: 867: 743: 736: 729: 696: 661: 461: 83: 36: 32: 9459:

Rethinking Social Realism: African American art and literature, 1930–1953

7460: 6839: 5581: 4447: 1970: 1319:

on a stable growth path. When threatened by expectations of a depression,

17303: 17226: 17194: 16654: 16597: 16215: 16172: 16147: 16116: 16111: 16066: 15991: 15981: 15966: 15919: 15723: 15713: 15503: 15382: 15326: 14813: 13923: 13454: 12791: 12693: 12433: 12296: 12052: 11781: 11337: 11296: 11242: 10837: 10806: 6410: 5806: 5556:

Making Do: Women, Family and Home in Montreal during the Great Depression

5415:'To help keep the home going': female labour supply in interwar London". 5343: 5292:

Making Do: Women, Family and Home in Montreal during the Great Depression

4937:

Gauti B. Eggertsson, "Great Expectations and the End of the Depression",

4584: 4132: 3392: 3340: 3336: 3024: 3020: 2911: 2643: 2384: 2134: 1284: 1217: 1076: 1002: 970: 944: 781: 691:

interaction for women and promoted camaraderie and personal fulfillment.

321: 304: 10242:

The Great Depression and the New Deal : America's economy in crisis

9282:"National Park History: "The Spirit of the Civilian Conservation Corps"" 9201:, by Victor F. Nelson (New York: Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., 1936) 6857: 5088: 5056: 4919: 2845: 2434: 1720: 1009:

M2 (green) and number of banks (grey). All data adjusted to 1929 = 100%.

947:) and therefore a banking crisis, reduction of credit, and bankruptcies. 724:. Women entered the workforce as men were drafted into the armed forces. 17513: 17320: 17233: 17211: 17179: 17078: 17063: 17043: 16808: 16773: 16735: 16649: 16612: 16544: 16539: 16534: 16499: 16456: 16441: 16419: 16344: 16182: 16162: 16081: 15949: 15944: 15914: 15880: 15633: 15433: 15210: 12786: 12592: 12418: 12413: 12331: 11565: 10717: 10464: 10423: 9752: 9686: 9446:

Portrait of America: A Cultural History of the Federal Writers' Project

9015: 8683:

Fourth Conference of Southeast Europe Monetary History Network (SEEMHN)

8102: 7921: 7797: 7683: 6848: 6694: 6560: 6179: 6002: 5249: 4873: 4494: 4395: 3605: 3532:

of 1998, Russia's GDP was half of what it had been in the early 1990s.

3528:, which was even worse than the Great Depression. Even before Russia's 3396: 3272: 3251:

state. The Great Depression was a main factor in the implementation of

3007: 3006:

Burning shacks on the Anacostia flats, Washington, D.C., put up by the

2525: 2419: 2071: 2011: 2007: 1663: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1420: 1239: 974: 955: 880: 445:

Countries that abandoned the gold standard allowed their currencies to

416: 399: 378: 59:, the largest economy in the world at the time, leading to a period of 10350:

Golden Fetters: The gold standard and the Great Depression, 1919–1939.

9542:

Ghettos, Tramps, and Welfare Queens: Down and Out on the Silver Screen

9420:

Soul of a People: The WPA Writers' Project Uncovers Depression America

8810:

Robert William Davies, Mark Harrison, and Stephen G. Wheatcroft, eds.

8676:"The National Bank of Romania during the Great Depression – 1929–1933" 8217: 1330:

At the beginning of the Great Depression, most economists believed in

1013: 739:

of manpower following the outbreak of war in 1939 ended unemployment.

17700: 17620: 17434: 17119: 16473: 16374: 16334: 16304: 16225: 16061: 16024: 15483: 15413: 14782: 14275: 14268: 11376: 11307: 11208: 11204: 11059: 10595: 10181:

Dancing in the dark : a cultural history of the Great Depression

9998:

Capitalism in crisis: International responses to the Great Depression

9930: 9622: 8359:

Latin America in the 1930s: the role of the periphery in world crisis

8125:

edited by Gordon Martel, Routledge: London, England, 1999, pp. 98–99.

8107:

The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy

7462:

A history of the modern Middle East : rulers, rebels, and rogues

7290: 6435:

The Creature from Jekyll Island: A Second Look at the Federal Reserve

4730:

Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919–1939

4700:

Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919–1939

4305: 3248: 3196: 3138: 3079: 3067: 2708: 2594: 2572: 2023: 1844: 1809: 1559:, popularized a theory that influenced many policy makers, including 1202: 1042: 966: 858: 849: 833: 797: 606: 476: 395: 391: 299: 169: 162: 9678: 7913: 7789: 7675: 6552: 5874:"What is the difference between Keynesian and monetarist economics?" 5241: 5223:"The Macroeconomics of the Great Depression: A Comparative Approach" 4865: 4799: 4797: 4010:

Hamilton, James (1987). "Monetary Factors in the Great Depression".

2066:

The German political landscape was dramatically altered, leading to

1638: 716: 17534: 16592: 16582: 16514: 16509: 16478: 16324: 16279: 16157: 16152: 16056: 15934: 15262: 12458: 12408: 10782: 10722: 10535: 8927:

The King Never Smiles: A Biography of Thailand's Bhumibol Adulyadej

6643:"Friedman and Schwartz, Monetary History of the United States", 352 4318: 3275:

economists formulated and propagated the newly created theories of

3183:

set up in 1933 and 1934 and previously extant agencies such as the

3078:

was inaugurated in 1933, drought and erosion combined to cause the

3044: 2533: 2489: 2411: 2255: 2151:

The reverberations of the Great Depression hit Greece in 1932. The

1419:(created in 1913) shoulders much of the blame; however, unlike the 1227: 1018: 601: 541: 349: 10453: 10079: 9653:

The Glory and the Dream: A Narrative History of America, 1932–1972

8726:(2019–43). Groupe de Recherche en Droit, Economie, Gestion: 1–32. 7020: 7007: 6991: 6978: 6888: 6875: 1792: 17164: 17114: 16853: 16803: 16587: 16292: 15976: 9974:(2000) comprehensive global economic and political history; 816pp 5736: 4794: 3002: 2931: 2797:

formed their first long-lived government in 1932 based on strong

2651: 2415: 2342: 2129: 1801: 1797: 1515: 840: 583: 40: 8854:"Illegal Emigration to the U.S.S.R. During the Great Depression" 6903: 6901: 6899: 5763: 4852:

Williams, David (1963). "London and the 1931 financial crisis".

3542:

Comparisons between the Great Recession and the Great Depression

1543:

displaces tenants from the land in the western dry cotton area.

1052:

in a speech honoring Friedman and Schwartz with this statement:

502:

Some economic studies have indicated that the rigidities of the

17288: 16636: 16275: 10500: 10019:

Slump and Recovery, 1929–37: A Survey of World Economic Affairs

9433:

The Dream and the Deal: The Federal Writers' Project, 1935–1943

8674:

Blejan, Elisabeta; Costache, Brîndușa; Aloman, Adriana (2009).

8262:

Between Two Worlds: Politics and Economy in Independent Ireland

8047:"The History Place – Rise of Hitler: Hitler Runs for President" 7274: 4898: 4896: 3620: 3088: 2881: 2316: 2074:

rose from being peripheral to winning 18.3% of the vote in the

2019: 1524: 1427:

in the 1920s which led to an unsustainable credit-driven boom.

931: 471:

countries with lower interest rates. Under the gold standard's

168:

Interest rates dropped to low levels by mid-1930, but expected

10272:

The Great Depression in America : a cultural encyclopedia

9043: 9041: 8170:

A Colonial Economy in the Great Depression, Madras (1929–1937)

6257: 5837:"The causes and cures of unemployment in the Great Depression" 3141:"cut-throat competition" by the setting of minimum prices and 2283:

was the first to implement what have come to be identified as

1808:

Harshly affected by both the global economic downturn and the

17149: 15849: 8409: 7820:

King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960

7573:

Capitalism and the Countryside: The rural crisis in Australia

6896: 6039:

Mendoza, Enrique G.; Smith, Katherine A. (1 September 2006).

5777: 2549: 2529: 2338: 2287:

economic policies: first, by large fiscal stimulus involving

2051: 2047: 1910: 1863: 1835: 965:

exacerbated what otherwise might have been a more "standard"

360:

The Smoot–Hawley act and the breakdown of international trade

52: 14751: 10438:

Mundell, R.A. "A Reconsideration of the Twentieth Century",

10396:

The World Economy, money, and the great depression 1919–1939

10289:

The Economies of Africa and Asia in the Inter-war Depression

4893: 4831: 4829: 3852: 3481:

as "a depression", and the most recent economic crisis, the

2352:

Before the 1929 crisis, links between the world economy and

1025:

The monetarist explanation was given by American economists

486:, helped to exacerbate, or even cause the Great Depression. 17189: 16632: 10751: 10322: 10232:

Depression Decade: From New Era through New Deal, 1929–1941

9780:

Crashed: How a Decade of Financial Crises Changed the World

9038: 4230:"Market crash of 1929: Some facts of the economic downturn" 3485:, had been referred to as a "depression" by then-president 3405:

was later released in 2008 to positive reviews. Similarly,

2914:

more than a decade earlier. The country was driven off the

2544: 2346: 2252: 2050:

operating a screw press against a workman, Nazi propaganda

9049:

Prosperity, Depression and the New Deal: The USA 1890–1954

8929:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 37. 8812:

The economic transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913–1945

8715:

Chiappini, Raphaël; Torre, Dominique; Tosi, Elise (2009).

8641:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 154–55. 7520:

https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c8845/c8845.pdf

6346:

Conference to Honor Milton Friedman, University of Chicago

6218:. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1963. 5057:"Did the New Deal Prolong or Worsen the Great Depression?" 4509: 3981:"Drought: A Paleo Perspective – 20th Century Drought" 3604:

1928 and 1929 were the times in the 20th century that the

3599:

simply does not feel like a depression akin to the 1930s.

1187:

Contraction of the money supply as bank loans are paid off

16167: 10107:

The German slump : politics and economics, 1924–1936

10086:

A Social and Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe

8528:"140 lat temu urodził się Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski" 7900:

Laufenburger, Henry (1936). "France and the Depression".

6362:(New ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 247. 6337:"FederalReserve.gov: Remarks by Governor Ben S. Bernanke" 4826: 4692:. Gold dates culled from historical sources, principally 3102:

supervision, with federal loans available if needed. The

2938:

of September–October 1932 was the largest of a series of

2906:

Unemployed people in front of a workhouse in London, 1930

2292: 2002:

The Great Depression hit Germany hard. The impact of the

10192:. ca. 1933–1934. 18 photographic prints (1 box). At the 9979:

The World Between the Wars, 1919–39: An Economist's View

8940:

https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/518982

5811:"How Did World War II End the Great Depression?: Echoes" 5430:

Back to Home and Duty: Women Between the Wars, 1918–1939

4805:

A short history of the international economy since 1850,

4688:"Historical Statistics for the World Economy: 1–2003 AD" 3070:

on the Great Plains coincided with the Great Depression.

1695:

An impoverished American family living in a shanty, 1936

769: 695:

cuts of meat—sometimes even horse meat—and recycled the

668: 462:

The gold standard and the spreading of global depression

10366:(1963), monetarist interpretation (heavily statistical) 10234:(1947), 462 pp., thorough coverage of the U.S. economy 10214:

The Great Depression: The United States in the Thirties

8774:, Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. 6092:"Inflation risk premia and the expectations hypothesis" 4973:"The Mistake of 1937: A General Equilibrium Analysis", 4815: 4813: 3831:(3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. p. 98. 3227: 997:

The Great Depression in the U.S. from a monetary view.

800:

and high unemployment through monetary policy. In 1933

16859:

List of countries by rate of fatal workplace accidents

10125:

Routes Into the Abyss: Coping With Crises in the 1930s

9503:

On the Aisle, Volume 2: Film Reviews by Philip Morency

9264:, Geoff Cunfer, Southwest Minnesota State University. 8826:

Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right

8184:

Routes Into the Abyss: Coping with Crises in the 1930s

6771:, American Economic Review 2008, 98: 4, pp. 1476–1516. 5350:

Women in France Since 1789: The Meanings of Difference

4847: 4845: 3535: 3507: 2809:

until 1976 with the sole and short-lived exception of

1870:. Consequently, as in other Latin American countries, 1415:(1963). In their view, much like the monetarists, the 10477: 10005:

Encyclopedia of the Interwar Years: From 1919 to 1939

9944:"IMF Fears 'Social Explosion' From World Jobs Crisis" 8915:, University Park, Penn State University Press, 1996. 6090:

Buraschi, Andrea; Jiltsov, Alexei (1 February 2005).

5649:

Commanding Heights, see chapter 6 video or transcript

5054: 4904:

Interwar Britain : a social and economic history

4158:

Prosperity Decade: From War to Depression: 1917–1929,

3457:

Black Friday, 9 May 1873, Vienna Stock Exchange. The

3415:

series of books for older girls, take place in 1930s

2825:, the Great Depression contributed to the end of the 2319:, have their roots in the textile industry). By 1940 2031:

a high-spending policy could lead to a return of the

622:

restricted competition and established price fixing.

10474:, statistical comparison of U.S. and other countries 9827:"The Great Recession: America Becomes Thrift Nation" 8673: 7363:

Foster, William Trufant; Catchings, Waddill (1928).

6936:"Did Hayek and Robbins Deepen the Great Depression?" 4810: 3877: 3616: 2715:

and the National Party's subsequent fusion with the

1874:

became an entrenched aspect of the Chilean economy.

1476:

that plagued the American economy, such as those in

1122:

The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money

10166:

An Economic and Social History of Europe, 1890–1939

9464: 7585:

A Century of Change in the Australian Labour Market

7099:

A History of Money and Banking in the United States

6575: 6513:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 5279:

World population and production: trends and outlook

4842: 4819:Isabel Schnabel, "The German twin crisis of 1931". 3195:(which was later considerably extended through the 3094:During a "bank holiday" that lasted five days, the 2689:Romania was also affected by the Great Depression. 2623:Already under the rule of a dictatorial junta, the 2240:

Unemployed outside a factory in Italy, October 1931

1401:on the Great Depression include Austrian economist 1338:was a common position, and was universally held by 10364:A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960 10306:The Depression and the Developing World, 1914–1939 10066:The Social Consequences Of The Economic Depression 8717:"Romania's unsustainable stabilization: 1929–1933" 8714: 7665: 7654:The Depression and the Developing World, 1914–1939 6216:A Monetary History of the United States, 1857–1960 5380: 5347: 4446:Barry Eichengreen, Douglas Irwin (17 March 2009). 4077:Historic Events for Students: The Great Depression 3955:"1998/99 Prognosis Based Upon 1929 Market Autopsy" 2957:. Agriculture also saw a boom during this period. 1579:throughout the 1920s caused the Great Depression. 10386:Economic Cycles, Crises, and the Global Periphery 9855:"The Great Recession versus the Great Depression" 9368:Paperback ed. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2003 . 9356:Paperback ed. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2003 . 9168: 6929: 6927: 6925: 6689:(3). The American Economic Association: 257–276. 6431: 6258:Friedman, Milton; Anna Jacobson Schwartz (2008). 5294:(Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1999), p. 159. 1199:A reduction in output, in trade and in employment 1017:Crowd at New York's American Union Bank during a 17771: 13487:Native American recognition in the United States 10459:Romer, Christina D. "The Nation in Depression", 8123:The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered 7041:(Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2000), pp. 159–163. 6760:Great Expectations and the End of the Depression 6355: 6349: 4582: 3822: 3820: 3179:. Economic stimulus was attempted through a new 2548:of them violent or violently pacified – like in 2361:workers to achieve a better standard of living. 2082:also made gains, while moderate forces like the 939:Modern mainstream economists see the reasons in 542:German banking crisis of 1931 and British crisis 10401:Kehoe, Timothy J. and Edward C. Prescott, eds. 7622:The Wasted Years?: Australia's Great Depression 7362: 6089: 5055:Hannsgen, Greg; Papadimitriou, Dimitri (2010). 3343:occur during the Great Depression. Steinbeck's 2707:had concluded in 1931 that nearly one-third of 1247:developed and the downward spiral accelerated. 904:that – building on the monetary explanation of 815: 165:ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U.S. 10362:Friedman, Milton, and Anna Jacobson Schwartz. 10122:Konrad, Helmut and Wolfgang Maderthaner, eds. 10048:The great slump: capitalism in crisis, 1929–33 9942:Evans-Pritchard, Ambrose (14 September 2010). 8385:Social Welfare and The State: Great Depression 7947: 7270:"The Great Depression And The Great Recession" 6922: 5342: 4578: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4273:Gordon, John Steele (November–December 2018). 4200:Post, Special to Financial (24 October 2011). 3763:"Depression, You Say? Check Those Safety Nets" 3259:in European countries after World War II (see 3039:programs such as dams and the creation of the 2402:History of New Zealand § Great Depression 2379:A line of unemployed people in Amsterdam, 1933 2147:Economic history of Greece and the Greek world 1948:Soup kitchen for the unemployed in Paris, 1932 1917:The depression severely hurt the export-based 92:Cities around the world were severely affected 15865: 14767: 13884:Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States 12068: 11119: 10767: 10551: 9920:"The Great Depression vs. the Great Recession 6468:Franklin D. Roosevelt: Launching the New Deal 4468: 4466: 4464: 4171:"Timeline: A selected Wall Street chronology" 3826: 3817: 2543:rose significantly (up to 43%) while nominal 2035:that had affected Germany in 1923. Germany's 1466:for not taking a more contractionary stance. 578: 10878:Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) 10252:The Canadian economy in the Great Depression 9532: 8606:"Graph of U.S. Unemployment Rate: 1930–1945" 7899: 7398:, Technocracy, Series A, No. 8, August 1936" 6869: 6867: 6264:(New ed.). Princeton University Press. 6038: 5805: 5801: 5799: 5670:(1992). "What Ended the Great Depression?". 5646:, William Cran (writers / producer) (2002). 3927: 3925: 3923: 3921: 2995:In 1931, Hoover urged bankers to set up the 1904: 1221: 824:Money supply decreased considerably between 711: 10173: 9284:. Nationalparkstraveler.com. Archived from 7936:The French Economy in the Twentieth Century 6667: 6534: 6532: 6530: 4920:MeasuringWorth: What Was the U.S. GDP Then? 4723: 4693: 4569: 4517:"The Senate Passes the Smoot-Hawley Tariff" 4440: 4104:(Fourth ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. 3827:Frank, Robert H.; Bernanke, Ben S. (2007). 2208:Economic history of the Republic of Ireland 498:The Depression in international perspective 67:began around September 1929 and led to the 15872: 15858: 14774: 14760: 12082: 12075: 12061: 11126: 11112: 10774: 10760: 10558: 10544: 10403:Great Depressions of the Twentieth Century 10029:Great Depressions of the Twentieth Century 10027:Kehoe, Timothy J. and Edward C. Prescott. 9888:"The Great Recession: A Downturn Sized Up" 9762: 9760: 9581:Spotlight on America: The Great Depression 9571: 9545:. Oxford University Press. pp. 216–. 8069: 7756: 7505:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 7394:"Man Hours and Distribution, Derived from 7319: 7292:The economic mind in American civilization 7101:(Ludwig von Mises Institute), pp. 293–294. 6825: 6782:"The Fiscal Stimulus, Flawed but Valuable" 6716: 6613: 6611: 6609: 5904:"Great Depression – Causes of the decline" 5441: 5303: 4461: 4150: 3335:for the work, and in 1962 was awarded the 3199:), a jobs program for the unemployed (the 2528:production was down 27% compared to 1928, 1274: 926: 17601:Comprehensive Employment and Training Act 13497:Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes 10984:National Bituminous Coal Conservation Act 10059:The Global Impact of the Great Depression 8589: 7884: 7548: 7325: 7210:"Buying Bad Debt to Return Bank Solvency" 7019: 6990: 6887: 6864: 6847: 6582:Fortune, Peter (September–October 2000). 6356:Friedman, Milton; Schwartz, Anna (2008). 6303:. Princeton University Press. p. 7. 6161: 5984: 5796: 5761:Selective Service System. (27 May 2003). 5631: 5143: 4317: 4303: 4261:https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=qj2l 4257:https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=qj2m 4202:"The Great Crash of 1929, some key dates" 4163: 3918: 3754: 3674:Entertainment during the Great Depression 2673:Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration 1679:Learn how and when to remove this message 1628: 1287:, Barry Wigmore, Gauti B. Eggertsson and 16:Worldwide economic depression (1929–1939) 17445:Job losses caused by the Great Recession 16122:Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates 10355:Eichengreen, Barry, and Marc Flandreau. 10323:Focus on economic theory or econometrics 9972:The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s 9664: 9493: 9477:. 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This caused a price drop of 33% ( 883:explanation. There are also various 620:National Labor Relations Act of 1935 16943:Workers' right to access the toilet 10959:Works Progress Administration (WPA) 9673:(3). Blackwell Publishing: 417–32. 9633:from the original on 9 January 2022 9520:from the original on 17 August 2021 9499: 9409:, Penguin, 2006, 0143039431, p. 238 9239:"The Great Depression and New Deal" 8952:Britain between the wars, 1918–1940 8755:(Cambridge University Press, 1983). 8655:from the original on 18 August 2021 8538:from the original on 12 August 2021 8457: 8408:Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. 8264:(Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1989). 8141: 7834:Canadian Journal of African Studies 7268:Fleisher, Larry (30 October 2009). 7106: 6909:Reflections on the Great Depression 6654:Reflections on the Great Depression 6335:Ben S. 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Although the Nazis lost seats in 1962:and even more the formation of the 1190:A fall in the level of asset prices 1138:to pick up the slack by increasing 394:and economic historians (including 13: 11430:British credit crisis of 1772–1773 10410:The World in Depression, 1929–1939 10304:Latham, Anthony, and John Heaton, 10223:(Discovering U.S. History) (2010) 10219:McNeese, Tim, and Richard Jensen. 10007:(2000). 400 pp. worldwide coverage 9959: 9900:from the original on 15 April 2021 9598:from the original on 15 April 2021 9559:from the original on 15 April 2021 9481:from the original on 15 April 2021 8836:, p. 34. 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Times Inernet. 22 October 2017 3859:from the original on 3 June 2019 3684:Timeline of the Great Depression 3647: 3633: 3619: 3550:has been compared to the 1930s. 3135:National Recovery Administration 3062:Buried machinery in a barn lot; 2960: 2844: 2699:Great Depression in South Africa 2433: 2326: 1719: 1637: 1103:making the private ownership of 489: 130: 118: 94:, especially those dependent on 11139:recessions in the United States 11014:United States Housing Authority 10371:Business Cycles and Depressions 10036:World Economic Survey 1935–1936 9886:Lahart, Justin (28 July 2009). 8982:Cook, Chris and Bewes, Diccon; 8638:Economic History of Puerto Rico 8610:American Social History Project 8333:The Journal of Economic History 8296:(Oxford University Press, 1993) 7531:Spruk, Rok (15 November 2019). 7396:Man Hours: A Declining Quantity 6637: 6474: 6425: 6388: 6329: 6290: 6251: 6221: 6209: 6150:The Journal of Economic History 6134: 6083: 6032: 5973:The Journal of Economic History 5926: 5914:from the original on 9 May 2015 5896: 5865: 5853: 5829: 5755: 5702:The Journal of Economic History 5693: 5660: 5596: 5561: 5548: 5529: 5498: 5481: 5435: 5422: 5405: 5372: 5354:. 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In 1933, 30% of 2657: 2395: 2364: 1069:New York Bank of United States 915:There is a consensus that the 765:Causes of the Great Depression 742:The American mobilization for 665:an international perspective. 636:devaluation of the U.S. dollar 69:Wall Street stock market crash 1: 17595:Works Progress Administration 17487:Unemployment Convention, 1919 16899:Personal protective equipment 16447:Occupational Outlook Handbook 15233:Critique of political economy 14781: 10913:National Youth Administration 10442:90#3 (2000), pp. 327–40 9584:. Teacher Created Resources. 9471:Harry, Lou (1 October 2010). 7846:10.1080/00083968.2010.9707572 6108:10.1016/j.jfineco.2004.07.003 6057:10.1016/j.jinteco.2005.06.016 5774:. 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Archived from 3829:Principles of Macroeconomics 3514:collapse of the Soviet Union 2619:Economic history of Portugal 2554:March of the Hungry in Sanok 2524:fell significantly: in 1932 2068:Adolf Hitler's rise to power 1762: 1711: 1706:The Dominion of Newfoundland 816:Keynesian vs Monetarist view 154:Dow Jones Industrial Average 139:Dow Jones Industrial Average 7: 17661:Narcissism in the workplace 16874:Occupational exposure limit 14526:Women's reproductive health 13492:Federally recognized tribes 13355:Public utilities commission 13259:Public Health Service Corps 13162:Code of Federal Regulations 13044:Congressional Budget Office 12898:Central Intelligence Agency 12804:Water supply and sanitation 12231:Declaration of Independence 11885:1997 Asian financial crisis 11518:Civil War-era United States 10923:Public Works of Art Project 10843:Agricultural Adjustment Act 10373:(Routledge, 1997), 800 pp. 10163:Tipton, F. and R. 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Gale. 3612: 3281:Chicago School of Economics 3155:was deemed unconstitutional 3131:Agricultural Adjustment Act 2997:National Credit Corporation 2816: 2685:Great Depression in Romania 2629:António de Oliveira Salazar 2612: 2593:, credit limits and budget 2571:21 June – 9 July 1932) and 2465:In Iran, then known as the 2291:; and second, by devaluing 2174:Economic history of Iceland 1894:British colony of Hong Kong 1145:As the Depression wore on, 999:Real gross domestic product 530:such as China, which had a 473:price–specie flow mechanism 307:and Broad Street after the 109: 43:during the Great Depression 10: 17816: 17590:Civil Works Administration 17472:Technological unemployment 16948:Workplace health promotion 16400:Professional certification 16097:Personality–job fit theory 15371:Real business-cycle theory 13704:Red states and blue states 13609:City commission government 13604:Council–manager government 11661:Post–World War I recession 11481:Post-Napoleonic Depression 10964:Federal Project Number One 10873:Farm Credit Administration 10868:Homeowners Refinancing Act 10853:Civil Works Administration 10671: 10463:(1993) 7#2 pp. 19–39 10456:; focus on United Kingdom. 8973:, thegreatdepression.co.uk 8592:A New Deal for the Tropics 8590:Rodriguez, Manuel (2011). 8022:Hitler: A Study in Tyranny 7975:About the Great Depression 7699:Journal of African History 7670:(in French) (4): 103–152. 7624:(Allen & Unwin, 1981). 7182:Ludwig von Mises Institute 7094:For Rothbard's view, see: 7091:(Jorge Pinto Books, 2009). 7073:America's Great Depression 7039:America's Great Depression 6911:, Elgar Publishing, 2003, 6509:Rosenof, Theodore (1997). 6432:G. Edward Griffin (1998). 6397:"Who Was Milton Friedman?" 6227:Randall E. Parker (2003), 5617:10.1191/026635501678771619 4664:, Elgar publishing, 2003, 4380:Cambridge University Press 3690: 3539: 3434: 3288:in the United States, and 3029:Federal Home Loan Bank Act 2964: 2891: 2831:Siamese revolution of 1932 2773: 2752: 2696: 2682: 2678: 2633:Prime Minister of Portugal 2616: 2480: 2399: 2368: 2330: 2229: 2205: 2201: 2190: 2171: 2167: 2144: 1987: 1983: 1940:Great Depression in France 1937: 1881: 1823: 1788:Great Depression in Canada 1785: 1766: 1510: 1412:America's Great Depression 1281:new neoclassical synthesis 943:A money supply reduction ( 832:, when there were massive 830:Bank Holiday in March 1933 773: 762: 579:Turning point and recovery 363: 314: 35:people lined up outside a 18: 17790:1930s in economic history 17785:1920s in economic history 17709: 17608: 17570:Guaranteed minimum income 17527: 17368: 17242: 17155:Organizational commitment 17107: 16999: 16966: 16829: 16754: 16631: 16553: 16487: 16274: 16196: 16140: 15990: 15887: 15811: 15769: 15411: 15145: 14894: 14859: 14789: 14713: 14539: 14412: 14344: 13997: 13993: 13984: 13932: 13797: 13788: 13684: 13655: 13632: 13571: 13538: 13529: 13472: 13460:Comparison of governments 13435: 13398: 13375: 13291: 13271: 13202: 13140: 13062: 12985: 12843: 12834: 12830: 12821: 12543: 12534: 12479: 12439:Post-Cold War (1991–2008) 12280:drafting and ratification 12253:Articles of Confederation 12166: 12100: 12091: 11899: 11835: 11780: 11734: 11649: 11571:2nd Industrial Revolution 11564: 11511: 11504:(1836–1838 and 1839–1843) 11420:1st Industrial Revolution 11418: 11387: 11188:Price-and-wage stickiness 11149: 11083: 11027: 10999:Rural Electrification Act 10951: 10825: 10789: 10731: 10710: 10619: 10586:Wall Street Crash of 1929 10573: 10420:Southern Economic Journal 10408:Kindleberger, Charles P. 10072: 10000:(1993), essays by experts 9964: 9539:Pimpare, Stephen (2017). 8925:Handley, Paul M. 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King (1940). 6737:10.1017/S0022050700087167 6172:10.1017/S0022050700040602 5995:10.1017/S0022050700040602 5714:10.1017/S0022050700010251 5684:10.1017/S002205070001189X 5379:Srigley, Katrina (2010). 5304:Stephenson, Jill (2014). 5154:10.1017/S002205070001189X 4918:Per-capita GDP data from 4604:10.1017/s0022050710000756 4547:"The World in Depression" 4487:10.1017/S0022050700040602 4388:10.1017/S0022050700040602 3508:Other "great depressions" 3430: 3181:alphabet soup of agencies 3076:Franklin Delano Roosevelt 3053:Franklin Delano Roosevelt 2836: 2769: 2755:Economic history of Spain 2607:Central Industrial Region 2476: 2471:Anglo-Persian Oil Company 2425: 2262:The Great Depression hit 2232:Economic history of Italy 2193:Great Depression in India 2140: 1933: 1905:European African colonies 1826:Great Depression in Chile 1781: 1757:Central Bank of Argentina 836:across the United States. 758: 712:World War II and recovery 294: 219: 216: 213: 210: 208: 150:Wall Street Crash of 1929 100:primary sector industries 17739:Aspects of organizations 17420:Involuntary unemployment 16981:Equal pay for equal work 16904:Repetitive strain injury 16405:Professional development 16395:Professional association 16077:Letter of recommendation 14479:Prescription drug prices 13599:Mayor–council government 13589:Coterminous municipality 13579:Consolidated city-county 13345:Agriculture commissioner 12995:House of Representatives 12903:National Security Agency 12553:Contiguous United States 11852:1990s United States boom 11640:Financial crisis of 1914 11019:Fair Labor Standards Act 10450:Economic History Review, 10440:American Economic Review 10174:United States and Canada 9268:28 December 2008 at the 9156:23 December 2008 at the 9103:U.S. Department of State 8986:p. 115; Routledge, 1997 8309:(1997) 34#3 pp: 265–294. 8002:31 December 2021 at the 7984:, University of Illinois 7980:20 December 2008 at the 7743:31 December 2021 at the 7668:African Economic History 7643:, Source: Bank of Canada 7590:31 December 2021 at the 7465:. Stanford, California. 7289:Dorfman, Joseph (1959). 6934:White, Lawrence (2008). 6787:29 November 2021 at the 6141:Whaples, Robert (1995). 5964:Whaples, Robert (1995). 5652:(TV documentary). U.S.: 5419:(2015) 68#2 pp. 441–470. 5041:15 February 2022 at the 4961:12 February 2022 at the 4939:American Economic Review 4925:4 September 2010 at the 4681:International data from 4422:25 February 2021 at the 4345:, Penguin, p. 163, 3723:Involuntary unemployment 3364:Federal Writers' Project 3203:, WPA) and, through the 3074:Shortly after President 2748: 2511:Austro-Hungarian Empires 2467:Imperial State of Persia 2274: 2225: 2186: 1877: 1819: 1796:Unemployed men march in 1702:most famously in Germany 1047:Federal Reserve Governor 879:(demand-driven) and the 776:Financial crisis of 1914 521:, in September 1931 the 17724:Aspects of corporations 17686:Slow movement (culture) 17565:Employer of last resort 17467:Structural unemployment 17405:Frictional unemployment 16844:Epilepsy and employment 16731:Performance-related pay 16665:National average salary 16578:996 working hour system 15011:Industrial organization 14841:Computational economics 14564:Criticism of government 13909:Social welfare programs 13502:State-recognized tribes 12487:Outline of U.S. history 12199:Continental Association 11667:Depression of 1920–1921 11599:Depression of 1882–1885 11513:Early Victorian Britain 11248:Real and nominal values 10933:Railroad Retirement Act 10812:American Liberty League 10591:Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act 10200:Galbraith, John Kenneth 10130:24 January 2020 at the 9925:17 October 2011 at the 9893:The Wall Street Journal 9216:28 October 2009 at the 8969:24 January 2009 at the 8832:April 15, 2021, at the 8687:National Bank of Serbia 7759:Lagos Historical Review 7639:27 January 2009 at the 7444:Bell, Spurgeon (1940). 7084:For Hayek's view, see: 6767:25 January 2016 at the 6342:March 24, 2020, at the 5935:"What is a Monetarist?" 5908:Encyclopedia Britannica 5842:2 November 2021 at the 5784:"Depression & WWII" 5748:24 January 2022 at the 5459:10.1111/1468-0424.00245 5417:Economic History Review 5073:10.2753/0577-5132530103 5035:8(1), 2, January 2011. 4854:Economic History Review 3943:Encyclopædia Britannica 3728:List of economic crises 3597:global financial crisis 2989:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 2945:In the less industrial 2811:Axel Pehrsson-Bramstorp 2251:giving a speech at the 2098:increasingly relied on 2084:Social Democratic Party 2076:September 1930 election 1852:1939 Chillán earthquake 1545:Childress County, Texas 1405:and American economist 1275:Expectations hypothesis 1001:in 1996-Dollar (blue), 963:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 927:Mainstream explanations 902:expectations hypothesis 808:and in 1934 signed the 484:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 408:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 387:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 366:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 192:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 17734:Aspects of occupations 17540:Unemployment insurance 17492:Unemployment extension 17462:Reserve army of labour 17267:Constructive dismissal 17074:Sleeping while on duty 17039:Exploitation of labour 16921:Sick building syndrome 16092:Person–environment fit 15962:Independent contractor 15216:Modern monetary theory 14881:Experimental economics 14851:Pluralism in economics 14836:Mathematical economics 14626:Environmental movement 14469:Health insurance costs 14364:Educational attainment 13889:Federal Reserve System 13847:Science and technology 13350:Insurance commissioner 12888:Intelligence Community 12583:minor outlying islands 12346:Civil rights movement 11772:Recession of 1969–1970 11767:Recession of 1960–1961 11726:Recession of 1937–1938 10606:Recession of 1937–1938 10338:Eichengreen, Barry J. 10098:Feinstein. Charles H. 10095:(Basil Blackwell 1986) 10064:Woytinsky, Wladimir. 9199:Prison Days and Nights 9008:6 January 2022 at the 8823:Jennifer Burns (2009). 8770:2 January 2022 at the 8390:March 7, 2016, at the 8280:11 August 2015 at the 7962:10.1006/redy.2001.0143 7867:Gamble, Harry (2009). 7425:Cite journal requires 7144:"The Great Depression" 7050:Steele, G. R. (2001). 6497:Cite journal requires 6465:Frank Freidel (1973), 6297:Bernanke, Ben (2000). 6236:18 August 2021 at the 5793:. Americaslibrary.gov. 5752:. Library of Congress. 5639:John Kenneth Galbraith 5109:Quoted by P. Renshaw. 4984:11 August 2015 at the 4147:(2nd ed 1970), 885 pp. 4046:"The Great Depression" 3698:Causes of World War II 3602: 3466: 3368:Prison Days and Nights 3331:, who was awarded the 3309: 3242:conservative coalition 3236: 3172: 3104:Securities Act of 1933 3071: 3015: 2980: 2907: 2742: 2380: 2259: 2258:factory in Turin, 1932 2241: 2125: 2112:November 1932 election 2063: 2055: 1999: 1960:February 6, 1934 riots 1949: 1898:Nationalist Government 1805: 1696: 1629:Socio-economic effects 1607: 1577:distribution of wealth 1557:William Trufant Foster 1548: 1385: 1313:gross domestic product 1301:recession of 1937–1938 1226:, triggering multiple 1222: 1205:and loss of confidence 1173: 1127:aggregate expenditures 1065: 1022: 1010: 936: 917:Federal Reserve System 872: 837: 725: 654:Federal Reserve System 589: 499: 382: 345: 311: 225:Industrial production 76:gross domestic product 44: 17744:Aspects of workplaces 17482:Unemployment benefits 17477:Types of unemployment 17415:Graduate unemployment 17309:Letter of resignation 16938:Workers' compensation 16931:Occupational fatality 16435:Vocational university 16035:Employment counsellor 14452:Immigrant health care 13967:Transportation safety 13962:Transportation policy 13952:Public transportation 13022:President pro tempore 12878:Executive departments 12647:National Park Service 12302:Territorial evolution 11890:Early 2000s recession 11857:Early 1990s recession 11809:Early 1980s recession 11389:Commercial revolution 11287:Nominal interest rate 11035:Franklin D. Roosevelt 10928:Reciprocal Tariff Act 10833:Emergency Banking Act 10227:, for middle schools. 10204:The Great Crash, 1929 10157:13 March 2017 at the 10057:Rothermund, Dietmar. 9739:Transition Newsletter 9343:Maurice W. Lee, 1955. 9320:Economic Fluctuations 9097:12 March 2009 at the 9092:"Smoot-Hawley Tariff" 9079:24 April 2017 at the 8724:GREDEG Working Papers 8635:Dietz, James (1986). 8576:13 March 2017 at the 8076:Kershaw, Ian (1998). 7934:Jean-Pierre Dormois, 7902:International Affairs 7731:R. Olufeni Ekundare, 7620:Judy Mackinolty, ed. 7241:Corey, Lewis (1934). 7014:. Cambridge, MA: 33. 6840:10.1257/aer.98.4.1476 6757:Gauti B. Eggertsson, 5850:19.4 (1989): 553–583. 5582:10.1353/jjs.2004.0045 5307:Women in Nazi Germany 4997:Eggertsson, Gauti B. 4835:H. V. Hodson (1938), 4823:64#3 (2004): 822–871. 4551:Mount Holyoke College 3703:Causes of World War I 3571: 3483:Depression of 1920–21 3456: 3435:Further information: 3352:To Kill a Mockingbird 3341:agricultural industry 3304: 3230: 3167: 3096:Emergency Banking Act 3061: 3049:political realignment 3005: 2978: 2936:National Hunger March 2905: 2737: 2522:Industrial production 2378: 2247: 2239: 2120: 2061: 2045: 1997: 1968:SFIO socialist leader 1947: 1795: 1694: 1594: 1539: 1380: 1344:factors of production 1293:Franklin D. Roosevelt 1218:called in these loans 1172: 1147:Franklin D. Roosevelt 1054: 1016: 996: 934: 921:lender of last resort 843: 823: 719: 586: 497: 373: 354:Bank of United States 342:Bank of United States 339: 302: 31: 17550:Job creation program 17326:Mandatory retirement 17279:Employee offboarding 17099:Workplace incivility 17094:Workplace harassment 16869:Occupational disease 16864:Occupational burnout 16779:Disability insurance 16623:Workweek and weekend 16603:Retroactive overtime 16425:Vocational education 16340:Continuing education 16178:Permanent employment 15090:Social choice theory 14846:Behavioral economics 14621:Environmental issues 14286:Political ideologies 14185:Indigenous languages 13385:List of legislatures 13182:separation of powers 12883:Independent agencies 12809:World Heritage Sites 12444:September 11 attacks 12367:Spanish–American War 12307:Mexican–American War 12263:Confederation period 12194:Continental Congress 11456:Copper Panic of 1789 11055:Henry Morgenthau Jr. 10903:National Housing Act 10863:Executive Order 6102 10393:Haberler, Gottfried. 10369:Glasner, David, ed. 10348:Eichengreen, Barry. 10332:(1995) 27#1 pp 1–28 9651:William Manchester, 9308:The Great Depression 9244:21 July 2016 at the 9022:Constantine, Stephen 8950:Charles Loch Mowat, 8899:(1978), pp. 129–149. 8560:Athens: Alpha Bank, 8260:See also B. Girvin, 8198:Modern Asian Studies 8051:www.historyplace.com 7575:(Pluto Press, 1987). 7369:. Houghton Mifflin. 7295:. The Viking Press. 7118:John Cunningham Wood 6985:. Cambridge, MA: 5. 6882:. Cambridge, MA: 1. 5809:(16 December 2011). 5789:25 June 2009 at the 5447:Gender & History 5290:Denyse Baillargeon, 5208:5 March 2016 at the 5163:on 17 January 2013. 4839:(London), pp. 64–76. 4521:United States Senate 4181:on 23 September 2008 3879:Cochrane, Willard W. 3749:The Great Depression 3567:late-2000s recession 3447:The Great Depression 3118:was provided by the 2577:Bloody Friday (1930) 2304:February 26 Incident 1753:Roca–Runciman Treaty 1657:improve this article 1376:capital accumulation 1357:note that President 1101:Executive Order 6102 1035:monetary contraction 985:'s debt deflation). 806:Executive Order 6102 536:developing countries 17455:Recession-proof job 17450:Lists of recessions 17388:Economic depression 17336:Retirement planning 17217:Work–life interface 17054:Employee monitoring 17022:Corporate behaviour 17012:Accounting scandals 16894:Occupational stress 16884:Occupational injury 16415:Reflective practice 16410:Professional school 16132:Work-at-home scheme 16052:Induction programme 16030:Employment contract 16010:Business networking 15174:American (National) 14874:Economic statistics 14464:Health care finance 13957:Rail transportation 13723:Imperial presidency 13445:State constitutions 13390:List of legislators 13340:Auditor/Comptroller 13313:Lieutenant governor 13039:Library of Congress 12930:Diplomatic Security 12573:Indian reservations 12236:American Revolution 11792:1973–1975 recession 11736:Post–WWII expansion 11410:Great Frost of 1709 11238:Neutrality of money 11219:Classical dichotomy 11135:Economic expansions 10470:3 July 2016 at the 10383:and Tausch A. eds. 10311:Shiroyama, Tomoko. 10230:Mitchell, Broadus. 10179:Dickstein, Morris. 10034:League Of Nations. 10021:(Oxford UP, 1938). 9949:The Daily Telegraph 9474:Cincinnati Magazine 9402:The Grapes of Wrath 9288:on 5 September 2010 9126:on 29 October 2013. 9120:EH.net Encyclopedia 9068:Charles R. Morris, 8954:(1955) pp. 386–412. 8864:on 24 February 2021 7571:Geoffrey Lawrence, 7054:. Routledge. p. 9. 6907:Randall E. Parker, 6808:, MIT Press, 1992, 6704:on 18 November 2017 6652:Randall E. Parker, 6625:on 19 February 2009 6409:(2). Archived from 5835:Richard J. Jensen, 5668:Romer, Christina D. 5538:Midwestern Folklore 5505:Vogelsang, Willem. 4956:Gauti B. Eggertsson 4791:(1955) pp. 379–385. 4660:Randall E. Parker, 4454:24 May 2012 at the 4343:The Ascent of Money 4279:ABA Banking Journal 3802:Wall Street Journal 3579:and the other is a 3577:Saber-toothed tiger 3518:standards of living 3437:Economic depression 3425:Christmas After All 3407:Christmas After All 3391:and illustrated by 3372:Victor Folke Nelson 3324:The Grapes of Wrath 3314:The Grapes of Wrath 3216:economic indicators 2924:National Government 2717:South African Party 2599:fixed exchange rate 2128:Hitler followed an 2096:Paul von Hindenburg 1860:Pedro Aguirre Cerda 1140:government spending 1117:John Maynard Keynes 1097:Federal Reserve Act 870:increases Year/Year 624:John Maynard Keynes 612:Banking Act of 1935 569:National Government 511:speculative attacks 440:balance of payments 404:Austrian economists 340:Crowds outside the 205: 199:Economic indicators 181:The decline in the 175:deflationary spiral 102:suffered the most. 61:economic depression 17718:See also templates 17555:Job creation index 17519:Youth unemployment 17383:Discouraged worker 17272:Wrongful dismissal 17252:At-will employment 17125:Civil conscription 17089:Workplace bullying 16976:Affirmative action 16958:Workplace wellness 16889:Occupational noise 16525:Long service leave 16385:Overspecialization 16365:Induction training 16320:Career development 14574:affirmative action 14547:Capital punishment 14506:Poverty and health 14501:Physician shortage 14474:Health care prices 14404:Standard of living 14087:standard of living 13894:Financial position 13521:Hawaiian home land 13509:Indian reservation 13482:Tribal sovereignty 13325:Secretary of state 13194:United States Code 13110:Territorial courts 13082:Associate Justices 12967:Inspector generals 12454:War in Afghanistan 12317:Reconstruction era 12184:Stamp Act Congress 11974:COVID-19 recession 11634:Panic of 1910–1911 11466:Panic of 1796–1797 11292:Real interest rate 11260:Economic expansion 10893:Glass–Steagall Act 10858:Communications Act 10802:New Deal Coalition 10270:Young, William H. 10212:Goldston, Robert, 10091:Broadberry, S. N. 9996:Garside, W.R. ed. 9860:The New York Times 9799:The New York Times 8186:(2013) pp. 152–66. 8157:. pp. 308–12. 8155:History of Iceland 7997:Germany – Economic 7366:The Road to Plenty 7122:Friedrich A. Hayek 7120:, Robert D. Wood, 6795:, 20 October 2012. 6793:The New York Times 6482:Klein, Lawrence R. 5769:7 May 2009 at the 5033:Econ Journal Watch 5003:Econ Journal Watch 4803:William Ashworth, 4785:Charles Loch Mowat 4725:Eichengreen, Barry 4695:Eichengreen, Barry 3937:9 May 2015 at the 3932:"Great Depression" 3810:6 May 2021 at the 3767:The New York Times 3522:post-Soviet states 3467: 3445:, whose 1934 book 3358:The Blind Assassin 3237: 3214:By 1936, the main 3173: 3124:Glass–Steagall Act 3110:which created the 3072: 3016: 2981: 2908: 2856:. You can help by 2764:civil war, 1936–39 2445:. You can help by 2381: 2281:Takahashi Korekiyo 2260: 2242: 2216:have argued that: 2126: 2064: 2056: 2020:national socialist 2000: 1950: 1845:austerity measures 1806: 1731:. You can help by 1697: 1591:Productivity shock 1549: 1388:Heterodox theories 1355:J. Bradford DeLong 1240:capital investment 1236:March Bank Holiday 1174: 1142:or cutting taxes. 1115:British economist 1023: 1011: 937: 885:heterodox theories 873: 838: 726: 590: 500: 383: 346: 312: 203: 65:economic contagion 45: 17767: 17766: 17666:Post-work society 17646:Kiss up kick down 17378:Barriers to entry 17343:Severance package 17175:Human trafficking 17069:Sexual harassment 17049:Employee handbook 16968:Equal opportunity 16831:Safety and health 16821:Take-home vehicle 16430:Vocational school 16380:Lifelong learning 16355:Further education 16315:Career counseling 16310:Career assessment 16087:Overqualification 15847: 15846: 15378:New institutional 14749: 14748: 14709: 14708: 14705: 14704: 14675:National security 14384:Income inequality 14264:Statue of Liberty 14067:income inequality 13980: 13979: 13972:Trucking industry 13784: 13783: 13780: 13779: 13711:Foreign relations 13699:Electoral College 13680: 13679: 13468: 13467: 13420:District attorney 13267: 13266: 13094:Courts of appeals 12817: 12816: 12530: 12529: 12471:COVID-19 pandemic 12424:Feminist Movement 12270:American frontier 12189:Thirteen Colonies 12050: 12049: 11761:Recession of 1958 11755:Recession of 1953 11749:Recession of 1949 11446:Thirteen Colonies 11253:Velocity of money 11183:Paradox of thrift 11101: 11100: 10790:Causes and legacy 10749: 10748: 10152:table of contents 10148:978-960-99793-6-8 10115:Kaiser, David E. 9977:Davis, Joseph S. 9853:(20 March 2009). 9839:on 17 April 2009. 9591:978-1-4206-3218-7 9552:978-0-19-066072-7 9513:978-1-4349-7709-0 9500:Morency, Philip. 9457:Stacy I. Morgan, 9306:Robert Goldston, 9222:Microsoft Encarta 9057:978-0-340-96588-7 8858:www.genealogia.fi 8566:978-960-99793-6-8 8414:iranicaonline.org 8089:978-0-393-32035-0 8032:978-1-56852-036-0 7609:978-0-09-184203-1 7472:978-0-8047-9875-4 7254:978-0-405-04116-7 7130:978-0-415-31057-4 7097:Murray Rothbard, 7060:978-0-415-25138-9 7037:Murray Rothbard, 6917:978-1-84376-335-2 6814:978-0-262-26119-7 6780:Christina Romer, 6662:978-1-84376-550-9 6594:on 11 August 2015 6449:978-0-912986-39-5 6246:978-1-84376-550-9 5487:Ann E. McCleary, 5443:Camiscioli, Elisa 5411:Jessica S. Bean, 5398:978-1-4426-1003-3 5365:978-0-230-80214-8 5317:978-1-317-87607-6 5186:978-0-691-01698-6 4670:978-1-84376-335-2 4649:978-0-19-804201-3 4352:978-986-173-584-9 4156:George H. Soule, 4111:978-0-393-92207-3 4086:978-0-7876-5701-7 3914:Depression Decade 3899:League of Nations 3838:978-0-07-319397-7 3747:John A. Garraty, 3708:Economic collapse 3387:books written by 3312:–John Steinbeck, 3290:Margaret Thatcher 3257:planned economies 3084:displaced persons 2874: 2873: 2795:Per Albin Hansson 2776:Economy of Sweden 2625:Ditadura Nacional 2541:Unemployment rate 2463: 2462: 2181:Spanish Civil War 2004:Wall Street Crash 1832:League of Nations 1749: 1748: 1689: 1688: 1681: 1585:consumer spending 1553:Waddill Catchings 1472:argued that most 1368:Olivier Blanchard 1351:Barry Eichengreen 1208:Hoarding of money 1196:A fall in profits 1105:gold certificates 1039:Great Contraction 722:Fort Worth, Texas 688:feed sack dresses 563:in January 1933. 292: 291: 242:Wholesale prices 17807: 17795:Financial crises 17780:Great Depression 17754:Critique of work 17749:Corporate titles 17717: 17716: 17636:Evil corporation 17502:Employment rates 17425:Jobless recovery 17393:Great Depression 17353:Golden parachute 17348:Golden handshake 17145:Job satisfaction 17135:Critique of work 16953:Workplace phobia 16784:Health insurance 16741:Wage compression 16709:Progressive wage 16563:35-hour workweek 16530:No call, no show 16520:Leave of absence 16370:Knowledge worker 16298:Master craftsman 16102:Personality hire 16040:Executive search 16020:Curriculum vitae 16005:Background check 15874: 15867: 15860: 15851: 15850: 15051:Natural resource 14886:Economic history 14824:Mechanism design 14776: 14769: 14762: 14753: 14752: 14729: 14722: 14609:African American 14491:Health insurance 14379:Household income 14249:National symbols 14180:American English 14153:Federal holidays 14062:household income 13995: 13994: 13991: 13990: 13795: 13794: 13733:Anti-Americanism 13657:Special district 13584:Independent city 13553:County executive 13536: 13535: 13330:Attorney general 13289: 13288: 13278:Federal District 12861:Executive Office 12841: 12840: 12832: 12831: 12828: 12827: 12588:populated places 12568:federal enclaves 12563:federal district 12541: 12540: 12404:American Century 12387:Great Depression 12382:Roaring Twenties 12342:Women's suffrage 12221:Halifax Resolves 12214:Founding Fathers 12209:military history 12174:Pre-colonial era 12098: 12097: 12077: 12070: 12063: 12054: 12053: 11842:Great Regression 11837:Great Moderation 11683:Great Depression 11672:Roaring Twenties 11193:Underconsumption 11163:Effective demand 11154:Aggregate demand 11128: 11121: 11114: 11105: 11104: 11075:Robert F. Wagner 11070:Francis Townsend 10797:Great Depression 10776: 10769: 10762: 10753: 10752: 10601:Effect in cities 10567:Great Depression 10560: 10553: 10546: 10537: 10536: 10528: 10527: 10516: 10515: 10514: 10504: 10503: 10492: 10491: 10490: 10483: 10429:Markwell, Donald 10424:online at JSTOR. 10250:Safarian, A. E. 10240:Reis, Ronald A. 10206:(1954), popular 10003:Grossman, Mark. 9985:Garraty, John A. 9970:Brendon, Piers. 9953: 9940: 9934: 9916: 9910: 9909: 9907: 9905: 9883: 9877: 9876: 9874: 9872: 9847: 9841: 9840: 9835:. Archived from 9822: 9816: 9815: 9813: 9811: 9789: 9783: 9776: 9770: 9767:Who Lost Russia? 9764: 9755: 9735: 9729: 9728: 9726: 9724: 9717:The Conversation 9709: 9703: 9697: 9691: 9690: 9662: 9656: 9649: 9643: 9642: 9640: 9638: 9619: 9608: 9607: 9605: 9603: 9575: 9569: 9568: 9566: 9564: 9536: 9530: 9529: 9527: 9525: 9497: 9491: 9490: 9488: 9486: 9468: 9462: 9455: 9449: 9444:Jerrold Hirsch, 9442: 9436: 9431:Jerre Mangione, 9429: 9423: 9416: 9410: 9398: 9392: 9382: 9376: 9350: 9344: 9341: 9335: 9329: 9323: 9317: 9311: 9304: 9298: 9297: 9295: 9293: 9278: 9272: 9259: 9253: 9235: 9229: 9228:31 October 2009. 9208: 9202: 9196: 9187: 9186: 9166: 9160: 9147: 9141: 9134: 9128: 9127: 9122:. Archived from 9112: 9106: 9089: 9083: 9066: 9060: 9045: 9036: 9019: 9013: 9000: 8994: 8980: 8974: 8961: 8955: 8948: 8942: 8937: 8931: 8930: 8922: 8916: 8906: 8900: 8895:R. J. Harrison, 8893: 8887: 8880: 8874: 8873: 8871: 8869: 8860:. Archived from 8850: 8844: 8821: 8815: 8808: 8802: 8801: 8781: 8775: 8762: 8756: 8749: 8743: 8742: 8740: 8738: 8732: 8721: 8712: 8706: 8705: 8703: 8701: 8695: 8680: 8671: 8665: 8664: 8662: 8660: 8632: 8626: 8625: 8623: 8621: 8602: 8596: 8595: 8587: 8581: 8554: 8548: 8547: 8545: 8543: 8524: 8518: 8517: 8515: 8513: 8494: 8488: 8487: 8485: 8483: 8464: 8455: 8454: 8452: 8450: 8431: 8425: 8424: 8422: 8420: 8405: 8399: 8381: 8375: 8370:E. H. Kossmann, 8368: 8362: 8357:Rosemary Thorp, 8355: 8349: 8346:Chalmers Johnson 8342: 8336: 8329: 8323: 8316: 8310: 8303: 8297: 8290: 8284: 8271: 8265: 8258: 8252: 8245: 8239: 8236: 8230: 8229: 8193: 8187: 8180: 8174: 8173: 8165: 8159: 8158: 8150: 8139: 8132: 8126: 8116: 8110: 8100: 8094: 8093: 8073: 8067: 8066: 8064: 8062: 8043: 8037: 8036: 8013: 8007: 7994: 7985: 7972: 7966: 7965: 7945: 7939: 7932: 7926: 7925: 7897: 7891: 7890: 7888: 7864: 7858: 7857: 7829: 7823: 7816: 7810: 7809: 7773: 7767: 7766: 7754: 7748: 7729: 7723: 7722: 7694: 7688: 7687: 7663: 7657: 7650: 7644: 7631: 7625: 7618: 7612: 7601: 7595: 7582: 7576: 7569: 7563: 7562: 7552: 7528: 7522: 7517: 7511: 7510: 7504: 7496: 7494: 7492: 7456: 7450: 7449: 7441: 7435: 7434: 7428: 7423: 7421: 7413: 7411: 7409: 7389: 7383: 7382: 7380: 7378: 7360: 7354: 7353: 7351: 7349: 7343: 7332: 7323: 7317: 7316: 7314: 7312: 7286: 7280: 7279: 7265: 7259: 7258: 7238: 7232: 7231: 7229: 7227: 7215:Business Insider 7205: 7199: 7198: 7196: 7194: 7172: 7166: 7165: 7163: 7161: 7139: 7133: 7115: 7104: 7082: 7076: 7069: 7063: 7052:Keynes and Hayek 7048: 7042: 7035: 7026: 7025: 7023: 7003: 6997: 6996: 6994: 6974: 6968: 6967: 6965: 6963: 6931: 6920: 6905: 6894: 6893: 6891: 6871: 6862: 6861: 6851: 6823: 6817: 6802: 6796: 6778: 6772: 6755: 6749: 6748: 6720: 6714: 6713: 6711: 6709: 6703: 6697:. Archived from 6680: 6671: 6665: 6650: 6644: 6641: 6635: 6634: 6632: 6630: 6615: 6604: 6603: 6601: 6599: 6590:. Archived from 6579: 6573: 6572: 6536: 6525: 6524: 6506: 6500: 6495: 6493: 6485: 6478: 6472: 6463: 6454: 6453: 6429: 6423: 6422: 6420: 6418: 6413:on 10 April 2008 6392: 6386: 6385: 6383: 6381: 6353: 6347: 6333: 6327: 6326: 6324: 6322: 6294: 6288: 6287: 6285: 6283: 6255: 6249: 6225: 6219: 6213: 6207: 6206: 6204: 6202: 6196: 6165: 6147: 6138: 6132: 6131: 6129: 6127: 6087: 6081: 6080: 6078: 6076: 6036: 6030: 6029: 6027: 6025: 6019: 5988: 5970: 5961: 5955: 5954: 5952: 5950: 5930: 5924: 5923: 5921: 5919: 5900: 5894: 5893: 5891: 5889: 5869: 5863: 5857: 5851: 5833: 5827: 5826: 5824: 5822: 5803: 5794: 5781: 5775: 5759: 5753: 5740: 5734: 5733: 5697: 5691: 5690: 5664: 5658: 5657: 5635: 5629: 5628: 5600: 5594: 5593: 5565: 5559: 5552: 5546: 5545: 5533: 5527: 5526: 5524: 5522: 5502: 5496: 5490: 5485: 5479: 5478: 5439: 5433: 5428:Deirdre Beddoe, 5426: 5420: 5414: 5409: 5403: 5402: 5386: 5376: 5370: 5369: 5353: 5340: 5334: 5333: 5331: 5329: 5301: 5295: 5288: 5282: 5275: 5269: 5268: 5266: 5264: 5258: 5227: 5218: 5212: 5195: 5189: 5174: 5168: 5167: 5162: 5156:. Archived from 5147: 5129: 5120: 5114: 5107: 5101: 5100: 5052: 5046: 5029: 5023: 5022: 5020: 5018: 4994: 4988: 4971: 4965: 4948: 4942: 4935: 4929: 4916: 4907: 4900: 4891: 4884: 4878: 4877: 4849: 4840: 4833: 4824: 4817: 4808: 4801: 4792: 4782: 4776: 4775: 4773: 4771: 4751: 4745: 4744: 4721: 4715: 4714: 4691: 4679: 4673: 4658: 4652: 4637: 4631: 4630: 4628: 4626: 4620: 4589: 4580: 4567: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4557:on 10 March 2008 4553:. Archived from 4543: 4537: 4536: 4534: 4532: 4513: 4507: 4506: 4470: 4459: 4444: 4438: 4437:30 November 2009 4414: 4408: 4407: 4362: 4356: 4355: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4321: 4301: 4295: 4294: 4270: 4264: 4252: 4246: 4245: 4243: 4241: 4226: 4217: 4216: 4214: 4212: 4197: 4191: 4190: 4188: 4186: 4177:. Archived from 4167: 4161: 4154: 4148: 4141:Thomas G. Barnes 4130: 4124: 4123: 4097: 4091: 4090: 4072: 4066: 4065: 4063: 4061: 4042: 4036: 4035: 4007: 4001: 4000: 3998: 3996: 3977: 3971: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3951: 3945: 3929: 3916: 3910: 3904: 3903: 3893: 3887: 3886: 3875: 3869: 3868: 3866: 3864: 3853:"Commodity Data" 3849: 3843: 3842: 3824: 3815: 3797: 3791: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3758: 3752: 3745: 3657: 3652: 3651: 3650: 3643: 3638: 3637: 3636: 3629: 3624: 3623: 3530:financial crisis 3520:in the 1990s in 3498:Panic of 1910–11 3496:, and the minor 3316: 3253:social democracy 3187:. By 1935, the " 3147:purchasing power 3066:, May 1936. The 3012:President Hoover 2951:Southern England 2898:Interwar Britain 2880:era. Exports of 2869: 2866: 2848: 2841: 2791:Social Democrats 2669:Luis Muñoz Marín 2586:18 April 1930). 2585: 2562: 2492:, whose leader, 2458: 2455: 2437: 2430: 2289:deficit spending 2249:Benito Mussolini 2212:Frank Barry and 2124:speaking in 1935 2102:, bypassing the 2088:Democratic Party 1744: 1741: 1723: 1716: 1684: 1677: 1673: 1670: 1664: 1641: 1633: 1605: 1565:Henry A. Wallace 1504:Ludwig von Mises 1372:Lawrence Summers 1349:Economists like 1325:aggregate demand 1265:aggregate demand 1225: 1073:government bonds 1063: 1031:Anna J. Schwartz 865: 856: 847: 810:Gold Reserve Act 650:Anna J. Schwartz 429: 428: 424: 375:Willis C. Hawley 326:Roaring Twenties 206: 202: 134: 122: 49:Great Depression 17815: 17814: 17810: 17809: 17808: 17806: 17805: 17804: 17770: 17769: 17768: 17763: 17759:Organized labor 17729:Aspects of jobs 17705: 17696:Toxic workplace 17631:Emotional labor 17604: 17528:Public programs 17523: 17440:Great Recession 17410:Full employment 17398:Long Depression 17364: 17262:Banishment room 17238: 17160:Refusal of work 17103: 17027:Corporate crime 16995: 16962: 16825: 16750: 16627: 16549: 16483: 16360:Graduate school 16270: 16192: 16136: 16127:Underemployment 15986: 15930:Self-employment 15905:Contingent work 15895:Academic tenure 15888:Classifications 15883: 15878: 15848: 15843: 15840:Business portal 15807: 15806: 15805: 15765: 15529:von Böhm-Bawerk 15417: 15416: 15407: 15179:Ancient thought 15157: 15156: 15150: 15141: 15140: 15139: 14890: 14855: 14819:Contract theory 14804:Decision theory 14785: 14780: 14750: 14745: 14732: 14725: 14718: 14701: 14687:Opioid epidemic 14604:Native American 14584:intersex rights 14535: 14531:Life expectancy 14521:Medical deserts 14511:Race and health 14408: 14394:Personal income 14340: 14244:National anthem 14077:personal income 14042:Economic issues 13976: 13928: 13776: 13676: 13665:School district 13651: 13634:Minor divisions 13628: 13567: 13525: 13464: 13450:Statutory codes 13431: 13394: 13371: 13281: 13276: 13263: 13198: 13155:civil liberties 13136: 13127:Other tribunals 13106:District courts 13058: 13017:current members 13000:current members 12981: 12915:Law enforcement 12813: 12526: 12475: 12466:Great Recession 12337:Progressive Era 12327:Native genocide 12258:Perpetual Union 12246:Treaty of Paris 12204:United Colonies 12162: 12087: 12081: 12051: 12046: 11911:Great Recession 11903: 11901:Information Age 11895: 11844: 11840: 11831: 11784: 11782:Great Inflation 11776: 11738: 11730: 11653: 11651:Interwar period 11645: 11581:Long Depression 11573: 11569: 11560: 11520: 11516: 11507: 11422: 11414: 11391: 11383: 11348:U.S. recessions 11343:U.K. recessions 11275:U.S. expansions 11145: 11132: 11102: 11097: 11079: 11045:Frances Perkins 11040:Harold L. Ickes 11023: 11009:Social Security 10952:Second New Deal 10947: 10821: 10785: 10780: 10750: 10745: 10727: 10706: 10615: 10569: 10564: 10534: 10522: 10512: 10510: 10498: 10488: 10486: 10478: 10472:Wayback Machine 10412:(3rd ed. 2013) 10325: 10284: 10176: 10159:Wayback Machine 10132:Wayback Machine 10105:James, Harold. 10075: 9967: 9962: 9960:Further reading 9957: 9956: 9941: 9937: 9927:Wayback Machine 9917: 9913: 9903: 9901: 9884: 9880: 9870: 9868: 9848: 9844: 9823: 9819: 9809: 9807: 9790: 9786: 9777: 9773: 9765: 9758: 9747:30 May 2012 at 9736: 9732: 9722: 9720: 9711: 9710: 9706: 9698: 9694: 9679:10.2307/2599512 9663: 9659: 9650: 9646: 9636: 9634: 9621: 9620: 9611: 9601: 9599: 9592: 9576: 9572: 9562: 9560: 9553: 9537: 9533: 9523: 9521: 9514: 9498: 9494: 9484: 9482: 9469: 9465: 9461:(2004), p. 244. 9456: 9452: 9443: 9439: 9430: 9426: 9417: 9413: 9399: 9395: 9385:Lanny Ebenstein 9383: 9379: 9351: 9347: 9342: 9338: 9332:Business Cycles 9330: 9326: 9318: 9314: 9305: 9301: 9291: 9289: 9280: 9279: 9275: 9270:Wayback Machine 9260: 9256: 9246:Wayback Machine 9236: 9232: 9218:Wayback Machine 9209: 9205: 9197: 9190: 9167: 9163: 9158:Wayback Machine 9148: 9144: 9140:, 2008, p. 113. 9135: 9131: 9114: 9113: 9109: 9099:Wayback Machine 9090: 9086: 9081:Wayback Machine 9067: 9063: 9047:Peter Clemens, 9046: 9039: 9020: 9016: 9010:Wayback Machine 9001: 8997: 8981: 8977: 8971:Wayback Machine 8962: 8958: 8949: 8945: 8938: 8934: 8923: 8919: 8907: 8903: 8894: 8890: 8881: 8877: 8867: 8865: 8852: 8851: 8847: 8834:Wayback Machine 8822: 8818: 8809: 8805: 8782: 8778: 8772:Wayback Machine 8763: 8759: 8750: 8746: 8736: 8734: 8730: 8719: 8713: 8709: 8699: 8697: 8693: 8678: 8672: 8668: 8658: 8656: 8649: 8633: 8629: 8619: 8617: 8604: 8603: 8599: 8588: 8584: 8578:Wayback Machine 8555: 8551: 8541: 8539: 8526: 8525: 8521: 8511: 8509: 8496: 8495: 8491: 8481: 8479: 8466: 8465: 8458: 8448: 8446: 8433: 8432: 8428: 8418: 8416: 8406: 8402: 8392:Wayback Machine 8382: 8378: 8369: 8365: 8356: 8352: 8343: 8339: 8330: 8326: 8317: 8313: 8304: 8300: 8291: 8287: 8282:Wayback Machine 8272: 8268: 8259: 8255: 8246: 8242: 8237: 8233: 8194: 8190: 8181: 8177: 8166: 8162: 8151: 8142: 8133: 8129: 8117: 8113: 8101: 8097: 8090: 8074: 8070: 8060: 8058: 8045: 8044: 8040: 8033: 8014: 8010: 8004:Wayback Machine 7995: 7988: 7982:Wayback Machine 7973: 7969: 7946: 7942: 7933: 7929: 7914:10.2307/2601740 7898: 7894: 7865: 7861: 7830: 7826: 7822:(1966), p. 109. 7817: 7813: 7790:10.2307/2717416 7774: 7770: 7755: 7751: 7745:Wayback Machine 7730: 7726: 7695: 7691: 7676:10.2307/3601244 7664: 7660: 7651: 7647: 7641:Wayback Machine 7632: 7628: 7619: 7615: 7602: 7598: 7592:Wayback Machine 7583: 7579: 7570: 7566: 7529: 7525: 7518: 7514: 7498: 7497: 7490: 7488: 7473: 7457: 7453: 7442: 7438: 7426: 7424: 7415: 7414: 7407: 7405: 7390: 7386: 7376: 7374: 7361: 7357: 7347: 7345: 7341: 7330: 7324: 7320: 7310: 7308: 7287: 7283: 7266: 7262: 7255: 7239: 7235: 7225: 7223: 7206: 7202: 7192: 7190: 7173: 7169: 7159: 7157: 7140: 7136: 7116: 7107: 7083: 7079: 7070: 7066: 7049: 7045: 7036: 7029: 7004: 7000: 6975: 6971: 6961: 6959: 6932: 6923: 6906: 6897: 6872: 6865: 6824: 6820: 6803: 6799: 6789:Wayback Machine 6779: 6775: 6769:Wayback Machine 6756: 6752: 6721: 6717: 6707: 6705: 6701: 6678: 6672: 6668: 6651: 6647: 6642: 6638: 6628: 6626: 6619:"Bank Failures" 6617: 6616: 6607: 6597: 6595: 6580: 6576: 6553:10.2307/1907327 6537: 6528: 6521: 6498: 6496: 6487: 6486: 6479: 6475: 6464: 6457: 6450: 6430: 6426: 6416: 6414: 6393: 6389: 6379: 6377: 6370: 6354: 6350: 6344:Wayback Machine 6334: 6330: 6320: 6318: 6311: 6295: 6291: 6281: 6279: 6272: 6256: 6252: 6238:Wayback Machine 6226: 6222: 6214: 6210: 6200: 6198: 6194: 6163:10.1.1.482.4975 6145: 6139: 6135: 6125: 6123: 6088: 6084: 6074: 6072: 6037: 6033: 6023: 6021: 6017: 5986:10.1.1.482.4975 5968: 5962: 5958: 5948: 5946: 5931: 5927: 5917: 5915: 5902: 5901: 5897: 5887: 5885: 5872:Lioudis, Nick. 5870: 5866: 5858: 5854: 5844:Wayback Machine 5834: 5830: 5820: 5818: 5804: 5797: 5791:Wayback Machine 5782: 5778: 5771:Wayback Machine 5760: 5756: 5750:Wayback Machine 5741: 5737: 5698: 5694: 5665: 5661: 5642: 5636: 5632: 5601: 5597: 5566: 5562: 5553: 5549: 5534: 5530: 5520: 5518: 5503: 5499: 5488: 5486: 5482: 5440: 5436: 5427: 5423: 5412: 5410: 5406: 5399: 5377: 5373: 5366: 5341: 5337: 5327: 5325: 5318: 5302: 5298: 5289: 5285: 5276: 5272: 5262: 5260: 5256: 5242:10.2307/2077848 5225: 5219: 5215: 5210:Wayback Machine 5196: 5192: 5175: 5171: 5160: 5127: 5121: 5117: 5108: 5104: 5053: 5049: 5043:Wayback Machine 5030: 5026: 5016: 5014: 4995: 4991: 4986:Wayback Machine 4972: 4968: 4963:Wayback Machine 4949: 4945: 4936: 4932: 4927:Wayback Machine 4917: 4910: 4901: 4894: 4885: 4881: 4866:10.2307/2592922 4850: 4843: 4834: 4827: 4818: 4811: 4802: 4795: 4783: 4779: 4769: 4767: 4752: 4748: 4741: 4722: 4718: 4711: 4684:Maddison, Angus 4680: 4676: 4659: 4655: 4638: 4634: 4624: 4622: 4618: 4587: 4581: 4570: 4560: 4558: 4545: 4544: 4540: 4530: 4528: 4515: 4514: 4510: 4471: 4462: 4456:Wayback Machine 4445: 4441: 4424:Wayback Machine 4415: 4411: 4366:Whaples, Robert 4363: 4359: 4353: 4339: 4335: 4302: 4298: 4271: 4267: 4253: 4249: 4239: 4237: 4228: 4227: 4220: 4210: 4208: 4198: 4194: 4184: 4182: 4169: 4168: 4164: 4155: 4151: 4131: 4127: 4112: 4098: 4094: 4087: 4073: 4069: 4059: 4057: 4050:drought.unl.edu 4044: 4043: 4039: 4008: 4004: 3994: 3992: 3979: 3978: 3974: 3964: 3962: 3953: 3952: 3948: 3939:Wayback Machine 3930: 3919: 3911: 3907: 3895: 3894: 3890: 3876: 3872: 3862: 3860: 3851: 3850: 3846: 3839: 3825: 3818: 3812:Wayback Machine 3798: 3794: 3784: 3782: 3759: 3755: 3746: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3718:Interwar France 3693: 3688: 3653: 3648: 3646: 3639: 3634: 3632: 3625: 3618: 3615: 3601: 3589: 3588: 3559:Federal Reserve 3544: 3538: 3524:and the former 3510: 3502:Long Depression 3487:Calvin Coolidge 3463:Long Depression 3439: 3433: 3346:Of Mice and Men 3318: 3311: 3302: 3269:Milton Friedman 3193:Social Security 3189:Second New Deal 2973: 2965:Main articles: 2963: 2912:First World War 2900: 2892:Main articles: 2890: 2870: 2864: 2861: 2854:needs expansion 2839: 2823:Kingdom of Siam 2819: 2799:interventionist 2778: 2772: 2757: 2751: 2729:socialist state 2725: 2701: 2695: 2687: 2681: 2660: 2621: 2615: 2579: 2563:6 March 1930), 2556: 2494:Józef Piłsudski 2485: 2479: 2459: 2453: 2450: 2443:needs expansion 2428: 2404: 2398: 2373: 2367: 2335: 2329: 2308:chilling effect 2277: 2234: 2228: 2210: 2204: 2195: 2189: 2176: 2170: 2162:Ioannis Metaxas 2149: 2143: 2080:Communist Party 2037:Weimar Republic 1992: 1990:Weimar Republic 1986: 1942: 1936: 1907: 1890:Silver standard 1886: 1880: 1828: 1822: 1814:national income 1790: 1784: 1771: 1765: 1745: 1739: 1736: 1729:needs expansion 1714: 1685: 1674: 1668: 1665: 1654: 1642: 1631: 1615:mass production 1611:electrification 1606: 1603:M. King Hubbert 1601: 1593: 1573:Marriner Eccles 1534: 1522:. According to 1513: 1464:Bank of England 1460:Federal Reserve 1417:Federal Reserve 1407:Murray Rothbard 1403:Friedrich Hayek 1399:Austrian School 1395: 1393:Austrian School 1390: 1340:Austrian School 1309: 1307:Common position 1289:Christina Romer 1277: 1167: 1136:economic crisis 1113: 1086:New York branch 1064: 1062:Ben S. Bernanke 1061: 1027:Milton Friedman 991: 989:Monetarist view 961:Passage of the 929: 906:Milton Friedman 900:theory and the 871: 868:M2 money supply 863: 861: 854: 852: 845: 818: 790:Weimar Republic 778: 772: 767: 761: 714: 671: 646:Milton Friedman 632:Christina Romer 598:Roosevelt years 581: 544: 532:silver standard 523:Bank of England 492: 464: 426: 422: 421: 368: 362: 317: 297: 214:United Kingdom 201: 146: 145: 144: 143: 142: 135: 127: 126: 123: 112: 88:personal income 80:Great Recession 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 17813: 17803: 17802: 17797: 17792: 17787: 17782: 17765: 17764: 17762: 17761: 17756: 17751: 17746: 17741: 17736: 17731: 17726: 17720: 17719: 17710: 17707: 17706: 17704: 17703: 17698: 17693: 17688: 17683: 17681:Sunday scaries 17678: 17673: 17668: 17663: 17658: 17653: 17648: 17643: 17638: 17633: 17628: 17623: 17618: 17612: 17610: 17606: 17605: 17598: 17597: 17592: 17587: 17582: 17577: 17572: 17567: 17562: 17557: 17552: 17547: 17542: 17537: 17531: 17529: 17525: 17524: 17522: 17521: 17516: 17511: 17510: 17509: 17504: 17494: 17489: 17484: 17479: 17474: 17469: 17464: 17459: 17458: 17457: 17452: 17447: 17442: 17432: 17430:Phillips curve 17427: 17422: 17417: 17412: 17407: 17402: 17401: 17400: 17395: 17385: 17380: 17374: 17372: 17366: 17365: 17363: 17362: 17357: 17356: 17355: 17350: 17340: 17339: 17338: 17333: 17331:Retirement age 17328: 17318: 17313: 17312: 17311: 17301: 17296: 17291: 17286: 17284:Exit interview 17281: 17276: 17275: 17274: 17269: 17264: 17254: 17248: 17246: 17240: 17239: 17237: 17236: 17231: 17230: 17229: 17224: 17214: 17209: 17208: 17207: 17202: 17197: 17192: 17187: 17182: 17177: 17172: 17162: 17157: 17152: 17147: 17142: 17137: 17132: 17127: 17122: 17117: 17111: 17109: 17105: 17104: 17102: 17101: 17096: 17091: 17086: 17081: 17076: 17071: 17066: 17061: 17056: 17051: 17046: 17041: 17036: 17034:Discrimination 17031: 17030: 17029: 17024: 17019: 17014: 17003: 17001: 16997: 16996: 16994: 16993: 16988: 16986:Gender pay gap 16983: 16978: 16972: 16970: 16964: 16963: 16961: 16960: 16955: 16950: 16945: 16940: 16935: 16934: 16933: 16923: 16918: 16917: 16916: 16906: 16901: 16896: 16891: 16886: 16881: 16876: 16871: 16866: 16861: 16856: 16851: 16846: 16841: 16835: 16833: 16827: 16826: 16824: 16823: 16818: 16817: 16816: 16806: 16801: 16799:Parental leave 16796: 16794:Marriage leave 16791: 16789:Life insurance 16786: 16781: 16776: 16771: 16766: 16760: 16758: 16752: 16751: 16749: 16748: 16743: 16738: 16733: 16728: 16723: 16718: 16717: 16716: 16706: 16705: 16704: 16699: 16694: 16689: 16679: 16678: 16677: 16672: 16662: 16657: 16652: 16647: 16645:Income bracket 16641: 16639: 16629: 16628: 16626: 16625: 16620: 16615: 16610: 16605: 16600: 16595: 16590: 16585: 16580: 16575: 16573:Eight-hour day 16570: 16565: 16559: 16557: 16551: 16550: 16548: 16547: 16542: 16537: 16532: 16527: 16522: 16517: 16512: 16507: 16502: 16497: 16491: 16489: 16485: 16484: 16482: 16481: 16476: 16471: 16470: 16469: 16464: 16454: 16449: 16444: 16439: 16438: 16437: 16432: 16427: 16422: 16417: 16412: 16407: 16402: 16397: 16392: 16387: 16382: 16377: 16372: 16367: 16362: 16357: 16352: 16347: 16342: 16332: 16330:Creative class 16327: 16322: 16317: 16312: 16307: 16302: 16301: 16300: 16290: 16288:Apprenticeship 16284: 16282: 16272: 16271: 16269: 16268: 16263: 16258: 16256:Scarlet-collar 16253: 16248: 16243: 16238: 16233: 16228: 16223: 16218: 16213: 16208: 16202: 16200: 16194: 16193: 16191: 16190: 16185: 16180: 16175: 16170: 16165: 16160: 16155: 16150: 16144: 16142: 16138: 16137: 16135: 16134: 16129: 16124: 16119: 16114: 16109: 16104: 16099: 16094: 16089: 16084: 16079: 16074: 16069: 16064: 16059: 16054: 16049: 16048: 16047: 16037: 16032: 16027: 16022: 16017: 16012: 16007: 16002: 15996: 15994: 15988: 15987: 15985: 15984: 15979: 15974: 15972:Temporary work 15969: 15964: 15959: 15958: 15957: 15952: 15947: 15940:Skilled worker 15937: 15932: 15927: 15922: 15917: 15912: 15907: 15902: 15897: 15891: 15889: 15885: 15884: 15877: 15876: 15869: 15862: 15854: 15845: 15844: 15842: 15837: 15832: 15827: 15822: 15817: 15812: 15809: 15808: 15804: 15803: 15798: 15788: 15783: 15777: 15776: 15775: 15773: 15767: 15766: 15764: 15763: 15756: 15751: 15746: 15741: 15736: 15731: 15726: 15721: 15716: 15711: 15706: 15701: 15696: 15691: 15686: 15681: 15676: 15671: 15666: 15661: 15656: 15651: 15646: 15641: 15636: 15631: 15626: 15621: 15616: 15611: 15606: 15601: 15596: 15591: 15586: 15581: 15576: 15571: 15566: 15561: 15556: 15551: 15546: 15541: 15536: 15531: 15526: 15521: 15516: 15511: 15506: 15501: 15496: 15491: 15486: 15481: 15476: 15471: 15466: 15461: 15456: 15451: 15446: 15441: 15436: 15431: 15426: 15420: 15418: 15412: 15409: 15408: 15406: 15405: 15400: 15395: 15390: 15385: 15380: 15375: 15374: 15373: 15363: 15362: 15361: 15351: 15346: 15341: 15340: 15339: 15329: 15324: 15319: 15318: 15317: 15316: 15315: 15305: 15300: 15285: 15280: 15275: 15270: 15265: 15260: 15255: 15250: 15245: 15243:Disequilibrium 15240: 15235: 15230: 15225: 15220: 15219: 15218: 15208: 15203: 15198: 15193: 15192: 15191: 15181: 15176: 15171: 15166: 15160: 15158: 15146: 15143: 15142: 15138: 15137: 15132: 15127: 15122: 15117: 15112: 15107: 15102: 15097: 15092: 15083: 15078: 15073: 15068: 15063: 15058: 15056:Organizational 15053: 15048: 15043: 15038: 15033: 15028: 15023: 15018: 15013: 15008: 15003: 14998: 14993: 14988: 14983: 14978: 14973: 14968: 14963: 14958: 14953: 14948: 14943: 14938: 14933: 14928: 14923: 14918: 14913: 14908: 14902: 14901: 14900: 14898: 14892: 14891: 14889: 14888: 14883: 14878: 14877: 14876: 14865: 14863: 14857: 14856: 14854: 14853: 14848: 14843: 14838: 14833: 14831:Macroeconomics 14828: 14827: 14826: 14821: 14816: 14811: 14806: 14799:Microeconomics 14795: 14793: 14787: 14786: 14779: 14778: 14771: 14764: 14756: 14747: 14746: 14744: 14743: 14738: 14731: 14730: 14723: 14715: 14714: 14711: 14710: 14707: 14706: 14703: 14702: 14700: 14699: 14694: 14689: 14684: 14683: 14682: 14672: 14671: 14670: 14660: 14655: 14650: 14645: 14643:Mass shootings 14640: 14635: 14634: 14633: 14631:Climate change 14628: 14618: 14613: 14612: 14611: 14606: 14601: 14596: 14591: 14586: 14581: 14576: 14569:Discrimination 14566: 14561: 14560: 14559: 14549: 14543: 14541: 14537: 14536: 14534: 14533: 14528: 14523: 14518: 14513: 14508: 14503: 14498: 14493: 14488: 14483: 14482: 14481: 14476: 14471: 14461: 14460: 14459: 14454: 14449: 14444: 14439: 14434: 14424: 14418: 14416: 14410: 14409: 14407: 14406: 14401: 14396: 14391: 14386: 14381: 14376: 14371: 14366: 14361: 14359:American Dream 14356: 14350: 14348: 14342: 14341: 14339: 14338: 14333: 14328: 14326:Transportation 14323: 14318: 14313: 14308: 14303: 14298: 14293: 14288: 14283: 14278: 14273: 14272: 14271: 14266: 14261: 14259:Mount Rushmore 14256: 14246: 14241: 14236: 14231: 14230: 14229: 14224: 14219: 14214: 14209: 14199: 14194: 14193: 14192: 14187: 14182: 14172: 14167: 14162: 14157: 14156: 14155: 14145: 14140: 14139: 14138: 14128: 14123: 14118: 14117: 14116: 14111: 14101: 14100: 14099: 14094: 14089: 14084: 14079: 14074: 14069: 14064: 14059: 14054: 14049: 14039: 14034: 14029: 14024: 14019: 14014: 14009: 14003: 14001: 13988: 13982: 13981: 13978: 13977: 13975: 13974: 13969: 13964: 13959: 13954: 13949: 13944: 13938: 13936: 13930: 13929: 13927: 13926: 13921: 13916: 13911: 13906: 13901: 13896: 13891: 13886: 13881: 13879:Federal budget 13876: 13871: 13866: 13865: 13864: 13859: 13854: 13849: 13844: 13839: 13834: 13829: 13824: 13819: 13817:Communications 13814: 13809: 13798: 13792: 13786: 13785: 13782: 13781: 13778: 13777: 13775: 13774: 13769: 13768: 13767: 13762: 13757: 13747: 13746: 13745: 13740: 13738:exceptionalism 13735: 13725: 13720: 13719: 13718: 13716:foreign policy 13708: 13707: 13706: 13701: 13691: 13685: 13682: 13681: 13678: 13677: 13675: 13674: 13673: 13672: 13661: 13659: 13653: 13652: 13650: 13649: 13644: 13638: 13636: 13630: 13629: 13627: 13626: 13621: 13616: 13611: 13606: 13601: 13596: 13591: 13586: 13581: 13575: 13573: 13569: 13568: 13566: 13565: 13560: 13555: 13550: 13544: 13542: 13533: 13527: 13526: 13524: 13523: 13518: 13517: 13516: 13506: 13505: 13504: 13499: 13494: 13484: 13478: 13476: 13470: 13469: 13466: 13465: 13463: 13462: 13457: 13452: 13447: 13441: 13439: 13433: 13432: 13430: 13429: 13428: 13427: 13417: 13416: 13415: 13413:Chief justices 13408:Supreme courts 13404: 13402: 13396: 13395: 13393: 13392: 13387: 13381: 13379: 13373: 13372: 13370: 13369: 13368: 13367: 13357: 13352: 13347: 13342: 13337: 13332: 13327: 13322: 13321: 13320: 13310: 13309: 13308: 13297: 13295: 13286: 13269: 13268: 13265: 13264: 13262: 13261: 13256: 13251: 13250: 13249: 13247:National Guard 13244: 13239: 13234: 13229: 13224: 13219: 13208: 13206: 13200: 13199: 13197: 13196: 13191: 13190: 13189: 13184: 13179: 13174: 13164: 13159: 13158: 13157: 13150:Bill of Rights 13146: 13144: 13138: 13137: 13135: 13134: 13129: 13124: 13123: 13122: 13120:list of judges 13117: 13115:list of courts 13103: 13102: 13101: 13099:list of judges 13091: 13090: 13089: 13084: 13079: 13068: 13066: 13060: 13059: 13057: 13056: 13051: 13046: 13041: 13036: 13034:Capitol Police 13031: 13030: 13029: 13024: 13019: 13009: 13008: 13007: 13002: 12991: 12989: 12983: 12982: 12980: 12979: 12974: 12969: 12964: 12963: 12962: 12957: 12955:Secret Service 12952: 12947: 12942: 12937: 12932: 12927: 12922: 12912: 12911: 12910: 12905: 12900: 12895: 12885: 12880: 12875: 12870: 12868:Vice President 12865: 12864: 12863: 12858: 12847: 12845: 12838: 12825: 12819: 12818: 12815: 12814: 12812: 12811: 12806: 12801: 12796: 12795: 12794: 12789: 12784: 12779: 12774: 12769: 12764: 12759: 12748: 12747: 12746: 12741: 12736: 12731: 12726: 12721: 12716: 12711: 12706: 12701: 12696: 12691: 12686: 12681: 12676: 12671: 12666: 12656: 12655: 12654: 12652:National Parks 12644: 12643: 12642: 12637: 12632: 12627: 12622: 12612: 12607: 12605:Extreme points 12602: 12597: 12596: 12595: 12590: 12585: 12580: 12575: 12570: 12565: 12560: 12555: 12544: 12538: 12532: 12531: 12528: 12527: 12525: 12524: 12519: 12514: 12509: 12504: 12499: 12494: 12489: 12483: 12481: 12477: 12476: 12474: 12473: 12468: 12463: 12462: 12461: 12456: 12446: 12441: 12436: 12431: 12426: 12421: 12416: 12411: 12406: 12401: 12400: 12399: 12389: 12384: 12379: 12374: 12369: 12364: 12363: 12362: 12357: 12352: 12344: 12339: 12334: 12329: 12324: 12319: 12314: 12309: 12304: 12299: 12294: 12292:Federalist Era 12289: 12288: 12287: 12285:Bill of Rights 12282: 12272: 12267: 12266: 12265: 12260: 12250: 12249: 12248: 12243: 12233: 12228: 12226:Lee Resolution 12223: 12218: 12217: 12216: 12211: 12206: 12201: 12196: 12191: 12186: 12176: 12170: 12168: 12164: 12163: 12161: 12160: 12155: 12150: 12145: 12140: 12135: 12130: 12125: 12120: 12115: 12110: 12104: 12102: 12095: 12089: 12088: 12086: articles 12080: 12079: 12072: 12065: 12057: 12048: 12047: 12045: 12044: 12043: 12042: 12037: 12032: 12030:United Kingdom 12027: 12022: 12017: 12012: 12007: 12002: 11997: 11992: 11987: 11982: 11971: 11970: 11969: 11964: 11962:United Kingdom 11959: 11954: 11949: 11944: 11939: 11934: 11929: 11924: 11919: 11907: 11905: 11904:(2007–present) 11897: 11896: 11894: 11893: 11887: 11882: 11881: 11880: 11875: 11873:United Kingdom 11870: 11865: 11854: 11848: 11846: 11833: 11832: 11830: 11829: 11828: 11827: 11822: 11820:United Kingdom 11817: 11806: 11805: 11804: 11799: 11797:United Kingdom 11788: 11786: 11778: 11777: 11775: 11774: 11769: 11764: 11758: 11752: 11746: 11742: 11740: 11732: 11731: 11729: 11728: 11723: 11722: 11721: 11716: 11714:United Kingdom 11711: 11706: 11701: 11696: 11691: 11680: 11677: 11674: 11669: 11664: 11657: 11655: 11647: 11646: 11644: 11643: 11637: 11631: 11625: 11619: 11616: 11610: 11604: 11601: 11596: 11595: 11594: 11589: 11587:United Kingdom 11577: 11575: 11562: 11561: 11559: 11558: 11552: 11546: 11543: 11537: 11534: 11528: 11524: 11522: 11509: 11508: 11506: 11505: 11499: 11496: 11493: 11487: 11484: 11478: 11475: 11472: 11469: 11463: 11453: 11450: 11449: 11448: 11443: 11438: 11426: 11424: 11416: 11415: 11413: 11412: 11407: 11402: 11395: 11393: 11385: 11384: 11382: 11381: 11380: 11379: 11369: 11368: 11367: 11362: 11352: 11351: 11350: 11345: 11340: 11335: 11330: 11325: 11320: 11315: 11305: 11304: 11303: 11294: 11289: 11279: 11278: 11277: 11272: 11267: 11257: 11256: 11255: 11250: 11245: 11240: 11235: 11226: 11221: 11216: 11202: 11200:Business cycle 11197: 11196: 11195: 11190: 11185: 11180: 11178:Overproduction 11175: 11170: 11165: 11150: 11147: 11146: 11131: 11130: 11123: 11116: 11108: 11099: 11098: 11096: 11095: 11090: 11084: 11081: 11080: 11078: 11077: 11072: 11067: 11065:Herbert Hoover 11062: 11057: 11052: 11047: 11042: 11037: 11031: 11029: 11025: 11024: 11022: 11021: 11016: 11011: 11006: 11001: 10996: 10986: 10981: 10976: 10971: 10966: 10961: 10955: 10953: 10949: 10948: 10946: 10945: 10940: 10938:Securities Act 10935: 10930: 10925: 10920: 10915: 10910: 10905: 10900: 10895: 10890: 10885: 10880: 10875: 10870: 10865: 10860: 10855: 10850: 10845: 10840: 10835: 10829: 10827: 10823: 10822: 10820: 10819: 10814: 10809: 10804: 10799: 10793: 10791: 10787: 10786: 10779: 10778: 10771: 10764: 10756: 10747: 10746: 10744: 10743: 10738: 10732: 10729: 10728: 10726: 10725: 10720: 10714: 10712: 10708: 10707: 10705: 10704: 10699: 10697:United Kingdom 10694: 10689: 10684: 10679: 10674: 10669: 10664: 10659: 10654: 10649: 10644: 10639: 10634: 10629: 10623: 10621: 10617: 10616: 10614: 10613: 10608: 10603: 10598: 10593: 10588: 10583: 10577: 10575: 10571: 10570: 10563: 10562: 10555: 10548: 10540: 10533: 10532: 10520: 10508: 10496: 10476: 10475: 10457: 10446: 10444:online version 10436: 10426: 10416: 10406: 10399: 10390: 10377: 10367: 10360: 10353: 10346: 10336: 10324: 10321: 10320: 10319: 10309: 10302: 10292: 10283: 10280: 10279: 10278: 10268: 10258: 10248: 10238: 10228: 10217: 10210: 10197: 10187: 10175: 10172: 10171: 10170: 10161: 10136: 10120: 10113: 10103: 10096: 10089: 10082: 10074: 10071: 10070: 10069: 10062: 10055: 10045:Rees, Goronwy. 10042: 10032: 10025: 10015: 10008: 10001: 9994: 9982: 9975: 9966: 9963: 9961: 9958: 9955: 9954: 9935: 9911: 9878: 9842: 9817: 9784: 9782:(2018), p. 41. 9771: 9756: 9730: 9704: 9692: 9657: 9644: 9609: 9590: 9570: 9551: 9531: 9512: 9492: 9463: 9450: 9437: 9424: 9418:David Taylor, 9411: 9407:John Steinbeck 9393: 9377: 9345: 9336: 9324: 9312: 9299: 9273: 9254: 9237:Joyce Bryant, 9230: 9203: 9188: 9161: 9142: 9129: 9107: 9084: 9061: 9037: 9014: 8995: 8975: 8956: 8943: 8932: 8917: 8909:Göran Therborn 8901: 8888: 8875: 8845: 8816: 8803: 8776: 8757: 8744: 8707: 8666: 8647: 8627: 8597: 8582: 8568:. pp. 361–394 8549: 8519: 8502:WielkaHistoria 8489: 8456: 8426: 8400: 8376: 8363: 8350: 8337: 8324: 8311: 8298: 8292:Vera Zamagni, 8285: 8266: 8253: 8240: 8231: 8204:(3): 585–623. 8188: 8175: 8160: 8140: 8127: 8111: 8095: 8088: 8068: 8038: 8031: 8008: 7986: 7967: 7940: 7927: 7908:(2): 202–224. 7892: 7879:(3): 775–803. 7859: 7840:(2): 245–281. 7824: 7811: 7784:(4): 207–232. 7768: 7749: 7747:, pp. 104–226. 7724: 7705:(4): 445–461. 7689: 7658: 7645: 7626: 7613: 7596: 7577: 7564: 7523: 7512: 7471: 7451: 7436: 7427:|journal= 7384: 7355: 7318: 7281: 7260: 7253: 7233: 7200: 7167: 7134: 7105: 7103: 7102: 7093: 7092: 7087:Diego Pizano, 7077: 7064: 7043: 7027: 6998: 6969: 6946:(4): 751–768. 6921: 6895: 6863: 6834:(4). p. 1480. 6818: 6797: 6773: 6750: 6731:(4): 918–937. 6715: 6666: 6645: 6636: 6605: 6574: 6526: 6519: 6499:|journal= 6473: 6455: 6448: 6424: 6387: 6369:978-0691137940 6368: 6348: 6328: 6309: 6289: 6271:978-0691137940 6270: 6250: 6220: 6208: 6133: 6102:(2): 429–490. 6082: 6031: 5956: 5925: 5895: 5864: 5852: 5828: 5795: 5776: 5754: 5735: 5692: 5678:(4): 757–784. 5659: 5630: 5611:(2): 162–184. 5605:German History 5595: 5576:(2): 315–352. 5560: 5547: 5528: 5497: 5480: 5453:(3): 593–621. 5434: 5421: 5404: 5397: 5371: 5364: 5344:Susan K. Foley 5335: 5316: 5296: 5283: 5270: 5213: 5203:Stlouisfed.org 5190: 5176:Ben Bernanke. 5169: 5145:10.1.1.207.844 5115: 5102: 5047: 5024: 5009:(3): 197–204. 4989: 4966: 4943: 4930: 4908: 4892: 4890:, pp. 386–412. 4886:Mowat (1955), 4879: 4860:(3): 513–528. 4841: 4825: 4809: 4793: 4777: 4746: 4739: 4716: 4709: 4674: 4653: 4632: 4598:(4): 871–897. 4568: 4538: 4508: 4481:(1): 139–154. 4460: 4439: 4433:New York Times 4409: 4357: 4351: 4333: 4319:10.3386/w13597 4296: 4265: 4247: 4234:Economic Times 4218: 4206:Financial Post 4192: 4162: 4149: 4125: 4110: 4092: 4085: 4067: 4037: 4002: 3972: 3961:on 17 May 2008 3946: 3917: 3905: 3888: 3870: 3844: 3837: 3816: 3792: 3753: 3739: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3715: 3710: 3705: 3700: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3687: 3686: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3658: 3644: 3630: 3627:Economy portal 3614: 3611: 3585:liquidity trap 3572: 3540:Main article: 3537: 3534: 3509: 3506: 3443:Lionel Robbins 3432: 3429: 3409:, part of the 3333:Pulitzer Prize 3329:John Steinbeck 3303: 3301: 3298: 3294:United Kingdom 3177:First New Deal 2962: 2959: 2940:hunger marches 2889: 2888:United Kingdom 2886: 2872: 2871: 2851: 2849: 2838: 2835: 2818: 2815: 2807:Prime Minister 2774:Main article: 2771: 2768: 2753:Main article: 2750: 2747: 2724: 2721: 2713:National Party 2697:Main article: 2694: 2691: 2683:Main article: 2680: 2677: 2665:Carlos Chardon 2659: 2656: 2648:budget balance 2617:Main article: 2614: 2611: 2591:interest rates 2569:Lesko uprising 2481:Main article: 2478: 2475: 2461: 2460: 2440: 2438: 2427: 2424: 2400:Main article: 2397: 2394: 2369:Main article: 2366: 2363: 2354:Latin American 2331:Main article: 2328: 2325: 2321:light industry 2276: 2273: 2230:Main article: 2227: 2224: 2223: 2222: 2206:Main article: 2203: 2200: 2191:Main article: 2188: 2185: 2172:Main article: 2169: 2166: 2153:Bank of Greece 2145:Main article: 2142: 2139: 2100:rule by decree 2092:People's Party 2033:hyperinflation 2016:Credit Anstalt 1988:Main article: 1985: 1982: 1938:Main article: 1935: 1932: 1906: 1903: 1884:Nanjing Decade 1882:Main article: 1879: 1876: 1858:government of 1824:Main article: 1821: 1818: 1786:Main article: 1783: 1780: 1767:Main article: 1764: 1761: 1747: 1746: 1726: 1724: 1713: 1710: 1687: 1686: 1645: 1643: 1636: 1630: 1627: 1599: 1592: 1589: 1561:Herbert Hoover 1533: 1530: 1512: 1509: 1474:boom and busts 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1359:Herbert Hoover 1336:liquidationism 1308: 1305: 1276: 1273: 1213: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1200: 1197: 1194: 1191: 1188: 1185: 1166: 1165:Debt deflation 1163: 1155:farm subsidies 1112: 1111:Keynesian view 1109: 1059: 990: 987: 979: 978: 959: 952:private sector 948: 928: 925: 898:debt deflation 862: 853: 844: 817: 814: 771: 768: 763:Main article: 760: 757: 713: 710: 670: 667: 580: 577: 548:Credit Anstalt 543: 540: 517:and depleting 491: 488: 463: 460: 459: 458: 451: 450:protectionism. 443: 364:Main article: 361: 358: 331:Black Thursday 316: 313: 296: 293: 290: 289: 286: 283: 280: 277: 273: 272: 269: 266: 263: 260: 259:Foreign trade 256: 255: 252: 249: 246: 243: 239: 238: 235: 232: 229: 226: 222: 221: 218: 215: 212: 211:United States 209: 200: 197: 163:severe drought 136: 129: 128: 124: 117: 116: 115: 114: 113: 111: 108: 96:heavy industry 55:prices in the 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 17812: 17801: 17800:World economy 17798: 17796: 17793: 17791: 17788: 17786: 17783: 17781: 17778: 17777: 17775: 17760: 17757: 17755: 17752: 17750: 17747: 17745: 17742: 17740: 17737: 17735: 17732: 17730: 17727: 17725: 17722: 17721: 17712: 17711: 17708: 17702: 17699: 17697: 17694: 17692: 17689: 17687: 17684: 17682: 17679: 17677: 17674: 17672: 17669: 17667: 17664: 17662: 17659: 17657: 17656:Make-work job 17654: 17652: 17649: 17647: 17644: 17642: 17639: 17637: 17634: 17632: 17629: 17627: 17624: 17622: 17619: 17617: 17614: 17613: 17611: 17607: 17603: 17602: 17596: 17593: 17591: 17588: 17586: 17583: 17581: 17578: 17576: 17575:Right to work 17573: 17571: 17568: 17566: 17563: 17561: 17560:Job guarantee 17558: 17556: 17553: 17551: 17548: 17546: 17545:Make-work job 17543: 17541: 17538: 17536: 17533: 17532: 17530: 17526: 17520: 17517: 17515: 17512: 17508: 17505: 17503: 17500: 17499: 17498: 17495: 17493: 17490: 17488: 17485: 17483: 17480: 17478: 17475: 17473: 17470: 17468: 17465: 17463: 17460: 17456: 17453: 17451: 17448: 17446: 17443: 17441: 17438: 17437: 17436: 17433: 17431: 17428: 17426: 17423: 17421: 17418: 17416: 17413: 17411: 17408: 17406: 17403: 17399: 17396: 17394: 17391: 17390: 17389: 17386: 17384: 17381: 17379: 17376: 17375: 17373: 17371: 17367: 17361: 17358: 17354: 17351: 17349: 17346: 17345: 17344: 17341: 17337: 17334: 17332: 17329: 17327: 17324: 17323: 17322: 17319: 17317: 17316:Restructuring 17314: 17310: 17307: 17306: 17305: 17302: 17300: 17297: 17295: 17294:Notice period 17292: 17290: 17287: 17285: 17282: 17280: 17277: 17273: 17270: 17268: 17265: 17263: 17260: 17259: 17258: 17255: 17253: 17250: 17249: 17247: 17245: 17241: 17235: 17232: 17228: 17225: 17223: 17220: 17219: 17218: 17215: 17213: 17210: 17206: 17203: 17201: 17200:Unfree labour 17198: 17196: 17193: 17191: 17188: 17186: 17183: 17181: 17178: 17176: 17173: 17171: 17170:Bonded labour 17168: 17167: 17166: 17163: 17161: 17158: 17156: 17153: 17151: 17148: 17146: 17143: 17141: 17138: 17136: 17133: 17131: 17128: 17126: 17123: 17121: 17118: 17116: 17113: 17112: 17110: 17106: 17100: 17097: 17095: 17092: 17090: 17087: 17085: 17084:Whistleblower 17082: 17080: 17077: 17075: 17072: 17070: 17067: 17065: 17062: 17060: 17057: 17055: 17052: 17050: 17047: 17045: 17042: 17040: 17037: 17035: 17032: 17028: 17025: 17023: 17020: 17018: 17017:Control fraud 17015: 17013: 17010: 17009: 17008: 17005: 17004: 17002: 16998: 16992: 16991:Glass ceiling 16989: 16987: 16984: 16982: 16979: 16977: 16974: 16973: 16971: 16969: 16965: 16959: 16956: 16954: 16951: 16949: 16946: 16944: 16941: 16939: 16936: 16932: 16929: 16928: 16927: 16926:Work accident 16924: 16922: 16919: 16915: 16914:United States 16912: 16911: 16910: 16907: 16905: 16902: 16900: 16897: 16895: 16892: 16890: 16887: 16885: 16882: 16880: 16877: 16875: 16872: 16870: 16867: 16865: 16862: 16860: 16857: 16855: 16852: 16850: 16847: 16845: 16842: 16840: 16837: 16836: 16834: 16832: 16828: 16822: 16819: 16815: 16814:United States 16812: 16811: 16810: 16807: 16805: 16802: 16800: 16797: 16795: 16792: 16790: 16787: 16785: 16782: 16780: 16777: 16775: 16772: 16770: 16769:Casual Friday 16767: 16765: 16762: 16761: 16759: 16757: 16753: 16747: 16744: 16742: 16739: 16737: 16734: 16732: 16729: 16727: 16726:Paid time off 16724: 16722: 16721:Overtime rate 16719: 16715: 16712: 16711: 16710: 16707: 16703: 16702:United States 16700: 16698: 16695: 16693: 16690: 16688: 16685: 16684: 16683: 16680: 16676: 16673: 16671: 16668: 16667: 16666: 16663: 16661: 16658: 16656: 16653: 16651: 16648: 16646: 16643: 16642: 16640: 16638: 16634: 16630: 16624: 16621: 16619: 16616: 16614: 16611: 16609: 16606: 16604: 16601: 16599: 16596: 16594: 16591: 16589: 16586: 16584: 16581: 16579: 16576: 16574: 16571: 16569: 16568:Four-day week 16566: 16564: 16561: 16560: 16558: 16556: 16552: 16546: 16543: 16541: 16538: 16536: 16533: 16531: 16528: 16526: 16523: 16521: 16518: 16516: 16513: 16511: 16508: 16506: 16503: 16501: 16498: 16496: 16493: 16492: 16490: 16486: 16480: 16477: 16475: 16472: 16468: 16465: 16463: 16460: 16459: 16458: 16455: 16453: 16452:Practice firm 16450: 16448: 16445: 16443: 16440: 16436: 16433: 16431: 16428: 16426: 16423: 16421: 16418: 16416: 16413: 16411: 16408: 16406: 16403: 16401: 16398: 16396: 16393: 16391: 16388: 16386: 16383: 16381: 16378: 16376: 16373: 16371: 16368: 16366: 16363: 16361: 16358: 16356: 16353: 16351: 16350:Employability 16348: 16346: 16343: 16341: 16338: 16337: 16336: 16333: 16331: 16328: 16326: 16323: 16321: 16318: 16316: 16313: 16311: 16308: 16306: 16303: 16299: 16296: 16295: 16294: 16291: 16289: 16286: 16285: 16283: 16281: 16277: 16273: 16267: 16264: 16262: 16259: 16257: 16254: 16252: 16251:Orange-collar 16249: 16247: 16244: 16242: 16239: 16237: 16234: 16232: 16229: 16227: 16224: 16222: 16219: 16217: 16214: 16212: 16209: 16207: 16204: 16203: 16201: 16199: 16198:Working class 16195: 16189: 16186: 16184: 16181: 16179: 16176: 16174: 16171: 16169: 16166: 16164: 16161: 16159: 16156: 16154: 16151: 16149: 16146: 16145: 16143: 16139: 16133: 16130: 16128: 16125: 16123: 16120: 16118: 16115: 16113: 16110: 16108: 16105: 16103: 16100: 16098: 16095: 16093: 16090: 16088: 16085: 16083: 16080: 16078: 16075: 16073: 16072:Job interview 16070: 16068: 16065: 16063: 16060: 16058: 16055: 16053: 16050: 16046: 16043: 16042: 16041: 16038: 16036: 16033: 16031: 16028: 16026: 16023: 16021: 16018: 16016: 16013: 16011: 16008: 16006: 16003: 16001: 15998: 15997: 15995: 15993: 15989: 15983: 15980: 15978: 15975: 15973: 15970: 15968: 15965: 15963: 15960: 15956: 15953: 15951: 15948: 15946: 15943: 15942: 15941: 15938: 15936: 15933: 15931: 15928: 15926: 15925:Part-time job 15923: 15921: 15918: 15916: 15913: 15911: 15910:Full-time job 15908: 15906: 15903: 15901: 15898: 15896: 15893: 15892: 15890: 15886: 15882: 15875: 15870: 15868: 15863: 15861: 15856: 15855: 15852: 15841: 15838: 15836: 15833: 15831: 15828: 15826: 15823: 15821: 15818: 15816: 15813: 15810: 15802: 15799: 15796: 15792: 15789: 15787: 15784: 15782: 15779: 15778: 15774: 15772: 15768: 15762: 15761: 15757: 15755: 15752: 15750: 15747: 15745: 15742: 15740: 15737: 15735: 15732: 15730: 15727: 15725: 15722: 15720: 15717: 15715: 15712: 15710: 15707: 15705: 15702: 15700: 15697: 15695: 15692: 15690: 15687: 15685: 15682: 15680: 15677: 15675: 15672: 15670: 15667: 15665: 15662: 15660: 15657: 15655: 15652: 15650: 15647: 15645: 15642: 15640: 15637: 15635: 15632: 15630: 15627: 15625: 15622: 15620: 15617: 15615: 15612: 15610: 15607: 15605: 15602: 15600: 15597: 15595: 15592: 15590: 15587: 15585: 15582: 15580: 15577: 15575: 15572: 15570: 15567: 15565: 15562: 15560: 15557: 15555: 15552: 15550: 15547: 15545: 15542: 15540: 15537: 15535: 15532: 15530: 15527: 15525: 15522: 15520: 15517: 15515: 15512: 15510: 15507: 15505: 15502: 15500: 15497: 15495: 15492: 15490: 15487: 15485: 15482: 15480: 15477: 15475: 15472: 15470: 15467: 15465: 15462: 15460: 15457: 15455: 15452: 15450: 15447: 15445: 15442: 15440: 15437: 15435: 15432: 15430: 15427: 15425: 15424:de Mandeville 15422: 15421: 15419: 15415: 15410: 15404: 15401: 15399: 15396: 15394: 15391: 15389: 15386: 15384: 15381: 15379: 15376: 15372: 15369: 15368: 15367: 15366:New classical 15364: 15360: 15357: 15356: 15355: 15352: 15350: 15347: 15345: 15342: 15338: 15335: 15334: 15333: 15330: 15328: 15325: 15323: 15322:Malthusianism 15320: 15314: 15311: 15310: 15309: 15306: 15304: 15301: 15298: 15294: 15291: 15290: 15289: 15286: 15284: 15283:Institutional 15281: 15279: 15276: 15274: 15271: 15269: 15266: 15264: 15261: 15259: 15256: 15254: 15251: 15249: 15246: 15244: 15241: 15239: 15236: 15234: 15231: 15229: 15226: 15224: 15221: 15217: 15214: 15213: 15212: 15209: 15207: 15204: 15202: 15199: 15197: 15194: 15190: 15187: 15186: 15185: 15182: 15180: 15177: 15175: 15172: 15170: 15167: 15165: 15162: 15161: 15159: 15154: 15149: 15144: 15136: 15133: 15131: 15128: 15126: 15123: 15121: 15118: 15116: 15113: 15111: 15108: 15106: 15103: 15101: 15098: 15096: 15093: 15091: 15087: 15086:Public choice 15084: 15082: 15079: 15077: 15074: 15072: 15069: 15067: 15064: 15062: 15061:Participation 15059: 15057: 15054: 15052: 15049: 15047: 15044: 15042: 15039: 15037: 15034: 15032: 15029: 15027: 15024: 15022: 15021:Institutional 15019: 15017: 15014: 15012: 15009: 15007: 15004: 15002: 14999: 14997: 14994: 14992: 14989: 14987: 14984: 14982: 14979: 14977: 14974: 14972: 14971:Expeditionary 14969: 14967: 14964: 14962: 14961:Environmental 14959: 14957: 14954: 14952: 14949: 14947: 14944: 14942: 14939: 14937: 14934: 14932: 14929: 14927: 14924: 14922: 14919: 14917: 14914: 14912: 14909: 14907: 14904: 14903: 14899: 14897: 14893: 14887: 14884: 14882: 14879: 14875: 14872: 14871: 14870: 14867: 14866: 14864: 14862: 14858: 14852: 14849: 14847: 14844: 14842: 14839: 14837: 14834: 14832: 14829: 14825: 14822: 14820: 14817: 14815: 14812: 14810: 14807: 14805: 14802: 14801: 14800: 14797: 14796: 14794: 14792: 14788: 14784: 14777: 14772: 14770: 14765: 14763: 14758: 14757: 14754: 14742: 14739: 14737: 14734: 14733: 14728: 14724: 14721: 14717: 14716: 14712: 14698: 14695: 14693: 14690: 14688: 14685: 14681: 14678: 14677: 14676: 14673: 14669: 14666: 14665: 14664: 14661: 14659: 14656: 14654: 14651: 14649: 14646: 14644: 14641: 14639: 14636: 14632: 14629: 14627: 14624: 14623: 14622: 14619: 14617: 14616:Energy policy 14614: 14610: 14607: 14605: 14602: 14600: 14597: 14595: 14592: 14590: 14587: 14585: 14582: 14580: 14577: 14575: 14572: 14571: 14570: 14567: 14565: 14562: 14558: 14557:incarceration 14555: 14554: 14553: 14550: 14548: 14545: 14544: 14542: 14538: 14532: 14529: 14527: 14524: 14522: 14519: 14517: 14514: 14512: 14509: 14507: 14504: 14502: 14499: 14497: 14494: 14492: 14489: 14487: 14484: 14480: 14477: 14475: 14472: 14470: 14467: 14466: 14465: 14462: 14458: 14455: 14453: 14450: 14448: 14445: 14443: 14442:Prenatal care 14440: 14438: 14437:Birth control 14435: 14433: 14430: 14429: 14428: 14425: 14423: 14420: 14419: 14417: 14415: 14411: 14405: 14402: 14400: 14397: 14395: 14392: 14390: 14387: 14385: 14382: 14380: 14377: 14375: 14374:Homeownership 14372: 14370: 14367: 14365: 14362: 14360: 14357: 14355: 14352: 14351: 14349: 14347: 14343: 14337: 14334: 14332: 14329: 14327: 14324: 14322: 14319: 14317: 14314: 14312: 14309: 14307: 14304: 14302: 14299: 14297: 14294: 14292: 14289: 14287: 14284: 14282: 14279: 14277: 14274: 14270: 14267: 14265: 14262: 14260: 14257: 14255: 14252: 14251: 14250: 14247: 14245: 14242: 14240: 14237: 14235: 14232: 14228: 14225: 14223: 14220: 14218: 14215: 14213: 14210: 14208: 14205: 14204: 14203: 14200: 14198: 14195: 14191: 14188: 14186: 14183: 14181: 14178: 14177: 14176: 14173: 14171: 14168: 14166: 14163: 14161: 14158: 14154: 14151: 14150: 14149: 14146: 14144: 14141: 14137: 14134: 14133: 14132: 14129: 14127: 14124: 14122: 14119: 14115: 14112: 14110: 14107: 14106: 14105: 14102: 14098: 14097:working class 14095: 14093: 14090: 14088: 14085: 14083: 14080: 14078: 14075: 14073: 14070: 14068: 14065: 14063: 14060: 14058: 14057:homeownership 14055: 14053: 14050: 14048: 14045: 14044: 14043: 14040: 14038: 14035: 14033: 14030: 14028: 14025: 14023: 14020: 14018: 14015: 14013: 14010: 14008: 14005: 14004: 14002: 14000: 13996: 13992: 13989: 13987: 13983: 13973: 13970: 13968: 13965: 13963: 13960: 13958: 13955: 13953: 13950: 13948: 13945: 13943: 13940: 13939: 13937: 13935: 13931: 13925: 13922: 13920: 13917: 13915: 13912: 13910: 13907: 13905: 13902: 13900: 13897: 13895: 13892: 13890: 13887: 13885: 13882: 13880: 13877: 13875: 13872: 13870: 13867: 13863: 13860: 13858: 13855: 13853: 13850: 13848: 13845: 13843: 13840: 13838: 13837:Manufacturing 13835: 13833: 13830: 13828: 13825: 13823: 13820: 13818: 13815: 13813: 13810: 13808: 13805: 13804: 13803: 13800: 13799: 13796: 13793: 13791: 13787: 13773: 13770: 13766: 13765:Third parties 13763: 13761: 13758: 13756: 13753: 13752: 13751: 13748: 13744: 13741: 13739: 13736: 13734: 13731: 13730: 13729: 13726: 13724: 13721: 13717: 13714: 13713: 13712: 13709: 13705: 13702: 13700: 13697: 13696: 13695: 13692: 13690: 13687: 13686: 13683: 13671: 13668: 13667: 13666: 13663: 13662: 13660: 13658: 13654: 13648: 13645: 13643: 13640: 13639: 13637: 13635: 13631: 13625: 13622: 13620: 13617: 13615: 13612: 13610: 13607: 13605: 13602: 13600: 13597: 13595: 13592: 13590: 13587: 13585: 13582: 13580: 13577: 13576: 13574: 13570: 13564: 13561: 13559: 13556: 13554: 13551: 13549: 13546: 13545: 13543: 13541: 13537: 13534: 13532: 13528: 13522: 13519: 13515: 13512: 13511: 13510: 13507: 13503: 13500: 13498: 13495: 13493: 13490: 13489: 13488: 13485: 13483: 13480: 13479: 13477: 13475: 13471: 13461: 13458: 13456: 13453: 13451: 13448: 13446: 13443: 13442: 13440: 13438: 13434: 13426: 13423: 13422: 13421: 13418: 13414: 13411: 13410: 13409: 13406: 13405: 13403: 13401: 13397: 13391: 13388: 13386: 13383: 13382: 13380: 13378: 13374: 13366: 13363: 13362: 13361: 13358: 13356: 13353: 13351: 13348: 13346: 13343: 13341: 13338: 13336: 13333: 13331: 13328: 13326: 13323: 13319: 13316: 13315: 13314: 13311: 13307: 13304: 13303: 13302: 13299: 13298: 13296: 13294: 13290: 13287: 13285: 13279: 13274: 13270: 13260: 13257: 13255: 13252: 13248: 13245: 13243: 13240: 13238: 13235: 13233: 13230: 13228: 13225: 13223: 13220: 13218: 13215: 13214: 13213: 13210: 13209: 13207: 13205: 13201: 13195: 13192: 13188: 13185: 13183: 13180: 13178: 13175: 13173: 13170: 13169: 13168: 13165: 13163: 13160: 13156: 13153: 13152: 13151: 13148: 13147: 13145: 13143: 13139: 13133: 13132:U.S. attorney 13130: 13128: 13125: 13121: 13118: 13116: 13113: 13112: 13111: 13107: 13104: 13100: 13097: 13096: 13095: 13092: 13088: 13085: 13083: 13080: 13078: 13077:Chief Justice 13075: 13074: 13073: 13072:Supreme Court 13070: 13069: 13067: 13065: 13061: 13055: 13052: 13050: 13047: 13045: 13042: 13040: 13037: 13035: 13032: 13028: 13025: 13023: 13020: 13018: 13015: 13014: 13013: 13010: 13006: 13003: 13001: 12998: 12997: 12996: 12993: 12992: 12990: 12988: 12984: 12978: 12977:Public policy 12975: 12973: 12972:Civil service 12970: 12968: 12965: 12961: 12958: 12956: 12953: 12951: 12948: 12946: 12943: 12941: 12938: 12936: 12933: 12931: 12928: 12926: 12923: 12921: 12918: 12917: 12916: 12913: 12909: 12906: 12904: 12901: 12899: 12896: 12894: 12891: 12890: 12889: 12886: 12884: 12881: 12879: 12876: 12874: 12871: 12869: 12866: 12862: 12859: 12857: 12854: 12853: 12852: 12849: 12848: 12846: 12842: 12839: 12837: 12833: 12829: 12826: 12824: 12820: 12810: 12807: 12805: 12802: 12800: 12797: 12793: 12790: 12788: 12785: 12783: 12780: 12778: 12775: 12773: 12770: 12768: 12765: 12763: 12760: 12758: 12755: 12754: 12753: 12749: 12745: 12742: 12740: 12737: 12735: 12732: 12730: 12727: 12725: 12722: 12720: 12717: 12715: 12712: 12710: 12707: 12705: 12702: 12700: 12697: 12695: 12692: 12690: 12687: 12685: 12682: 12680: 12677: 12675: 12672: 12670: 12667: 12665: 12662: 12661: 12660: 12657: 12653: 12650: 12649: 12648: 12645: 12641: 12640:Sierra Nevada 12638: 12636: 12633: 12631: 12628: 12626: 12623: 12621: 12618: 12617: 12616: 12613: 12611: 12608: 12606: 12603: 12601: 12598: 12594: 12591: 12589: 12586: 12584: 12581: 12579: 12578:insular zones 12576: 12574: 12571: 12569: 12566: 12564: 12561: 12559: 12556: 12554: 12551: 12550: 12549: 12546: 12545: 12542: 12539: 12537: 12533: 12523: 12520: 12518: 12515: 12513: 12510: 12508: 12505: 12503: 12500: 12498: 12495: 12493: 12490: 12488: 12485: 12484: 12482: 12478: 12472: 12469: 12467: 12464: 12460: 12457: 12455: 12452: 12451: 12450: 12449:War on Terror 12447: 12445: 12442: 12440: 12437: 12435: 12432: 12430: 12429:LGBT Movement 12427: 12425: 12422: 12420: 12417: 12415: 12412: 12410: 12407: 12405: 12402: 12398: 12395: 12394: 12393: 12390: 12388: 12385: 12383: 12380: 12378: 12375: 12373: 12370: 12368: 12365: 12361: 12358: 12356: 12353: 12351: 12348: 12347: 12345: 12343: 12340: 12338: 12335: 12333: 12330: 12328: 12325: 12323: 12320: 12318: 12315: 12313: 12310: 12308: 12305: 12303: 12300: 12298: 12295: 12293: 12290: 12286: 12283: 12281: 12278: 12277: 12276: 12273: 12271: 12268: 12264: 12261: 12259: 12256: 12255: 12254: 12251: 12247: 12244: 12242: 12239: 12238: 12237: 12234: 12232: 12229: 12227: 12224: 12222: 12219: 12215: 12212: 12210: 12207: 12205: 12202: 12200: 12197: 12195: 12192: 12190: 12187: 12185: 12182: 12181: 12180: 12177: 12175: 12172: 12171: 12169: 12165: 12159: 12156: 12154: 12151: 12149: 12146: 12144: 12141: 12139: 12136: 12134: 12131: 12129: 12126: 12124: 12121: 12119: 12116: 12114: 12111: 12109: 12106: 12105: 12103: 12099: 12096: 12094: 12090: 12085: 12084:United States 12078: 12073: 12071: 12066: 12064: 12059: 12058: 12055: 12041: 12038: 12036: 12035:United States 12033: 12031: 12028: 12026: 12023: 12021: 12018: 12016: 12013: 12011: 12008: 12006: 12003: 12001: 11998: 11996: 11993: 11991: 11988: 11986: 11983: 11981: 11977: 11976: 11975: 11972: 11968: 11967:United States 11965: 11963: 11960: 11958: 11955: 11953: 11950: 11948: 11945: 11943: 11940: 11938: 11935: 11933: 11930: 11928: 11925: 11923: 11920: 11918: 11914: 11913: 11912: 11909: 11908: 11906: 11902: 11898: 11891: 11888: 11886: 11883: 11879: 11878:United States 11876: 11874: 11871: 11869: 11866: 11864: 11860: 11859: 11858: 11855: 11853: 11850: 11849: 11847: 11843: 11838: 11834: 11826: 11825:United States 11823: 11821: 11818: 11816: 11812: 11811: 11810: 11807: 11803: 11802:United States 11800: 11798: 11795: 11794: 11793: 11790: 11789: 11787: 11783: 11779: 11773: 11770: 11768: 11765: 11762: 11759: 11756: 11753: 11750: 11747: 11744: 11743: 11741: 11737: 11733: 11727: 11724: 11720: 11719:United States 11717: 11715: 11712: 11710: 11707: 11705: 11702: 11700: 11697: 11695: 11692: 11690: 11686: 11685: 11684: 11681: 11678: 11675: 11673: 11670: 11668: 11665: 11662: 11659: 11658: 11656: 11652: 11648: 11641: 11638: 11635: 11632: 11629: 11628:Panic of 1907 11626: 11623: 11622:Panic of 1901 11620: 11617: 11614: 11613:Panic of 1893 11611: 11608: 11607:Baring crisis 11605: 11602: 11600: 11597: 11593: 11592:United States 11590: 11588: 11584: 11583: 11582: 11579: 11578: 11576: 11572: 11567: 11563: 11556: 11553: 11550: 11549:Panic of 1866 11547: 11544: 11541: 11540:Panic of 1857 11538: 11535: 11532: 11531:Panic of 1847 11529: 11526: 11525: 11523: 11519: 11514: 11510: 11503: 11502:Panic of 1837 11500: 11497: 11494: 11491: 11490:Panic of 1825 11488: 11485: 11482: 11479: 11476: 11473: 11470: 11467: 11464: 11461: 11460:Panic of 1792 11457: 11454: 11451: 11447: 11444: 11442: 11439: 11437: 11433: 11432: 11431: 11428: 11427: 11425: 11421: 11417: 11411: 11408: 11406: 11405:Slump of 1706 11403: 11400: 11397: 11396: 11394: 11390: 11386: 11378: 11375: 11374: 11373: 11370: 11366: 11363: 11361: 11358: 11357: 11356: 11353: 11349: 11346: 11344: 11341: 11339: 11336: 11334: 11331: 11329: 11326: 11324: 11321: 11319: 11316: 11314: 11313:Balance sheet 11311: 11310: 11309: 11306: 11302: 11298: 11295: 11293: 11290: 11288: 11285: 11284: 11283: 11282:Interest rate 11280: 11276: 11273: 11271: 11268: 11266: 11263: 11262: 11261: 11258: 11254: 11251: 11249: 11246: 11244: 11241: 11239: 11236: 11234: 11230: 11227: 11225: 11222: 11220: 11217: 11215: 11212: 11211: 11210: 11206: 11203: 11201: 11198: 11194: 11191: 11189: 11186: 11184: 11181: 11179: 11176: 11174: 11171: 11169: 11166: 11164: 11161: 11160: 11159: 11155: 11152: 11151: 11148: 11144: 11140: 11136: 11129: 11124: 11122: 11117: 11115: 11110: 11109: 11106: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11085: 11082: 11076: 11073: 11071: 11068: 11066: 11063: 11061: 11058: 11056: 11053: 11051: 11050:Harry Hopkins 11048: 11046: 11043: 11041: 11038: 11036: 11033: 11032: 11030: 11026: 11020: 11017: 11015: 11012: 11010: 11007: 11005: 11002: 11000: 10997: 10994: 10990: 10987: 10985: 10982: 10980: 10977: 10975: 10972: 10970: 10967: 10965: 10962: 10960: 10957: 10956: 10954: 10950: 10944: 10941: 10939: 10936: 10934: 10931: 10929: 10926: 10924: 10921: 10919: 10916: 10914: 10911: 10909: 10906: 10904: 10901: 10899: 10896: 10894: 10891: 10889: 10886: 10884: 10881: 10879: 10876: 10874: 10871: 10869: 10866: 10864: 10861: 10859: 10856: 10854: 10851: 10849: 10846: 10844: 10841: 10839: 10836: 10834: 10831: 10830: 10828: 10824: 10818: 10815: 10813: 10810: 10808: 10805: 10803: 10800: 10798: 10795: 10794: 10792: 10788: 10784: 10777: 10772: 10770: 10765: 10763: 10758: 10757: 10754: 10742: 10739: 10737: 10734: 10733: 10730: 10724: 10721: 10719: 10716: 10715: 10713: 10711:United States 10709: 10703: 10702:United States 10700: 10698: 10695: 10693: 10690: 10688: 10685: 10683: 10680: 10678: 10677:Latin America 10675: 10673: 10670: 10668: 10665: 10663: 10660: 10658: 10655: 10653: 10650: 10648: 10645: 10643: 10640: 10638: 10635: 10633: 10630: 10628: 10625: 10624: 10622: 10618: 10612: 10609: 10607: 10604: 10602: 10599: 10597: 10594: 10592: 10589: 10587: 10584: 10582: 10579: 10578: 10576: 10572: 10568: 10561: 10556: 10554: 10549: 10547: 10542: 10541: 10538: 10531: 10526: 10521: 10519: 10509: 10507: 10502: 10497: 10495: 10494:United States 10485: 10484: 10481: 10473: 10469: 10466: 10462: 10458: 10455: 10451: 10447: 10445: 10441: 10437: 10434: 10430: 10427: 10425: 10421: 10417: 10415: 10411: 10407: 10404: 10400: 10397: 10394: 10391: 10388: 10387: 10382: 10381:Korotayev, A. 10378: 10376: 10372: 10368: 10365: 10361: 10358: 10354: 10351: 10347: 10345: 10341: 10337: 10335: 10331: 10327: 10326: 10318: 10314: 10310: 10307: 10303: 10301: 10297: 10293: 10290: 10286: 10285: 10277: 10273: 10269: 10266: 10262: 10259: 10257: 10253: 10249: 10247: 10243: 10239: 10237: 10233: 10229: 10226: 10222: 10218: 10215: 10211: 10209: 10205: 10201: 10198: 10195: 10191: 10188: 10186: 10182: 10178: 10177: 10168: 10167: 10162: 10160: 10156: 10153: 10149: 10145: 10141: 10137: 10134: 10133: 10129: 10126: 10121: 10118: 10114: 10112: 10108: 10104: 10101: 10097: 10094: 10090: 10087: 10083: 10081: 10077: 10076: 10067: 10063: 10060: 10056: 10053: 10049: 10046: 10043: 10041: 10037: 10033: 10030: 10026: 10024: 10020: 10017:Hodson, H.V. 10016: 10013: 10009: 10006: 10002: 9999: 9995: 9993: 9989: 9986: 9983: 9980: 9976: 9973: 9969: 9968: 9951: 9950: 9945: 9939: 9932: 9928: 9924: 9921: 9915: 9899: 9895: 9894: 9889: 9882: 9866: 9862: 9861: 9856: 9852: 9851:Krugman, Paul 9846: 9838: 9834: 9833: 9828: 9821: 9805: 9801: 9800: 9795: 9788: 9781: 9775: 9768: 9763: 9761: 9754: 9750: 9749:archive.today 9746: 9743: 9742:Worldbank.org 9740: 9734: 9719:. 2 July 2020 9718: 9714: 9708: 9701: 9696: 9688: 9684: 9680: 9676: 9672: 9668: 9661: 9654: 9648: 9632: 9628: 9624: 9618: 9616: 9614: 9597: 9593: 9587: 9583: 9582: 9574: 9558: 9554: 9548: 9544: 9543: 9535: 9519: 9515: 9509: 9505: 9504: 9496: 9480: 9476: 9475: 9467: 9460: 9454: 9447: 9441: 9434: 9428: 9421: 9415: 9408: 9404: 9403: 9397: 9390: 9386: 9381: 9375: 9374:0-618-34087-4 9371: 9367: 9363: 9362:0-618-34086-6 9359: 9355: 9349: 9340: 9333: 9328: 9321: 9316: 9309: 9303: 9287: 9283: 9277: 9271: 9267: 9263: 9262:The Dust Bowl 9258: 9251: 9247: 9243: 9240: 9234: 9227: 9223: 9219: 9215: 9212: 9207: 9200: 9195: 9193: 9184: 9180: 9176: 9172: 9165: 9159: 9155: 9151: 9146: 9139: 9133: 9125: 9121: 9117: 9111: 9104: 9100: 9096: 9093: 9088: 9082: 9078: 9075: 9074:online review 9071: 9065: 9058: 9054: 9050: 9044: 9042: 9035: 9034:0-416-36010-6 9031: 9027: 9023: 9018: 9011: 9007: 9004: 8999: 8993: 8992:1-85728-533-6 8989: 8985: 8979: 8972: 8968: 8965: 8960: 8953: 8947: 8941: 8936: 8928: 8921: 8914: 8910: 8905: 8898: 8892: 8885: 8879: 8863: 8859: 8855: 8849: 8843: 8842:0-19-532487-0 8839: 8835: 8831: 8828: 8827: 8820: 8813: 8807: 8799: 8795: 8791: 8787: 8780: 8773: 8769: 8766: 8761: 8754: 8751:Dan O'Meara, 8748: 8729: 8725: 8718: 8711: 8692: 8688: 8684: 8677: 8670: 8654: 8650: 8648:0-691-02248-8 8644: 8640: 8639: 8631: 8615: 8611: 8607: 8601: 8593: 8586: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8559: 8553: 8537: 8534:(in Polish). 8533: 8529: 8523: 8507: 8503: 8499: 8493: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8463: 8461: 8444: 8440: 8436: 8430: 8415: 8411: 8404: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8386: 8380: 8373: 8367: 8360: 8354: 8347: 8341: 8334: 8328: 8321: 8315: 8308: 8302: 8295: 8289: 8283: 8279: 8276: 8270: 8263: 8257: 8250: 8244: 8235: 8227: 8223: 8219: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8203: 8199: 8192: 8185: 8179: 8171: 8164: 8156: 8149: 8147: 8145: 8137: 8134:Kershaw, Ian 8131: 8124: 8120: 8115: 8108: 8104: 8099: 8091: 8085: 8081: 8080: 8072: 8056: 8052: 8048: 8042: 8034: 8028: 8024: 8023: 8018: 8017:Bullock, Alan 8012: 8005: 8001: 7998: 7993: 7991: 7983: 7979: 7976: 7971: 7963: 7959: 7955: 7951: 7944: 7937: 7931: 7923: 7919: 7915: 7911: 7907: 7903: 7896: 7887: 7882: 7878: 7874: 7870: 7863: 7855: 7851: 7847: 7843: 7839: 7835: 7828: 7821: 7815: 7807: 7803: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7787: 7783: 7779: 7772: 7764: 7760: 7753: 7746: 7742: 7738: 7734: 7728: 7720: 7716: 7712: 7708: 7704: 7700: 7693: 7685: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7669: 7662: 7655: 7649: 7642: 7638: 7635: 7630: 7623: 7617: 7610: 7606: 7600: 7593: 7589: 7586: 7581: 7574: 7568: 7560: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7542: 7538: 7534: 7527: 7521: 7516: 7508: 7502: 7486: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7468: 7464: 7463: 7455: 7447: 7440: 7432: 7419: 7403: 7399: 7397: 7388: 7372: 7368: 7367: 7359: 7340: 7336: 7329: 7322: 7306: 7302: 7298: 7294: 7293: 7285: 7277: 7276: 7271: 7264: 7256: 7250: 7246: 7245: 7237: 7221: 7217: 7216: 7211: 7204: 7188: 7184: 7183: 7178: 7171: 7155: 7151: 7150: 7145: 7138: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7114: 7112: 7110: 7100: 7096: 7095: 7090: 7086: 7085: 7081: 7074: 7068: 7061: 7057: 7053: 7047: 7040: 7034: 7032: 7022: 7021:10.3386/w3546 7017: 7013: 7009: 7002: 6993: 6992:10.3386/w3546 6988: 6984: 6980: 6973: 6957: 6953: 6949: 6945: 6941: 6937: 6930: 6928: 6926: 6918: 6914: 6910: 6904: 6902: 6900: 6890: 6889:10.3386/w3546 6885: 6881: 6877: 6870: 6868: 6859: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6829: 6822: 6816:, pp. 87–101. 6815: 6811: 6807: 6804:Peter Temin, 6801: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6783: 6777: 6770: 6766: 6762: 6761: 6754: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6726: 6719: 6700: 6696: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6677: 6670: 6663: 6659: 6655: 6649: 6640: 6624: 6620: 6614: 6612: 6610: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6578: 6570: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6535: 6533: 6531: 6522: 6520:0-8078-2315-5 6516: 6512: 6504: 6491: 6483: 6477: 6470: 6469: 6462: 6460: 6451: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6436: 6428: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6403: 6398: 6391: 6375: 6371: 6365: 6361: 6360: 6352: 6345: 6341: 6338: 6332: 6316: 6312: 6310:0-691-01698-4 6306: 6302: 6301: 6293: 6277: 6273: 6267: 6263: 6262: 6254: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6232: 6231: 6224: 6217: 6212: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6156:(1). p. 143. 6155: 6151: 6144: 6137: 6121: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6086: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6051:(1): 82–114. 6050: 6046: 6042: 6035: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5979:(1). p. 150. 5978: 5974: 5967: 5960: 5944: 5940: 5936: 5933:Hayes, Adam. 5929: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5899: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5868: 5861: 5856: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5838: 5832: 5817:on 3 May 2016 5816: 5812: 5808: 5802: 5800: 5792: 5788: 5785: 5780: 5773: 5772: 5768: 5765: 5758: 5751: 5747: 5744: 5739: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5696: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5663: 5655: 5651: 5650: 5645: 5644:Daniel Yergin 5640: 5634: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5606: 5599: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5564: 5557: 5554:Baillargeon, 5551: 5543: 5539: 5532: 5516: 5512: 5511:trc-leiden.nl 5508: 5501: 5494: 5484: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5438: 5431: 5425: 5418: 5408: 5400: 5394: 5390: 5385: 5384: 5375: 5367: 5361: 5357: 5352: 5351: 5345: 5339: 5323: 5319: 5313: 5309: 5308: 5300: 5293: 5287: 5281:(1953) p. 148 5280: 5274: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5224: 5217: 5211: 5207: 5204: 5200: 5194: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5173: 5166: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5138:(4): 757–84. 5137: 5133: 5126: 5119: 5112: 5106: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5051: 5044: 5040: 5037: 5034: 5028: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4993: 4987: 4983: 4980: 4976: 4970: 4964: 4960: 4957: 4953: 4947: 4940: 4934: 4928: 4924: 4921: 4915: 4913: 4905: 4899: 4897: 4889: 4883: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4848: 4846: 4838: 4832: 4830: 4822: 4816: 4814: 4806: 4800: 4798: 4790: 4786: 4781: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4750: 4742: 4740:0-19-506431-3 4736: 4732: 4731: 4726: 4720: 4712: 4710:0-19-506431-3 4706: 4702: 4701: 4696: 4689: 4685: 4678: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4657: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4636: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4586: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4542: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4512: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4469: 4467: 4465: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4443: 4436: 4434: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4418: 4413: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4372: 4367: 4361: 4354: 4348: 4344: 4337: 4329: 4325: 4320: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4300: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4269: 4262: 4258: 4251: 4235: 4231: 4225: 4223: 4207: 4203: 4196: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4166: 4159: 4153: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4137:Rondo Cameron 4134: 4129: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4107: 4103: 4096: 4088: 4082: 4078: 4071: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4041: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4018:(2): 145–69. 4017: 4013: 4006: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3976: 3960: 3956: 3950: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3933: 3928: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3915: 3909: 3901: 3900: 3892: 3885:. p. 15. 3884: 3880: 3874: 3858: 3854: 3848: 3840: 3834: 3830: 3823: 3821: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3803: 3796: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3757: 3750: 3744: 3740: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3721: 3719: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3704: 3701: 3699: 3696: 3695: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3661: 3656: 3645: 3642: 3631: 3628: 3622: 3617: 3610: 3607: 3600: 3598: 3593: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3570: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3551: 3549: 3543: 3533: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3505: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3494:Panic of 1907 3490: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3475:Panic of 1819 3472: 3464: 3460: 3459:Panic of 1873 3455: 3451: 3448: 3444: 3438: 3428: 3426: 3422: 3421:Kit Kittredge 3418: 3414: 3413: 3408: 3404: 3403: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3389:Valerie Tripp 3386: 3385: 3384:American Girl 3380: 3379:Kit Kittredge 3375: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3360: 3359: 3354: 3353: 3348: 3347: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3325: 3317: 3315: 3308: 3297: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3286:Ronald Reagan 3282: 3278: 3277:neoliberalism 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3261:Marshall Plan 3258: 3254: 3250: 3245: 3243: 3234: 3229: 3225: 3222: 3221:durable goods 3217: 3212: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3151:working class 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3127: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3116:bank deposits 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3092: 3090: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3069: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3013: 3009: 3004: 3000: 2998: 2993: 2990: 2985: 2977: 2972: 2968: 2961:United States 2958: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2943: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2927: 2925: 2919: 2917: 2916:gold standard 2913: 2904: 2899: 2895: 2885: 2883: 2879: 2868: 2859: 2855: 2852:This section 2850: 2847: 2843: 2842: 2834: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2814: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2803:welfare state 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2783: 2782:Life magazine 2777: 2767: 2765: 2760: 2756: 2746: 2741: 2736: 2735:Burns wrote: 2732: 2730: 2720: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2700: 2690: 2686: 2676: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2655: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2642: 2641:authoritarian 2638: 2635:to found the 2634: 2630: 2626: 2620: 2610: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2587: 2583: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2560: 2555: 2551: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2517: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2499: 2498:gold standard 2495: 2491: 2484: 2474: 2472: 2468: 2457: 2448: 2444: 2441:This section 2439: 2436: 2432: 2431: 2423: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2408: 2403: 2393: 2391: 2386: 2377: 2372: 2362: 2358: 2355: 2350: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2334: 2327:Latin America 2324: 2322: 2318: 2312: 2309: 2306:. This had a 2305: 2300: 2296: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2272: 2270: 2265: 2257: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2238: 2233: 2219: 2218: 2217: 2215: 2209: 2199: 2194: 2184: 2182: 2175: 2165: 2163: 2157: 2154: 2148: 2138: 2136: 2131: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2060: 2053: 2049: 2044: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2028: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 1996: 1991: 1981: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1969: 1965: 1964:Popular Front 1961: 1956: 1953: 1946: 1941: 1931: 1927: 1924: 1920: 1919:Belgian Congo 1915: 1912: 1902: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1885: 1875: 1873: 1872:protectionism 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1856:Popular Front 1853: 1848: 1846: 1840: 1837: 1833: 1827: 1817: 1815: 1811: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1789: 1779: 1777: 1770: 1760: 1758: 1754: 1743: 1734: 1730: 1727:This section 1725: 1722: 1718: 1717: 1709: 1707: 1703: 1693: 1683: 1680: 1672: 1662: 1658: 1652: 1651: 1646:This section 1644: 1640: 1635: 1634: 1626: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1604: 1598: 1588: 1586: 1580: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1546: 1542: 1541:Power farming 1538: 1529: 1527: 1526: 1521: 1517: 1508: 1505: 1501: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1470:Hans Sennholz 1467: 1465: 1461: 1456: 1453:, after 1970 1452: 1447: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1432:capital goods 1428: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1413: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1384: 1379: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1364: 1363:Andrew Mellon 1360: 1356: 1352: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1328: 1326: 1322: 1321:central banks 1318: 1314: 1304: 1302: 1297: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1272: 1270: 1269:credit crunch 1266: 1261: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1246: 1245:vicious cycle 1241: 1237: 1231: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1210: 1207: 1204: 1201: 1198: 1195: 1192: 1189: 1186: 1183: 1182: 1181: 1178: 1177:Irving Fisher 1171: 1162: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1143: 1141: 1137: 1131: 1128: 1124: 1123: 1118: 1108: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1093:gold standard 1089: 1087: 1081: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1058: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1020: 1015: 1008: 1004: 1000: 995: 986: 984: 983:Irving Fisher 976: 972: 968: 964: 960: 957: 953: 949: 946: 942: 941: 940: 933: 924: 922: 918: 913: 911: 910:Anna Schwartz 907: 903: 899: 893: 891: 886: 882: 878: 869: 860: 851: 842: 835: 831: 827: 826:Black Tuesday 822: 813: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 786:gold standard 783: 777: 766: 756: 754: 753:national debt 748: 745: 740: 738: 733: 731: 723: 718: 709: 705: 701: 698: 692: 689: 683: 679: 675: 666: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 642: 637: 633: 630:According to 628: 625: 621: 617: 613: 608: 603: 599: 594: 585: 576: 574: 573:gold standard 570: 564: 562: 558: 554: 549: 539: 537: 533: 527: 524: 520: 519:gold reserves 516: 512: 507: 505: 504:gold standard 496: 490:Gold standard 487: 485: 480: 478: 474: 469: 468:gold standard 456: 455:gold standard 452: 448: 444: 441: 437: 436: 435: 431: 419: 418: 411: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 388: 380: 376: 372: 367: 357: 355: 351: 343: 338: 334: 332: 327: 323: 310: 306: 301: 287: 284: 281: 278: 276:Unemployment 275: 274: 270: 267: 264: 261: 258: 257: 253: 250: 247: 244: 241: 240: 236: 233: 230: 227: 224: 223: 207: 196: 193: 189: 188:protectionist 184: 179: 176: 171: 166: 164: 161:mid-1930s, a 158: 155: 151: 140: 133: 121: 107: 103: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 72: 70: 66: 62: 58: 57:United States 54: 50: 42: 38: 34: 30: 26: 22: 17691:Toxic leader 17671:Presenteeism 17651:Labor rights 17641:Going postal 17616:Bullshit job 17599: 17584: 17579: 17392: 17370:Unemployment 17222:Downshifting 17205:Wage slavery 17185:Penal labour 17140:Dead-end job 17130:Conscription 16909:Right to sit 16764:Annual leave 16746:Working poor 16682:Minimum wage 16660:Maximum wage 16618:Working time 16608:Six-hour day 16505:Career break 16467:Professional 16261:Black-collar 16231:White-collar 16211:Green-collar 16188:Volunteering 16025:Drug testing 16015:Cover letter 15955:Tradesperson 15835:Publications 15791:Publications 15758: 15354:Neoclassical 15344:Mercantilism 15253:Evolutionary 15115:Sociological 15088: / 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The NRA 3122:, and the 3023:– dubbed " 3008:Bonus Army 2865:April 2024 2709:Afrikaners 2597:to keep a 2454:April 2024 2420:Wellington 2072:Nazi Party 2012:Young Plan 2008:Dawes Plan 1740:April 2024 1532:Inequality 1119:argued in 975:Keynesians 956:Keynesians 881:Monetarist 774:See also: 588:1920–1970. 447:depreciate 417:ad valorem 396:Keynesians 392:economists 379:Reed Smoot 309:1929 crash 148:After the 33:Unemployed 17701:Workhouse 17621:Busy work 17435:Recession 17299:Pink slip 17257:Dismissal 17120:Careerism 16714:Singapore 16692:Hong Kong 16555:Schedules 16474:Tradesman 16375:Licensure 16335:Education 16305:Avocation 16246:No-collar 16226:Precariat 16107:Probation 16062:Job fraud 15704:Greenspan 15669:Samuelson 15649:Galbraith 15619:Tinbergen 15559:von Mises 15554:Heckscher 15514:Edgeworth 15393:Stockholm 15388:Socialist 15288:Keynesian 15268:Happiness 15228:Classical 15189:Mutualism 15184:Anarchist 15169:Heterodox 15066:Personnel 15026:Knowledge 14991:Happiness 14981:Financial 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