103:
During this period, Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians, and other non-Muslim groups achieved independence. There major
European powers had been strategizing, at least since the 1870s, to exploit the spoils, including the manipulation of ethnic groups like the Ottoman Armenians. However, Armenians, among the Christian populations, did not achieve independence because they lacked a majority in any region. To pursue independence, Armenians formed the Hunchak and Dashnak organizations, adopting terror and propaganda. Their strategy involved inciting conflict between Muslims and Armenians to provoke European intervention and support for an independent Armenian state in Eastern Anatolia, using terror as a primary tactic to garner support and instigate rebellion, not only in the eastern provinces but also in Istanbul.. The Big Powers had been working on politically-motivated missionary activities within Ottoman Turkey, radicalization and militarization of nationalistic Armenian groups, some of whom joined forces with the invading Russian army in the hope of creating an ethnically homogenous Armenian homeland. An Armenian leader of that time, Katchaznouni, who became the first Prime Minister of the short lived independent Armenian Democratic Republic stated the following in 1923: "In the fall of 1914 Armenian volunteer units organized themselves and fought against the Turks…We had no doubt that the war would end with the complete victory of the Allies; Turkey would be defeated and dismembered…" Up until European intervention and manipulation of the Armenians, they were seen as
446:
31:
165:
431:
146:), there were 1,095,889 Armenians in the Ottoman Empire: As Russia advanced its southern border, it became increasingly involved with Ottoman affairs. Russia was instrumental in obtaining the independence of Romania and Serbia. Russia, and Russian life, attracted Armenians. Many Armenians became educated and adopted Russian ways. Russia was also a path to Europe for Armenians. Russia gained control over a large part of Armenia, and became the champion of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire.
458:
181:
348:
199:
102:
Following the French
Revolution, nationalism movements globally also emerged in the Ottoman Empire from the 19th century onwards, destabilizing the region. Initially, Greeks, followed by Albanians and Arabs, revolted with the help of the Great Powers, each aiming to establish their own nation-states.
60:
should be treated. The term became commonplace among diplomatic circles and in the popular press. In specific terms, the
Armenian question refers to the protection and the freedoms of Armenians from their neighboring communities. The Armenian question explains the 40 years of Armenian–Ottoman history
418:
in 1912–1914 that envisaged the creation of two provinces, to be placed under the supervision of two
European inspectors general. They never achieved these reforms. Given the lack of visible progress in improving the plight of the Armenian community, a number of disillusioned Armenian intellectuals
306:
The
Sublime Porte undertakes to carry out, without further delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by local requirements in the provinces inhabited by Armenians, and to guarantee their security against the Circassians and Kurds. It will periodically make known the steps taken to this effect to
258:, the Patriarch Nerses Varzhapetian, forwarded Armenian complaints of widespread "forced land seizure ... forced conversion of women and children, arson, protection racket, rape, and murder" to the Powers. Patriarch Nerses Varzhapetian convinced Russians to insert Article 16 to
323:
led by
Mkrtich Khrimian traveled to Berlin to present the case of the Armenians but, much to its dismay, it was left out of the negotiations. Following the Berlin negotiations, Mkrtich Khrimian gave a famous patriotic speech, “The Paper Ladle,” advising Armenians to take the
269:
As the evacuation of the
Russian troops of the territory they occupy in Armenia, and which is to be restored to Turkey, might give rise to conflicts and complications detrimental to the maintenance of good relations between the two countries, the
298:. Article 16 was modified so that all mention of the Russian forces remaining in the provinces was removed. Instead, the Ottoman government was periodically to inform the Great Powers of the progress of the reforms. In the final text of the
243:
Many
Armenians in the Eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire, living under the threat of unchecked violence and depredation on the part of aggressive neighboring peoples, greeted the advancing Russian army as liberators. In January 1878,
138:. After the Treaty of Turkmenchay, Armenians still living under Persian rule were encouraged to emigrate to Russian Armenia, and 30,000 followed the call. Russia annexed significant portions of territory occupied by the Armenians. By the
400:
After six months of constant massacres, while Europe pretended that the
Armenian Question was already solved, the Armenians decided to show Europe that the Armenian Question still existed but that there was no Ottoman government any
445:
274:
engaged to carry into effect, without further delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by local requirements in the provinces inhabited by
Armenians and to guarantee their security from
1004:
419:
living in Europe and Russia in the 1880s and 1890s decided to form political parties and revolutionary societies to work to attain better conditions for their compatriots.
262:, stipulating that the Russian forces occupying the Armenian-populated provinces in the eastern Ottoman Empire would withdraw only with the full implementation of reforms.
1034:
520:
1024:
1009:
1260:
938:
65:, which controlled the Ottoman government, decided to end the Armenian question permanently by killing and expelling most Armenians from the empire, in the
251:
approached the Russian leadership to receive assurances that Russia would introduce provisions for Armenian self-administration in the new peace treaty.
1362:
1352:
366:" which asked for the enforcement of Article 61. This was followed on 2 January 1881 with a "British Circular on Armenia" sent to the other Powers.
1151:
1103:
362:, broached the Armenian issue with the words, "To serve Armenia is to serve the Civilization". On 11 June 1880, the Great Powers sent to porte an "
953:
1489:
1235:
1156:
838:
287:
1389:
1336:
483:
750:, vol. II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century, New York: St Martin's Press, pp.
1499:
1474:
1209:
797:
628:
La Turquie d'Asie : géographie administrative, statistique, descriptive et raisonée de chaque province de l'Asie-Mineure
533:
983:
245:
744:
Hovannisian, Richard G (1997), "The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1914", in Hovannisian, Richard G (ed.),
457:
1443:
1406:
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1069:
1248:
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1230:
963:
759:
591:
337:
255:
123:
119:
17:
1268:
430:
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861:
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809:
The Armenian revolutionary movement; the development of Armenian political parties through the nineteenth century
170:
62:
57:
319:, his predecessor on Patriarchal See and future Catholicos, to present the case for the Armenians at Berlin. An
1453:
1039:
325:
61:
in the context of English, German, and Russian politics between 1877 and 1914. In 1915, the leadership of the
30:
1484:
1369:
1357:
1283:
1019:
912:
1300:
943:
907:
320:
1494:
1448:
1323:
1086:
1064:
1014:
221:
1479:
999:
958:
824:
525:
312:
1139:
478:
1374:
1119:
1044:
89:, it is a murder; the throats of fifty thousand people are cut in the East, and it is a question."
584:
The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus
1330:
1316:
902:
788:
Hovannisian, Richard G. (1986), "The Historical Dimensions of the Armenian Question, 1878–1923",
385:
375:
299:
210:
108:
751:
745:
1426:
351:
333:
248:
122:, promising that afterward, he would help improve their lives. In 1828, the Russians declared
1124:
948:
897:
881:
411:
259:
220:
Most Armenians lived in provinces bordering Russia and not any other European states. By the
187:
139:
135:
1243:
917:
164:
8:
1504:
1074:
871:
464:
236:, emigrating from other areas of the empire. The Armenians began to look more toward the
131:
1290:
876:
436:
379:
329:
295:
205:
53:
1202:
1278:
971:
847:
793:
755:
587:
529:
515:
66:
1379:
1312:
1144:
1079:
976:
341:
316:
229:
225:
78:
807:
393:
1401:
1134:
1111:
653:
415:
389:
233:
115:
40:
1431:
886:
672:
579:
550:
290:
objected to Russia holding on to so much Ottoman territory and pressed for the
237:
142:, 1,127,212 Armenians were counted in Russian lands. For the same period (1896
127:
1468:
1197:
271:
1273:
1187:
1177:
623:
363:
143:
38:'s dilemma": "It's 'ard to 'ave to disturb 'im–'e's such a good customer!"
1192:
1182:
891:
347:
291:
279:
95:
180:
1092:
265:
Though not as explicit, Article 16 of the Treaty of San Stefano read:
1129:
1029:
677:
Diplomacy in the Near and Middle East: A Documentary Record 1535–1956
359:
35:
816:
358:
In 1880, the Armenians, especially encouraged by the prime minister
198:
505:
by Lebanese Association of Armenian University Graduates, pp. 4–6
1436:
275:
86:
521:
Talaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocide
702:
700:
562:
560:
712:
697:
607:
605:
603:
557:
679:, vol. I, Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, p. 190
939:
Deportation of Armenian intellectuals on 24 April 1915
781:
Conflict and Security in Central Asia and the Caucasus
328:(Liberation of Bulgaria) as a model for the hopes for
600:
336:
refers to the events of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877
307:
the powers, who will superintend their application.
302:, it was transformed into Article 61, which read:
232:to Russia. Some 25,000 Ottoman Armenians moved to
660:, vol. 4, London: Butterworths, p. 2686
1466:
747:The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times
422:
388:of 11 May 1895 was a set of reforms proposed by
344:sovereign state with the Treaty of San Stefano.
694:pp. 511–13; translated by Fr. Vazken Movsesian.
240:as the ultimate guarantors of their security.
832:
812:. Berkeley, University of California Press.
787:
743:
340:78 that led to the re-establishment of the
254:In March 1878, after the conclusion of the
134:, and the surrounding countryside with the
839:
825:
805:
718:
706:
566:
484:Armenian delegation at the Berlin Congress
369:
118:sought help from Persian Armenians in the
294:to enter into new negotiations under the
992:
671:
652:
405:
346:
315:and Patriarch Nerses Varzhapetian asked
29:
27:Political debate of 1878 Berlin Congress
778:
611:
586:. Oxford: Berghahn Books. p. 192.
578:
14:
1467:
572:
514:
846:
820:
730:V. BĂ©rard, "La Politique du Sultan,"
496:
790:The Armenian Genocide in Perspective
503:Armenian Studies: Études Arméniennes
246:Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople
1444:Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
1226:May 1915 Triple Entente declaration
332:. In Bulgarian historiography, the
24:
1490:Christianity in the Ottoman Empire
1249:National Armenian Relief Committee
25:
1516:
1385:Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day
451:Armenian massacres in Adana, 1909
456:
444:
429:
197:
179:
163:
1173:Committee of Union and Progress
862:Armenians in the Ottoman Empire
772:
737:
724:
684:
665:
63:Committee of Union and Progress
58:Armenians in the Ottoman Empire
1500:Politics of the Ottoman Empire
877:Hamidian massacres (1894–1897)
646:
633:
617:
542:
508:
326:national awakening of Bulgaria
126:. In 1828, Russia annexed the
13:
1:
1284:Assassination of Talaat Pasha
913:Ottoman Empire in World War I
554:, Vol. 61, 1895, pp. 665, 667
489:
437:Armenian massacres in Erzurum
423:Images of massacred Armenians
256:Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
72:
52:was the debate following the
882:Young Turk Revolution (1908)
7:
1454:Hitler's Armenian reference
1449:Assassination of Hrant Dink
1324:The Forty Days of Musa Dagh
806:Nalbandian, Louise (1963).
658:The Map of Europe by Treaty
630:, 4 vols., Paris, 1890–95.
472:
224:, the Ottoman Empire ceded
213:which included "Article 61"
171:Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)
10:
1521:
526:Princeton University Press
373:
313:Armenian National Assembly
76:
1419:
1353:Witnesses and testimonies
1345:
1299:
1259:
1218:
1165:
1102:
1057:
926:
854:
479:Armenia without Armenians
149:
111:" in the Ottoman Empire.
1475:Armenia–Turkey relations
1075:Post-genocide population
779:Hooman, Peimani (2009).
734:January 15, 1897, p. 457
1240:Foreign aid and relief
1065:Pre-genocide population
903:1914 Greek deportations
463:Genocide of Armenians,
386:Armenian reform program
376:Armenian reform program
370:Armenian reform program
211:Treaty of Berlin (1878)
85:"If a man is killed in
1427:Late Ottoman genocides
1219:International response
403:
355:
352:Six Armenian provinces
334:Liberation of Bulgaria
309:
284:
249:Nerses II Varzhapetian
91:
56:in 1878 as to how the
45:
949:20 Hunchakian gallows
898:1914 Armenian reforms
887:Adana massacre (1909)
412:1914 Armenian reforms
406:1914 Armenian reforms
398:
354:of the Ottoman Empire
350:
304:
267:
260:Treaty of San Stefano
190:included "Article 16"
188:San Stefano Agreement
136:Treaty of Turkmenchay
83:
33:
1485:Armenian nationalism
1244:Near East Foundation
1210:Special Organization
968:Concentration camps
918:Battle of Sarikamish
414:were devised by the
222:Treaty of Adrianople
157:Internationalization
1301:Cultural depictions
1152:Rescue of Armenians
1070:Genocide casualties
908:Congress at Erzerum
872:Turkish nationalism
465:Vilayet of Kharberd
321:Armenian delegation
286:But, in June 1878,
140:1897 Russian Census
132:Nakhichevan Khanate
1495:National questions
1291:Treaty of Lausanne
1157:Turkish opposition
673:Hurewitz, Jacob C.
528:. pp. 12–13.
516:Kieser, Hans-Lukas
392:. French diplomat
380:Hamidian massacres
356:
330:self-determination
296:Congress of Berlin
206:Congress of Berlin
54:Congress of Berlin
46:
1480:Armenian genocide
1462:
1461:
1390:100th anniversary
1279:Operation Nemesis
1053:
1052:
867:Armenian question
848:Armenian genocide
799:978-1-315-13102-3
580:Dadrian, Vahakn N
535:978-0-691-15762-7
186:Negotiations for
120:Russo-Persian War
67:Armenian genocide
50:Armenian question
18:Armenian Question
16:(Redirected from
1512:
1407:notable visitors
1380:Hidden Armenians
1309:Ravished Armenia
1231:Imperial Germany
1140:Shabin-Karahisar
1112:Armenian militia
1080:Hidden Armenians
990:
989:
841:
834:
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654:Hertslet, Edward
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317:Mkrtich Khrimian
300:Treaty of Berlin
201:
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79:Eastern question
21:
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1402:Tsitsernakaberd
1341:
1295:
1255:
1214:
1203:Bahaeddin Ĺžakir
1161:
1098:
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845:
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775:
770:
769:
762:
742:
738:
732:Revue de Paris,
729:
725:
721:, pp. 128.
719:Nalbandian 1963
717:
713:
707:Nalbandian 1963
705:
698:
689:
685:
670:
666:
651:
647:
641:Armenian People
638:
634:
622:
618:
614:, pp. 236.
610:
601:
594:
577:
573:
567:Nalbandian 1963
565:
558:
547:
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536:
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416:European powers
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390:European Powers
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234:Russian Armenia
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116:Tsar Nicholas I
105:millet-i sadıka
100:
93:
81:
75:
28:
23:
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15:
12:
11:
5:
1518:
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1482:
1477:
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1440:
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1432:Greek genocide
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1269:Courts-martial
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1238:
1236:Press coverage
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692:Hayotz Hayrig,
690:Haig Ajemian,
683:
664:
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632:
616:
599:
592:
571:
569:, p. 110.
556:
551:Catholic World
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238:Russian Empire
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128:Erivan Khanate
107:or the "loyal
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26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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1363:United States
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1016:
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991:
985:
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978:
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965:
962:
960:
959:Forced labour
957:
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947:
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942:
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842:
837:
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828:
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819:
811:
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804:
801:
795:
792:, Routledge,
791:
786:
782:
777:
776:
763:
761:0-312-10168-6
757:
753:
749:
748:
740:
733:
727:
720:
715:
709:, p. 84.
708:
703:
701:
693:
687:
678:
674:
668:
659:
655:
649:
642:
639:Bournoutian.
636:
629:
625:
620:
613:
608:
606:
604:
595:
593:1-57181-666-6
589:
585:
581:
575:
568:
563:
561:
553:
552:
545:
537:
531:
527:
523:
522:
517:
511:
504:
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495:
485:
482:
480:
477:
476:
466:
459:
454:
447:
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438:
432:
427:
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420:
417:
413:
402:
397:
395:
394:Victor BĂ©rard
391:
387:
381:
377:
367:
365:
361:
353:
349:
345:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
322:
318:
314:
308:
303:
301:
297:
293:
289:
288:Great Britain
283:
281:
277:
273:
272:Sublime Porte
266:
263:
261:
257:
252:
250:
247:
241:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
212:
208:
207:
200:
189:
182:
172:
166:
147:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
124:war on Turkey
121:
117:
112:
110:
106:
99:
97:
90:
88:
80:
70:
68:
64:
59:
55:
51:
43:
42:
37:
32:
19:
1329:
1322:
1308:
1274:Malta exiles
1166:Perpetrators
1116:By location
1091:
977:Ra's al-'Ayn
954:Confiscation
866:
808:
789:
780:
773:Bibliography
746:
739:
731:
726:
714:
691:
686:
676:
667:
657:
648:
640:
635:
627:
624:Vital Cuinet
619:
612:Peimani 2009
583:
574:
549:
544:
519:
510:
502:
498:
409:
399:
383:
364:Identic Note
357:
310:
305:
292:great powers
285:
268:
264:
253:
242:
219:
204:
144:Vital Cuinet
114:In 1827–28,
113:
104:
101:
92:
84:
49:
47:
39:
1370:Reparations
1358:Recognition
1331:The Promise
1261:Prosecution
984:Terminology
972:Deir ez-Zor
894:(1912–1913)
892:Balkan Wars
280:Circassians
230:Akhaltsikhe
96:Victor Hugo
1505:Euphemisms
1469:Categories
1104:Resistance
1093:Vorpahavak
1058:Demography
1015:Diyarbekir
944:Tehcir Law
855:Background
548:Peterson.
490:References
374:See also:
226:Akhalkalak
77:See also:
73:Background
1397:Memorials
1346:Aftermath
1130:Musa Dagh
1087:Survivors
1040:Trebizond
993:By region
964:Mass rape
360:Gladstone
342:Bulgarian
36:John Bull
927:Genocide
675:(1956),
656:(1891),
643:, p. 105
582:(1995).
518:(2018).
473:See also
1420:Related
1193:Djevdet
1020:Erzurum
209:led to
1375:Denial
1337:others
1198:Reshid
1188:Djemal
1178:Talaat
1120:Zeitun
1025:Harput
1010:Bitlis
1005:Aleppo
934:Causes
796:
758:
752:206–12
590:
532:
467:, 1915
439:, 1895
396:wrote:
150:Origin
109:millet
44:, 1895
1437:Sayfo
1183:Enver
1145:Azakh
1035:Sivas
1000:Adana
401:more.
276:Kurds
87:Paris
1317:film
1313:book
1135:Urfa
794:ISBN
756:ISBN
588:ISBN
530:ISBN
410:The
384:The
378:and
311:The
278:and
228:and
48:The
41:Puck
1125:Van
1045:Van
1030:MuĹź
1471::
1315:,
754:,
699:^
626:,
602:^
559:^
524:.
130:,
94:—
69:.
1319:)
1311:(
840:e
833:t
826:v
783:.
765:.
681:.
662:.
596:.
538:.
338:–
282:.
34:"
20:)
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