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the arch a mounted
Galerius attacks a similarly mounted Narses with a lance as an eagle bearing a victory wreath in its talons approaches Galerius. The Caesar sits securely on his rearing horse, while the Persian king appears nearly unhorsed. Terrified Persians cower under the hooves of the Caesar's horse in the chaos of battle. The panel expresses the power of the Caesar Galerius.
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380:(eight-pillared gateway) forming a triple arch that was built of a rubble masonry core faced first with brick and then with marble panels with sculptural relief. The central arched opening was 9.7 m wide and 12.5 m high, and the secondary openings on other side were 4.8 m wide and 6.5 m high. The central arch spanned the portion of the
641:. Greek Orthodox officials reconsecrated the structure as a church, and they left the minaret. The structure was damaged during an earthquake in 1978 but was subsequently restored. As of 2004, the minaret was still being stabilized with scaffolding. The building is now a historical monument under the
435:
indicates that there were likely labels on other representations as the builders deemed necessary. Artistic license was taken in the representations, for instance, the Caesar
Galerius is shown in personal combat with the Sassanid Shah Narses in one of the panels; although they never met in battle. On
694:
leaves. Acanthus leaves are an ornament dating back to antiquity and were often heavily employed in Greco-Roman architectural adornment. Traditionally acanthus leaves have been interpreted to symbolize enduring life and immortality, making them suitable to promulgate
Christian ideas of enduring life
430:
Understanding of the sculptural program of the arch is limited by the loss of the majority of the marble panels, but the remains give an impression of the whole. Four vertically stacked registers of sculpted decoration were carved on each pillar, each separated by elaborate moldings. A label for the
652:
The
Rotunda is the oldest of Thessaloniki's churches. Some Greek publications claim it is the oldest Christian church in the world, although there are competitors for that title. It is the most important surviving example of a church from the early Christian period of the Greek-speaking part of the
541:
The
Rotunda has a diameter of 24.5 m. Its walls are more than 6 m thick, which is why it has withstood Thessaloniki's earthquakes. The walls are interrupted by eight rectangular bays, with the west bay forming the entrance. A flat brick dome, 30 m high at the peak, crowns the cylindrical structure.
405:
cores of the arches above survive: i.e., the entire eastern side (four pillars) and the southernmost one of the western pillars are lost. Extensive consolidation with modern brick has been performed on the exposed masonry cores to protect the monument. The two pillars flanking the central arched
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while the inclusion of various plants associated with all the four seasons could symbolize renewal and eternity. In the light openings there are scrolls of ripe fruit accompanied by white lilies. These fruits could symbolize the abundance of heaven while the lily a visual reminder of
Christian
253:
commissioned these two structures as elements of an imperial precinct linked to his
Thessaloniki palace. Archeologists have found substantial remains of the palace to the southwest. These three monumental structures were connected by a road that ran through the arch, which rose above the major
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in Rome. It has gone through multiple periods of use and modification as a polytheist temple, a
Christian basilica, a Muslim mosque, and again a Christian church (and archaeological site). A minaret is preserved from its use as a mosque, and ancient remains are displayed on its southern side.
482:
What remains of the arch asserts the glory of the tetrarchy and the prominence of
Galerius within that system. The arch celebrates the Roman Empire as part of Galerius' victory over the Sassanid king. Galerius is also pictured on his horse at the right, while attacking a Sassanid guard.
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the population of the city loudly objected, and the public outcry grew even more intense when false rumours spread that Miller also intended to dismantle and remove the Arch of
Galerius as well; the arch was not touched at all or taken (but Las Incantadas was).
758:
of a fire that cleared an area. Expansive areas of mosaic are preserved in several areas. A structure linked to the palace and called the Octagonal Room is at the southwest end of the excavated area at 40°37'48.53"N, 22°56'55.99"E; thought at one point to be a
293:
At some point, the knowledge of why the arch was constructed and who it was dedicated to was lost, as the arch simply depicts scenes from the triumph over the Persians and does not directly name Galerius. By the time of Ottoman rule of the region as part of
265:
At the crux of the major axes of the city, the Arch of Galerius emphasized the power of the emperor and linked the monumental structures with the fabric of 4th-century Thessaloniki. The arch was composed of a masonry core faced with
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in Rome. Galerius' wife, Diocletian's daughter Valeria, is shown at his side, helping authenticate his connection to his predecessor. Here as elsewhere all the faces have been carefully chiselled off, whether as
537:
in Rome and is similarly topped by a dome. The structure was converted into a church in the late fourth century and an apsidal choir extension was added as well as a wide ambulatory around the perimeter.
1965:
661:
The Rotunda's cupola and the barrel vaults were originally entirely covered in mosaics, many of which are now lost. The surviving mosaics depict many organic forms such as a garland of fruit and
475:, with a depiction of the tetrarchs standing together; the depersonalized manner in which the tetrarchs are portrayed is reminiscent of the schematic statues of the tetrarchs in porphyry at
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1364:
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purity. In the strongly colored barrel vaults one panel displays a variety of fruits including grapes while another depicts a golden cross surrounded by many stylized flowers and
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600:. Only fragments have survived of the original decoration, for example, a band depicting saints with hands raised in prayer, in front of complex architectural fantasies.
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and architecture, in addition to the importance of the Rotunda as one of the earliest Christian monuments in the Eastern Roman Empire, both sites were inscribed on the
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von Schönebeck, H. (JbBerlMus 58, 1937). (Preserves image of the now lost head of Galerius, possibly from the large Arch of Galerius. The relief head was in Berlin.)
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and Dimitriou Gounari streets. Construction of the arch was spanned the years 298 and 299 AD; it was dedicated in 303 AD to celebrate the victory of the
1555:
512:, is 125 m (410 ft) northeast of the Arch of Galerius at 40°37'59.77"N, 22°57'9.77"E. It is also known (by its consecration and use) as the
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plants that surrounded the lost image of Christ in the cupola. The evergreen wreath is composed of twenty-five sections of branches with white
1028:
Dyggve, E. (Dissertationes Pannonicae ser. 2, 11, 1941). "Kurzer vorläufiger Bericht über die Ausgrabungen im Palastviertel von Thessaloniki".
1491:
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2012:
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649:, although the Greek Orthodox Church has access to the monument for various festivities some days of the year (as Church of Saint George).
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The relief of the imperial family conjoined in a sacrifice of thanksgiving owes its distant prototype to the Augustan reliefs on the
1038:Καραμπερη, Μ. (AAA 23–28, 1990-1995). "Ο πολος του Οκταγωνο στο γαλεριανο συγκροτημα και η σχεση του με το νοτιο μεγαλο περιστυλιο".
1783:
988:
Pond Rothman, M. S. (Byzantine Studies/Etudes Byzantines 2:1, 1975). "The Panel of the Emperors Enthroned on the Arch of Galerius".
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In late 1864, when Frenchman Emmanuel Miller arrived in the city with the aim to remove and take to France the portico known as
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ordered its conversion into a Christian church in the late fourth century. The church was embellished with very high quality
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in the 19th century, the arch was loosely speculated to be dedicated to one of the famous rulers people were familiar with -
1410:
1019:Αθανασιου, Φ. et al. (Θεσσαλονικεων πολις 3, 1981). "τα ανακτορα του Γαλεριου στη Θεσσαλονικη, Μεθοδολογια αποκαταστασης".
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Garrucci, P. (W. Wylie, trans.). (NC 10, 1870). "Brass Medallion Representing the Persian Victory of Maximianus Galerius".
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1910:
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1435:
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991:
Sutherland, C. H. V. (London, 1967), RIC IV: From Diocletian's Reform (A.D. 294) to the Death of Maximinus (A. D. 313)
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1895:
1279:
1109:
964:
Engemann, J. (JAC 22, 1979). "Akklamationsrichtung, Sieger- und Besiegtenrichtung auf dem Galeriusbogen in Saloniki".
826:
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The palace of Galerius was built on a massive scale using primarily local materials. It may have been built over the
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1955:
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examined the arch in 1880s, and published a monograph in 1890 identifying that the arch was dedicated to Galerius.
17:
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1471:
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985:
Pond Rothman, M. S. (AJA 81, 1977). "The Thematic Organization of the Panel Reliefs on the Arch of Galerius".
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was added to the structure. It was used as a mosque until 1912, when the Greeks captured the city during the
1035:
a l'arc de triomphe de Galère & à l'arc de triomphe de Galère et à l'église Saint-Georges de Salonique".
1003:
von Schönebeck, H. (BZ 37, 1937). "Die zyklische Ordnung der Triumphalreliefs am Galeriusbogen in Saloniki".
80:
2074:
1865:
1509:
1430:
1254:
1022:Αθανασιου, Φ. et al. (Θεσσαλονικεων πολις 4, 2001). "Το λουτρα του ανακτορικου συγκροτηματος του Γαλεριου".
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310:. It was sometimes called the "Arch of Philip", "Arc du Constantin", and equivalents during this period.
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36:
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Meyer, H. (JdI 95, 1980). "Die Frieszyklen am sogenannten Triumphbogen des Galerius in Thessaloniki".
646:
1085:
Religion and Contested Cultural Heritage: The Rotunda and Hagia Sophia as Church, Mosque, and Museum
997:
Velenis, G. (AA, 1983). "Nachträgliche Beobachtungen am Oberbau des Galeriusbogens in Thessaloniki".
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104:
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2369:
2362:
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1016:Αθανασιου, Φ. et al. (ΑΕΜΘ 8, 1994). "Νεα στοιχεια για το Οκταγωνο του γαλεριανου συγκροτηματος".
763:, it may have been a monumental entryway to the palace. Beside the palace to the northeast was a
695:
with Christ after death, adopting pagan symbolism into Christian ornament in a syncretic manner.
398:
northeast) with the Palace complex (235m southwest) passed through the arch along its long axis.
1000:
Vermeule, C. C. (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1968). "Roman Imperial Art in Greece and Asia Minor".
862:
The other parts of the structure were destroyed at an unknown date, probably during one of many
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slabs, which depict the wars of Galerius against the Persians in broadly panegyric terms.
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307:
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Laubscher, H. P. (Berlin, 1975). "Der Reliefschmuck des Galeriusbogens in Thessaloniki".
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in Venice. Only Galerius is dressed in armor, and he makes the offering upon the altar.
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2144:
1890:
1481:
1466:
1314:
994:
Velenis, G. (AA, 1979). "Architektonische Probleme des Galeriusbogens in Thessaloniki".
970:
Hébrard, E. (BCH 44, 1920). "L'Arc de Galère & l'église Saint-Georges à Salonique".
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1804:
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Cameron, A. (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1993). "The Later Roman Empire, A. D. 284-430".
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216:
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Dyggve, E. (Copenhagen, 1945). "Recherches sur le palais imperial de Thessalonique".
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Dyggve, E. (Copenhagen, 1945). "Recherches sur le palais imperial de Thessalonique".
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Age of spirituality: late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century
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1997:
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916:"Empire and Apocalypse in Thessaloniki: Interpreting the Early Christian Rotunda"
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275:
1041:Καραμπερη, Μ. (Θεσσαλονικεων πολις 3, 2000). "Η αυτοκρατορικη εδρα Θεσσαλονικη".
685:. The presence of this evergreen suggests ideas of rebirth and by extension the
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The cylindrical structure was built around 306 AD on the orders of the tetrarch
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533:. Its circular, centrally planned structure resembles other structures such as
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196:
522:, and is informally called the Church of the Rotunda (or simply The Rotunda).
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1590:
1565:
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Vichers, M. (BSA 66, 1971). "A note on the Byzantine Palace at Thessaloniki".
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The Rotunda was a massive circular structure with a masonry core that had an
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The Arch of Galerius and the Rotunda (with a post added minaret), 299-303 AD
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1112:; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
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381:
211:(Ροτόντα) are neighbouring early 4th-century AD monuments in the city of
93:
979:
Makaronas, C. J. (Salonica, 1970). The Arch of Galerius at Thessaloniki.
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863:
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764:
638:
1063:
Brilliant, R. (L'Arte 10, 1970). "Temporal Aspects in Late Roman Art".
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Ward-Perkins, J. B. (New York, 1981). "Roman Imperial Architecture".
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Hébrard, E. (BCH 44, 1920). "Les Travaux du Service archéologique d'
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736:. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
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350:
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572:, later a Christian church, and then a mosque. It is now a UNESCO
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Only the northwestern three of the eight pillars and parts of the
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2273:
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1660:
1060:
Bianchi-Bandinelli, R. (New York, 1971). "Rome: The Late Empire".
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After Galerius's death in 311, he was buried at Felix Romuliana (
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In another panel, the tetrarchs are all arrayed in the toga as a
402:
819:
Salonica, City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430-1950
592:. The Rotunda stood empty for several decades until the Emperor
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The building was used as a church dedicated to the Archangels (
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423:
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271:
267:
228:
220:
46:
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1088:, Yale University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, 2022.
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Kinch, K. F. (Paris, 1890). "L'arc de triomphe de Salonique".
678:
674:
1066:
Brown, P. (New York, 1971). "The World of Late Antiquity".
491:
866:, which have damaged Thessaloniki throughout its history.
821:. Athens: Harper Collins Publications. pp. 264–268.
394:(east-west major street). A road connecting the Rotunda (
782:"Karl Frederik Kinch - a Danish pioneer in Thessaloniki"
730:"Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki"
278:, in 299 AD. About two-thirds of the arch is preserved.
1834:
1072:
Kleiner, D. E. E. (New Haven, 1992). "Roman Sculpture".
633:, called the Mosque of Suleyman Hortaji Effendi, and a
564:
The altar view of the Rotunda of Galerius, initially a
542:
In its original design, the dome of the Rotunda had an
325:
2055:
Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki
236:
Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki
74:
Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki
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Buildings and structures completed in the 4th century
876:
874:
872:
576:. On some days of the year, it functions as a church.
443:
The imperial family at the sacrifice of thanksgiving.
171:
1044:
Sasel, J. (ed.). Tabula Imperii Romani (Sheet K34).
604:
467:holds a victory wreath out to the heads of the two
261:
Rotunda and Arch of Galerius complex reconstruction
2027:
869:
625:) for over 1,200 years until the city fell to the
180:Location of Arch of Galerius and Rotunda in Greece
27:UNESCO World Heritage Site in Thessaloniki, Greece
2536:Mosques converted from churches in Ottoman Greece
413:
2476:Ancient Roman buildings and structures in Greece
2462:
845:(subordinate emperor); he became one of the two
529:, who was thought to have intended it to be his
2013:
1820:
1157:
1143:
880:
270:sculptural panels celebrating a victory over
471:. A third panel celebrates the unity of the
460:or in later cultural intolerance of images.
883:The rotunda in Thessaloniki and its mosaics
610:
2020:
2006:
1921:Church of Hosios David (Latomos Monastery)
1827:
1813:
1150:
1136:
342:stands on what is now the intersection of
45:
913:
801:
776:
656:
2501:Buildings and structures in Thessaloniki
1784:Thessaloniki International Film Festival
881:Kiilerich, Bente; Torp, Hjalmar (2017).
770:
559:
495:
438:
417:
367:
329:
256:
816:
492:Location and description of the Rotunda
384:(primary Roman road from Dyrrhacium to
14:
2463:
2432:Monastery of Saint John the Theologian
555:
486:
2001:
1808:
1713:Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki
1242:
1131:
722:
274:(Narseh), the seventh emperor in the
223:. As an outstanding example of early
2388:Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae
1794:Thessaloniki International Book Fair
1411:Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
1054:
388:) that passed through the city as a
326:Location and description of the Arch
2521:Tourist attractions in Thessaloniki
1436:National Theatre of Northern Greece
786:CLARA Classical Art and Archaeology
24:
2531:4th-century architecture in Greece
2199:
2191:
2183:
2175:
1951:Baptistery of St. John the Baptist
1738:Museum for the Macedonian Struggle
1601:State Conservatory of Thessaloniki
1076:
920:Journal of Early Christian Studies
885:. Athens, Greece: Kapon Editions.
629:. In 1590 it was converted into a
25:
2547:
2124:Church of Saint Nicholas Orphanos
1280:Church of Saint Nicholas Orphanos
1116:
643:Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities
406:passageway retain their sculpted
361:and the capture of their capital
1934:
1183:
849:(head emperors) in 305 AD, when
734:UNESCO World Heritage Convention
170:
163:
1896:Church of St. Nicholas Orphanos
1789:Thessaloniki International Fair
1748:Macedonian Museum of Modern Art
1355:Immaculate Conception Cathedral
1350:Church of Saint Gregory Palamas
2486:World Heritage Sites in Greece
2481:Ancient Roman triumphal arches
2029:World Heritage Sites in Greece
907:
856:
835:
810:
748:
705:List of Roman triumphal arches
414:Sculptural program of the Arch
13:
1:
1606:Centre for Byzantine Research
1472:Jewish Museum of Thessaloniki
1010:
841:At this point Galerius was a
2075:Church of the Acheiropoietos
1866:Church of the Acheiropoietos
1856:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda
1431:Thessaloniki railway station
1255:Church of the Acheiropoietos
1235:Paleochristian and Byzantine
1200:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda
1123:Hellenic Ministry of Culture
715:
254:east–west road of the city.
7:
2117:Church of the Holy Apostles
2110:Church of Saint Panteleimon
1987:Museum of Byzantine Culture
1886:Church of the Holy Apostles
1763:Teloglion Foundation of Art
1723:Museum of Byzantine Culture
1370:White Tower of Thessaloniki
1285:Church of Saint Panteleimon
1260:Church of the Holy Apostles
1100:, no. 107 & 491, 1979,
955:
698:
605:
10:
2552:
2103:Church of Panagia Chalkeon
1901:Church of Panagia Chalkeon
1871:Church of Hagios Demetrios
1758:State Museum of Modern Art
1733:French Museum of Zeitenlik
1487:Holocaust Museum of Greece
1270:Church of Panagia Chalkeon
1181:
1102:Metropolitan Museum of Art
241:
38:UNESCO World Heritage Site
2396:
2310:
2287:
2210:
2173:
2131:Church of Saint Catherine
2082:Church of Saint Demetrios
2035:
1979:
1943:
1932:
1906:Church of St. Panteleimon
1846:
1776:
1705:
1669:
1652:
1614:
1576:Gategno-Florentin Mansion
1533:
1500:
1459:
1451:Thessaloniki Concert Hall
1388:
1332:
1275:Church of Saint Catherine
1233:
1225:Catacombs of Thessaloniki
1192:
1166:
914:Nasrallah, Laura (2005).
647:Greek Ministry of Culture
200:
158:
119:
111:
99:
89:
79:
69:
56:
44:
35:
2511:Former mosques in Greece
2226:Temple of Athena Pronaia
2152:Church of Prophet Elijah
1966:Church of the Archangels
1916:Church of Prophet Elijah
1295:Church of Prophet Elijah
950:
2411:Medieval City of Rhodes
1876:Church of St. Catherine
1525:Vasilissis Olgas Avenue
794:10.5617/clara.v4i0.6689
510:Rotunda of Saint George
276:Sassanid Persian Empire
234:in 1988 as part of the
51:The Rotunda of Galerius
2506:Byzantine architecture
2436:Cave of the Apocalypse
2204:
2196:
2188:
2180:
2096:Church of Hagia Sophia
1692:Mikra British Cemetery
1265:Church of Hosios David
932:10.1353/earl.2006.0008
817:Mazower, Mark (2006).
657:Mosaics of the Rotunda
577:
501:
444:
427:
373:
335:
262:
143:40.63333°N 22.952917°E
2417:Grand Master's Palace
2254:Stoa of the Athenians
2203:
2195:
2187:
2179:
2138:Church of the Saviour
1911:Church of the Saviour
1753:Museum of Photography
1401:Alexandreio Melathron
1320:Walls of Thessaloniki
1290:Church of the Saviour
1082:Machabée, Stéphanie,
568:of the Roman Emperor
563:
499:
442:
422:Galerius (L) attacks
421:
376:The structure was an
371:
333:
300:Constantine the Great
260:
2356:Tomb of Clytemnestra
1971:Church of Taxiarches
1697:Church of Taxiarches
1551:Villa Mehmet Kapanci
1446:Port of Thessaloniki
1416:Kaftanzoglio Stadium
508:, also known as the
372:The Arch of Galerius
304:Philip II of Macedon
2297:Acropolis of Athens
1406:Aristotelous Square
1396:Agias Sofias Square
1340:Alaca Imaret Mosque
710:List of Roman domes
574:World Heritage Site
556:Uses of the Rotunda
506:Rotunda of Galerius
487:Rotunda of Galerius
477:St. Mark's Basilica
312:Karl Frederik Kinch
308:Alexander the Great
232:World Heritage List
215:, in the region of
148:40.63333; 22.952917
139: /
85:Cultural: i, ii, iv
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2516:Roman Thessalonica
2496:Rotundas in Europe
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1891:Vlatades Monastery
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1167:Macedonian period
1055:General reference
892:978-618-5209-11-7
756:destruction layer
457:damnatio memoriae
355:Sassanid Persians
217:Central Macedonia
207:(Καμάρα) and the
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63:Thessaloniki
2050:Mount Athos
1640: [
1627:Nea Paralia
1492:Stoa Hirsch
1380:Yeni Mosque
1215:Roman Forum
864:earthquakes
382:Via Egnatia
146: /
121:Coordinates
103:1988 (12th
100:Inscription
2465:Categories
2061:City Walls
1926:City Walls
1768:War Museum
1011:The palace
926:(4): 475.
853:abdicated.
851:Diocletian
803:1956/23717
765:hippodrome
740:5 November
639:Balkan War
516:Church of
396:125 m
131:40°38′00″N
2335:Lion Gate
2320:Epidaurus
2247:Gymnasium
1836:Byzantine
1677:Labbatoir
1441:OTE Tower
1345:Bey Hamam
940:170780866
901:959266684
788:. CLARA.
761:mausoleum
716:Footnotes
663:evergreen
582:Gamzigrad
566:Mausoleum
552:in Rome.
531:mausoleum
473:tetrarchy
450:Ara Pacis
391:decumanus
386:Byzantium
378:octopylon
363:Ctesiphon
353:over the
285:like the
90:Reference
2526:Galerius
2434:and the
2167:Philippi
1682:Ano Poli
1622:Seih Sou
1596:Palataki
1421:Ladadika
956:The arch
780:(2019).
699:See also
692:acanthus
627:Ottomans
606:Asomatoi
570:Galerius
550:Pantheon
527:Galerius
465:Victoria
365:in 298.
351:Galerius
348:tetrarch
287:Pantheon
251:Galerius
115:0.587 ha
81:Criteria
65:, Greece
58:Location
2383:Olympia
2378:Mystras
2325:Mycenae
2274:Meteora
2212:Central
2068:Rotunda
1980:Museums
1706:Museums
1661:Aretsou
1659:Marina
1653:Marinas
1502:Streets
1094:, ed.,
847:Augusti
671:laurels
645:of the
635:minaret
614:
598:mosaics
586:Zajecar
584:) near
469:Augusti
403:masonry
357:at the
344:Egnatia
242:History
209:Rotunda
105:Session
94:456-002
70:Part of
31:Rotunda
2329:Tiryns
2289:Attica
2233:Tholos
2220:Delphi
1848:UNESCO
1777:Events
1743:NOESIS
1243:UNESCO
1108:
938:
899:
889:
843:Caesar
825:
679:grapes
667:lilies
631:mosque
590:Serbia
545:oculus
424:Narseh
408:marble
306:, and
283:oculus
272:Narses
268:marble
229:UNESCO
221:Greece
205:Kamara
2406:Delos
2312:South
2045:Aigai
2037:North
1944:Other
1670:Other
1644:]
1176:tombs
951:Notes
936:S2CID
675:pears
203:) or
197:Greek
2448:and
2327:and
1106:ISBN
897:OCLC
887:ISBN
823:ISBN
742:2022
681:and
611:lit.
504:The
500:Plan
338:The
191:The
112:Area
928:doi
798:hdl
790:doi
426:(R)
2467::
1642:el
934:.
924:13
922:.
918:.
895:.
871:^
796:.
784:.
732:.
677:,
673:,
669:,
609:,
588:,
302:,
238:.
199::
2021:e
2014:t
2007:v
1828:e
1821:t
1814:v
1151:e
1144:t
1137:v
942:.
930::
903:.
831:.
806:.
800::
792::
767:.
744:.
623:'
617:'
195:(
107:)
20:)
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