Sasanian Empire - Knowledge

4404: 3622: 3839: 5925: 6521: 2972: 4976: 4001: 5000: 2277: 102: 2876: 6591:" or Mother of God. While the teaching of the Council of Ephesus was accepted within the Roman Empire, the Sasanian church disagreed with the condemnation of Nestorius' teachings. When Nestorius was deposed as patriarch, a number of his followers fled to the Sasanian Empire. Persian emperors used this opportunity to strengthen Nestorius' position within the Sasanian church (which made up the vast majority of the Christians in the predominantly Zoroastrian Persian Empire) by eliminating the most important pro-Roman clergymen in Persia and making sure that their places were taken by Nestorians. This was to assure that these Christians would be loyal to the Persian Empire, and not to the Roman. 12246: 5786: 5239: 5554: 3396: 2445: 4744: 3482: 643: 4632: 5542: 4452: 7055: 3946: 5534: 5137: 2388: 2425:). The city, well protected by high mountains and easily defensible due to the narrow passes that approached it, became the center of Ardashir's efforts to gain more power. It was surrounded by a high, circular wall, probably copied from that of Darabgerd. Ardashir's palace was on the north side of the city; remains of it are extant. After establishing his rule over Pars, Ardashir rapidly extended his territory, demanding fealty from the local princes of Fars, and gaining control over the neighbouring provinces of 14019: 4659:, continued as Persia's principal western enemy, and main enemy in general. Hostilities between the two empires became more frequent. The Sassanids, similar to the Roman Empire, were in a constant state of conflict with neighboring kingdoms and nomadic hordes. Although the threat of nomadic incursions could never be fully resolved, the Sassanids generally dealt much more successfully with these matters than did the Romans, due to their policy of making coordinated campaigns against threatening nomads. 3204: 2568: 2364: 3909: 3673: 6430: 5268:, "suggest that the king was at the center of the world and the sun and moon revolved around him." In effect he was the "king of the four corners of the world", which was an old Mesopotamian idea. The king saw all other rulers, such as the Romans, Turks, and Chinese, as being beneath him. The king wore colorful clothes, makeup, a heavy crown, while his beard was decorated with gold. The early Sasanian kings considered themselves of divine descent; they called themselves "bay" (divine). 4570:. The development of siege weapons was a useful weapon during conflicts with Rome, in which success hinged upon the ability to seize cities and other fortified points; conversely, the Sassanids also developed a number of techniques for defending their own cities from attack. The Sassanid army was much like the preceding Parthian army, although some of the Sassanid's heavy cavalry were equipped with lances, while Parthian armies were heavily equipped with bows. The Roman historian 3282: 2683: 4538: 2791: 2441:. This expansion quickly came to the attention of Artabanus IV, the Parthian king, who initially ordered the governor of Khuzestan to wage war against Ardashir in 224, but Ardashir was victorious in the ensuing battles. In a second attempt to destroy Ardashir, Artabanus himself met Ardashir in battle at Hormozgan, where the former met his death. Following the death of the Parthian ruler, Ardashir went on to invade the western provinces of the now defunct Parthian Empire. 5522: 4868: 3085: 4300:, praised the "excellent administration of the Sasanian kings, their well-ordered policy, their care for their subjects, and the prosperity of their domains". In normal times, the monarchical office was hereditary, but might be transferred by the king to a younger son; in two instances the supreme power was held by queens. When no direct heir was available, the nobles and prelates chose a ruler, but their choice was restricted to members of the royal family. 16279: 12540: 67: 16289: 13244: 7089: 83: 6192: 7579: 1872: 2787:, leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia. Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius's force, to the former's disadvantage: the rugged Armenian terrain was favourable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and, in two successive battles, Galerius secured victories over Narseh. 6980: 5847: 4511:. Because controlling the Persian Gulf was an economic necessity, the Sasanian navy worked to keep it safe from piracy, prevent Roman encroachment, and keep the Arab tribes from getting hostile. However, it is believed by many historians that the naval force could not have been a strong one, as the men serving in the navy were those who were confined in prisons. The leader of the navy bore the title of 2990: 3722:(602–610) in 602, however, Khosrow II used the murder of his benefactor as a pretext to begin a new invasion, which benefited from continuing civil war in the Byzantine Empire and met little effective resistance. Khosrow's generals systematically subdued the heavily fortified frontier cities of Byzantine Mesopotamia and Armenia, laying the foundations for unprecedented expansion. The Persians overran 5798: 4526: 6146:

parallel celebrations for Nowruz and other Zoroastrian celebrations would often occur within days of each other, in defiance of the new official calendar dates, causing much confusion and friction between the laity and the ruling class. A compromise on this by the Sassanids was later introduced, by linking the parallel celebrations as a 6-day celebration/feast. This was done for all except Nowruz.

7652: 4740:, a Sassanid vassal kingdom, was established to form a buffer zone between the empire's heartland and the Bedouin tribes. The dissolution of the Kingdom of Al-Hirah by Khosrau II in 602 contributed greatly to decisive Sassanid defeats suffered against Bedouin Arabs later in the century. These defeats resulted in a sudden takeover of the Sassanid empire by Bedouin tribes under the Islamic banner. 12310: 5409:(property) and were liable to the same legal treatment as nonhuman property (for example, they could be sold at will, rented, owned jointly, inherited, given as security for a loan, etc.), Sasanian courts did not treat them completely as objects; for example, slaves were allowed to testify in court in cases concerning them, rather than only permitted to be represented by their owners. 4949:) were given high titles at the Chinese court. On at least two occasions, the last possibly in 670, Chinese troops were sent with Peroz in order to restore him to the Sassanid throne. Narsieh later attained the position of a commander of the Chinese imperial guards, and his descendants lived in China as respected princes, Sassanian refugees fleeing from the Arab conquest to 4257:(chief priest). The mowbed's job was to deal with estates and other things relating to legal matters. Sasanian rule was characterized by considerable centralization, ambitious urban planning, agricultural development, and technological improvements. Below the king, a powerful bureaucracy carried out much of the affairs of government; the head of the bureaucracy was the 5114:, which was kept in a treasure chamber. The king of India gave Borzuya permission to read the Kalila, provided that he did not make a copy of it. Borzuya accepted the condition but each day memorized a chapter of the book. When he returned to his room he would record what he had memorized that day, thus creating a copy of the book, which he sent to Iran. In Iran, 6699:

Greek was commonplace among the Romans/Byzantines, the rivals of the Sasanians. Parthian soon disappeared as an administrative language too, but was continued to be spoken and written in the eastern part of the Sasanian Empire, the homeland of the Parthians. Furthermore, many of the Parthian aristocrats who had entered into Sasanian service after the fall of the

5218:, and others. Many of these prisoners were experienced workers, who were used to build things such as cities, bridges, and dams. This allowed the Sasanians to become familiar with Roman technology. The impact these foreigners made on the economy was significant, as many of them were Christians, and the spread of the religion accelerated throughout the empire. 4559:. The first cavalry force, composed of elite noblemen trained since youth for military service, was supported by light cavalry, infantry and archers. Mercenaries and tribal people of the empire, including the Turks, Kushans, Sarmatians, Khazars, Georgians, and Armenians were included in these first cavalry units. The second cavalry involved the use of the 6034:. Gushnasp had accused Ardashir I of having forsaken tradition by usurping the throne, and that while his actions "may have been good for the World" they were "bad for the faith". Tansar refuted these charges in his letter to Gushnasp by proclaiming that not all of the old ways had been good, and that Ardashir was more virtuous than his predecessors. The 3157:. Both were physically and diplomatically powerful, opportunistic, practiced religious tolerance and provided freedom for the rise of religious minorities. Yazdegerd stopped the persecution against the Christians and punished nobles and priests who persecuted them. His reign marked a relatively peaceful era with the Romans, and he even took the young 3969:, arrived in Persian territory. According to Howard-Johnston, years of warfare had exhausted both the Byzantines and the Persians. The Sassanids were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation, religious unrest, rigid social stratification, the increasing power of the provincial landholders, and a rapid turnover of rulers, facilitating the 5603:. Much of what later became known as Muslim culture, including architecture and writing, was originally drawn from Persian culture. At its peak, the Sasanian Empire stretched from western Anatolia to northwest India (today Pakistan), but its influence was felt far beyond these political boundaries. Sasanian motifs found their way into the art of 3516:(527–565) paid Khosrow I 440,000 pieces of gold as a part of the "eternal peace" treaty of 532. In 540, Khosrow broke the treaty and invaded Syria, sacking Antioch and extorting large sums of money from a number of other cities. Further successes followed: in 541 Lazica defected to the Persian side, and in 542 a major Byzantine offensive in 3574:, which was taken by the Persians. Capitalizing on this success, the Persians then ravaged Syria, causing Justin II to agree to make annual payments in exchange for a five-year truce on the Mesopotamian front, although the war continued elsewhere. In 576 Khosrow I led his last campaign, an offensive into Anatolia which sacked 4580:

that fell upon them could lodge only where they could see a little through tiny openings opposite the pupil of the eye, or where through the tip of their nose they were able to get a little breath. Of these, some who were armed with pikes, stood so motionless that you would have thought them held fast by clamps of bronze.

5755:, or arches built across each corner of the square, thereby converting it into an octagon on which it is simple to place the dome. The dome chamber in the palace of Firuzabad is the earliest surviving example of the use of the squinch, suggesting that this architectural technique was probably invented in Persia. 3610:

construction of new buildings. He rebuilt the canals and restocked the farms destroyed in the wars. He built strong fortifications at the passes and placed subject tribes in carefully chosen towns on the frontiers to act as guardians against invaders. He was tolerant of all religions, though he decreed that

3168:(421–438), one of the most well-known Sasanian kings and the hero of many myths. These myths persisted even after the destruction of the Sasanian Empire by the Arabs. Bahram gained the crown after Yazdegerd's sudden death (or assassination), which occurred when the grandees opposed the king with the help of 4655:. The Sassanids, who succeeded the Parthians, were recognized as one of the leading world powers alongside its neighboring rival the Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire, for a period of more than 400 years. Following the division of the Roman Empire in 395, the Byzantine Empire, with its capital at 3364:, son of Bamdad, who demanded that the rich should divide their wives and their wealth with the poor. By adopting the doctrine of the Mazdakites, his intention evidently was to break the influence of the magnates and the growing aristocracy. These reforms led to his being deposed and imprisoned in the 4486:

as "armed like gladiators" and "obey orders like so many horse-boys". The Dailamite people also served as infantry and were Iranian people who lived mainly within Gilan, Iranian Azerbaijan and Mazandaran. They are reported as having fought with weapons such as daggers, swords and javelins and reputed

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shortly afterward. Thus the Muslims were able to seize a powerful financial resource, leaving the Sassanid government strapped for funds. A number of Sassanid governors attempted to combine their forces to throw back the invaders, but the effort was crippled by the lack of a strong central authority,

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The Sassanids never mounted a truly effective resistance to the pressure applied by the initial Arab armies. Yazdegerd was a boy at the mercy of his advisers and incapable of uniting a vast country crumbling into small feudal kingdoms, despite the fact that the Byzantines, under similar pressure from

3807:(610–641) drew on all his diminished and devastated empire's remaining resources, reorganised his armies, and mounted a remarkable, risky counter-offensive. Between 622 and 627, he campaigned against the Persians in Anatolia and the Caucasus, winning a string of victories against Persian forces under 3351:

Balash (484–488) was a mild and generous monarch, and showed care towards his subjects, including the Christians. However, he proved unpopular among the nobility and clergy who had him deposed after just four years in 488. Sukhra, who had played a key role in Balash's deposition, appointed Peroz' son

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included some attacks on the religious practices and orientation of the Parthians, who did not follow an orthodox Zoroastrian tradition but rather a heterodox one, and so attempted to justify Ardashir's rebellion against them by arguing that Zoroastrianism had 'decayed' after Alexander's invasion, a

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He first led his small but disciplined army south against the Arabs, whom he defeated, securing the southern areas of the empire. He then began his first campaign against the Romans in the west, where Persian forces won a series of battles but were unable to make territorial gains due to the failure

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there had been no intercalation. Thus with a quarter-day being lost each year, the Zoroastrian holy year had slowly slipped backwards, with Nowruz eventually ending up in July. A great council was therefore convened and it was decided that Nowruz be moved back to the original position it had during

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and took it upon himself to help establish numerous Bahram fires throughout Iran in the place of the 'bagins / ayazans' (monuments and temples containing images and idols of cult-deities) that had proliferated during the Parthian era. In expressing his doctrinal orthodoxy, Kartir also encouraged an

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and bridges, well patrolled, enabled state post and merchant caravans to link Ctesiphon with all provinces; and harbors were built in the Persian Gulf to quicken trade with India. Sasanian merchants ranged far and wide and gradually ousted Romans from the lucrative Indian Ocean trade routes. Recent

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is one of the greatest examples of Sasanian irrigation systems, and many of these things can still be found in Iran. The mountains of the Sasanian state were used for lumbering by the nomads of the region, and the centralized nature of the Sasanian state allowed it to impose taxes on the nomads and

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and the poor. He was also an adherent of the mainstream Zoroastrian religion, diversions from which had cost Kavad I his throne and freedom. Jamasp's reign soon ended, however, when Kavad I, at the head of a large army granted to him by the Hephthalite king, returned to the empire's capital. Jamasp

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At the beginning of the 5th century, the Hephthalites (White Huns), along with other nomadic groups, attacked Iran. At first Bahram V and Yazdegerd II inflicted decisive defeats against them and drove them back eastward. The Huns returned at the end of the 5th century and defeated Peroz I (457–484)

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Khosrau I further extended the already vast trade network. The Sasanian state now tended toward monopolistic control of trade, with luxury goods assuming a far greater role in the trade than heretofore, and the great activity in building of ports, caravanserais, bridges and the like, was linked to

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The unique characteristic of Sasanian architecture was its distinctive use of space. The Sasanian architect conceived his building in terms of masses and surfaces; hence the use of massive walls of brick decorated with molded or carved stucco. Stucco wall decorations appear at Bishapur, but better

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Studies on Sasanian remains show over 100 types of crowns being worn by Sasanian kings. The various Sasanian crowns demonstrate the cultural, economic, social and historical situation in each period. The crowns also show the character traits of each king in this era. Different symbols and signs on

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The most common slaves in the Sasanian Empire were the household servants, who worked in private estates and at the fire-temples. Usage of a woman slave in a home was common, and her master had outright control over her and could even produce children with her if he wanted to. Slaves also received

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All the companies were clad in iron, and all parts of their bodies were covered with thick plates, so fitted that the stiff-joints conformed with those of their limbs; and the forms of human faces were so skillfully fitted to their heads, that since their entire body was covered with metal, arrows

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met with less success. In 230, Ardashir raided deep into Roman territory, and a Roman counter-offensive two years later ended inconclusively. Ardashīr began leading campaigns into Greater Khurasan as early as 233, extending his power to Khwarazm in the north and Sistan in the south while capturing

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still spoke Parthian, such as the seven Parthian clans, who possessed much power within the empire. Sometimes one of the members of the clans would even protest against Sasanian rule. The Sasanian Empire appears to have stopped using the Parthian language in their official inscriptions during the

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appeared in the inscriptions of the early Sasanian kings. However, by the time Narseh (r. 293–302) was ruling, Greek was no longer in use, perhaps due to the disappearance of Greek or the efforts of the anti-Hellenic Zoroastrian clergy to remove it once and for all. This was probably also because

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on the calendar year by year. This confusion apparently caused much distress among ordinary people, and while the Sassanids tried to enforce the observance of these great celebrations on the new official dates, much of the populace continued to observe them on the older, traditional dates, and so

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captives from warfare or raiding or slaves imported from outside the Empire by traders) or domestic (e.g., hereditary slaves, children sold into slavery by their fathers, or criminals enslaved as punishment). Some cases suggest that a criminal's family might also be condemned to servitude. At the

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followed. Over a period of four years and five successive kings, the Sassanid Empire weakened considerably. The power of the central authority passed into the hands of the generals. It would take several years for a strong king to emerge from a series of coups, and the Sassanids never had time to

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Following Hormizd II's death, northern Arabs started to ravage and plunder the western cities of the empire, even attacking the province of Fars, the birthplace of the Sassanid kings. Meanwhile, Persian nobles killed Hormizd II's eldest son, blinded the second, and imprisoned the third (who later

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Khosrow I's reign witnessed the rise of the dihqans (literally, village lords), the petty landholding nobility who were the backbone of later Sassanid provincial administration and the tax collection system. Khosrow I built infrastructure, embellishing his capital and founding new towns with the

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period, Hellenistic art was being interpreted freely by the peoples of the Near East. Throughout the Sasanian period, there was reaction against it. Sasanian art revived forms and traditions native to Persia, and in the Islamic period, these reached the shores of the Mediterranean. According to

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Culturally, the Sassanids implemented a system of social stratification. This system was supported by Zoroastrianism, which was established as the state religion. Other religions appear to have been largely tolerated, although this claim has been debated. Sassanid emperors consciously sought to

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Shnirelman, V.A.(2001), 'The value of the Past: Myths, Identity and Politics in Transcaucasia', Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology. p. 79: "Yet, even at the time of Caucasian Albania and later on, as well, the region was greatly affected by Iran and Persian enjoyed even more success than the

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Like their predecessors the Parthians, the Sassanid Empire carried out active foreign relations with China, and ambassadors from Persia frequently traveled to China. Chinese documents report on sixteen Sassanid embassies to China from 455 to 555. Commercially, land and sea trade with China was

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took control of the Yemenite throne and created an independent nation. After Abraha's death one of his sons, Ma'd-Karib, went into exile while his half-brother took the throne. After being denied by Justinian, Ma'd-Karib sought help from Khosrau, who sent a small fleet and army under commander

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The impact of Heraclius's victories, the devastation of the richest territories of the Sassanid Empire, and the humiliating destruction of high-profile targets such as Ganzak and Dastagerd fatally undermined Khosrau's prestige and his support among the Persian aristocracy. In early 628, he was

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Sasanian art exported its forms and motifs eastward into India, Turkestan and China, westward into Syria, Asia Minor, Constantinople, the Balkans, Egypt and Spain. Probably its influence helped to change the emphasis in Greek art from classic representation to Byzantine ornament, and in Latin

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Persia and northwestern India, the latter that made up formerly part of the Kushans, engaged in cultural as well as political exchange during this period, as certain Sassanid practices spread into the Kushan territories. In particular, the Kushans were influenced by the Sassanid conception of

4340:. Indeed, the extensive domains of the Surens, Karens and Varazes, had become part of the original Sassanid state as semi-independent states. Thus, the noble families that attended at the court of the Sassanid empire continued to be ruling lines in their own right, although subordinate to the 6668:

leadership based in Mesopotamia. Jewish communities suffered only occasional persecution. They enjoyed a relative freedom of religion, and were granted privileges denied to other religious minorities. Shapur I (Shabur Malka in Aramaic) was a particular friend to the Jews. His friendship with

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introduced in the Parthian period. During the Sasanian period, these reached massive proportions, particularly at Ctesiphon. There, the arch of the great vaulted hall, attributed to the reign of Shapur I (241–272), has a span of more than 80 feet (24 m) and reaches a height of 118 feet

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Horsemen in the Sassanid cavalry lacked a stirrup. Instead, they used a war saddle which had a cantle at the back and two guard clamps which curved across the top of the rider's thighs. This allowed the horsemen to stay in the saddle at all times during the battle, especially during violent

4228:, the symbol of the national religion. This symbol is explicit on Sassanid coins where the reigning monarch, with his crown and regalia of office, appears on the obverse, backed by the sacred fire, the symbol of the national religion, on the coin's reverse. Sassanid queens had the title of 5441:

Owners could also voluntarily manumit their slaves, in which case the former slave became a subject of the Sasanian King of Kings and could not lawfully be re-enslaved later. Manumissions were recorded, which suggests that a freedman who was challenged would be able to document their free

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In general, mass slavery was never practiced by the Iranians, and in many cases the situation and lives of semi-slaves (prisoners of war) were, in fact, better than those of the commoner. In Persia, the term "slave" was also used for debtors who had to use some of their time to serve in a

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for permission to travel to India to obtain the plant. After a fruitless search, he was led to an ascetic who revealed the secret of the plant to him: The "plant" was word, the "mountain" learning, and the "dead" the ignorant. He told Borzuya of a book, the remedy of ignorance, called the

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Uniquely in comparison to Western slave systems, Sasanian slavery recognized partial manumission (relevant in the case of a jointly owned slave, only some of whose owners were willing to manumit). In case of a slave who was, e.g., one-half manumitted, the slave would serve in alternating

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time of the manuscript's composition, Iranian slavery was hereditary on the mother's side (so that a child of a free man and a slave woman would be a slave), although the author reports that in earlier Persian history it may have been the opposite, being inherited from the father's side.

3146:(388–399) also failed to achieve anything important for the empire. During this time Armenia was divided by a treaty between the Roman and Sasanian empires. The Sasanians reestablished their rule over Greater Armenia, while the Byzantine Empire held a small portion of western Armenia. 6327:. It is likely therefore that soon after this, the Sassanids made the decision to impose Persian as the sole official language within Iran, and forbade the use of written Parthian. This had important consequences for Zoroastrianism, given that all secondary literature, including the 3582:, but ended in disaster: defeated outside Melitene, the Persians suffered heavy losses as they fled across the Euphrates under Byzantine attack. Taking advantage of Persian disarray, the Byzantines raided deep into Khosrow's territory, even mounting amphibious attacks across the 5691:

past, the Sasanians were no mere imitators. The art of this period reveals an astonishing virility, in certain respects anticipating key features of Islamic art. Sasanian art combined elements of traditional Persian art with Hellenistic elements and influences. The conquest of

3536:. A five-year truce agreed to in 545 was interrupted in 547 when Lazica again switched sides and eventually expelled its Persian garrison with Byzantine help; the war resumed but remained confined to Lazica, which was retained by the Byzantines when peace was concluded in 562. 3478:, and in 532 an "eternal peace" was concluded. Kavad succeeded in restoring order in the interior and fought with general success against the Eastern Romans, founded several cities, some of which were named after him, and began to regulate taxation and internal administration. 6088:, Kartir was made the 'absolute authority' over the 'order of priests' at the Sassanid court and throughout the empire's regions too, with the implication that all regional Zoroastrian clergies would now for the first time be subordinated to the Persian Zoroastrian clerics of 3605:

to control the sea trade with the east. Later, the south Arabian kingdom renounced Sassanid overlordship, and another Persian expedition was sent in 598 that successfully annexed southern Arabia as a Sassanid province, which lasted until the time of troubles after Khosrow II.

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When the king went out in public, he was hidden behind a curtain, and had some of his men in front of him, whose duty was to keep the masses away from him and to clear the way. When one came to the king, one was expected to prostrate oneself before him, also known as

2360:, became involved in a power struggle with his elder brother Shapur. Sources reveal that Shapur was killed when the roof of a building collapsed on him. By 208, over the protests of his other brothers, who were put to death, Ardashir declared himself ruler of Pars. 5264:(king). His health and welfare was of high importance—accordingly, the phrase "May you be immortal" was used to reply to him. The Sasanian coins which appeared from the 6th-century and afterwards depict a moon and sun, which, in the words of the Iranian historian 5221:

Unlike the amount of information about the settled people of the Sasanian Empire, there is little about the nomadic/unsettled ones. It is known that they were called "Kurds" by the Sasanians, and that they regularly served the Sasanian military, particularly the

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The Armenian defeat in the Battle of Avarayr in 451 proved a pyrrhic victory for the Persians. Though the Armenians lost their commander, Vartan Mamikonian, and most of their soldiers, Persian losses were proportionately heavy, and Armenia was allowed to remain

3497:, also known as Anushirvan ("with the immortal soul"; ruled 531–579), ascended to the throne. He is the most celebrated of the Sassanid rulers. Khosrow I is most famous for his reforms in the aging governing body of Sassanids. He introduced a rational system of 10782: 7077:, India, where they were allowed greater freedom to observe their customs and preserve their faith. The descendants of those Zoroastrians would play a small but significant role in the development of India. Today there are over 70,000 Zoroastrians in India. 5713:

With the accession of the , Persia regained much of that power and stability to which she had been so long a stranger ... The improvement in the fine arts at home indicates returning prosperity, and a degree of security unknown since the fall of the

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This cultural interchange did not, however, spread Sassanid religious practices or attitudes to the Kushans. Lower-level cultural interchanges also took place between India and Persia during this period. For example, Persians imported the early form of

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The Sasanian nobility was a mixture of old Parthian clans, Persian aristocratic families, and noble families from subjected territories. Many new noble families had risen after the dissolution of the Parthian dynasty, while several of the once-dominant

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among the common-folk (marriage within the family; between siblings, cousins). At various stages during his long career at court, Kartir also oversaw the periodic persecution of the non-Zoroastrians in Iran, and secured the execution of the prophet

2476:, which probably allowed Ardashir to consolidate his authority in the south with little or no interference from the Parthians. Ardashir was aided by the geography of the province of Fars, which was separated from the rest of Iran. Crowned in 224 at 6404:, along with much secondary Zoroastrian literature, was recorded in writing during the Sassanid era for the first time. Many of these Zoroastrian texts were original works from the Sassanid period. Perhaps the most important of these works was the 5952:—a process of Greco-Persian religious and cultural synthesisation which had continued into the Parthian era. However, under the Sassanids, an orthodox Zoroastrianism was revived and the religion would undergo numerous and important developments. 2821:

The conditions of the peace were heavy: Persia would give up territory to Rome, making the Tigris the boundary between the two empires. Further terms specified that Armenia was returned to Roman domination, with the fort of Ziatha as its border;

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The relationship between priests and warriors was important, because the concept of Ērānshahr had been revived by the priests. Disagreements between the priests and the warriors led to fragmentation within the empire, which led to its downfall.

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The Sassanids ceded five provinces west of the Tigris, and agreed not to interfere in the affairs of Armenia and Georgia. In the aftermath of this defeat, Narseh gave up the throne and died a year later, leaving the Sassanid throne to his son,

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were obliged to accept his suzerainty. These were the western Kushans which controlled Afghanistan while the eastern Kushans were active in India. Although the Kushan empire declined at the end of the 3rd century, to be replaced by the Indian

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rather than Greek. Another reason for a separation between Eastern and Western Christianity was strong pressure from the Sasanian authorities to sever connections with Rome, since the Sasanian Empire was often at war with the Roman Empire.

3505:, which his father had begun, and he tried in every way to increase the welfare and the revenues of his empire. Previous great feudal lords fielded their own military equipment, followers, and retainers. Khosrow I developed a new force of 4848:

Justinian was ultimately responsible for Sassanian maritime presence in Yemen. By not providing the Yemenite Arabs support, Khosrau was able to help Ma'd-Karib and subsequently established Yemen as a principality of the Sassanian Empire.

3645:(590–628) placed on the throne. However, this change of ruler failed to placate Bahram, who defeated Khosrow, forcing him to flee to Byzantine territory, and seized the throne for himself as Bahram VI. Khosrow asked the Byzantine Emperor 2826:

would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia:

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was affected by the methods of Persian warfare. In a modified form, the Roman Imperial autocracy imitated the royal ceremonies of the Sasanian court at Ctesiphon, and those in turn had an influence on the ceremonial traditions of the

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that many of the Sassanid heavy cavalry did not carry spears, relying on their bows as their primary weapons. Conversely the Taq-i Bustan reliefs and Al-Tabari's famed list of equipment required for dihqan knights included the lance.

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in 450. During his eastern campaign, Yazdegerd II grew suspicious of the Christians in the army and expelled them all from the governing body and army. He then persecuted the Christians in his land, and, to a much lesser extent, the

4917:

and shared a common interest in preserving and protecting that trade. They cooperated in guarding the trade routes through central Asia, and both built outposts in border areas to keep caravans safe from nomadic tribes and bandits.

3881:, while his Avar and Slavic allies invaded from the western side. Attempts to ferry the Persian forces across the Bosphorus to aid their allies (the Slavic forces being by far the most capable in siege warfare) were blocked by the 2356:. Papak and his eldest son Shapur managed to expand their power over all of Pars. Subsequent events are unclear due to the elusive nature of the sources. It is certain that following the death of Papak, Ardashir, the governor of 3387:

stepped down from his position and returned the throne to his brother. No further mention of Jamasp is made after the restoration of Kavad I, but it is widely believed that he was treated favourably at the court of his brother.

6460:

were therefore finally able to record all surviving ancient Avestan texts in written form. As a result of this development, the Sasanian Avesta was then compiled into 21 nasks (divisions) to correspond with the 21 words of the

4824:

of southern Arabia. The local Arab leader was able to resist the attack but appealed to the Sassanians for aid, while the Axumites subsequently turned towards the Byzantines for help. The Axumites sent another force across the

5477:

There was a major school, called the Grand School, in the capital. In the beginning, only 50 students were allowed to study at the Grand School. In less than 100 years, enrollment at the Grand School was over 30,000 students.

3649:(582–602) for assistance against Bahram, offering to cede the western Caucasus to the Byzantines. To cement the alliance, Khosrow also married Maurice's daughter Miriam. Under the command of Khosrow and the Byzantine generals 2094:

as a legitimizing and unifying ideal. They also built grand monuments, public works, and patronized cultural and educational institutions. The empire's cultural influence extended far beyond its territorial borders, including

5581:, seven of their professors went to Persia and found refuge at Khosrau's court. In his treaty of 533 with Justinian, the Sasanian king stipulated that the Greek sages should be allowed to return and be free from persecution. 3601:, and they marched against the capital San'a'l, which was occupied. Saif, son of Mard-Karib, who had accompanied the expedition, became King sometime between 575 and 577. Thus, the Sassanids were able to establish a base in 2929:. Shapur therefore marched east toward Transoxiana to meet the eastern nomads, leaving his local commanders to mount nuisance raids on the Romans. He crushed the Central Asian tribes, and annexed the area as a new province. 5892:

It was also a time of increased metallurgical production, so Iran earned a reputation as the "armory of Asia". Most of the Sasanian mining centers were at the fringes of the Empire – in Armenia, the Caucasus and above all,

2906:: the crown was placed upon his mother's stomach. During his youth the empire was controlled by his mother and the nobles. Upon coming of age, Shapur II assumed power and quickly proved to be an active and effective ruler. 5664:

days. The two dozen Sasanian textiles that have survived are among the most highly valued fabrics in existence. Even in their own day, Sasanian textiles were admired and imitated from Egypt to the Far East; and during the

4487:

to have been recognized by Romans for their skills and hardiness in close-quarter combat. One account of Dailamites recounted their participation in an invasion of Yemen where 800 of them were led by the Dailamite officer

5486:

On a lower level, Sasanian society was divided into Azatan (freemen). The Azatan formed a large low-aristocracy of low-level administrators, mostly living on small estates. The Azatan provided the cavalry backbone of the

6623:

became the first independent Christian state in the world in 301. While a number of Assyrian territories had almost become fully Christianized even earlier during the 3rd century, they never became independent nations.

5837:

were famously known for their production of silk, and rivaled the Chinese factories. The Sasanians showed great toleration to the inhabitants of the countryside, which allowed the latter to stockpile in case of famine.

4929:

in Inner Asia, there is also what looks like a collaboration between China and the Sassanids to defuse Turkic advances. Documents from Mt. Mogh talk about the presence of a Chinese general in the service of the king of

6410:—the mythical Zoroastrian story of Creation. Other older works, some from remote antiquity, were possibly translated from different Iranian languages into Middle Persian during this period. For example, two works, the 6068:-centred Zoroastrian orthodoxy across the Sassanid Empire. His power and influence grew so much that he became the only 'commoner' to later be allowed to have his own rock inscriptions carved in the royal fashion (at 6287:

The early Sassanids ruled against the use of cult images in worship, and so statues and idols were removed from many temples and, where possible, sacred fires were installed instead. This policy extended even to the

2818:, taking Ctesiphon. Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wives and children. Peace negotiations began in the spring of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding. 9847:, pp. 1640–1645 – Excerpt: "Persians never practiced mass slavery, and in many cases the situations and lives of semi-slaves (prisoners of war) were in fact better than the common citizens of Persia." (p. 1642) 5751:. Many of the palaces contain an inner audience hall consisting, as at Firuzabad, of a chamber surmounted by a dome. The Persians solved the problem of constructing a circular dome on a square building by employing 5660:, chair covers, canopies, tents and rugs were woven with patience and masterly skill, and were dyed in warm tints of yellow, blue and green. Great colorful carpets had been an appendage of wealth in the East since 4774:

in 634. Shortly thereafter, the Persian army defeated them and drove them out. The Sassanids built numerous fortifications in the Caucasus region to halt these attacks, such as the imposing fortifications built in

3029:. These invaders initially issued coins based on Sasanian designs. Various coins minted in Bactria and based on Sasanian designs are extant, often with busts imitating Sassanian kings Shapur II (r. 309 to 379) and 7066:

The collapse of the Sasanian Empire led to Islam slowly replacing Zoroastrianism as the primary religion of Iran. A large number of Zoroastrians chose to emigrate to escape Islamic persecution. According to the

4403: 6594:

Most of the Christians in the Sasanian empire lived on the western edge of the empire, predominantly in Mesopotamia, but there were also important extant communities in the more northern territories, namely

5457:

The master of a slave was allowed to free the person when he wanted to, which, no matter what faith the slave believed in, was considered a good deed. A slave could also be freed if his/her master died.

11771:

Stokvis A.M.H.J., Manuel d'Histoire, de Généalogie et de Chronologie de tous les Etats du Globe depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours, Leiden, 1888–1893 (ré-édition en 1966 par B.M.Israel)

3426:

on the Tigris. In 504, an invasion of Armenia by the western Huns from the Caucasus led to an armistice, the return of Amida to Roman control and a peace treaty in 506. In 521/522 Kavad lost control of

5862:

archeological discovery has shown the interesting fact that Sasanians used special labels (commercial labels) on goods as a way of promoting their brands and distinguish between different qualities.

5159:

and centralized government. In Sassanid theory, the ideal society could maintain stability and justice, and the necessary instrument for this was a strong monarch. Thus, the Sasanians aimed to be an

2968:, trapped on the east bank of the Tigris, had to hand over all the provinces the Persians had ceded to Rome in 298, as well as Nisibis and Singara, to secure safe passage for his army out of Persia. 5640:

were colored; so were many features of the palaces; but only traces of such painting remain. The literature, however, makes it clear that the art of painting flourished in Sasanian times. Painting,

3803:

had actually exhausted the Persian army and treasuries. In an effort to rebuild the national treasuries, Khosrau overtaxed the population. Thus, while his empire was on the verge of total defeat,

3684:

The new peace arrangement allowed the two empires to focus on military matters elsewhere: Khosrow focused on the Sassanid Empire's eastern frontier while Maurice restored Byzantine control of the

3308:

by a Hephthalite army near Balkh. His army was completely destroyed, and his body was never found. Four of his sons and brothers had also died. The main Sasanian cities of the eastern region of

6130:

The Persians had long known of the Egyptian calendar, with its 365 days divided into 12 months. However, the traditional Zoroastrian calendar had 12 months of 30 days each. During the reign of

3382:(496–498) was installed on the Sasanian throne upon the deposition of Kavad I by members of the nobility. He was a good and kind king; he reduced taxes in order to improve the condition of the 6138:

and had a practical as well as religious use. However, they were still kept apart from the 'religious year', so as not to disturb the long-held observances of the older Zoroastrian calendar.

5959:, the holy books of Zoroastrianism. Sassanid religious policies contributed to the flourishing of numerous religious reform movements, most importantly those founded by the religious leaders 2492:, "Queen of Queens", but her relationship with Ardashir has not been fully established), bringing the 400-year-old Parthian Empire to an end, and beginning four centuries of Sassanid rule. 5093:, later made its way into the Arabic literature and Europe. The details of Burzoe's legendary journey to India and his daring acquisition of the Panchatantra are written in full detail in 3072:, who lived in relative freedom and gained many advantages during his reign. At the time of his death, the Persian Empire was stronger than ever, with its enemies to the east pacified and 14781: 5450:

To free a slave (irrespective of his or her faith) was considered a good deed. Slaves had some rights including keeping gifts from the owner and at least three days of rest in the month.

10772: 8119:

Repaying its debt, Sasanian art exported its forms and motives eastward into India, Turkestan, and China, westward into Syria, Asia Minor, Constantinople, the Balkans, Egypt, and Spain.

6016:(high priest) of the Iranian Zoroastrians to aid him in acquiring legitimization for the new dynasty. This Tansar did by writing to the nominal and vassal kings in different regions of 5813:

Due to the majority of the inhabitants being of peasant stock, the Sasanian economy relied on farming and agriculture, Khuzestan and Iraq being the most important provinces for it. The

4604:

knightly caste required a small estate, and the Asawaran (Azatan) knightly caste received that from the throne, and in return, were the throne's most notable defenders in time of war.

3885:, and the siege ended in failure. In 627–628, Heraclius mounted a winter invasion of Mesopotamia, and, despite the departure of his Khazar allies, defeated a Persian army commanded by 4027:

right; bismillah and three pellets in margin; c/m: winged creature right / Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames; date to left, mint name to right.

2495:

In the next few years, local rebellions occurred throughout the empire. Nonetheless, Ardashir I further expanded his new empire to the east and northwest, conquering the provinces of

9559: 5320:

Sassanid society was immensely complex, with separate systems of social organization governing numerous different groups within the empire. Historians believe society comprised four

5296:, who was in charge of the king's safety, controlled the entrance of the kings palace, presented visitors to the king, and was allowed military commands or used as a negotiator. The 7459:. Persia occupies Byzantine Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and the Transcaucasus, before being driven to withdraw to pre-war frontiers by Byzantine counter-offensive 2779:

on the Euphrates in 296, he was eventually decisively defeated by them. Galerius had been reinforced, probably in the spring of 298, by a new contingent collected from the empire's

7080:

The Zoroastrians still use a variant of the religious calendar instituted under the Sasanians. That calendar still marks the number of years since the accession of Yazdegerd III.

7008:

of medieval and modern Europe. The origin of the formalities of European diplomacy is attributed to the diplomatic relations between the Persian governments and the Roman Empire.

2698:

and founded many cities, some settled in part by emigrants from the Roman territories, including Christians who could exercise their faith freely under Sassanid rule. Two cities,

5889:. There were also goods in transit from China (paper, silk) and India (spices), which Sasanian customs imposed taxes upon, and which were re-exported from the Empire to Europe. 3993:

in a series of lightning battles. Redeployed to the Syrian front against the Byzantines in June 634, Khalid's successor in Iraq failed him, and the Muslims were defeated in the

101: 4713:

In general, over the span of the centuries, in the west, Sassanid territory abutted that of the large and stable Roman state, but to the east, its nearest neighbors were the

3711:

and sent him to Iran to repel the Hephthalites. Smbat, with the aid of a Persian prince named Datoyean, repelled the Hephthalites from Persia, and plundered their domains in

14771: 11165:, in William Bayne Fisher; Ilya Gershevitch; Ehsan Yarshater; R. N. Frye; J. A. Boyle; Peter Jackson; Laurence Lockhart; Peter Avery; Gavin Hambly; Charles Melville (eds.), 6141:

Some difficulties arose with the introduction of the first calendar reform, particularly the pushing forward of important Zoroastrian festivals such as Hamaspat-maedaya and

5454:

wages and were able to have their own families whether they were female or male. Harming a slave was considered a crime, and not even the king himself was allowed to do it.

3509:, or "knights", paid and equipped by the central government and the bureaucracy, tying the army and bureaucracy more closely to the central government than to local lords. 3543:(565–578), who resolved to stop subsidies to Arab chieftains to restrain them from raiding Byzantine territory in Syria. A year earlier, the Sassanid governor of Armenia, 4087:, where they contributed greatly to spreading the Persian culture and language in those regions and to the establishment of the first native Iranian Islamic dynasty, the 9195: 8664:

Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the First International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 23rd–24th March, 2017

6718:, was widely used in the Sasanian Empire (from Antioch to Mesopotamia), although Imperial Aramaic began to be replaced by Middle Persian as the administrative language. 5588:, which had been founded in the 5th century, became "the greatest intellectual center of the time", drawing students and teachers from every quarter of the known world. 4043:, and then advanced on Ctesiphon, which fell after a prolonged siege. Yazdegerd fled eastward from Ctesiphon, leaving behind him most of the empire's vast treasury. The 11310: 3590:

in Armenia in 577, and fighting resumed in Mesopotamia. The Armenian revolt came to an end with a general amnesty, which brought Armenia back into the Sassanid Empire.

579: 565: 551: 537: 523: 509: 495: 470: 456: 442: 428: 414: 6275:

eventually became, by custom, a place of pilgrimage by foot for newly enthroned Kings after their coronation. It is likely that, during the Sassanid era, these three

5596:

translations of Greek works in medicine and philosophy. The medical lore of India, Persia, Syria and Greece mingled there to produce a flourishing school of therapy.

3297:

in 483. Following this victory, the Huns invaded and plundered parts of eastern Iran continually for two years. They exacted heavy tribute for some years thereafter.

5994:-oriented Zoroastrian tradition would play an important part in influencing and lending legitimization to the state until its collapse in the mid-7th century. After 5619:

however, was the true heir to Sasanian art, whose concepts it was to assimilate while at the same time instilling fresh life and renewed vigor into it. According to

5167:. This can be credited to, among other things, the Sasanians founding and re-founding a number of cities, which is talked about in the surviving Middle Persian text 5936:, Zoroastrianism had fragmented into regional variations which also saw the rise of local cult-deities, some from Iranian religious tradition but others drawn from 6552:(Syriac Orthodox Church). Although these churches originally maintained ties with Christian churches in the Roman Empire, they were quite different from them: the 5569:, translated into Pahlavi, taught at Gundishapur, and read them himself. During his reign, many historical annals were compiled, of which the sole survivor is the 4316:, along with several other families, the Varazes and Andigans, held positions of great honor. Alongside these Iranian and non-Iranian noble families, the kings of 3593:

Around 570, "Ma 'd-Karib", half-brother of the King of Yemen, requested Khosrow I's intervention. Khosrow I sent a fleet and a small army under a commander called

17918: 6177:

in the early 6th century. Much emphasis seems to have been placed during this period on the importance of spring and on its connection with the resurrection and

3438:

In 527, a Roman offensive against Nisibis was repulsed and Roman efforts to fortify positions near the frontier were thwarted. In 530, Kavad sent an army under

2733:

community and gave them a respite from the oppressive laws enacted against them. Later kings reversed Shapur's policy of religious tolerance. When Shapur's son

3266:

in 451. The Armenians, however, remained primarily Christian. In his later years, he was engaged yet again with the Kidarites right up until his death in 457.

6452:

one, but rather than the inadequacy of that script for recording spoken Middle Persian, the Avestan alphabet had 46 letters, and was well suited to recording

2651:

and Valerian was captured by Shapur, remaining his prisoner for the rest of his life. Shapur celebrated his victory by carving the impressive rock reliefs in

4052:. The empire, with its military command structure non-existent, its non-noble troop levies decimated, its financial resources effectively destroyed, and the 2197: 3570:

Nisibis in 573. However, dissension among the Byzantine generals not only led to an abandonment of the siege, but they in turn were besieged in the city of

13024: 12024: 5747:(36 m). This magnificent structure fascinated architects in the centuries that followed and has been considered one of the most important examples of 5361:

ruled over all the nobles. The royal princes, petty rulers, great landlords and priests, together constituted a privileged stratum, and were identified as

4289: 4122:) was also adopted. Caliph Umar is said to have occasionally set up a commission to survey the taxes, to judge if they were more than the land could bear. 3819:(whose competition to claim the glory of personally defeating the Byzantine emperor contributed to their failure), sacking the great Zoroastrian temple at 3621: 5419:

Excessive cruelty towards slaves could result in the owners' being brought to court; a court case involving a slave whose owner tried to drown him in the

4098:; however, many Iranian cities resisted and fought against the invaders several times. Islamic caliphates repeatedly suppressed revolts in cities such as 11600: 6927:

were also spoken in the Sasanian Empire, once again due to the capture of Roman soldiers but this must have been negligible. Semitic languages including

6134:, an effort was made to introduce a more accurate Zoroastrian calendar for the year, so 5 extra days were added to it. These 5 extra days were named the 5742:). In addition to local traditions, Parthian architecture influenced Sasanian architectural characteristics. All are characterized by the barrel-vaulted 4836:

should cut out the Persians from Indian trade by maritime trade with the Indians. The Ethiopians never met this request because an Axumite general named

2090:

The period of Sasanian rule was a high point in Iranian civilization, characterized by a complex and centralized government bureaucracy, and revitalized

15940: 14793: 13617: 4474:

Those serving in the infantry were fitted with shields and lances. To make the size of their army larger, the Sassanids added soldiers provided by the

4247: 2752:

was also amenable to the wishes of the Zoroastrian priesthood. During his reign, the Sassanid capital Ctesiphon was sacked by the Romans under Emperor

12212: 9395: 4482:

to their own. The Medes provided the Sassanid army with high-quality javelin throwers, slingers and heavy infantry. Iranian infantry are described by

16046: 12587: 6859:, into Atropatene, Armenia, and other places in the Caucasus, the places gained a larger, although small, Iranian population. Parthian was spoken in 6734:

and its surrounding regions. However, there were several different Persian dialects during that time. Besides Persian, the unattested predecessor of

5878:

testify to the importance of trade with India, but the silk trade with China was mainly in the hands of Sasanian vassals and the Iranian people, the

4273: 3241:

At the beginning of his reign in 441, Yazdegerd II assembled an army of soldiers from various nations, including his Indian allies, and attacked the

12139: 7040:, the Jewish wife of Yazdegerd I, significantly contributed to the close relations between the Jews of the empire and the government in Ctesiphon. 4613: 3218:(438–457) was in some ways a moderate ruler, but, in contrast to Yazdegerd I, he practised a harsh policy towards minority religions, particularly 11356:

McDonough, Scott (2011). "The Legs of the Throne: Kings, Elites, and Subjects in Sasanian Iran". In Arnason, Johann P.; Raaflaub, Kurt A. (eds.).

4864:

important to both the Sassanid and Chinese Empires. Large numbers of Sassanid coins have been found in southern China, confirming maritime trade.

15460: 15451: 15195: 14707: 6362: 5870:, Central Asia and South Russia, in the time of Khosrau, although competition with the Byzantines was at times intense. Sassanian settlements in 5105:

In Indian books, Borzuya read that on a mountain in that land there grows a plant which when sprinkled over the dead revives them. Borzuya asked

3360:(d. 1030), Sukhra was Kavad's maternal uncle. Kavad I (488–531) was an energetic and reformist ruler. He gave his support to the sect founded by 3128: 14692: 6296:. However, only cult-statues were removed. The Sassanids continued to use images to represent the deities of Zoroastrianism, including that of 6217: 5982:. Shapur II, on the other hand, tolerated religious groups except Christians, whom he only persecuted in the wake of Constantine's conversion. 5230:

nomads. This way of handling the nomads continued into the Islamic period, where the service of the Dailamites and Gilanis continued unabated.

16676: 17843: 4463:

formed the bulk of the Sassanid infantry, and were often recruited from the peasant population. Each unit was headed by an officer called a "

4094:

The abrupt fall of the Sassanid Empire was completed in a period of just five years, and most of its territory was absorbed into the Islamic

3270:(457–459), the younger son of Yazdegerd II, then ascended to the throne. During his short rule, he continually fought with his elder brother 2622:(244), leading to Gordian's murder by his own troops and enabling Shapur to conclude a highly advantageous peace treaty with the new emperor 14983: 13793: 11384: 9563: 6730:), it was only a minority spoken-language in the vast Sasanian Empire; it only formed the majority of Pars, while it was widespread around 6179: 6135: 4574:'s description of Shapur II's clibanarii cavalry manifestly shows how heavily equipped it was, and how only a portion were spear equipped: 2040:, a ruler who rose to power as Parthia weakened as a result of internal strife and wars with the Romans. After defeating the last Parthian 12014: 5202:

Many of these cities, both new and old, were populated not only by native ethnic groups, such as the Iranians or Syriacs, but also by the

14761: 13612: 12074: 10002: 6064:, a very powerful and influential Persian cleric, served under several Sassanid Kings and actively campaigned for the establishment of a 5806: 5168: 4216:

The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Parthian Arsacids, with the capital at Ctesiphon in the

821: 12086: 11859: 10450: 3838: 3559:

family, touching off a revolt which led to the massacre of the Persian governor and his guard in 571, while rebellion also broke out in

2956:, started his second campaign against the Romans in 359 and soon succeeded in retaking Singara and Amida. In response the Roman emperor 15129: 14645: 11063: 11038: 6027: 5970:

The relationship between the Sassanid kings and the religions practiced in their empire became complex and varied. For instance, while

5924: 4237: 11779: 5195:. During the Sasanian period, many cities with the name "Iran-khwarrah" were established. This was because Sasanians wanted to revive 4941:, son of Yazdegerd III, escaped along with a few Persian nobles and took refuge in the Chinese imperial court. Both Peroz and his son 3641:, dismissed and humiliated by Hormizd, rose in revolt in 589. The following year, Hormizd was overthrown by a palace coup and his son 12234: 12171: 9081: 6157:, although this inconsistency with the original spring-equinox date for Nowruz had possibly occurred during the Parthian period too. 5148: 4881: 4663: 3929:(628), who immediately brought an end to the war, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories. In 629, Heraclius restored the 3782: 1900: 325: 5163:

empire, at which they were quite successful. During the late Sasanian period, Mesopotamia had the largest population density in the

4353:

from Iranian families held the most powerful positions in the imperial administration, including governorships of border provinces (

13668: 13017: 10618: 7597: 3563:. Justin II took advantage of the Armenian revolt to stop his yearly payments to Khosrow I for the defense of the Caucasus passes. 2603: 8607:

Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia

6828:

merchants are believed to have added to the population as well. Iranians had also begun to settle in the province, along with the

5885:

The main exports of the Sasanians were silk; woolen and golden textiles; carpets and rugs; hides; and leather and pearls from the

17848: 14680: 13229: 12437: 12261: 11407: 11068: 11043: 9668: 7592: 7096: 7024:

was composed between the third and sixth centuries in Sasanian Persia and major Jewish academies of learning were established in

5704:

into Western Asia. Though the East accepted the outward form of this art, it never really assimilated its spirit. Already in the

2543:

to Ardashir, although based on numismatic evidence it is more likely that these actually submitted to Ardashir's son, the future

1794: 235: 3127:. Throughout this era, Sasanian religious policy differed dramatically from king to king. Despite a series of weak leaders, the 17893: 15305: 15156: 14919: 6357:

service was lengthened during the Sassanid era "to increase its impressiveness". This appears to have been done by joining the

5036:

kingship, which spread through the trade of Sassanid silverware and textiles depicting emperors hunting or dispensing justice.

4889:

On different occasions, Sassanid kings sent their most talented Persian musicians and dancers to the Chinese imperial court at

3650: 3300:

These attacks brought instability and chaos to the kingdom. Peroz tried again to drive out the Hephthalites, but on the way to

3920:, the first woman and one of the last rulers on the throne of the Sasanian Empire, she reigned from 17 June 629 to 16 June 630 3095:

and poetry. "Bahram and the Indian princess in the black pavilion." Depiction of a Khamsa (Quintet) by the great Persian poet

2971: 2798:

During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife. Galerius advanced into

2215:, the empire is known as the Sasanian Empire in historical and academic sources. This term is also recorded in English as the 17873: 17629: 17011: 15651: 15481: 15426: 15295: 15161: 14059: 13824: 12580: 12163: 11943: 11633: 11575: 11523:

The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World: The Seventh Monarchy: History of the Sassanian or New Persian Empire

11513: 11455: 11346: 11152: 11132: 11077: 11052: 11027: 10928: 10763: 9910: 9886: 9543: 8980: 8244: 7950: 6652:, in the far easternmost territories. A very large Jewish community flourished under Sasanian rule, with thriving centers at 5905:: when God was creating the world, he tripped over the Pamirs, dropping his jar of minerals, which spread across the region. 3120: 11184: 5171:(the provincial capitals of Iran). Ardashir I himself built and re-built many cities, which he named after himself, such as 4000: 17908: 17853: 17828: 14813: 14803: 10887:

The Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity Through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE–642 CE

6150: 5790: 17535: 10494: 10085: 6520: 6378:, which derived from the extended yasna. This was developed for the celebration of the seven holy days of obligation (the 4921:

Politically, there is evidence of several Sassanid and Chinese efforts in forging alliances against the common enemy, the

4845:

to depose the new king of Yemen. After capturing the capital city San'a'l, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne.

3997:

in 634. However, the Arab threat did not stop there and reemerged shortly via the disciplined armies of Khalid ibn Walid.

16011: 15961: 15687: 15221: 13359: 13010: 12643: 4671: 3305: 609: 11485: 11226: 9408: 7978: 6875:

languages were spoken further east in places which were not always controlled by the Sasanians. To the further south in

6770:, were spoken about in the same regions. Furthermore, some other languages and dialects were spoken in the two regions. 5818:

inhabitants of the mountains. During the reign of Khosrau I, further land was brought under centralized administration.

4975: 3637:(579–590) took the throne. The war with the Byzantines continued to rage intensely but inconclusively until the general 17681: 16681: 15236: 15225: 15170: 15118: 14973: 14776: 12242: 11740: 11699: 11663: 11612: 11396: 11373: 11006: 10983: 10951: 10898: 10848: 10742: 10460: 9985: 9958: 9934: 9472: 9418: 9375: 8672: 8615: 8588: 8092: 4999: 4271:). Within this bureaucracy the Zoroastrian priesthood was immensely powerful. The head of the Magi priestly class, the 12098: 11162: 16325: 15666: 15610: 15590: 15406: 15381: 15277: 15201: 15103: 14733: 14575: 13086: 11918: 11903: 11886: 11593: 11557: 11540: 11495: 11474: 11432: 11286: 11254: 11236: 11194: 11174: 11111: 10872: 10827: 10724: 10310: 9794:

common among ancient Iranian, Indian and Romans with one extra Iranian element (from Yashna xix/17). cf. Frye, p. 54.

9462: 8490: 7504: 7410: 4467:", which meant "commander of the infantry" and their main task was to guard the baggage train, serve as pages to the 3786: 3124: 338: 15500: 4359:). Most of these positions were patrimonial, and many were passed down through a single family for generations. The 17858: 16131: 15697: 13786: 13750: 12573: 11680: 5290:. Both of these groups were enlisted from royal families of the Sasanian Empire, and were under the command of the 4729:, which later became a center of learning and trade, also assisted in defending the eastern provinces from attack. 4707: 4636: 4507:

was an important constituent of the Sasanian military from the time that Ardashir I conquered the Arab side of the

2964:. He failed to take the capital, however, and was killed while trying to retreat to Roman territory. His successor 5386:

Some of the laws governing the ownership and treatment of slaves can be found in the legal compilation called the

5032:

in the 4th century, it is clear that the Sassanids remained relevant in India's northwest throughout this period.

17888: 17883: 17307: 15641: 15181: 15017: 15012: 14751: 14378: 12395: 12266: 12066: 11427:(in Persian), Trans. by Mahshid Mirfakhraie, Tehrān: Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, p. 341, 7602: 7100: 7033: 6448:

in written form (including in its original language/phonology) for the first time. The alphabet was based on the

5573:(Deeds of Ardashir), a mixture of history and romance that served as the basis of the Iranian national epic, the 4829:

and this time successfully killed the Arab leader and replaced him with an Axumite man to be king of the region.

4798:, a 200 km-long defensive structure probably aimed to protect the empire from northern peoples, such as the 4710:. Over the following centuries, half the Byzantine Empire and the entire Sasanian Empire came under Muslim rule. 4398: 3471: 2252: 1261: 17: 16469: 14018: 11101: 4674:

had considerably weakened it further. Consequently, they were vulnerable to the sudden emergence of the Islamic

4670:, ended with both rivalling sides having drastically exhausted their human and material resources. Furthermore, 4235:

On a smaller scale, the territory might also be ruled by a number of petty rulers from a noble family, known as

2875: 2276: 17903: 17868: 16246: 16071: 15951: 15935: 15421: 15356: 15257: 15206: 14978: 14929: 14914: 14818: 14808: 14788: 14580: 14239: 13663: 13647: 12374: 12183: 12000: 10890: 8779: 8703: 8058: 8035: 7211: 6908: 6888: 5570: 3073: 2552: 1828: 1003: 461: 15879: 14650: 14590: 12779: 12061: 8480: 6820:

population of the province into "Chaldeans" (Aramaic-speakers) and "Mesenian Arabs". Nomadic Arabs along with

5771:

in Mesopotamia. The panels show animal figures set in roundels, human busts, and geometric and floral motifs.

17745: 16105: 15546: 15529: 15436: 15411: 15267: 15175: 15165: 13902: 13689: 12427: 12422: 12359: 12227: 11566:

Payne, Richard (2015b). "The Reinvention of Iran: The Sasanian Empire and the Huns". In Maas, Michael (ed.).

9145: 7359: 6797: 6600: 4667: 4329: 3938: 3870: 3843: 3661:

in 591. When Khosrow was subsequently restored to power he kept his promise, handing over control of western

3560: 3432: 3376:(Zamaspes) became king in 496. Kavad, however, quickly escaped and was given refuge by the Hephthalite king. 3169: 3161:(408–450) under his guardianship. Yazdegerd also married a Jewish princess, who bore him a son called Narsi. 2823: 1893: 6045:

would later help to oversee the formation of a single 'Zoroastrian church' under the control of the Persian

5718:

Surviving palaces illustrate the splendor in which the Sasanian monarchs lived. Examples include palaces at

17838: 17833: 17818: 17740: 17624: 16109: 15945: 15661: 15401: 15391: 15139: 14995: 14595: 13983: 13699: 13434: 12977: 12417: 12379: 12126: 10714: 9365: 8051:

Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21–26 August 2006, Volumes 1–3

7627: 7554:

flees eastward from one district to another, until at last he is killed by a local miller for his purse at

4368: 4012: 2860: 2591: 2496: 15875: 12136: 12052: 10755:

Prokop und die Perser. Untersuchungen zu den Römisch-Sasanidischen Kontakten in der ausgehenden Spätantike

9255: 7036:. Several individuals of the Imperial family such as Ifra Hormizd the Queen mother of Shapur II and Queen 4130:

It is believed that the following dynasties and noble families have ancestors among the Sassanian rulers:

3336:, quickly raised a new force and stopped the Hephthalites from achieving further success. Peroz' brother, 3262:. In order to reestablish Zoroastrianism in Armenia, he crushed an uprising of Armenian Christians at the 17898: 17750: 16787: 15900: 15894: 15845: 15656: 15486: 15365: 14990: 13779: 13755: 13637: 13632: 13567: 13243: 12509: 12158: 11952: 11881:, vol. XII: The Imperial Crisis and Recovery (A.D. 193–324), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 11547: 11276: 6808:

may also have been spoken in the province but there are no references explicitly naming the language. In

6786: 6726:

Although Middle Persian was the native language of the Sasanians (who, however, were not originally from

6576: 6511: 6292:

regions of the empire during some periods. Hormizd I allegedly destroyed statues erected for the dead in

4811: 3790: 3188:, extending his influence into Central Asia, where his portrait survived for centuries on the coinage of 1865: 1853: 692: 364: 11625:

Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran

6118:—a clerical title that was to be considered higher than that of the eastern-Iranian (Parthian) title of 3131:

established during Shapur II's reign remained strong, and the empire continued to function effectively.

16115: 15576: 15441: 14909: 14687: 14585: 13907: 13866: 13760: 13369: 12294: 10909: 10819: 9878: 5553: 5434:, he or she could pay his or her price and attain freedom; i.e., as long as the owner was compensated, 4687: 4325: 4293:), who was also head of farmers, were, below the emperor, the most powerful men of the Sassanid state. 3970: 3333: 2921:

These campaigns were halted by nomadic raids along the eastern borders of the empire, which threatened

2006: 1823: 1784: 12202: 10808:

Brunner, Christopher (1983). "Geographical and Administrative divisions: Settlements and Economy". In

7516: 5673:

the crowns—the moon, stars, eagle and palm, each illustrate the wearer's religious faith and beliefs.

4040: 82: 17823: 17708: 16856: 16420: 16219: 15810: 15580: 15361: 15287: 15149: 15124: 15047: 14798: 14697: 14640: 14052: 14003: 13943: 13444: 13259: 12442: 12432: 12364: 12151: 10864:

History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian, Volume 2

7882:

Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.".

7520: 6895:

was populated by an Iranian group which closely resembled the Persians while, farther to the east in

6515: 5648:, and other forms of decoration shared their designs with Sasanian textile art. Silks, embroideries, 5390:, a collection of rulings by Sasanian judges. Principles that can be inferred from the laws include: 4894: 3794: 2961: 2590:

and the western portion of the Kushan Empire, while leading several campaigns against Rome. Invading

2536: 2139: 2033: 1765: 1669: 928: 351: 13958: 10550: 7237:

under the patronage of Yazdegerd. Christians are permitted to publicly worship and to build churches

6564:

Christianity was recognized by Yazdegerd I in 409 as an allowable faith within the Sasanian Empire.

6245:(the first Zoroastrian King), was too holy for the Persian magi to end veneration of it completely. 2910:

of repeated sieges of the key frontier city of Nisibis, and Roman success in retaking the cities of

2344:, was originally the ruler of a region called Khir. However, by 200, Papak had managed to overthrow 17878: 17813: 17666: 17641: 17491: 17150: 17145: 15930: 15720: 15600: 15551: 15523: 15386: 14924: 14838: 14567: 13973: 13886: 13399: 13041: 12543: 12514: 12220: 11142: 9791: 9627:

The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion, Pia Brancaccio, Brill, 2010

9560:"The Rise and Spread of Islam, The Arab Empire of the Umayyads – Weakness of the Adversary Empires" 6727: 6568: 6336: 6208: 6089: 6065: 5991: 5857:

Persian industry under the Sasanians developed from domestic to urban forms. Guilds were numerous.

5785: 5684:

and Parthian interlude, and believed that it was their destiny to restore the greatness of Persia.

5677: 5387: 5184: 4970: 4767: 4743: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4336:, who are mentioned as holding positions of honor amongst the nobles, appeared at the court of the 4044: 3832: 3419: 2937: 2575: 2531:

to the Sassanid possessions. Later Sassanid inscriptions also claim the submission of the kings of

2353: 2232: 1886: 1848: 1843: 1833: 622: 12207: 9504: 3761:

was on the verge of collapse. This remarkable peak of expansion was paralleled by a blossoming of

3657:, the new combined Byzantine-Persian army raised a rebellion against Bahram, defeating him at the 3481: 3395: 17913: 17733: 17614: 17155: 17108: 17051: 16750: 16694: 16442: 16161: 16135: 16126: 15996: 15956: 15560: 15496: 15456: 15191: 15042: 14899: 14858: 14116: 13860: 13709: 13642: 13536: 13389: 13307: 13302: 12728: 7480: 7049: 6996: 6603:, and the Persian part of Armenia. Other important communities were to be found on the island of 6505: 6003: 5238: 4691: 4621: 4471:(a higher rank), storm fortification walls, undertake entrenchment projects, and excavate mines. 3890: 3234:

reaffirmed Armenia's right to profess Christianity freely. This was to be later confirmed by the

2469: 2045: 1411: 1167: 748: 605: 599: 47: 12107: 12041: 12029: 12009: 10802:

Diwan. Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean

10245: 7562:), ending the dynasty. Yazdegerd is given a burial by the Assyrian bishop Mar Gregory. His son, 5940:

tradition too. Greek paganism and religious ideas had spread and mixed with Zoroastrianism when

5284:. On other occasions, the king was protected by a discrete group of palace guards, known as the 3696:

in central Iran. The Hephthalites issued numerous coins imitating the coinage of Khosrow II. In

2679:, suffering the capture of his harem and the loss of all the Roman territories he had occupied. 2444: 2329:

and subsequent rise of the Sassanian Empire in mystery. The Sassanian Empire was established in

17863: 17755: 17656: 17651: 17339: 17287: 17207: 17140: 17044: 17029: 16922: 16689: 16643: 16484: 16371: 16251: 15890: 15631: 15586: 15310: 15272: 15000: 14756: 13740: 13592: 13351: 12412: 12405: 12349: 12071: 10006: 9839:

Farazmand, Ali (1998) "Persian/Iranian Administrative Tradition", in Jay M. Shafritz (Editor),

8236: 8226: 7845: 7316: 6549: 6203:

Reflecting the regional rivalry and bias the Sassanids are believed to have held against their

5585: 5508: 5472: 5280: 4683: 4590: 4412: 4056:

knightly caste destroyed piecemeal, was now utterly helpless in the face of the Arab invaders.

3824: 3666: 3567: 2123: 1998: 1728: 1231: 705: 544: 12083: 12035: 10773:"Das Königtum der Sasaniden – Strukturen und Probleme. Bemerkungen aus althistorischer Sicht." 10223:

Conflict and Cooperation: Zoroastrian Subalterns and Muslim Elites in Medieval Iranian Society

9948: 8605: 7817: 6160:

Further calendar reforms occurred during the later Sassanid era. Ever since the reforms under

3851: 3245:, but peace was soon restored after some small-scale fighting. He then gathered his forces in 17686: 17646: 17459: 17334: 16398: 16388: 16347: 16318: 15539: 15491: 15466: 15186: 14934: 14712: 14630: 14247: 14204: 13409: 12895: 12324: 12121: 11911:

East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity: Historiographical and Historical Studies

11689: 10838: 9975: 9628: 8662: 7662: 7355: 6947:

The influence of the Sasanian Empire continued long after it fell. The empire had achieved a

6584: 5516: 5156: 4872: 4601: 4560: 4110:. The local population was initially under little pressure to convert to Islam, remaining as 4053: 4020: 3154: 3065: 2636: 2131: 1109: 1029: 967: 642: 225: 17574: 10237: 9950:

The Origins of Higher Learning: Knowledge networks and the early development of universities

7534: 7335: 6319:. However, the last time Parthian was used for a royal inscription came during the reign of 4049: 3586:. Khosrow sued for peace, but he decided to continue the war after a victory by his general 739: 17779: 17609: 17579: 17454: 17385: 17356: 17275: 16609: 16447: 16437: 16090: 15992: 15885: 15825: 15800: 15779: 15759: 15732: 15534: 15476: 15371: 15134: 15099: 14863: 14045: 13627: 13587: 13066: 12287: 11788: 8939: 7758: 7617: 7312: 6872: 6844:, the majority of the people were Aramaic-speaking Nestorian Christians, notably including 6778: 6763: 6567:

The major break with mainstream Christianity came in 431, due to the pronouncements of the

6476:(Book of Kings), was composed during the Sasanian era. This text is the basis of the later 6077: 5748: 5628:

Christian art from wooden ceilings to brick or stone vaults and domes and buttressed walls.

4858: 4795: 4631: 4571: 4483: 4305: 3994: 3893:. He then marched down the Tigris, devastating the country and sacking Khosrau's palace at 3812: 3770: 3734: 3475: 3263: 3111:'s first coronation, there was a largely peaceful period with the Romans (by this time the 2376: 2116: 2049: 1838: 299: 17559: 12168: 10240:

History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750

9085: 6372:

ceremony. Furthermore, it is believed that another longer service developed, known as the

6114:(the predecessor and brother of Bahram I) Kartir was awarded the new Zoroastrian title of 5541: 4296:

The Sassanian rulers always considered the advice of their ministers. A Muslim historian,

3566:

The Armenians were welcomed as allies, and an army was sent into Sassanid territory which

2005:, it endured for over four centuries, from 224 to 651, making it the second longest-lived 8: 17471: 17351: 17317: 17219: 17039: 17034: 16846: 16565: 16501: 16376: 16361: 15830: 15519: 15252: 15144: 14743: 14738: 14702: 14635: 14484: 14172: 13714: 13622: 13597: 13404: 13379: 12931: 12876: 12790: 12697: 12675: 11751: 11300:

Commutatio et contentio. Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East

10791:

Commutatio et contentio. Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East

10713:

Blockley, R.C. (1998), "Warfare and Diplomacy", in Averil Cameron; Peter Garnsey (eds.),

10129: 8232: 7344: 6928: 6553: 6397:

While the very earliest Zoroastrians eschewed writing as a form of demonic practice, the

6149:

A further problem occurred as Nowruz had shifted in position during this period from the

5941: 5697: 5589: 5416:

as a pious offering, in which case they and their descendants would become temple-slaves.

5020: 4985: 4451: 4308:

remained of high importance. At the court of Ardashir I, the old Arsacid families of the

4229: 4150: 3658: 3548: 2072: 1571: 1441: 870: 666: 66: 17187: 17177: 12122:

Ctesiphon; The capital of the Parthian and the Sassanid empires, on Iran Chamber Society

11295: 10786: 6196: 5955:

Sassanid Zoroastrianism developed clear distinctions from the practices laid out in the

3820: 3528:

entered Lazica at the invitation of its king, captured the main Byzantine stronghold at

17584: 17564: 17547: 17498: 17363: 17172: 17123: 17056: 16974: 16915: 16910: 16905: 16861: 16831: 16723: 16621: 16489: 16464: 16194: 16156: 16101: 16096: 16001: 15916: 15556: 15416: 15376: 15216: 15211: 15109: 15094: 14853: 14655: 14476: 14445: 14338: 14095: 13704: 13673: 13572: 13419: 13336: 12639: 11669: 11528: 10815:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

9490:

The Cambridge History of Iran Volume 3 (1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

9144:

Compareti, Matteo (2009). "Chinese-Iranian relations xv. The last Sasanians in China".

7899: 7540: 7526: 7230: 7152: 6988: 6790: 6782: 6670: 6501: 6282: 5688: 5512: 5370:

The Sasanian caste system outlived the empire, continuing in the early Islamic period.

4799: 4675: 4640: 4617: 3877:

in 626. The Sassanids, led by Shahrbaraz, attacked the city on the eastern side of the

3704: 3571: 3443: 3423: 3414:

The second golden era began after the second reign of Kavad I. With the support of the

3365: 3092: 2723: 2644: 2453: 2143: 2059:

At its greatest territorial extent, the Sasanian Empire encompassed all of present-day

1774: 1561: 1181: 652: 488: 220: 181: 11845: 11710: 11415: 11323: 11265:

The Eastern Frontier: Limits of Empire in Late Antique and Early Medieval Central Asia

10238: 6773:

In the Sasanian territories in the Caucasus, numerous languages were spoken including

6456:

in written form in the way the language actually sounded and was uttered. The Persian

6342: 5561:

The Sasanian kings were patrons of letters and philosophy. Khosrau I had the works of

17693: 17589: 17525: 17520: 17449: 17346: 17061: 16989: 16984: 16826: 16755: 16738: 16733: 16728: 16528: 16479: 16288: 16204: 16121: 16027: 16017: 15926: 15835: 15820: 15815: 15784: 15774: 15764: 15754: 15741: 15596: 15300: 15114: 15052: 15027: 15007: 14957: 14877: 14725: 14354: 14346: 14271: 14223: 13993: 13917: 13694: 13551: 13546: 13531: 13466: 13384: 13341: 13061: 13056: 12922: 12912: 12483: 12203:

Christianity in Ancient Iran: Aba & The Church in Persia, on Iran Chamber Society

11939: 11914: 11899: 11882: 11736: 11695: 11659: 11629: 11608: 11589: 11571: 11553: 11536: 11509: 11491: 11470: 11451: 11428: 11392: 11369: 11342: 11282: 11250: 11232: 11190: 11170: 11148: 11128: 11107: 11073: 11048: 11023: 11002: 10979: 10947: 10924: 10894: 10882: 10868: 10844: 10823: 10759: 10738: 10720: 10702: 10456: 10306: 9981: 9954: 9930: 9906: 9882: 9539: 9468: 9414: 9371: 8775: 8668: 8611: 8584: 8486: 8240: 8200: 8088: 8054: 8031: 7946: 7857: 7463: 7399: 7301: 7282: 7274: 7207: 6924: 6896: 6868: 6825: 6817: 6751: 6743: 6715: 6695: 6661: 6596: 6423: 6418: 6308: 6166: 5406: 5243: 5076: 4950: 4821: 4426:

of the empire. Ardashir restored the Achaemenid military organizations, retained the

4224:(King of Kings), becoming the central overlords and also assumed guardianship of the 4064: 4036: 4004: 3897:. He was prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the 3646: 3502: 3231: 3223: 3060:

were punished, and Christians were persecuted. The latter was a reaction against the

3038: 2619: 2607: 2579: 2414: 2240: 2177: 2053: 1601: 1501: 1491: 1201: 1191: 1149: 1049: 993: 558: 433: 12131: 12115: 11673: 11088: 10999:

King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE – 651 CE)

10576: 9220: 8131: 7496:

628: A devastating plague kills half of the population in Western Persia, including

7054: 6335:, having a profound impact in orienting Zoroastrianism towards the influence of the 5821:

Two trade routes were used during the Sasanian period: one in the north, the famous

2848: 2771:

embarked on another war with the Romans. After an early success against the Emperor

2052:

in 224, he established the Sasanian Empire and set out to restore the legacy of the

17542: 17329: 17324: 17280: 17267: 17197: 17165: 17160: 17024: 17019: 17001: 16962: 16895: 16878: 16819: 16809: 16804: 16745: 16701: 16671: 16631: 16614: 16597: 16560: 16311: 16175: 16166: 16076: 16066: 16022: 15862: 15850: 15804: 15749: 15566: 15431: 15262: 15231: 15076: 15057: 14766: 14386: 13881: 13834: 13771: 13607: 13602: 13506: 13501: 13496: 13486: 13481: 13471: 13287: 13144: 13129: 13113: 13108: 13103: 13081: 12972: 12504: 12473: 12334: 11361: 11306: 11294:

Howard-Johnston, James: "The Sasanian's Strategic Dilemma". In: Henning Börm &

10694: 10027: 7891: 7607: 7544: 7456: 7437: 7433: 7388: 7381: 7367: 7363: 7351: 7340: 7327: 7323: 7148: 6932: 6864: 6860: 6840:

may also have been deported to Meshan, either as captives or recruited sailors. In

6805: 6747: 6711: 6545: 6453: 6449: 6441: 6233: 6022: 5780: 5608: 4644: 4551:

The cavalry used during the Sassanid Empire were two types of heavy cavalry units:

4408: 4161: 3982: 3945: 3758: 3712: 3693: 3521: 3517: 3309: 3242: 3116: 3112: 3061: 3048:

Shapur II pursued a harsh religious policy. Under his reign, the collection of the

2965: 2957: 2671:(260), but withdrew in disarray after defeats at the hands of the Romans and their 2648: 2504: 2461: 2430: 2208: 2108: 2104: 2029: 2002: 1920: 1631: 1321: 1291: 12192: 11763:

Speck, Paul (1984), "Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance",

11206: 10962: 10524: 9035: 9020: 8984: 7781: 7270:

440: War with the Byzantine Empire; the Romans give some payments to the Sasanians

7255:

424: Council of Dad-Ishu declares the Eastern Church independent of Constantinople

6207:

predecessors, it was probably during the Sassanid era that the two great fires in

5978:

himself, religious minorities at times were suppressed under later kings, such as

5533: 5136: 3737:

decisively defeated a major counter-attack led in person by the Byzantine emperor

2859:. Unrest spread throughout the land, and while the new king suppressed revolts in 2387: 17760: 17728: 17601: 17569: 17552: 17508: 17503: 17481: 17476: 17434: 17427: 17402: 17262: 17257: 17098: 16979: 16873: 16868: 16836: 16661: 16651: 16545: 16533: 16518: 16474: 16356: 16342: 16209: 16146: 16081: 16056: 16041: 15980: 15769: 15621: 15511: 15333: 15032: 14968: 14872: 14720: 14622: 14394: 14370: 14287: 14279: 14255: 14140: 14082: 13891: 13541: 13516: 13511: 13491: 13429: 13424: 13414: 13394: 13364: 13316: 13312: 13282: 12989: 12958: 12953: 12943: 12653: 12458: 12339: 12245: 12187: 12175: 12143: 12102: 12090: 12078: 12056: 12018: 11975: 11956: 11623: 11445: 11336: 11203: 11183:

Frye, R.N. (2005), "The Sassanians", in Iorwerth Eiddon; Stephen Edwards (eds.),

10994: 10973: 10941: 10862: 10813: 10809: 9259: 8578: 8112: 7403: 7193: 7114: 6968: 6948: 6920: 6919:, Greek and Syriac were spoken by Roman/Byzantine prisoners of war. Furthermore, 6900: 6892: 6884: 6845: 6755: 6700: 6557: 6412: 6301: 6204: 6170: 5898: 5879: 5719: 5701: 5600: 5593: 5188: 5180: 5067:

During Khosrau I's reign, many books were brought from India and translated into

4954: 4817: 4626: 4259: 4135: 4088: 3862: 3708: 3544: 3451: 3341: 3227: 2994: 2623: 2457: 2426: 2422: 2368: 2326: 2263: 2147: 2010: 1994: 1511: 1461: 1361: 1331: 1271: 1211: 1099: 1069: 1039: 834: 679: 631: 572: 502: 475: 419: 72: 17182: 11721: 10698: 8251:

Historians have also referred to the Sassanian Empire as the Neo-Persian Empire.

7182:

296–298: War with Rome – Persia cedes five provinces east of the Tigris to Rome.

6433:

The Sasanians developed an accurate, phonetic alphabet to write down the sacred

5902: 5866:

trade and urbanization. The Persians dominated international trade, both in the

5825:, and one less prominent route on the southern Sasanian coast. The factories of 5599:

Artistically, the Sasanian period witnessed some of the highest achievements of

17703: 17698: 17661: 17636: 17619: 17530: 17515: 17486: 17444: 17292: 17252: 17247: 17202: 17128: 17088: 17078: 17068: 16883: 16762: 16656: 16523: 16405: 16051: 15571: 15396: 14884: 14848: 14511: 14429: 14362: 14188: 14008: 13968: 13948: 13854: 13521: 12927: 12499: 12463: 12369: 12354: 12344: 12299: 12282: 11441: 11365: 11272: 10937: 10502: 10089: 9844: 9609: 7690: 7622: 7469: 7234: 7158: 7122: 7069: 7017: 6936: 6759: 6731: 6687: 6653: 6533: 6398: 6332: 6316: 6312: 6212: 6103: 6073: 5999: 5960: 5945: 5937: 5933: 5914: 5858: 5814: 5693: 5637: 5500: 5431: 5265: 5119: 5068: 4966: 4784: 4771: 4747: 4656: 4475: 4386: 4313: 4309: 4268: 4179: 4103: 3898: 3882: 3874: 3866: 3615: 3611: 3329: 3235: 3203: 3096: 2863:

and Kushan, he was unable to control the nobles and was subsequently killed by

2799: 2738: 2711: 2652: 2567: 2449: 2285: 2271: 2167: 2135: 2096: 2091: 2021: 1621: 1301: 1281: 1221: 857: 768: 516: 286: 172: 152: 12197: 11644: 10640: 6039:

decay which had continued under the Parthians and so needed to be 'restored'.

4063:

and some of the Persian nobles fled further inland to the eastern province of

3908: 3672: 2363: 17807: 17784: 17671: 17466: 17439: 17412: 17390: 17368: 17135: 17118: 17103: 16947: 16900: 16888: 16814: 16706: 16580: 16575: 16550: 16432: 16282: 16186: 16171: 16141: 16086: 15966: 15921: 15870: 15840: 14543: 14437: 14402: 14124: 13321: 13169: 13076: 12835: 12831: 12664: 12400: 11863:. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 202–249. 11854: 11775: 11335:

Martindale, John Robert; Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin; Morris, J., eds. (1992).

10706: 8165: 7986: 7861: 7551: 7530: 7510: 7422: 6837: 6488: 6472: 6429: 6223: 6081: 5727: 5488: 5227: 5072: 5024: 4926: 4714: 4679: 4567: 4504: 4431: 4189: 4172: 3958: 3766: 3654: 3638: 3529: 3345: 3158: 3142:(383–388), neither of whom demonstrated their predecessor's skill in ruling. 2718:, to him) and sent many Manichaean missionaries abroad. He also befriended a 2695: 2660: 2532: 2041: 1700: 1689: 1431: 1351: 1311: 758: 718: 447: 269: 17212: 17192: 12552: 7206:

359–363: Second war with Rome. Rome cedes Northern and Eastern Mesopotamia,

6619:. Some of these areas were the earliest to be Christianized; the kingdom of 4371:

province, were allowed a golden throne. In military campaigns, the regional

2915: 2586:

Ardashir I's son Shapur I continued the expansion of the empire, conquering

17676: 17417: 17407: 17373: 17302: 17297: 17224: 17014: 16996: 16957: 16952: 16932: 16927: 16799: 16792: 16782: 16777: 16772: 16666: 16604: 16585: 16570: 16506: 16214: 16199: 16151: 16060: 15605: 15471: 14894: 14843: 14551: 14535: 14519: 14461: 13326: 13139: 13071: 12968: 12329: 12095: 11928:

Le Christianisme dans l'empire Perse, sous la Dynastie Sassanide (224–632).

11731:

Schindel, Nikolaus (2013c). "Sasanian Coinage". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.).

7746: 7646: 7612: 7559: 7264: 7197: 7088: 7037: 6964: 6952: 6774: 6486:. Another important Zoroastrian text from the Sasanian period includes the 6463: 5928:

Seal of a Sassanian nobleman holding a flower, c. 3rd–early 4th century AD.

5886: 5867: 5768: 5760: 5680:. The Sasanians saw themselves as successors of the Achaemenids, after the 5633: 5604: 5504: 5427: 5420: 5395: 5321: 5215: 5172: 5111: 5081: 5029: 5008: 5004: 4922: 4910: 4898: 4652: 4530: 4508: 4464: 4084: 4080: 3989:'s chosen companions-in-arms and leader of the Arab army, moved to capture 3902: 3816: 3689: 3602: 3415: 3340:, was elected as shah by the Iranian magnates, most notably Sukhra and the 3281: 3219: 3215: 3208: 3185: 3177: 3018: 2694:

Shapur had intensive development plans. He ordered the construction of the

2512: 2473: 2380: 2151: 2127: 2112: 2084: 2076: 2025: 1818: 1747: 1710: 1678: 1641: 1611: 1531: 1371: 937: 12755: 12565: 10148:

The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

6227:

respectively—were promoted to rival, and even eclipse, the sacred fire in

5985: 4770:

frequently assaulted the northern provinces of the empire. They plundered

4662:

The last of the many and frequent wars with the Byzantines, the climactic

4563:. In fact, it was their specialty to deploy elephants as cavalry support. 4537: 4491:. Vahriz would eventually defeat the Arab forces in Yemen and its capital 4220:

province. In administering this empire, Sassanid rulers took the title of

3431:, whose rulers switched their allegiance to the Romans; an attempt by the 3253:. After a number of battles he crushed them and drove them out beyond the 2790: 2756:, and most of Armenia, after half a century of Persian rule, was ceded to 2352:. Papak's mother, Rodhagh, was the daughter of the provincial governor of 2150:

ensured the spread of Iranian culture, knowledge and ideas throughout the

17395: 17380: 17229: 16942: 16851: 16841: 16767: 16415: 16410: 16292: 16256: 16007: 15692: 15615: 15446: 13912: 13819: 13745: 13735: 13526: 13458: 13331: 13219: 13033: 12797: 12685: 12635: 12597: 12520: 12468: 12147: 11120: 10908:

Chaumont, M. L.; Schippmann, K. (1988). "Balāš, Sasanian king of kings".

10163:, "Manichaeism in the Early Sasanian Empire", (Brill, 1993), pp. 5–9 8108: 7700: 7584: 7240:

416–420: Persecution of Christians as Yazdegerd revokes his earlier order

7223: 7162: 7025: 6912: 6739: 6691: 6580: 6391: 6297: 6069: 5974:

tolerated and encouraged a variety of religions and seems to have been a

5894: 5851: 5830: 5681: 5676:

The Sasanian dynasty, like the Achaemenid, originated in the province of

5666: 5620: 5616: 5612: 5521: 5435: 5413: 5380: 5300:

was also allowed in some cases to serve as the royal executioner. During

5274: 5203: 5164: 5147:. The city developed into a rich commercial metropolis. It may have been 4906: 4902: 4751: 4722: 4718: 4651:

The Sassanids, like the Parthians, were in constant hostilities with the

4146: 3762: 3583: 3513: 3455: 3267: 3150: 3135: 3042: 3022: 2976: 2949: 2941: 2922: 2784: 2715: 2707: 2687: 2682: 2611: 2485: 2400: 2396: 2187: 2163: 2016:

The Sasanian Empire succeeded the Parthian Empire and re-established the

1876: 1521: 1481: 1241: 1119: 312: 195: 11017: 8910: 8908: 8906: 6848:, while the Persians, Jews and Arabs formed a minority in the province. 6401: 4678:, whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the war. The 3618:, and was not unduly disturbed when one of his sons became a Christian. 3532:, and established another protectorate over the country, commencing the 3084: 2948:. Cultural expansion followed this victory, and Sasanian art penetrated 17422: 17239: 17113: 17073: 17006: 15646: 15037: 14559: 14527: 14453: 14421: 14231: 13928: 13896: 13829: 13277: 13272: 10858: 7903: 7490: 7479:

invades Sasanian Mesopotamia. Decisive defeat of Persian forces at the

7429: 7418: 7414: 7395: 7330:

pays 1,000 pounds of gold to the Sasanian Empire The Sasanians capture

7107: 7000: 6995:

Sasanian culture and military structure had a significant influence on

6821: 6767: 6406: 6348: 6161: 6131: 6093: 6031: 5995: 5949: 5822: 5657: 5256: 5115: 5057: 5046: 4981: 4556: 4552: 4479: 4427: 4419: 4200: 4165: 4076: 4060: 4024: 4008: 3930: 3917: 3808: 3800: 3799:

While successful at its first stage (from 602 to 622), the campaign of

3754: 3746: 3730: 3677: 3642: 3634: 3587: 3556: 3447: 3193: 3139: 3030: 2891: 2856: 2794:

Rome and satellite kingdom of Armenia around 300, after Narseh's defeat

2764: 2757: 2676: 2664: 2392: 2372: 2334: 2281: 2037: 1737: 1651: 1471: 1451: 1421: 1381: 1341: 1173: 1139: 1059: 1013: 658: 530: 254: 114: 13002: 11506:

Sassanian Armies: the Iranian Empire Early 3rd to Mid-7th Centuries AD

11202: 9921: 9919: 9041: 6800:, several languages were spoken; Persian in the north and east, while 6532:

with a knife in his hands. A ram is depicted to the right of Abraham.

5549:

The mythical bird was used as the royal emblem in the Sasanian period.

3134:

After Shapur II died in 379, the empire passed on to his half-brother

2413:(king), he moved his capital further to the south of Pars and founded 17312: 17083: 16967: 16937: 16718: 16592: 16383: 14772:

International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)

14492: 14469: 14263: 14196: 14164: 13844: 13839: 13814: 13582: 13267: 13154: 13091: 12847: 12817: 12180: 12067:

A Review of Sassanid Images and Inscriptions, on Iran Chamber Society

11832: 11338:

The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Volume III: A.D. 527–641

11228:

The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD)

10668:

The Colossal Statue of Shapur I in the Context of Sasanian Sculptures

10220: 9617:. Institute for Research in Humanities Kyoto University. p. 129. 8903: 7732: 7563: 7476: 7444: 7374: 7305: 7278: 7186: 7029: 6880: 6852: 6841: 6735: 6588: 6572: 6478: 6380: 6242: 6238: 6111: 5979: 5975: 5764: 5735: 5731: 5641: 5574: 5566: 5526: 5367:, or grandees. This social system appears to have been fairly rigid. 5223: 5176: 5155:

In contrast to Parthian society, the Sassanids renewed emphasis on a

5144: 5140: 5106: 5098: 4938: 4914: 4867: 4492: 4321: 4217: 4099: 4095: 4072: 3949:

Extent of the Sasanian Empire in 632 with modern borders superimposed

3934: 3926: 3894: 3878: 3804: 3742: 3738: 3626: 3540: 3533: 3525: 3494: 3486: 3369: 3357: 3250: 3143: 3014: 3006: 2980: 2953: 2933: 2926: 2899: 2880: 2844: 2828: 2749: 2615: 2477: 2302:

Bearded facing head, wearing diadem and Parthian-style tiara, legend

2191: 1581: 1551: 1541: 1251: 1089: 947: 202: 136: 11896:

The Roman Eastern frontier and the Persian Wars (AD 226–363). Part 1

11469:(1. Auflage ed.). Gutenberg: Computus Druck Satz & Verlag. 11358:

The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives

11281:, London: Faber and Faber, pp. 9–11, 23, 27, 75, 87, 103, 453, 11103:

The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part I, 226–363 AD)

11100:

Dodgeon, Michael H.; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002),

10682: 10415:

Sasanian Iran, 224–651 AD: portrait of a late antique empire – p. 20

8080: 7895: 7844:

Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006).

6283:

Iconoclasm and the elevation of Persian over other Iranian languages

3274:, who had the support of the nobility, and with the Hephthalites in 16713: 16496: 16454: 16393: 15682: 15022: 14904: 14156: 13998: 13938: 13876: 13871: 13719: 13374: 13297: 13292: 13199: 13184: 13179: 13134: 12841: 12826: 12822: 12806: 12772: 12760: 12748: 12723: 12478: 11694:. London and New York: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–336. 10753: 9916: 8478: 7497: 7486: 7246: 7138: 6876: 6649: 6641: 6633: 6616: 6483: 6374: 6343:

Developments in Zoroastrian literature and liturgy by the Sasanians

6324: 6307:

In the early Sassanid period royal inscriptions often consisted of

6125: 6107: 6085: 5971: 5834: 5723: 5363: 5305: 5292: 5160: 5094: 5052: 5016: 4931: 4876: 4794:

On the eastern side of the Caspian Sea, the Sassanians erected the

4780: 4755: 4737: 4726: 4495:

making it a Sasanian vassal until the invasion of Persia by Arabs.

4349: 4333: 4204: 4196: 4023:, governor". Dated AH 56 = 675/6 AD. Sasanian style bust imitating 3986: 3978: 3961:, acceded to the throne. The same year, the first raiders from the 3886: 3498: 3467: 3435:

in 524/525 to do likewise triggered a war between Rome and Persia.

3313: 3246: 3181: 3173: 3165: 3088: 3057: 2960:

struck deep into Persian territory and defeated Shapur's forces at

2945: 2840: 2836: 2811: 2803: 2780: 2772: 2745: 2734: 2703: 2699: 2668: 2656: 2647:

ended in disaster when the Roman army was defeated and besieged at

2599: 2556: 2544: 2520: 2508: 2489: 2468:

At that time the Arsacid dynasty was divided between supporters of

2452:

of Persian emperor Shapur I (on horseback) capturing Roman emperor

2349: 2201: 2080: 2017: 1401: 1391: 957: 844: 228: 209: 11016:

Daryaee, Touraj (2018). "Introduction". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.).

10675:

Die Kolossal-Statue Šāpūrs I. im Kontext der sasanidischen Plastik

10059: 10057: 8632: 8482:

Galienus conquests:Google Books on Roman Eastern Frontier (part 1)

8160: 8158: 6191: 4647:, according to Shapur's own statement, "with our own hand", in 260 3953:

In early 632, a grandson of Khosrau I, who had lived in hiding in

3846:

by the combined Sassanid, Avar, and Slavic forces depicted on the

3715:, where Smbat is said to have killed their king in single combat. 16626: 16555: 16511: 16366: 16225: 14148: 13978: 13963: 13476: 13204: 13194: 13159: 13149: 12900: 12865: 12859: 12853: 12743: 12711: 12690: 11247:

Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture

7450: 7331: 7297: 7074: 6984: 6979: 6801: 6657: 6645: 6620: 6612: 6608: 6525: 6293: 6228: 6174: 5802: 5767:(late Sasanian or early Islamic in date), and from Ctesiphon and 5752: 5705: 5669:, they were favored for clothing the relics of Christian saints. 5661: 5649: 5645: 5546: 5286: 5196: 5086: 5071:. Some of these later found their way into the literature of the 4942: 4890: 4826: 4776: 4733: 4546: 4468: 4377: 4355: 4279: 4107: 3954: 3937:

in a majestic ceremony. Kavadh died within months, and chaos and

3855: 3828: 3685: 3662: 3579: 3552: 3439: 3400: 3383: 3353: 3286: 3275: 3271: 3197: 3189: 3108: 3100: 3010: 2998: 2911: 2864: 2832: 2807: 2719: 2672: 2640: 2628: 2587: 2524: 2345: 2330: 1591: 1079: 910: 900: 890: 808: 781: 188: 128: 88: 16427: 11877:

Christensen, A (1939), "Sassanid Persia", in Cook, S. A. (ed.),

9460: 8045: 8043: 7436:

and cedes Persian Armenia and the western half of Iberia to the

5846: 5805:

in a beaded surround, 6th–7th century. Used in the reliquary of

3418:, Kavad launched a campaign against the Romans. In 502, he took 2902:, the unborn child of one of Hormizd II's wives who was crowned 16459: 16334: 16031: 15351: 14180: 13988: 13953: 13933: 13922: 13224: 13174: 13096: 12526: 12046: 11127:, vol. 4: The Age of Faith, New York: Simon and Schuster, 10475:

The fire, the star and the cross by Aptin Khanbaghi (2006) p. 6

10235: 10054: 9253: 8838: 8836: 8834: 8155: 7176: 7129: 7059: 7021: 6967:, the Sasanian period is regarded as one of the high points of 6904: 6813: 6809: 6705: 6611:), the southern coast of the Persian Gulf, and the area of the 6445: 6440:

Of great importance for Zoroastrianism was the creation of the

6434: 6386: 6358: 6320: 6289: 6252:

of the Zoroastrian world were given specific associations. The

6199:, one of three main Zoroastrian temples in the Sassanian Empire 6154: 6142: 6061: 6050: 6042: 6012: 6007: 5964: 5956: 5653: 5578: 5309: 5301: 5192: 4842: 4837: 4791:) that to a large extent, have remained intact up to this day. 4788: 4763: 4541:

Sassanian silver plate showing lance combat between two nobles.

4513: 4488: 4460: 4297: 4264: 4184: 4154: 4139: 4118:. In addition, the old Sassanid "land tax" (known in Arabic as 4111: 3847: 3719: 3594: 3506: 3463: 3459: 3428: 3379: 3373: 3361: 3337: 3325: 3290: 3119:) engaged in just two brief wars with the Sasanian Empire, the 3053: 3049: 2989: 2984: 2815: 2768: 2742: 2595: 2540: 2500: 2438: 2236: 2100: 2068: 977: 880: 14037: 10387: 10385: 9841:

International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration

6444:

by the Sassanids, which enabled the accurate rendering of the

5797: 5079:. A notable example of this was the translation of the Indian 4627:

Frequent warfare with the Romans and to a lesser extent others

4525: 3196:). Bahram deposed the vassal king of the Iranian-held area of 2952:, reaching as far as China. Shapur, along with the nomad King 17093: 14889: 13849: 13577: 13214: 13209: 13189: 12706: 11844: 11207:"The reforms of Chosroes Anushirvan ('Of the Immortal soul')" 10140: 9536:

Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics

8040: 7005: 6956: 6916: 6856: 6833: 6637: 6604: 6529: 6368: 6353: 5990:

From the very beginning of Sassanid rule in 224, an orthodox

5875: 5562: 5354: 5211: 5207: 5122:

and, at Borzuya's request, named the first chapter after him.

5041: 4833: 4600:

The amount of money involved in maintaining a warrior of the

4253: 4199:(9th–11th century) a family descended from the Sogdian ruler 4115: 4059:

Upon hearing of the defeat in Nihawānd, Yazdegerd along with

4016: 3966: 3913: 3750: 3723: 3575: 3317: 3301: 3034: 3026: 2776: 2753: 2561: 2548: 2528: 2516: 2357: 2341: 2314: 2267: 2212: 1935: 785: 10800:". In: Carsten Binder, Henning Börm, Andreas Luther (eds.): 10716:

The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425

10424:

The Iranians: Persia, Islam and the soul of a nation – p. 33

10282: 9857: 9855: 9853: 9703: 9701: 9699: 9697: 9695: 8831: 8528:, 25, 2–5 translated by Dodgeon-Greatrex-Lieu (2002), I, 126 7720: 7684: 7672: 7656: 7651: 6020:

to accept Ardashir I as their new King, most notably in the

5423:

is recorded, though without stating the outcome of the case.

4363:

of greatest seniority were permitted a silver throne, while

3184:. In 427, he crushed an invasion in the east by the nomadic 2940:

and took control of large territories in areas now known as

2171: 14669: 14132: 14068: 13164: 12702: 11654:

Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017). "East Iran in Late Antiquity".

10382: 10270: 8957: 8022: 8020: 7801: 7799: 7555: 7203:

337–350: First war with Rome with relatively little success

6960: 6863:

along with other Iranian dialects and languages, while the

6829: 6457: 6328: 6257: 6046: 6017: 5871: 5826: 5743: 5739: 5247: 4639:

showing an equestrian combat of Shapur I and Roman emperor

4317: 4225: 4068: 4032: 3990: 3977:

the newly expansive Arabs, were no longer a threat. Caliph

3962: 3598: 3321: 3254: 3069: 2898:

escaped into Roman territory). The throne was reserved for

2730: 2434: 2409: 2325:

Conflicting accounts shroud the details of the fall of the

2064: 2060: 1974: 1971: 1965: 1956: 1944: 1941: 1926: 798: 16303: 12309: 11186:

The Cambridge Ancient History – XII – The Crisis of Empire

10798:

A Threat or a Blessing? The Sasanians and the Roman Empire

10326: 10324: 10322: 10153: 9363: 8920: 7214:

including fifteen fortresses as well as Nisibis to Persia.

5003:

Foreign dignitary drinking wine, on ceiling of Cave 1, at

3466:

and Dorotheus, but in 531 a Persian army accompanied by a

3304:

his army was trapped by the Huns in the desert. Peroz was

3005:

From around 370, however, towards the end of the reign of

2814:, Turkey) before 1 October 298. He then advanced down the 15647:

Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)

11341:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 11001:. UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. 10189: 10086:"Sassanids Used Commercial Labels: Iranian Archeologists" 9850: 9809: 9797: 9745: 9743: 9730: 9728: 9713: 9692: 7020:

are associated with the Sassanian Empire. The Babylonian

6544:

Christians in the Sasanian Empire belonged mainly to the

6279:

became central places for pilgrimage among Zoroastrians.

6268:

in Parthia with the lowest estate, farmers and herdsmen.

5007:, possibly depicting the Sasanian embassy to Indian king 4832:

In 531, Emperor Justinian suggested that the Axumites of

4175:(9th–10th century) from Mihr Gushnasp, a Sasanian prince. 3259: 2560:

lands from Gorgan to Abarshahr, Marw, and as far east as

2227:. Historians have referred to the Sasanian Empire as the 12038:

The Sassanians by Iraj Bashiri, University of Minnesota.

11691:

Sasanian Persia: Between Rome and the Steppes of Eurasia

11487:

A History of the Jews in Babylonia: The Age of Shapur II

11324:"Class system iii. In the Parthian and Sasanian Periods" 10303:

Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China

9762: 9760: 9758: 9342: 8819: 8017: 7945:, London & New York: Routledge Curzon, p. 120, 7825: 7796: 6891:

was spoken if it was not likely Middle Persian as well.

6248:

It was therefore during the Sassanid era that the three

5015:

Following the conquest of Iran and neighboring regions,

3422:

in Armenia, but lost it soon afterwards. In 503 he took

2231:, since it was the second Iranian empire that rose from 11778:; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (November 2004), 11467:

Das frühe Sasanidenreich und Rom: eine Forschungskritik

10397: 10370: 10358: 10346: 10319: 10211:, Vol. I, (University of Wisconsin Press, 1980), 96–97. 10150:, (Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 879–880. 9082:"Iran Chamber Society: The Sassanid Empire, 224–642 AD" 8893: 8891: 8889: 8887: 8188:

Ruzgaran: tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi

7258:

428: Persian zone of Armenia annexed to Sasanian Empire

7147:

252–261: War with Rome. Decisive victory of Persian at

6804:

was spoken in the rest of the place. Furthermore, late

5986:

Tansar and his justification for Ardashir I's rebellion

4913:

dynasties. Both empires benefited from trade along the

4816:

In 522, before Khosrau's reign, a group of monophysite

4566:

Unlike the Parthians, the Sassanids developed advanced

4418:

The active army of the Sassanid Empire originated from

4389:

traditions and to obliterate Greek cultural influence.

3741:. Thereafter, the Persian advance continued unchecked. 3450:, and, though superior in numbers, was defeated at the 2626:, by which he secured the immediate payment of 500,000 2162:

Officially, the empire was known as the Kingdom of the

11837:

Ruzgaran:Tarikh-i Iran Az Aghz ta Saqut Saltnat Pahlvi

11656:

ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity

11546:

Southern, Pat (2001), "Beyond the Eastern Frontiers",

10975:

From Oxus to Euphrates: The World of Late Antique Iran

9740: 9725: 9442: 9268: 7726: 7192:

325: Shapur II defeats many Arab tribes and makes the

6173:. This change probably took place during the reign of 3901:

and conducted further raids before withdrawing up the

2806:, winning successive victories, most prominently near 2460:(kneeling), suing for peace, following the victory at 2257: 2181: 11389:

The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World

11334: 10179: 10177: 10175: 10173: 10171: 10169: 9826: 9824: 9755: 9464:

Why Europe?: The Medieval Origins of Its Special Path

9438:. New York: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd. pp. 46–47. 9264:"The Near East in Late Antiquity The Sasanian Empire" 9053: 8945: 8872: 8848: 7311:

491: Armenian revolt. Armenian Church repudiates the

7219:

387: Armenia partitioned into Roman and Persian zones

4607: 3249:

in 443 and launched a prolonged campaign against the

3052:, the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, was completed, 2659:, as well as a monumental inscription in Persian and 2480:

as the sole ruler of Persia, Ardashir took the title

1977: 1968: 1962: 1953: 1947: 1938: 1932: 1923: 13801: 12049:

The Near East in Late Antiquity: The Sasanian Empire

11163:"The Political History of Iran under the Sassanians" 9106:

Martindale, Jones & Morris (1992), pp. 1363–1364

8884: 8860: 8751: 7678: 7666: 7574: 7073:, one group of those refugees landed in what is now 6883:

during the Parthian period, much later the place of

6738:

along with one of its dialects, Tati, was spoken in

5537:

Horse head, gilded silver, 4th century, Sasanian art

4736:

tribes occasionally raided the Sassanid empire. The

4367:

of the most strategic border provinces, such as the

2635:

Shapur soon resumed the war, defeated the Romans at

39: 11720:Schindel, Nikolaus (2013b). "Kawād I ii. Coinage". 11169:, vol. 3, Part 1, Cambridge University Press, 11099: 10840:

Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices

10670:. Publisher: Persian Heritage Foundation, New York. 7922: 6673:produced many advantages for the Jewish community. 6632:Some of the recent excavations have discovered the 6422:(Exploits of Zarter) were probably translated from 6300:, in the tradition that was established during the 5557:

A Sasanian silver plate depicting a royal lion hunt

5143:, the facade of the Sasanian palace in the capital 4643:in which the Roman emperor is seized following the 3555:, and he put to death an influential member of the 2925:, a strategically critical area for control of the 2204:says "I am the lord of the Realm of the Iranians". 1959: 1929: 11828:vol. 3 p. 1 Cambridge 1983, pp. 568–592. 11387:. In Campbell, Brian; Tritle, Lawrence A. (eds.). 10907: 10166: 9821: 9777: 9775: 8914: 8328: 7910: 7319:becomes dominant Christian sect in Sasanian Empire 4375:could be regarded as field marshals, while lesser 2918:after they had previously fallen to the Persians. 2783:holdings. Narseh did not advance from Armenia and 2317:, wearing diadem and Parthian-style tiara, legend 11936:Les langues Iraniennes (translated by Joyce Blau) 11302:, Wellem Verlag, Düsseldorf 2010, pp. 37–70. 10300: 10071: 10069: 9646:, (C.H. Beck'sche Verlagbuchhandlung, 1984), 298. 9538:. Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc. p. 170. 8981:"Iranologie History of Iran Chapter V: Sasanians" 8769: 6053:texts, which he himself approved and authorised. 6049:, alongside the establishment of a single set of 5402:Slave-owners had the right to the slaves' income. 4529:A Sassanid king posing as an armored cavalryman, 4245:. The districts of the provinces were ruled by a 3068:. Shapur II, like Shapur I, was amicable towards 17805: 11774: 11709:Schindel, Nikolaus (2013a). "Kawād I i. Reign". 11605:Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity 11570:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 282–299. 11405: 11360:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 290–321. 11061: 10992: 10971: 8772:Faith in History: Armenians Rebuilding Community 8457: 8455: 7940: 7843: 6237:. The Adur Burzen-Mehr, linked (in legend) with 6126:Zoroastrian calendar reforms under the Sasanians 5494: 4937:Following the invasion of Iran by Muslim Arabs, 4614:Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids 4589:The Byzantine emperor Maurikios also emphasizes 3629:illustration of Hormizd IV seated on his throne. 3454:. In the same year, a second Persian army under 2706:, are named after him. He particularly favoured 2196:); the term is first attested in the trilingual 14708:December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum 12164:Iranologie History of Iran Chapter V: Sasanians 12062:Google Books on Roman Eastern Frontier (part 1) 11908: 11414:, vol. 7, Cosa Mesa: Mazda, archived from 11225:Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002), 10943:Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire 9772: 9585: 9583: 9581: 9436:Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire 9131: 8809: 8807: 8660: 8006: 8004: 5394:Sources of slaves were both foreign (e.g., non- 5056:) from India. In exchange, Persians introduced 4035:defeated a larger Persian force led by General 3692:had been raiding the Sassanid Empire as far as 3442:to attack the important Roman frontier city of 3399:Plate of a Sasanian king hunting rams, perhaps 2737:acceded to the throne, he was pressured by the 2610:and regained the lost territories. The emperor 2484:, or "King of Kings" (the inscriptions mention 17919:States and territories established in the 220s 14794:2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests 14693:March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum 12042:The Art of Sassanians, on Iran Chamber Society 12001:Sasanika: the History and Culture of Sasanians 11658:. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–256. 11607:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–538. 11019:Sasanian Iran in the Context of Late Antiquity 10867:. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 10621:. britannica.com. 11 September 2001. p. 2 10452:Cultural Identity in the Ancient Mediterranean 10221:Front Cover Jamsheed Kairshasp Choksy (1997). 10066: 10000: 9905:, 224 pp., Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995, 9790:These four are the three common Indo-European 9683: 9316: 8978: 8560: 8558: 8479:Michael H. Dodgeon; Samuel N. C. Lieu (1991). 7293:483: Edict of Toleration granted to Christians 4283:, the head of traders and merchants syndicate 4091:, which sought to revive Sassanid traditions. 3729:In 613, outside Antioch, the Persian generals 3539:In 565, Justinian I died and was succeeded by 3390: 16319: 14576:Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) 14053: 13787: 13018: 12581: 12557: 12228: 11977:Early Sassanian inscriptions, seals and coins 11973: 11958:Early Sassanian inscriptions, seals and coins 11951: 11603:. In Mass, Michael; Di Cosmo, Nicola (eds.). 11601:"Sasanian Iran and its northeastern frontier" 11464: 11036: 10993:Daryaee, Touraj; Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017). 10972:Daryaee, Touraj; Rezakhani, Khodadad (2016). 9929:, 224 pp., Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995, 9406: 8974: 8972: 8774:. Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 40. 8452: 7846:"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" 7694: 6951:that would become a driving force behind the 6351:have speculated that it is possible that the 4721:. The construction of fortifications such as 4668:siege of the Byzantine capital Constantinople 3776: 3278:. He was killed by his brother Peroz in 459. 3079: 2870: 2667:. He exploited his success by advancing into 2578:, 1521, pen and black ink on a chalk sketch, 2001:of the 7th to 8th centuries. Named after the 1894: 387:3,500,000 km (1,400,000 sq mi) 17776:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 15652:Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO) 12198:Iransaga: Persian arts through the centuries 11642: 11621: 11568:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila 11549:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine 11224: 11144:Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War 10677:. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, Germany. 10288: 9946: 9611:Across the Hindukush of the First Millennium 9578: 9562:. Occawlonline.pearsoned.com. Archived from 9533: 9467:. University of Chicago Press. p. 106. 9410:Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war 9021:"Richard Frye "The History of Ancient Iran"" 8963: 8926: 8804: 8686: 8684: 8661:Rienjang, Wannaporn; Stewart, Peter (2018). 8049:International Congress of Byzantine Studies 8001: 7831: 6583:in accordance with which he refused to call 4430:model, and employed new types of armour and 4067:. Yazdegerd was assassinated by a miller in 3753:by 621. The Sassanid dream of restoring the 3547:of the Suren family, built a fire temple at 2639:(253), and then probably took and plundered 106:The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent, 27:Last pre-Islamic Iranian empire (224–651 AD) 14762:2009 Iranian presidential election protests 13613:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 12595: 11989:(Original from the New York Public Library) 11876: 11781:East-West Orientation of Historical Empires 11391:. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–783. 11062:Daryaee, Touraj; Nicholson, Oliver (2018). 10683:"The restoration of the Cross at Jerusalem" 10501:. Payvand. 7 September 2004. Archived from 10305:. Manchester University Press. p. 67. 10028:Iranian cultural heritage news agency (CHN) 9638: 9636: 9461:Michael Mitterauer; Gerald Chapple (2010). 8583:(Vol.3 ed.). Hermes Pub. p. 257. 8555: 8087:. Oxford University Press. pp. 80–81. 7640: 6556:of the Nestorian and Jacobite Churches was 5412:Slaves were often given to the Zoroastrian 4871:Persian ambassador at the Chinese court of 3861:In response, Khosrau, in coordination with 3718:After Maurice was overthrown and killed by 16326: 16312: 15268:Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament) 15130:Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran 14646:1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election 14060: 14046: 13794: 13780: 13025: 13011: 12632:Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 12588: 12574: 12235: 12221: 12193:Richard Frye "The History of Ancient Iran" 11970:(Original from the Bavarian State Library) 11804: 10923:, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 10236:Ahmad Hasan Dani; B. A. Litvinsky (1994). 9076: 9074: 9072: 9070: 9068: 9066: 8969: 8640:Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society 8624: 8345: 8343: 8268: 7965: 7958: 7128:The collection of texts known as the Zend 6640:and Jewish religious sites in the empire. 5897:. The extraordinary mineral wealth of the 5260:(king of kings), also simply known as the 4114:subjects of the Muslim state and paying a 3757:boundaries was almost complete, while the 3025:, who would follow up with an invasion of 2748:to kill Mani and persecute his followers. 2643:. Roman counter-attacks under the emperor 2367:1840 illustration of a Sasanian relief at 1901: 1887: 100: 14777:Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) 11831: 11730: 11719: 11708: 11653: 11422: 11382: 11355: 11037:Daryaee, Touraj; Canepa, Matthew (2018). 10783:"Herrscher und Eliten in der Spätantike." 10209:History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453 10088:. Payvand. 21 August 2009. Archived from 9977:Khazaria in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries 9897: 9895: 9655: 9487: 9359: 9357: 9300: 9298: 9296: 9294: 9292: 9183:The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects 9143: 9042:Richard Frye. The History of Ancient Iran 8842: 8825: 8813: 8798: 8745: 8681: 8537: 8512: 8433: 8409: 8286: 7881: 7566:, and many others go into exile in China. 7547:; Yazdegerd III becomes a hunted fugitive 7308:the right to profess Christianity freely. 7300:defeated and killed by Hephthalites. The 5577:. When Justinian I closed the schools of 5242:Plate of a Sasanian king, located in the 4882:Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang 4754:, built in 240–270 AD during the time of 4277:, along with the commander-in-chief, the 3138:(379–383; son of Hormizd II) and his son 3041:on the obverse, and with attendants to a 2729:This friendship was advantageous for the 2614:'s (238–244) subsequent advance down the 2348:and appoint himself the new ruler of the 1993:("Land/Empire of the Iranians"), was the 14596:Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020) 11933: 11821:vol. 1. Cambridge 2010, pp. 98–152. 11749: 11723:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XVI, Fasc. 2 11712:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XVI, Fasc. 2 11643:Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2017). "Kārin". 11545: 11315:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 1 10911:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 6 10712: 9633: 9607: 9492:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9392:History of Civilizations of Central Asia 8897: 8633:"Notes on the Evolution of Alchon Coins" 8576: 8549: 8385: 8361: 8201:"Ērān, Ērānšahr – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 8011: 7734:egō... tou Arianōn ethnous despotēs eimi 7598:List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties 7377:, "with the immortal soul" (Anushirvan). 7169:271–301: A period of dynastic struggles. 7087: 7053: 6978: 6942: 6519: 6428: 6347:Some scholars of Zoroastrianism such as 6190: 5923: 5845: 5796: 5784: 5552: 5540: 5532: 5520: 5254:The head of the Sasanian Empire was the 5237: 5135: 5131: 5019:extended his authority northwest of the 4998: 4974: 4953:. The emperor of China at this time was 4866: 4742: 4630: 4536: 4524: 4450: 4402: 3999: 3944: 3907: 3837: 3671: 3620: 3480: 3446:. The army was met by the Roman general 3394: 3280: 3202: 3083: 2970: 2874: 2789: 2681: 2566: 2443: 2386: 2362: 2275: 17600: 15382:Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) 13032: 12169:History of Iran on Iran Chamber Society 11930:Paris: Librairie Victor Lecoffre, 1904. 11894:Michael H. Dodgeon, Samuel N. C. Lieu. 11503: 11483: 11385:"Military and Society in Sasanian Iran" 11271: 11140: 11069:The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity 11044:The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity 11015: 10960: 10936: 10807: 10403: 10391: 10376: 10364: 10352: 10330: 10276: 10225:. Columbia University Press. p. 5. 9973: 9947:Lowe, Roy; Yasuhara, Yoshihito (2016). 9861: 9803: 9749: 9734: 9719: 9707: 9448: 9433: 9348: 9274: 9063: 9015: 9013: 9011: 8951: 8690: 8439: 8340: 8298: 8274: 8256: 8030:p. 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979 7928: 7819:First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936 7805: 7593:List of Sasanian revolts and civil wars 7370:pays tribute 11,000 lbs gold/year. 7097:List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire 6907:, non-Iranian languages and an unknown 6339:region, the homeland of the Sassanids. 4960: 4852: 4048:and the governors were defeated at the 4031:In 637, a Muslim army under the Caliph 610:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 326:Climactic Roman–Sasanian War of 602–628 159: 14: 17806: 14920:History of democracy in classical Iran 11565: 11440: 11328:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. V, Fasc. 6 11305: 11244: 10918: 10881: 10732: 10680: 10600: 10598: 9892: 9766: 9354: 9289: 9114: 9112: 8878: 8854: 8763: 8757: 8630: 8603: 8224: 8107: 8078: 7916: 7432:regains the throne with help from the 6644:were competitors of Zoroastrianism in 6524:Sasanian-era cornelian gem, depicting 6056: 5426:If a non-Zoroastrian slave, such as a 5278:. The king's guards were known as the 4879:in 526–539 CE, with explanatory text. 3356:as the new shah of Iran. According to 3200:and made it a province of the empire. 3013:to invaders from the north: first the 2395:receiving the ring of kingship by the 16307: 15718: 15642:Defense Industries Organization (DIO) 15427:Iran and the World Trade Organization 15331: 15074: 14955: 14080: 14041: 13775: 13006: 12988: 12967: 12957: 12875: 12846: 12778: 12754: 12569: 12556: 12216: 12159:The Sassanian Empire: Further Reading 11842: 11762: 11756:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition 11687: 11598: 11321: 10836: 10793:. Düsseldorf: Wellem, pp. 159ff. 10448: 10195: 10183: 9815: 9364:Kaveh Farrokh; Angus McBride (2005). 9125: 8866: 8132:"Transoxiana 04: Sasanians in Africa" 7515:636: Decisive Sasanian defeat at the 7462:610: Arabs defeat a Sasanian army at 7366:receives Lazica and Persarmenia; the 6999:. The structure and character of the 6955:of the newly established religion of 6911:were spoken. In major cities such as 6781:(notably in Lazica), Middle Persian, 6721: 6681: 6492:(Judgments of the Spirit of Wisdom). 6097:obscure Zoroastrian concept known as 5841: 4694:deprived the Byzantine Empire of its 2714:(who dedicated one of his books, the 2572:The Humiliation of Valerian by Shapur 17844:Ancient history of Georgia (country) 14814:2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 14804:2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 12116:Sasanians in Africa in Transoxiana 4 11628:. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. 11262: 11182: 11160: 10961:Daryaee, Touraj (2009). "Šāpur II". 10857: 10843:. Psychology Press. pp. 1–252. 10751: 10606:Justinian and the later Roman Empire 10495:"Parsi population in India declines" 10433: 10336: 9875:Social Justice in the Ancient World 9502: 9100: 9057: 9008: 8932: 8724: 8564: 8421: 8373: 8349: 8334: 8322: 8310: 8262: 7679: 7667: 7290:482–483: Armenian and Iberian revolt 7277:fought in 451 against the Christian 7011: 6909:Middle Northwestern Iranian language 6889:Middle Southwestern Iranian language 6186: 5791:Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System 5545:A Sasanian silver plate featuring a 4392: 3493:After the reign of Kavad I, his son 3164:Yazdegerd I's successor was his son 3009:, the Sasanians lost the control of 2936:regained the upper hand against the 40: 16047:Chicago Persian antiquities dispute 15688:Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone 15662:National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) 15461:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 15196:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 11733:The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran 11086: 11072:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 11047:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 10804:. Duisburg: Wellem, pp. 615ff. 10595: 9927:Social Justice in the Ancient World 9903:Social Justice in the Ancient World 9109: 9054:Martindale, Jones & Morris 1992 7782:"Ctesiphon – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 7695: 6256:in Pars became associated with the 5149:the most populous city of the world 4934:at the time of the Arab invasions. 3925:overthrown and murdered by his son 3033:(r. 383 to 388), adding the Alchon 2258:Origins and early history (205–310) 24: 14586:Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–) 14029:* indicates short living provinces 12155:programme (available as .ram file) 11869: 11819:The New Cambridge History of Islam 11767:, Rudolf Halbelt, pp. 175–210 11533:Mad, Hakhamanishi, Ashkani, Sasani 11119: 9413:. Osprey Publishing. p. 237. 9367:Sassanian elite cavalry AD 224–642 9118:Haldon (1997), 46; Baynes (1912), 8570: 8218: 6836:. Other Indian groups such as the 6686:During the early Sasanian period, 6664:, and with its own semiautonomous 6627: 5011:(610–642), photograph and drawing. 4608:Relations with neighboring regimes 4437: 4203:, who was in turn a descendant of 25: 17930: 15657:Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) 15278:Supreme National Security Council 15104:Persian Constitutional Revolution 14734:Interim Government of Iran (1981) 14641:Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–) 14631:Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975) 12181:Livius articles on ancient Persia 11994: 11938:(in French), Paris: Klincksieck, 11406:Khaleghi-Motlagh, Djalal (1996), 10978:. H&S Media. pp. 1–126. 10436:History of the later Roman empire 9669:"Borzūya – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 9505:"History of Iran: Sassanian Army" 9370:. Osprey Publishing. p. 23. 9084:. Iranchamber.com. Archived from 8166:"Iransaga: The art of Sassanians" 7850:Journal of World-Systems Research 7533:with heavy casualties during the 5919: 5801:Sasanian silk twill textile of a 5592:were received there, and brought 5315: 5312:), the king would hold a speech. 5089:. This translation, known as the 4672:social conflict within the Empire 4664:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 3783:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 3324:were now under Hephthalite rule. 2979:coin based on the coin design of 2319:"son of the divinity Papak, king" 2056:by expanding Persia's dominions. 16287: 16278: 16277: 15253:Assembly (or Council) of Experts 14017: 13751:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary 13242: 12539: 12538: 12308: 12244: 12111:The continuation of Sassanid Art 10633: 10611: 10569: 10543: 10517: 10487: 10478: 10469: 10442: 10427: 10418: 10409: 10294: 10261: 10252: 10229: 10214: 10201: 10122: 10113: 10104: 10078: 10041: 10032: 10021: 10001:Jona Lendering (31 March 2006). 9994: 9967: 9940: 9867: 9833: 9784: 9661: 9649: 9621: 9601: 9592: 9552: 9527: 9518: 9496: 9481: 9454: 9427: 9400: 8983:. Iranologie.com. Archived from 7751: 7650: 7577: 6470:An important literary text, the 5206:Roman prisoners of war, such as 4805: 4083:. Some of the nobles settled in 2988: 2547:. In the west, assaults against 1919: 1870: 641: 577: 563: 549: 535: 521: 507: 493: 468: 454: 440: 426: 412: 81: 65: 15452:Military equipment manufactured 15018:Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests 14782:United States withdrawal (2018) 14703:Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) 14067: 12396:Military of the Sasanian Empire 11622:Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). 10946:. I.B. Tauris. pp. 1–240. 10659: 10643:. Chinapage.com. 11 August 2000 10051:, vol. I, 3rd ed., pp. 381–383. 9488:Yarshater, Ehsan (1983). "15". 9384: 9325: 9307: 9280: 9247: 9244:Stokvis A.M.H.J., pp. 112, 129. 9238: 9213: 9188: 9176: 9171:Arabs and others in Early Islam 9163: 9154: 9137: 9047: 8999: 8792: 8739: 8736:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 37–51 8730: 8718: 8696: 8654: 8597: 8543: 8531: 8518: 8506: 8472: 8427: 8415: 8403: 8391: 8379: 8367: 8355: 8316: 8304: 8292: 8280: 8193: 8180: 8146: 8124: 8101: 8072: 8063: 7971: 7739: 7713: 7603:Military of the Sasanian Empire 7125:is revived as official religion 7101:Timeline of the Sasanian Empire 6495: 6092:. To some extent Kartir was an 5793:, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 5687:In reviving the glories of the 5085:by one of Khosrau's ministers, 4990: 4925:. Upon the rise of the nomadic 4717:and nomadic tribes such as the 4399:Military of the Sasanian Empire 3405: 3153:(399–421) is often compared to 2885: 2602:, but in 243 the Roman general 2253:Timeline of the Sasanian Empire 17849:Ancient history of Afghanistan 16012:modern / contemporary 15258:Expediency Discernment Council 14581:1908 bombardment of the Majlis 14570:Caucasus (18th–20th centuries) 14094: 13308:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) 13303:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) 12132:Pirooz in China, By Frank Wong 11980:, London: Trübner, p. 137 11961:, London: Trübner, p. 137 11909:Howard-Johnston, J.D. (2006), 11447:Iraq After The Muslim Conquest 11423:Mackenzie, David Neil (2005), 11189:, Cambridge University Press, 11066:. In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). 11041:. In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). 10891:University of California Press 10719:, Cambridge University Press, 10063:Tafazzoli & Khromov, p. 48 8915:Chaumont & Schippmann 1988 7934: 7875: 7837: 7811: 7774: 7472:by Avars, Persians, and Slavs. 5700:had inaugurated the spread of 5571:Karnamak-i Artaxshir-i Papakan 5353:At the center of the Sasanian 4820:led an attack on the dominant 4125: 3844:Siege of Constantinople in 626 2024:alongside its arch-rival, the 13: 1: 17894:Ancient history of Azerbaijan 15226:state-sponsorship allegations 14956: 13690:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 13087:Tigris–Euphrates river system 11879:The Cambridge Ancient History 11826:The Cambridge History of Iran 11765:Varia 1 (Poikila Byzantina 4) 11465:Mosig-Walburg, Karin (2023). 11278:A History of the Arab Peoples 11167:The Cambridge History of Iran 10687:The English Historical Review 10551:"Byzantine–Iranian Relations" 8225:Fattah, Hala Mundhir (2009). 7767: 7443:593: Attempted usurpation of 7151:and Capture of Roman emperor 7083: 6832:, who had been deported from 6548:(Church of the East) and the 5495:Arts, science, and literature 5233: 4732:In south and central Arabia, 4287:and minister of agriculture ( 4211: 3787:Sasanian civil war of 628–632 3726:and captured Antioch in 611. 3697: 3180:, the daughter of the Jewish 3107:From Shapur II's death until 2632:and further annual payments. 2289: 2198:Great Inscription of Shapur I 2032:). The empire ended with the 1018: 982: 862: 849: 826: 813: 790: 773: 723: 710: 697: 684: 671: 107: 17874:Empires and kingdoms of Iran 15683:Asaluyeh industrial corridor 15075: 14984:twin towns and sister cities 14290:Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224) 14167:Mannai (10th–7th century BC) 14143:Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) 11913:, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 11817:. In: Chase Robinson (ed.), 11750:Shahbazi, A. Shapur (2005). 11425:A Concise Pahalvi Dictionary 10997:. In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). 10758:, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 10005:. Livius.org. Archived from 9925:K. D. Irani, Morris Silver, 9901:K. D. Irani, Morris Silver, 9873:K. D. Irani, Morris Silver, 8667:. Archaeopress. p. 23. 8053:p. 29. Ashgate Pub Co, 2006 7943:A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary 7733: 7727: 7721: 7685: 7673: 7657: 7628:Women in the Sasanian Empire 7404:Sasanian-appointed governors 7398:abolish the monarchy of the 7358:: The Sasanian Empire keeps 7032:that became cornerstones of 6974: 6540:. Created 4th–5th century AD 6331:, was then recorded only in 6264:in Media with warriors, and 5759:examples are preserved from 5481: 5466: 5023:. The previously autonomous 4758:, the second Sassanid ruler. 4381:could command a field army. 3873:on the Byzantine capital of 3408: 488–496, 498–531 2767:(who ruled briefly in 293), 2407:Once Ardashir was appointed 2192: 2182: 2172: 7: 17909:Countries in ancient Africa 17854:Ancient history of Pakistan 17829:States in medieval Anatolia 16333: 15962:Water supply and sanitation 15719: 15693:Kish Island Free Trade Zone 15332: 14752:KDPI insurgency (1989–1996) 14127:civilization (3100–2700 BC) 14081: 13756:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary 13638:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations 13633:Indus-Mesopotamia relations 11815:The Late Sasanian Near East 11735:. Oxford University Press. 10737:. New York: Gorgias Press. 10499:Payvand's Iran News .. 9644:The History of Ancient Iran 9390:Vadim Mikhaĭlovich Masson, 7570: 7468:626: Unsuccessful siege of 7413:and other Sasanian nobles, 7062:" a wood engraving, c. 1873 7043: 6793:, Koine Greek, and others. 6676: 6577:patriarch of Constantinople 6512:Christianisation of Armenia 5908: 5405:While slaves were formally 4446: 4241:, overseen directly by the 3791:Fall of the Sasanian Empire 3474:defeated Belisarius at the 3391:Second Golden Era (498–622) 3328:, a member of the Parthian 2993:and "Alchono" (αλχοννο) in 2280:Initial coinage of founder 10: 17935: 15442:Economy of the Middle East 14819:2021–2022 Iranian protests 14809:2019–2020 Iranian protests 14789:2017–2018 Iranian protests 14250:Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17) 13867:Garamig ud Nodardashiragan 13761:Chicago Hittite Dictionary 12127:Islamic Conquest of Persia 11898:. Routledge. London, 1994 11805:Wiesehöfer, Josef (1996), 11366:10.1002/9781444390186.ch13 10820:Cambridge University Press 10681:Baynes, Norman H. (1912), 10301:Samuel N. C. Lieu (1985). 9879:Greenwood Publishing Group 9394:, Vol.II, (UNESCO, 1996), 8770:Susan Paul Pattie (1997). 7411:Rebellion of Bahram Chobin 7273:449–451: Armenian revolt. 7094: 7047: 7016:Important developments in 6851:Due to invasions from the 6766:(also known as Tabari) in 6509: 6499: 5912: 5901:led to a legend among the 5778: 5774: 5730:, and the capital city of 5498: 5470: 5461: 5373: 5126: 4964: 4856: 4809: 4611: 4544: 4520: 4396: 3971:Islamic conquest of Persia 3780: 3777:Decline and fall (622–651) 3372:, and his younger brother 3334:Seven Great Houses of Iran 3080:Intermediate Era (379–498) 3037:and the name "Alchono" in 2871:First Golden Era (309–379) 2867:on a hunting trip in 309. 2304:"The divine Ardaxir, king" 2261: 2250: 2246: 2009:after the Arsacids of the 17769: 17721: 17238: 16642: 16341: 16273: 16239: 16185: 15988: 15979: 15909: 15861: 15793: 15740: 15731: 15727: 15714: 15675: 15667:National Development Fund 15630: 15587:Telecommunications and IT 15581:Anglo-Persian Oil Company 15510: 15407:Foreign direct investment 15352:Bonyad (charitable trust) 15344: 15340: 15327: 15286: 15245: 15087: 15083: 15070: 14964: 14951: 14831: 14698:1979 Khuzestan insurgency 14688:Interim Government (1979) 14667: 14615: 14608: 14504: 14414: 14331: 14322: 14299: 14216: 14109: 14102: 14093: 14089: 14076: 14026: 14015: 13810: 13728: 13682: 13656: 13560: 13457: 13350: 13258: 13251: 13240: 13122: 13049: 13040: 12985: 12964: 12952: 12949: 12942: 12939: 12921: 12911: 12894: 12887: 12885: 12851: 12839: 12830: 12821: 12816: 12788: 12771: 12742: 12727: 12722: 12701: 12696: 12684: 12674: 12662: 12652: 12634: 12631: 12621: 12616: 12611: 12604: 12563: 12558:Links to related articles 12536: 12492: 12451: 12443:Muslim conquest of Persia 12423:Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars 12388: 12317: 12306: 12275: 12257: 11599:Potts, Daniel T. (2018). 11531:, and Bahman Firuzmandi, 11525:, IndyPublish.com, 2005 . 11383:McDonough, Scott (2013). 11125:The Story of Civilization 10919:Daniel, Elton L. (2001), 10699:10.1093/ehr/XXVII.CVI.287 9337:Cambridge History of Iran 8083:. In Onians, John (ed.). 8081:"West Asia 300 BC–AD 600" 7941:MacKenzie, D. N. (2005), 7521:Muslim conquest of Persia 7402:. Direct control through 7394:580: The Sasanians under 7347:for 1,000 pounds of gold. 6879:, which saw an influx of 6855:and their sub-group, the 6579:, for teaching a view of 6516:Armenian Apostolic Church 6026:, which was addressed to 5118:translated the book into 4885:, 11th century Song copy. 4696:territories in the Levant 4013:Mu'awiya I ibn Abi Sufyan 3905:into north-western Iran. 3795:Muslim conquest of Persia 3597:to the area near present 2606:defeated the Persians at 2288:Artaxerxes (Ardaxsir) V. 2067:, and stretched from the 2034:Muslim conquest of Persia 391: 383: 378: 374: 361: 348: 335: 322: 309: 296: 292: 282: 278: 263: 248: 244: 234: 219: 165: 148: 121: 99: 61: 56: 34: 15417:International oil bourse 15182:Ministry of Intelligence 14767:Syrian civil war (2011–) 14591:1921 Persian coup d'état 12613:Northwestern Mesopotamia 12515:Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom 12174:10 November 2006 at the 12089:10 November 2016 at the 12077:10 November 2016 at the 12055:14 December 2006 at the 12017:10 November 2016 at the 11934:Oranskij, I. M. (1977), 11688:Sauer, Eberhard (2017). 11588:, Elmiv Farhangi, 2001. 10733:Bonner, Michael (2020). 10484:A. Khanbaghi (2006) p. 9 10449:Gruen, Erich S. (2011). 9953:. Taylor & Francis. 9434:Daryaee, Touraj (2009). 9258:14 December 2006 at the 9185:. A. S. Tritton, p. 139. 8463:Constantine and Eusebius 8447:Constantine and Eusebius 8186:Abdolhossein Zarinkoob: 7633: 7421:but loses the throne to 6571:. The Council condemned 6569:First Council of Ephesus 6489:Dadestan-e Menog-e Khrad 5388:Matigan-i Hazar Datistan 4971:Hind (Sasanian province) 4768:Western Turkic Khaganate 4138:(642–760) descendant of 4045:Arabs captured Ctesiphon 3965:tribes, newly united by 3833:Western Turkic Khaganate 3749:in 619, and the rest of 3091:is a great favourite in 2938:Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom 2932:In the east around 325, 2810:, and securing Nisibis ( 2696:first dam bridge in Iran 2576:Hans Holbein the Younger 2007:Persian imperial dynasty 17859:History of Central Asia 15941:scientists and scholars 15447:Milad Tower and complex 15237:Women's rights movement 15232:White Revolution (1963) 14900:Peoples of the Caucasus 14242:Armenia (321 BC–AD 428) 14135:dynasties (2700–540 BC) 13861:Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd 12510:Roman–Iranian relations 12101:22 October 2006 at the 11860:Encyclopædia Britannica 11835:, Abdolhossein (1999), 11809:, New York: I.B. Taurus 11508:, Stockport: Montvert, 11504:Nicolle, David (1996), 11484:Neusner, Jacob (1969), 11322:Shaki, Mansour (1992). 11141:Farrokh, Kaveh (2007), 11022:. Brill. pp. 1–3. 10796:Börm, Henning (2016). " 10735:The Last Empire of Iran 10673:G. Reza Garosi (2009), 10666:G. Reza Garosi (2012): 10207:Alexander A. Vasiliev, 10049:History of Architecture 9974:Zhivkov, Boris (2015). 8706:. Penelope.uchicago.edu 8631:Tandon, Pankaj (2013). 8577:Braarvig, Jens (2000). 8467:The Roman Empire at Bay 8228:A Brief History of Iraq 8168:. Artarena.force9.co.uk 8079:Eiland, Murray (2004). 7517:Battle of al-Qādisiyyah 7493:and becomes Shahanshah. 7475:627: Byzantine Emperor 7050:Zoroastrianism in India 6983:A Sasanian fortress in 6963:and the regions of the 6506:Maphrianate of the East 6390:) and was dedicated to 6006:, he sought the aid of 5304:(Iranian new year) and 5169:Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr 4812:Abyssinian–Persian wars 4622:Byzantine-Sassanid Wars 4498: 4071:in late 651. His sons, 3614:should be the official 3501:based upon a survey of 3172:, the Arabic dynast of 3076:under Persian control. 3064:of the Roman Empire by 2157: 693:Shulaveri–Shomu culture 17889:7th century in Armenia 17884:6th century in Armenia 16252:Anti-Iranian sentiment 16247:Science and technology 16072:Intellectual movements 15952:International rankings 15936:Intellectual movements 15422:International rankings 14915:Heads of state of Iran 14721:Nojeh coup plot (1980) 14282:Empire (247 BC–AD 224) 14119:culture (3400–2000 BC) 13593:Babylonian mathematics 12773:Middle Hittite Kingdom 12438:Revolts and civil wars 12142:1 January 2009 at the 11974:Edward Thomas (1868), 11843:Meyer, Eduard (1911). 11586:Kholaseh Tarikhe Honar 10781:Börm, Henning (2010). 10771:Börm, Henning (2008). 10752:Börm, Henning (2007), 10455:. Getty Publications. 10434:Bury, John B. (1923), 9407:Kaveh Farrokh (2007). 9160:Zarinkoob, pp. 305–317 8610:. Brill. p. 159. 8604:Neelis, Jason (2010). 8028:The Jews of Arab Lands 7884:Social Science History 7822:. Brill. 1993. p. 179. 7455:603–628: War with the 7449:595–602: Rebellion of 7387:572–591: War with the 7380:541–562: War with the 7350:526–532: War with the 7322:502–506: War with the 7317:Nestorian Christianity 7252:421–422: War with Rome 7144:241–244: War with Rome 7119:229–232: War with Rome 7113:224: Overthrow of the 7092: 7063: 6992: 6802:Eastern Middle Aramaic 6541: 6536:(Pahlavi) inscription 6437: 6200: 6110:. During the reign of 5929: 5854: 5810: 5794: 5738:province (present-day 5716: 5630: 5586:Academy of Gundishapur 5558: 5550: 5538: 5530: 5529:'s image at the center 5509:Academy of Gundishapur 5473:Academy of Gondishapur 5251: 5152: 5124: 5012: 4996: 4886: 4759: 4688:entire Sasanian Empire 4648: 4583: 4542: 4534: 4456: 4415: 4413:Sasanian defense lines 4188:family descended from 4028: 4011:. Coin of the time of 3950: 3921: 3858: 3681: 3630: 3490: 3462:by Roman forces under 3411: 3293: 3211: 3176:. Bahram's mother was 3104: 3002: 2894: 2795: 2691: 2583: 2465: 2404: 2384: 2322: 2207:More commonly, as the 2124:early Muslim conquests 1999:early Muslim conquests 1989:, officially known as 1232:Masmughans of Damavand 706:Zayandeh River Culture 598:This article contains 545:Masmughans of Damavand 17904:651 disestablishments 17869:History of the Levant 17746:Medieval great powers 15540:Shetab Banking System 15530:Banking and insurance 15492:Tehran Stock Exchange 15412:Intellectual property 14757:PJAK conflict (2004–) 14530:Turcomans (1378–1508) 14522:Turcomans (1374–1468) 14471:Ilkhanate (1256–1335) 14274:Pontus (281 BC–AD 62) 12896:Neo-Babylonian Empire 12729:Old Babylonian Empire 12644:Early Dynastic period 12433:Aksumite–Persian wars 12006:Sasanian rock reliefs 11681:registration required 11646:Encyclopaedia Iranica 11450:. Gorgias Press LLC. 11263:Haug, Robert (2019). 11245:Haldon, John (1997), 11147:, Osprey Publishing, 11093:Encyclopaedia Iranica 10995:"The Sasanian Empire" 10964:Encyclopaedia Iranica 10581:Encyclopaedia Iranica 10555:Encyclopaedia Iranica 10529:Encyclopaedia Iranica 10161:Numen, Vol. 40, No. 1 10038:Parviz Marzban, p. 36 9980:. Brill. p. 78. 9608:Kuwayama, S. (2002). 9534:George Liska (1998). 9225:Encyclopaedia Iranica 9200:Encyclopaedia Iranica 9147:Encyclopaedia Iranica 9056:, pp. 559, 639; 8205:www.iranicaonline.org 8152:Sarfaraz, pp. 329–330 7728:aryānšahr xwadāy ahēm 7663:Inscriptional Pahlavi 7091: 7057: 6982: 6943:Legacy and importance 6754:, which later became 6585:Mary, mother of Jesus 6523: 6432: 6194: 6030:, the vassal king of 5998:had deposed the last 5927: 5849: 5800: 5788: 5711: 5632:Sasanian carvings at 5625: 5584:Under Khosrau I, the 5556: 5544: 5536: 5524: 5517:Sasanian architecture 5241: 5139: 5132:Urbanism and nomadism 5103: 5002: 4978: 4873:Emperor Yuan of Liang 4870: 4746: 4666:, which included the 4634: 4576: 4545:Further information: 4540: 4528: 4454: 4406: 4182:(9th–10th century) a 4021:Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad 4003: 3948: 3911: 3841: 3675: 3624: 3484: 3398: 3284: 3206: 3129:administrative system 3087: 3066:Constantine the Great 2974: 2878: 2793: 2685: 2570: 2447: 2390: 2366: 2279: 2262:Further information: 1110:Indo-Parthian Kingdom 1064:3rd-century BC–132 BC 1030:Kingdom of Cappadocia 986: 6th century BC 968:Neo-Babylonian Empire 149:Common languages 17756:European colonialism 17741:Ancient great powers 15501:Technology start-ups 15402:Environmental issues 15392:Economic Reform Plan 15306:Provincial governors 14996:Environmental issues 14744:Iran Air Flight 655 14485:Jalayirid Sultanate 14357:Caliphate (750–1258) 14199:Kingdom (652–625 BC) 13588:Babylonian astronomy 13067:Mesopotamian Marshes 12623:Southern Mesopotamia 12618:Northern Mesopotamia 12428:Göktürk–Persian wars 12186:14 June 2017 at the 12137:The Sassanian Empire 12030:Encyclopædia Iranica 12008:, Photos from Iran, 11674:10.3366/j.ctt1g04zr8 11412:Encyclopedia Iranica 11064:"Qobad I (MP Kawād)" 10837:Boyce, Mary (1984). 10822:. pp. 747–778. 10092:on 29 September 2007 9132:Howard-Johnston 2006 8979:Khodadad Rezakhani. 8580:Buddhist Manuscripts 8400:, Dorling Kindersley 8134:. Transoxiana.com.ar 7759:Zoroastrian calendar 7618:Sasanian family tree 7313:Council of Chalcedon 6969:Iranian civilization 6779:Kartvelian languages 6416:(Assyrian Tree) and 6106:during the reign of 5749:Persian architecture 5601:Iranian civilization 5590:Nestorian Christians 5430:slave, converted to 4961:Relations with India 4859:Iran-China relations 4853:Relations with China 4796:Great Wall of Gorgan 4572:Ammianus Marcellinus 4484:Ammianus Marcellinus 4455:Sasanian army helmet 4306:Seven Parthian clans 3995:Battle of the Bridge 3476:Battle of Callinicum 3264:Battle of Vartanantz 2983:, adding the Alchon 2594:, Shapur I captured 2448:Rock-face relief at 2050:Battle of Hormozdgan 2036:. It was founded by 2020:as a major power in 300:Battle of Hormozdgan 17839:History of Dagestan 17834:History of Abkhazia 17819:Ancient Mesopotamia 17751:Modern great powers 15901:Freedom of religion 15487:Supreme Audit Court 15366:Automotive industry 15013:Iranian Balochistan 14739:1987 Mecca incident 14636:Iran crisis of 1946 14625:dynasty (1925–1979) 14554:Dynasty (1751–1794) 14495:dynasty (1338–1357) 14487:dynasty (1335–1432) 14479:dynasty (1314–1393) 14464:dynasty (1244–1381) 14448:dynasty (1077–1231) 14432:dynasty (1011–1215) 14349:Caliphate (661–750) 14341:Caliphate (632–661) 14309:Empire (AD 224–651) 14226:Empire (550–330 BC) 14207:Empire (626–539 BC) 14191:Empire (678–549 BC) 14175:Empire (911–609 BC) 13669:Destruction by ISIL 13623:Sumerian literature 13598:Akkadian literature 13034:Ancient Mesopotamia 12877:Neo-Assyrian Empire 12791:Bronze Age Collapse 12724:Old Hittite Kingdom 12698:Old Assyrian period 12676:Third Dynasty of Ur 11813:Wiesehöfer, Josef: 11726:. pp. 141–143. 11715:. pp. 136–141. 11529:Sarfaraz, Ali Akbar 11521:Rawlinson, George, 11330:. pp. 652–658. 11161:Frye, R.N. (1993), 10921:The History of Iran 10914:. pp. 574–580. 10778:90, pp. 423ff. 10505:on 16 February 2007 10394:, pp. 772–773. 10343:Albanian language". 10279:, pp. 116–117. 10198:, pp. 123–125. 10009:on 10 November 2016 9818:, pp. 652–658. 9792:social tripartition 9671:. Iranicaonline.org 9122:; Speck (1984), 178 9088:on 10 November 2006 9060:, pp. 101–102. 8917:, pp. 574–580. 8845:, pp. 136–141. 8567:, pp. 137, 138 8398:World History Atlas 8289:, pp. 194, 198 8233:Infobase Publishing 8026:Norman A. Stillman 7989:on 21 November 2001 7784:. Iranicaonline.org 7722:ērānšahr xwadāy hēm 7172:283: War with Rome. 6949:Persian renaissance 6554:liturgical language 6057:Influence of Kartir 5942:Alexander the Great 5789:The remains of the 5698:Alexander the Great 5021:Indian subcontinent 4986:Peroz II Kushanshah 4738:Kingdom of Al-Hirah 4692:Byzantine–Arab Wars 4232:(Queen of Queens). 4230:Banbishnan banbishn 4033:Umar ibn al-Khattāb 3852:Moldovița Monastery 3703:, Khosrow recalled 3659:Battle of Blarathon 3306:defeated and killed 3099:, mid-16th-century 2663:in the vicinity of 2490:Banbishnan banbishn 2340:Ardashir's father, 2126:, the influence of 2073:Indian subcontinent 1995:last Iranian empire 1766:Contemporary period 1670:Early modern period 1572:Jalayirid Sultanate 1442:Khwarazmian dynasty 871:Neo-Assyrian Empire 749:Kura–Araxes culture 667:Baradostian culture 17899:224 establishments 16032:Persian New Year ( 15437:Main economic laws 15008:Iranian Azerbaijan 14910:Monarchs of Persia 14854:Persianate society 14562:Empire (1789–1925) 14546:Empire (1736–1796) 14538:Empire (1501–1736) 14514:Empire (1370–1507) 14440:Empire (1037–1194) 14405:dynasty (934–1062) 14397:dynasty (931–1090) 14389:dynasty (861–1003) 14258:Empire (312–63 BC) 14159:(c.1595–c.1155 BC) 13705:Mesopotamian myths 12733:Southern Akkadians 12640:Jemdet Nasr period 12413:Roman–Persian Wars 12295:Seven Great Houses 11824:Yarshater, Ehsan: 11752:"Sasanian dynasty" 11442:Morony, Michael G. 10859:Bury, John Bagnell 10785:In: Henning Börm, 10244:. UNESCO. p. 9524:Nicolle, pp. 15–18 9169:Bashear, Suliman, 9005:Zarinkoob, p. 229. 8987:on 6 February 2014 8364:, pp. 235–236 8325:, pp. 466–467 8313:, pp. 465–466 8085:Atlas of World Art 7808:, pp. 99–100. 7680:𐭠𐭩𐭫𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩 7668:𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩 7535:Battle of Nihawānd 7509:632–644: Reign of 7373:531–579: Reign of 7263:438–457: Reign of 7245:420–438: Reign of 7233:formalised at the 7231:Church of the East 7222:399–420: Reign of 7185:309–379: Reign of 7137:241–271: Reign of 7106:224–241: Reign of 7093: 7064: 7034:Jewish scholarship 6997:Roman civilization 6993: 6787:Caucasian Albanian 6722:Regional languages 6682:Official languages 6542: 6528:advancing towards 6502:Church of the East 6438: 6201: 5944:had conquered the 5930: 5855: 5842:Industry and trade 5811: 5795: 5559: 5551: 5539: 5531: 5513:Pahlavi literature 5252: 5153: 5013: 4997: 4901:dynasties, and to 4887: 4760: 4676:Rashidun Caliphate 4649: 4618:Roman-Persian Wars 4543: 4535: 4457: 4416: 4290:wastaryoshan-salar 4050:Battle of Nihawānd 4029: 3951: 3922: 3859: 3705:Smbat IV Bagratuni 3682: 3631: 3503:landed possessions 3491: 3412: 3366:Castle of Oblivion 3294: 3222:. However, at the 3212: 3105: 3093:Persian literature 3003: 2895: 2796: 2692: 2584: 2466: 2405: 2385: 2323: 2293: 205/6–223/4 2229:Neo-Persian Empire 2111:—and helped shape 1785:Interim Government 1775:Iranian Revolution 1562:Muzaffarid dynasty 1266:864 – 14th century 1256:791 – 11th century 1182:Rashidun Caliphate 1004:Kingdom of Armenia 653:Prehistoric period 600:special characters 489:Rashidun Caliphate 462:Kingdom of Armenia 41:𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩 17801: 17800: 17795: 17794: 17717: 17716: 17682:Polish–Lithuanian 16857:Gurjara-Pratihara 16301: 16300: 16269: 16268: 16265: 16264: 16235: 16234: 16142:Opium consumption 15975: 15974: 15811:Ethnic minorities 15785:Iranian languages 15710: 15709: 15706: 15705: 15323: 15322: 15319: 15318: 15202:Political parties 15140:Children's rights 15125:Foreign relations 15119:2009 presidential 15066: 15065: 15028:Iranian Kurdistan 14947: 14946: 14943: 14942: 14827: 14826: 14799:COVID-19 pandemic 14658:Revolution (1979) 14604: 14603: 14424:Empire (977–1186) 14381:dynasty (864–928) 14373:dynasty (821–873) 14365:dynasty (819–999) 14318: 14317: 14234:(c.323 BC–AD 226) 14035: 14034: 13802:Provinces of the 13769: 13768: 13720:Ziggurat (Temple) 13695:Sumerian religion 13453: 13452: 13400:Middle Babylonian 13342:Kish civilization 13238: 13237: 13062:Lower Mesopotamia 13057:Upper Mesopotamia 13000: 12999: 12995: 12994: 12923:Macedonian Empire 12913:Achaemenid Empire 12786:c. 1200–1150 BCE 12769:c. 1400–1200 BCE 12740:c. 1600–1400 BCE 12720:c. 1800–1600 BCE 12682:c. 2000–1800 BCE 12672:c. 2100–2000 BCE 12660:c. 2200–2100 BCE 12650:c. 2350–2200 BCE 12629:c. 3500–2350 BCE 12550: 12549: 12389:Military and wars 12108:Islamic Metalwork 11945:978-2-252-01991-7 11635:978-1-84511-645-3 11577:978-1-107-63388-9 11515:978-1-874101-08-6 11457:978-1-59333-315-7 11408:"Derafš-e Kāvīān" 11348:978-0-521-20160-5 11154:978-1-84603-108-3 11134:978-0-671-21988-8 11087:Daryaee, Touraj. 11079:978-0-19-866277-8 11054:978-0-19-866277-8 11029:978-90-04-46066-9 10930:978-0-313-30731-7 10765:978-3-515-09052-0 10641:"Pirooz in China" 10619:"All about Oscar" 10289:Pourshariati 2008 10267:Zarinkoob, p. 207 10258:Zarinkoob, p. 272 10146:Ehsan Yarshater. 10134:www.metmuseum.org 10003:"Sasanian crowns" 9911:978-0-313-29144-9 9887:978-0-313-29144-9 9864:, pp. 58–59. 9830:Zarinkoob, p. 201 9806:, pp. 43–47. 9722:, pp. 40–41. 9710:, pp. 39–40. 9642:Richard N. Frye, 9598:Farrokh 2007, 237 9589:Frye Ancient Iran 9545:978-0-8476-8680-3 9503:Shahbazi, A. Sh. 9351:, pp. 45–51. 8964:Pourshariati 2008 8927:Pourshariati 2008 8465:, p. 18; Potter, 8246:978-0-8160-5767-2 7979:"A Brief History" 7952:978-0-19-713559-4 7832:Pourshariati 2008 7529:defeat a massive 7481:battle of Nineveh 7400:Kingdom of Iberia 7326:. In the end the 7302:Treaty of Nvarsak 7283:Vardan Mamikonian 7275:Battle of Avarayr 7012:In Jewish history 6885:Sistanian Persian 6716:Achaemenid Empire 6597:Caucasian Albania 6538:ZNH mwdly l'styny 6419:Ayadgar-i Zareran 6187:Three Great Fires 6078:Ka'ba-ye Zartosht 5244:Azerbaijan Museum 5181:Ardashir-Khwarrah 5091:Kalīlag ud Dimnag 5077:Arabic literature 5050:(Middle Persian: 4602:Asawaran (Azatan) 4393:Sasanian military 4164:(1100–1382) from 4054:Asawaran (Azatan) 4039:at the plains of 4037:Rostam Farrokhzad 4005:Umayyad Caliphate 3891:Battle of Nineveh 3688:. Circa 600, the 3633:After Khosrow I, 3470:contingent under 3232:Vardan Mamikonian 3228:Armenian subjects 3224:Battle of Avarayr 2592:Roman Mesopotamia 2580:Kunstmuseum Basel 2415:Ardashir-Khwarrah 2241:Achaemenid Empire 2054:Achaemenid Empire 1911: 1910: 1803: 1802: 1756: 1755: 1719: 1718: 1660: 1659: 1602:Afrasiyab dynasty 1502:Khorshidi dynasty 1492:Pishkinid dynasty 1382:Ghaznavid dynasty 1202:Abbasid Caliphate 1192:Umayyad Caliphate 1158: 1157: 1154:550s–11th century 1050:Kingdom of Pontus 994:Achaemenid Empire 958:Anshanite Kingdom 919: 918: 822:Oxus Civilization 730: 729: 606:rendering support 593: 592: 589: 588: 585: 584: 559:Qarinvand dynasty 481: 480: 434:Kingdom of Iberia 352:Rashidun conquest 274: 259: 212: 205: 198: 191: 184: 177: 157: 141: 133: 92:(imperial emblem) 16:(Redirected from 17926: 17824:Ancient Anatolia 17598: 17597: 17263:Austro-Hungarian 16963:Chagatai Khanate 16328: 16321: 16314: 16305: 16304: 16291: 16281: 16280: 16132:National symbols 15986: 15985: 15801:Iranian citizens 15738: 15737: 15729: 15728: 15716: 15715: 15698:Research centers 15387:Economic history 15342: 15341: 15329: 15328: 15263:Guardian Council 15085: 15084: 15072: 15071: 14953: 14952: 14930:Electric history 14925:Military history 14839:Ancient Persians 14747: 14746:shootdown (1988) 14729: 14716: 14713:Iranian Embassy 14683: 14672: 14670:Islamic Republic 14659: 14651:1953 coup d'état 14626: 14613: 14612: 14571: 14568:Khanates of the 14563: 14555: 14547: 14539: 14531: 14523: 14515: 14496: 14488: 14480: 14472: 14465: 14457: 14449: 14441: 14433: 14425: 14406: 14398: 14390: 14382: 14374: 14366: 14358: 14350: 14342: 14329: 14328: 14310: 14291: 14283: 14275: 14267: 14259: 14251: 14243: 14235: 14227: 14208: 14200: 14192: 14184: 14176: 14168: 14160: 14152: 14144: 14136: 14128: 14120: 14107: 14106: 14091: 14090: 14078: 14077: 14062: 14055: 14048: 14039: 14038: 14030: 14021: 13796: 13789: 13782: 13773: 13772: 13618:Sumerian cuisine 13608:Warfare in Sumer 13603:Economy of Sumer 13256: 13255: 13246: 13130:Fertile Crescent 13114:Sinjar Mountains 13109:Hamrin Mountains 13104:Zagros Mountains 13082:Taurus Mountains 13047: 13046: 13027: 13020: 13013: 13004: 13003: 12973:Byzantine Empire 12848:Middle Babylonia 12814:c. 1150–911 BCE 12607: 12606: 12590: 12583: 12576: 12567: 12566: 12554: 12553: 12542: 12541: 12474:Banu al-Munajjim 12312: 12262:List of monarchs 12249: 12248: 12237: 12230: 12223: 12214: 12213: 12096:Sassanid textile 12025:Sasanian dynasty 11988: 11987: 11985: 11969: 11968: 11966: 11948: 11923: 11891: 11864: 11852: 11839: 11810: 11801: 11800: 11799: 11793: 11787:, archived from 11786: 11768: 11759: 11746: 11727: 11716: 11705: 11684: 11677: 11650: 11639: 11618: 11584:Parviz Marzban, 11581: 11562: 11535:, Marlik, 1996. 11518: 11500: 11480: 11461: 11437: 11419: 11418:on 7 April 2008. 11402: 11379: 11352: 11331: 11318: 11296:Josef Wiesehöfer 11291: 11268: 11259: 11241: 11221: 11219: 11217: 11199: 11179: 11157: 11137: 11116: 11096: 11083: 11058: 11033: 11012: 10989: 10968: 10957: 10933: 10915: 10904: 10878: 10854: 10833: 10810:Yarshater, Ehsan 10787:Josef Wiesehöfer 10768: 10748: 10729: 10709: 10693:(106): 287–299, 10653: 10652: 10650: 10648: 10637: 10631: 10630: 10628: 10626: 10615: 10609: 10602: 10593: 10592: 10590: 10588: 10573: 10567: 10566: 10564: 10562: 10547: 10541: 10540: 10538: 10536: 10521: 10515: 10514: 10512: 10510: 10491: 10485: 10482: 10476: 10473: 10467: 10466: 10446: 10440: 10439: 10431: 10425: 10422: 10416: 10413: 10407: 10401: 10395: 10389: 10380: 10374: 10368: 10362: 10356: 10350: 10344: 10340: 10334: 10328: 10317: 10316: 10298: 10292: 10286: 10280: 10274: 10268: 10265: 10259: 10256: 10250: 10249: 10243: 10233: 10227: 10226: 10218: 10212: 10205: 10199: 10193: 10187: 10181: 10164: 10159:Manfred Hutter. 10157: 10151: 10144: 10138: 10137: 10126: 10120: 10119:Sarfaraz, p. 353 10117: 10111: 10108: 10102: 10101: 10099: 10097: 10082: 10076: 10073: 10064: 10061: 10052: 10045: 10039: 10036: 10030: 10025: 10019: 10018: 10016: 10014: 9998: 9992: 9991: 9971: 9965: 9964: 9944: 9938: 9923: 9914: 9899: 9890: 9871: 9865: 9859: 9848: 9837: 9831: 9828: 9819: 9813: 9807: 9801: 9795: 9788: 9782: 9779: 9770: 9764: 9753: 9747: 9738: 9732: 9723: 9717: 9711: 9705: 9690: 9687: 9681: 9680: 9678: 9676: 9665: 9659: 9653: 9647: 9640: 9631: 9625: 9619: 9618: 9616: 9605: 9599: 9596: 9590: 9587: 9576: 9575: 9573: 9571: 9556: 9550: 9549: 9531: 9525: 9522: 9516: 9515: 9513: 9511: 9500: 9494: 9493: 9485: 9479: 9478: 9458: 9452: 9446: 9440: 9439: 9431: 9425: 9424: 9404: 9398: 9388: 9382: 9381: 9361: 9352: 9346: 9340: 9329: 9323: 9320: 9314: 9311: 9305: 9302: 9287: 9286:Sarfaraz, p. 344 9284: 9278: 9272: 9266: 9251: 9245: 9242: 9236: 9235: 9233: 9231: 9217: 9211: 9210: 9208: 9206: 9192: 9186: 9180: 9174: 9167: 9161: 9158: 9152: 9151: 9141: 9135: 9129: 9123: 9116: 9107: 9104: 9098: 9097: 9095: 9093: 9078: 9061: 9051: 9045: 9039: 9033: 9032: 9030: 9028: 9017: 9006: 9003: 8997: 8996: 8994: 8992: 8976: 8967: 8961: 8955: 8949: 8943: 8936: 8930: 8924: 8918: 8912: 8901: 8895: 8882: 8876: 8870: 8864: 8858: 8852: 8846: 8840: 8829: 8823: 8817: 8811: 8802: 8796: 8790: 8789: 8767: 8761: 8755: 8749: 8743: 8737: 8734: 8728: 8722: 8716: 8715: 8713: 8711: 8700: 8694: 8688: 8679: 8678: 8658: 8652: 8651: 8649: 8647: 8637: 8628: 8622: 8621: 8601: 8595: 8594: 8574: 8568: 8562: 8553: 8547: 8541: 8535: 8529: 8522: 8516: 8510: 8504: 8503: 8501: 8499: 8476: 8470: 8459: 8450: 8443: 8437: 8431: 8425: 8419: 8413: 8407: 8401: 8395: 8389: 8383: 8377: 8371: 8365: 8359: 8353: 8347: 8338: 8332: 8326: 8320: 8314: 8308: 8302: 8296: 8290: 8284: 8278: 8272: 8266: 8260: 8254: 8253: 8222: 8216: 8215: 8213: 8211: 8197: 8191: 8184: 8178: 8177: 8175: 8173: 8162: 8153: 8150: 8144: 8143: 8141: 8139: 8128: 8122: 8121: 8114:The Age of Faith 8105: 8099: 8098: 8076: 8070: 8067: 8061: 8047: 8038: 8024: 8015: 8008: 7999: 7998: 7996: 7994: 7985:. Archived from 7975: 7969: 7962: 7956: 7955: 7938: 7932: 7926: 7920: 7914: 7908: 7907: 7879: 7873: 7872: 7870: 7868: 7841: 7835: 7829: 7823: 7815: 7809: 7803: 7794: 7793: 7791: 7789: 7778: 7761: 7755: 7749: 7743: 7737: 7736: 7730: 7724: 7719:Middle Persian: 7717: 7711: 7698: 7697: 7688: 7682: 7681: 7676: 7670: 7669: 7660: 7654: 7644: 7608:Romans in Persia 7587: 7582: 7581: 7580: 7457:Byzantine Empire 7438:Byzantine Empire 7434:Byzantine Empire 7389:Byzantine Empire 7382:Byzantine Empire 7368:Byzantine Empire 7364:Byzantine Empire 7352:Byzantine Empire 7341:Byzantine Empire 7328:Byzantine Empire 7324:Byzantine Empire 6546:Nestorian Church 6442:Avestan alphabet 6266:Adur Burzen-Mehr 6234:Adur Burzen-Mehr 6036:Letter of Tansar 6023:Letter of Tansar 5781:Sasanian economy 5609:Byzantine Empire 4994: 4992: 4787:, now a part of 4645:Battle of Edessa 4428:Parthian cavalry 4409:Walls of Derbent 4180:Kamkarian family 4162:shahs of Shirwan 4153:, descendant of 3983:Khalid ibn Walid 3871:launched a siege 3759:Byzantine Empire 3713:eastern Khorasan 3702: 3699: 3667:Caucasian Iberia 3520:was defeated at 3485:Plate depicting 3458:was defeated at 3409: 3407: 3243:Byzantine Empire 3149:Bahram IV's son 3121:first in 421–422 3117:Byzantine Empire 3062:Christianization 3045:on the reverse. 3021:and finally the 3001:. Dated 400–440. 2992: 2889: 2887: 2824:Caucasian Iberia 2618:was defeated at 2523:. He also added 2313:Bearded head of 2294: 2291: 2217:Sassanian Empire 2211:was named after 2195: 2185: 2175: 2030:Byzantine Empire 1984: 1983: 1980: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1955: 1950: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1931: 1928: 1925: 1903: 1896: 1889: 1875: 1874: 1873: 1844:Military history 1834:Economic history 1812:Related articles 1795:Islamic Republic 1771: 1770: 1734: 1733: 1675: 1674: 1632:Kar-Kiya dynasty 1552:Chobanid dynasty 1542:Ilkhanate Empire 1322:Sallarid dynasty 1292:Saffarid dynasty 1178: 1177: 1023: 1020: 988:–11th century AD 987: 984: 948:Scythian Kingdom 934: 933: 864: 851: 828: 815: 792: 775: 745: 744: 725: 712: 699: 686: 673: 663: 662: 645: 635: 617: 616: 581: 580: 567: 566: 553: 552: 539: 538: 525: 524: 511: 510: 497: 496: 485: 484: 472: 471: 458: 457: 444: 443: 430: 429: 416: 415: 409: 408: 393: 392: 365:Empire collapses 272: 257: 208: 201: 194: 187: 180: 175: 155: 139: 131: 112: 109: 104: 85: 76:(royal standard) 69: 51: 43: 42: 32: 31: 21: 17934: 17933: 17929: 17928: 17927: 17925: 17924: 17923: 17879:Ancient Armenia 17814:Sasanian Empire 17804: 17803: 17802: 17797: 17796: 17791: 17780:American Empire 17765: 17761:African empires 17713: 17596: 17288:Central African 17234: 17052:Romano-Germanic 16638: 16372:Middle Assyrian 16345: 16337: 16332: 16302: 16297: 16261: 16231: 16210:Rap and hip-hop 16181: 16162:Public holidays 16147:Persian gardens 16136:Imperial Anthem 16127:National Jewels 16082:Iranian studies 15971: 15905: 15857: 15789: 15750:Persian (Farsi) 15723: 15702: 15671: 15633: 15626: 15561:Pharmaceuticals 15506: 15497:Venture capital 15472:Rial (currency) 15457:Nuclear program 15336: 15315: 15282: 15241: 15192:Nuclear program 15157:Judicial system 15079: 15062: 15033:Iranian plateau 14960: 14939: 14823: 14745: 14727: 14714: 14682:History (1979–) 14681: 14673: 14668: 14663: 14657: 14624: 14600: 14569: 14561: 14553: 14545: 14537: 14529: 14521: 14513: 14500: 14494: 14486: 14478: 14470: 14463: 14455: 14447: 14439: 14431: 14423: 14410: 14404: 14396: 14388: 14380: 14372: 14364: 14356: 14348: 14340: 14324: 14314: 14308: 14295: 14289: 14281: 14273: 14265: 14257: 14249: 14241: 14233: 14225: 14212: 14206: 14205:Neo-Babylonian 14198: 14190: 14183:(860 BC–590 BC) 14182: 14174: 14166: 14158: 14151:(c.2300–675 BC) 14150: 14142: 14134: 14126: 14118: 14098: 14085: 14072: 14066: 14036: 14031: 14028: 14022: 14013: 13959:Nodardashiragan 13806: 13804:Sasanian Empire 13800: 13770: 13765: 13724: 13678: 13652: 13561:Culture/society 13556: 13449: 13445:Muslim conquest 13415:Fall of Babylon 13346: 13247: 13234: 13118: 13036: 13031: 13001: 12996: 12990:Sassanid Empire 12959:Parthian Empire 12954:Seleucid Empire 12944:Seleucid Empire 12863: 12857: 12834: 12825: 12654:Akkadian Empire 12600: 12594: 12559: 12551: 12546: 12532: 12488: 12447: 12384: 12313: 12304: 12271: 12253: 12251:Sasanian Empire 12243: 12241: 12208:iranchamber.com 12188:Wayback Machine 12176:Wayback Machine 12144:Wayback Machine 12103:Wayback Machine 12091:Wayback Machine 12079:Wayback Machine 12072:Sassanid crowns 12057:Wayback Machine 12019:Wayback Machine 11997: 11992: 11983: 11981: 11964: 11962: 11946: 11921: 11889: 11872: 11870:Further reading 11867: 11797: 11795: 11791: 11784: 11743: 11702: 11678: 11666: 11636: 11615: 11578: 11560: 11516: 11498: 11477: 11458: 11435: 11399: 11376: 11349: 11289: 11273:Hourani, Albert 11257: 11239: 11215: 11213: 11197: 11177: 11155: 11135: 11114: 11080: 11055: 11030: 11009: 10986: 10954: 10938:Daryaee, Touraj 10931: 10901: 10883:Canepa, Matthew 10875: 10851: 10830: 10766: 10745: 10727: 10662: 10657: 10656: 10646: 10644: 10639: 10638: 10634: 10624: 10622: 10617: 10616: 10612: 10604:John W Barker, 10603: 10596: 10586: 10584: 10575: 10574: 10570: 10560: 10558: 10549: 10548: 10544: 10534: 10532: 10523: 10522: 10518: 10508: 10506: 10493: 10492: 10488: 10483: 10479: 10474: 10470: 10463: 10447: 10443: 10432: 10428: 10423: 10419: 10414: 10410: 10402: 10398: 10390: 10383: 10375: 10371: 10363: 10359: 10351: 10347: 10341: 10337: 10329: 10320: 10313: 10299: 10295: 10287: 10283: 10275: 10271: 10266: 10262: 10257: 10253: 10234: 10230: 10219: 10215: 10206: 10202: 10194: 10190: 10182: 10167: 10158: 10154: 10145: 10141: 10128: 10127: 10123: 10118: 10114: 10109: 10105: 10095: 10093: 10084: 10083: 10079: 10074: 10067: 10062: 10055: 10046: 10042: 10037: 10033: 10026: 10022: 10012: 10010: 9999: 9995: 9988: 9972: 9968: 9961: 9945: 9941: 9924: 9917: 9900: 9893: 9872: 9868: 9860: 9851: 9843:. Boulder, CO: 9838: 9834: 9829: 9822: 9814: 9810: 9802: 9798: 9789: 9785: 9780: 9773: 9765: 9756: 9748: 9741: 9733: 9726: 9718: 9714: 9706: 9693: 9688: 9684: 9674: 9672: 9667: 9666: 9662: 9654: 9650: 9641: 9634: 9626: 9622: 9614: 9606: 9602: 9597: 9593: 9588: 9579: 9569: 9567: 9566:on 15 July 2011 9558: 9557: 9553: 9546: 9532: 9528: 9523: 9519: 9509: 9507: 9501: 9497: 9486: 9482: 9475: 9459: 9455: 9447: 9443: 9432: 9428: 9421: 9405: 9401: 9389: 9385: 9378: 9362: 9355: 9347: 9343: 9330: 9326: 9321: 9317: 9312: 9308: 9303: 9290: 9285: 9281: 9273: 9269: 9262:Guitty Azarpay 9260:Wayback Machine 9252: 9248: 9243: 9239: 9229: 9227: 9219: 9218: 9214: 9204: 9202: 9194: 9193: 9189: 9181: 9177: 9168: 9164: 9159: 9155: 9142: 9138: 9130: 9126: 9117: 9110: 9105: 9101: 9091: 9089: 9080: 9079: 9064: 9052: 9048: 9040: 9036: 9026: 9024: 9019: 9018: 9009: 9004: 9000: 8990: 8988: 8977: 8970: 8962: 8958: 8950: 8946: 8937: 8933: 8925: 8921: 8913: 8904: 8896: 8885: 8877: 8873: 8865: 8861: 8853: 8849: 8841: 8832: 8824: 8820: 8812: 8805: 8797: 8793: 8782: 8768: 8764: 8756: 8752: 8744: 8740: 8735: 8731: 8723: 8719: 8709: 8707: 8702: 8701: 8697: 8689: 8682: 8675: 8659: 8655: 8645: 8643: 8635: 8629: 8625: 8618: 8602: 8598: 8591: 8575: 8571: 8563: 8556: 8548: 8544: 8536: 8532: 8523: 8519: 8511: 8507: 8497: 8495: 8493: 8477: 8473: 8460: 8453: 8444: 8440: 8432: 8428: 8420: 8416: 8408: 8404: 8396: 8392: 8384: 8380: 8372: 8368: 8360: 8356: 8348: 8341: 8333: 8329: 8321: 8317: 8309: 8305: 8297: 8293: 8285: 8281: 8273: 8269: 8261: 8257: 8247: 8223: 8219: 8209: 8207: 8199: 8198: 8194: 8185: 8181: 8171: 8169: 8164: 8163: 8156: 8151: 8147: 8137: 8135: 8130: 8129: 8125: 8117:. p. 150. 8106: 8102: 8095: 8077: 8073: 8069:Hourani, p. 87. 8068: 8064: 8048: 8041: 8025: 8018: 8009: 8002: 7992: 7990: 7983:Culture of Iran 7977: 7976: 7972: 7966:Wiesehöfer 1996 7963: 7959: 7953: 7939: 7935: 7927: 7923: 7915: 7911: 7896:10.2307/1170959 7890:(3/4). p. 122. 7880: 7876: 7866: 7864: 7842: 7838: 7830: 7826: 7816: 7812: 7804: 7797: 7787: 7785: 7780: 7779: 7775: 7770: 7765: 7764: 7756: 7752: 7744: 7740: 7718: 7714: 7645: 7641: 7636: 7583: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7339: 7194:Lakhmid kingdom 7175:293: Revolt of 7115:Parthian Empire 7103: 7095:Main articles: 7086: 7052: 7046: 7014: 6977: 6945: 6935:were spoken in 6915:and Ctesiphon, 6724: 6701:Parthian Empire 6684: 6679: 6630: 6628:Other religions 6550:Jacobite Church 6518: 6508: 6500:Main articles: 6498: 6413:Drakht-i Asurig 6345: 6285: 6189: 6169:period—back to 6128: 6059: 5988: 5922: 5917: 5911: 5899:Pamir Mountains 5844: 5783: 5777: 5702:Hellenistic art 5607:and China, the 5519: 5497: 5484: 5475: 5469: 5464: 5376: 5318: 5236: 5189:Vahman-Ardashir 5134: 5129: 4989: 4973: 4965:Main articles: 4963: 4955:Gaozong of Tang 4951:settle in China 4875:in his capital 4861: 4855: 4814: 4808: 4725:or the city of 4629: 4624: 4610: 4549: 4523: 4501: 4449: 4440: 4438:Role of priests 4401: 4395: 4285:Ho Tokhshan Bod 4274:mowbedan mowbed 4260:wuzurg framadar 4214: 4136:Dabuyid dynasty 4128: 4089:Samanid dynasty 4007:coin imitating 3942:recover fully. 3883:Byzantine fleet 3823:, and securing 3797: 3781:Main articles: 3779: 3709:Persian Armenia 3700: 3545:Chihor-Vishnasp 3524:. Also in 541, 3404: 3393: 3214:Bahram V's son 3082: 3039:Bactrian script 2995:Bactrian script 2884: 2873: 2624:Philip the Arab 2458:Philip the Arab 2456:(standing) and 2391:Rock relief of 2383:and his forces. 2327:Parthian Empire 2307: 2296: 2292: 2274: 2264:Kings of Persis 2260: 2255: 2249: 2243:was the first. 2225:Sassanid Empire 2160: 2148:Islamic culture 2028:(after 395 the 2011:Parthian Empire 1987:Sassanid Empire 1952: 1922: 1918: 1915:Sasanian Empire 1907: 1877:Iran portal 1871: 1869: 1868: 1860: 1859: 1858: 1849:Women's history 1813: 1805: 1804: 1768: 1758: 1757: 1731: 1721: 1720: 1672: 1662: 1661: 1512:Qutlugh-Khanids 1462:Atabegs of Yazd 1362:Rawadid dynasty 1332:Ziyarid dynasty 1272:Tahirid dynasty 1170: 1168:Medieval period 1160: 1159: 1144:6th century–785 1130:Sasanian Empire 1100:Kings of Persis 1070:Parthian Empire 1040:Seleucid Empire 1021: 985: 931: 929:Imperial period 921: 920: 835:Akkadian Empire 782:Lullubi Kingdom 742: 732: 731: 680:Zarzian culture 655: 633: 626: 615: 614: 613: 604:Without proper 578: 573:Tokhara Yabghus 564: 550: 536: 522: 508: 503:Dabuyid dynasty 494: 476:Kings of Persis 469: 455: 441: 427: 420:Parthian Empire 413: 367: 354: 341: 328: 315: 302: 266: 265:• 632–651 251: 250:• 224–241 215: 160:Other languages 158: 144: 117: 110: 95: 94: 93: 91: 86: 78: 77: 75: 73:Derafsh Kaviani 70: 52: 45: 37: 28: 23: 22: 18:Sassanid Empire 15: 12: 11: 5: 17932: 17922: 17921: 17916: 17914:Former empires 17911: 17906: 17901: 17896: 17891: 17886: 17881: 17876: 17871: 17866: 17861: 17856: 17851: 17846: 17841: 17836: 17831: 17826: 17821: 17816: 17799: 17798: 17793: 17792: 17790: 17789: 17788: 17787: 17782: 17773: 17771: 17767: 17766: 17764: 17763: 17758: 17753: 17748: 17743: 17738: 17737: 17736: 17725: 17723: 17719: 17718: 17715: 17714: 17712: 17711: 17706: 17701: 17696: 17691: 17690: 17689: 17679: 17674: 17669: 17664: 17659: 17654: 17649: 17644: 17639: 17634: 17633: 17632: 17627: 17617: 17612: 17606: 17604: 17595: 17594: 17593: 17592: 17587: 17582: 17577: 17572: 17562: 17557: 17556: 17555: 17545: 17540: 17539: 17538: 17533: 17528: 17518: 17513: 17512: 17511: 17506: 17496: 17495: 17494: 17489: 17484: 17479: 17474: 17464: 17463: 17462: 17457: 17447: 17442: 17437: 17432: 17431: 17430: 17425: 17420: 17415: 17410: 17400: 17399: 17398: 17393: 17383: 17378: 17377: 17376: 17371: 17361: 17360: 17359: 17354: 17344: 17343: 17342: 17337: 17327: 17322: 17321: 17320: 17315: 17310: 17305: 17300: 17290: 17285: 17284: 17283: 17278: 17270: 17265: 17260: 17255: 17250: 17244: 17242: 17236: 17235: 17233: 17232: 17227: 17222: 17217: 17216: 17215: 17210: 17205: 17200: 17195: 17190: 17185: 17175: 17170: 17169: 17168: 17163: 17158: 17153: 17148: 17143: 17133: 17132: 17131: 17126: 17121: 17116: 17106: 17101: 17096: 17091: 17086: 17081: 17076: 17071: 17066: 17065: 17064: 17059: 17049: 17048: 17047: 17042: 17037: 17032: 17027: 17022: 17009: 17004: 16999: 16994: 16993: 16992: 16987: 16982: 16972: 16971: 16970: 16965: 16960: 16955: 16945: 16940: 16935: 16930: 16925: 16920: 16919: 16918: 16913: 16908: 16903: 16893: 16892: 16891: 16886: 16881: 16876: 16866: 16865: 16864: 16859: 16854: 16844: 16839: 16834: 16829: 16824: 16823: 16822: 16817: 16812: 16802: 16797: 16796: 16795: 16790: 16785: 16780: 16775: 16770: 16760: 16759: 16758: 16753: 16743: 16742: 16741: 16736: 16731: 16726: 16716: 16711: 16710: 16709: 16699: 16698: 16697: 16692: 16684: 16679: 16674: 16669: 16664: 16659: 16654: 16648: 16646: 16644:Post-classical 16640: 16639: 16637: 16636: 16635: 16634: 16624: 16619: 16618: 16617: 16612: 16602: 16601: 16600: 16590: 16589: 16588: 16583: 16578: 16573: 16568: 16563: 16553: 16548: 16543: 16542: 16541: 16536: 16531: 16526: 16516: 16515: 16514: 16509: 16499: 16494: 16493: 16492: 16487: 16482: 16477: 16472: 16462: 16457: 16452: 16451: 16450: 16445: 16443:Middle Kingdom 16440: 16430: 16425: 16424: 16423: 16418: 16413: 16403: 16402: 16401: 16399:Neo-Babylonian 16396: 16391: 16389:Old Babylonian 16381: 16380: 16379: 16374: 16364: 16359: 16353: 16351: 16339: 16338: 16331: 16330: 16323: 16316: 16308: 16299: 16298: 16296: 16295: 16285: 16274: 16271: 16270: 16267: 16266: 16263: 16262: 16260: 16259: 16254: 16249: 16243: 16241: 16237: 16236: 16233: 16232: 16230: 16229: 16222: 16217: 16212: 16207: 16202: 16197: 16191: 16189: 16183: 16182: 16180: 16179: 16169: 16164: 16159: 16154: 16149: 16144: 16139: 16129: 16124: 16119: 16113: 16099: 16094: 16084: 16079: 16074: 16069: 16064: 16054: 16049: 16044: 16039: 16025: 16020: 16015: 16005: 15999: 15989: 15983: 15977: 15976: 15973: 15972: 15970: 15969: 15964: 15959: 15954: 15949: 15943: 15938: 15933: 15924: 15919: 15913: 15911: 15907: 15906: 15904: 15903: 15898: 15888: 15883: 15873: 15867: 15865: 15859: 15858: 15856: 15855: 15854: 15853: 15848: 15843: 15838: 15833: 15828: 15823: 15818: 15808: 15797: 15795: 15791: 15790: 15788: 15787: 15782: 15777: 15772: 15767: 15762: 15757: 15752: 15746: 15744: 15735: 15725: 15724: 15712: 15711: 15708: 15707: 15704: 15703: 15701: 15700: 15695: 15690: 15685: 15679: 15677: 15673: 15672: 15670: 15669: 15664: 15659: 15654: 15649: 15644: 15638: 15636: 15628: 15627: 15625: 15624: 15619: 15613: 15608: 15603: 15594: 15584: 15574: 15569: 15564: 15554: 15549: 15544: 15543: 15542: 15537: 15527: 15516: 15514: 15508: 15507: 15505: 15504: 15494: 15489: 15484: 15479: 15474: 15469: 15464: 15454: 15449: 15444: 15439: 15434: 15429: 15424: 15419: 15414: 15409: 15404: 15399: 15394: 15389: 15384: 15379: 15374: 15369: 15359: 15354: 15348: 15346: 15338: 15337: 15325: 15324: 15321: 15320: 15317: 15316: 15314: 15313: 15311:Supreme Leader 15308: 15303: 15298: 15292: 15290: 15284: 15283: 15281: 15280: 15275: 15273:Local councils 15270: 15265: 15260: 15255: 15249: 15247: 15243: 15242: 15240: 15239: 15234: 15229: 15219: 15214: 15209: 15204: 15199: 15189: 15184: 15179: 15173: 15168: 15159: 15154: 15153: 15152: 15150:Women's rights 15147: 15142: 15132: 15127: 15122: 15112: 15107: 15097: 15091: 15089: 15081: 15080: 15068: 15067: 15064: 15063: 15061: 15060: 15055: 15050: 15045: 15040: 15035: 15030: 15025: 15020: 15015: 15010: 15005: 15004: 15003: 15001:Climate change 14993: 14988: 14987: 14986: 14981: 14971: 14965: 14962: 14961: 14949: 14948: 14945: 14944: 14941: 14940: 14938: 14937: 14932: 14927: 14922: 14917: 14912: 14907: 14902: 14897: 14892: 14887: 14885:Jiroft culture 14882: 14881: 14880: 14873:Iranic peoples 14870: 14869: 14868: 14867: 14866: 14861: 14849:Persianization 14846: 14841: 14835: 14833: 14829: 14828: 14825: 14824: 14822: 14821: 14816: 14811: 14806: 14801: 14796: 14791: 14786: 14785: 14784: 14774: 14769: 14764: 14759: 14754: 14749: 14741: 14736: 14731: 14723: 14718: 14710: 14705: 14700: 14695: 14690: 14685: 14677: 14675: 14665: 14664: 14662: 14661: 14653: 14648: 14643: 14638: 14633: 14628: 14619: 14617: 14610: 14606: 14605: 14602: 14601: 14599: 14598: 14593: 14588: 14583: 14578: 14573: 14565: 14557: 14549: 14541: 14533: 14525: 14517: 14508: 14506: 14502: 14501: 14499: 14498: 14490: 14482: 14474: 14467: 14459: 14456:(1135/36-1225) 14451: 14443: 14435: 14427: 14418: 14416: 14412: 14411: 14409: 14408: 14400: 14392: 14384: 14376: 14368: 14360: 14352: 14344: 14335: 14333: 14326: 14320: 14319: 14316: 14315: 14313: 14312: 14303: 14301: 14297: 14296: 14294: 14293: 14285: 14277: 14269: 14266:(c.295–220 BC) 14261: 14253: 14245: 14237: 14229: 14220: 14218: 14214: 14213: 14211: 14210: 14202: 14194: 14186: 14178: 14170: 14162: 14154: 14146: 14138: 14130: 14125:Proto-Elamite 14122: 14113: 14111: 14104: 14100: 14099: 14087: 14086: 14074: 14073: 14065: 14064: 14057: 14050: 14042: 14033: 14032: 14027: 14024: 14023: 14016: 14014: 14012: 14011: 14006: 14001: 13996: 13991: 13986: 13981: 13976: 13971: 13969:Padishkhwargar 13966: 13961: 13956: 13951: 13946: 13941: 13936: 13931: 13926: 13920: 13915: 13910: 13905: 13900: 13894: 13889: 13884: 13879: 13874: 13869: 13864: 13858: 13852: 13847: 13842: 13837: 13832: 13827: 13822: 13817: 13811: 13808: 13807: 13799: 13798: 13791: 13784: 13776: 13767: 13766: 13764: 13763: 13758: 13753: 13748: 13743: 13741:Assyriologists 13738: 13732: 13730: 13726: 13725: 13723: 13722: 13717: 13712: 13707: 13702: 13697: 13692: 13686: 13684: 13680: 13679: 13677: 13676: 13671: 13666: 13660: 13658: 13654: 13653: 13651: 13650: 13648:List of rulers 13645: 13640: 13635: 13630: 13625: 13620: 13615: 13610: 13605: 13600: 13595: 13590: 13585: 13580: 13575: 13570: 13564: 13562: 13558: 13557: 13555: 13554: 13549: 13544: 13539: 13537:Proto-Armenian 13534: 13529: 13524: 13522:Middle Persian 13519: 13514: 13509: 13504: 13499: 13494: 13489: 13484: 13479: 13474: 13469: 13463: 13461: 13455: 13454: 13451: 13450: 13448: 13447: 13442: 13437: 13432: 13427: 13422: 13417: 13412: 13410:Neo-Babylonian 13407: 13402: 13397: 13392: 13390:Old Babylonian 13387: 13382: 13377: 13372: 13367: 13362: 13360:Early Dynastic 13356: 13354: 13348: 13347: 13345: 13344: 13339: 13334: 13329: 13324: 13319: 13310: 13305: 13300: 13295: 13290: 13285: 13280: 13275: 13270: 13264: 13262: 13253: 13249: 13248: 13241: 13239: 13236: 13235: 13233: 13232: 13227: 13222: 13217: 13212: 13207: 13202: 13197: 13192: 13187: 13182: 13177: 13172: 13167: 13162: 13157: 13152: 13147: 13142: 13137: 13132: 13126: 13124: 13120: 13119: 13117: 13116: 13111: 13106: 13101: 13100: 13099: 13094: 13084: 13079: 13074: 13069: 13064: 13059: 13053: 13051: 13044: 13038: 13037: 13030: 13029: 13022: 13015: 13007: 12998: 12997: 12993: 12992: 12987: 12983: 12982: 12966: 12965:63 BCE–224 CE 12962: 12961: 12956: 12951: 12947: 12946: 12941: 12937: 12936: 12928:Ancient Greeks 12920: 12916: 12915: 12910: 12906: 12905: 12893: 12889: 12888: 12886: 12884: 12880: 12879: 12874: 12870: 12869: 12850: 12845: 12838: 12829: 12820: 12815: 12811: 12810: 12803: 12787: 12783: 12782: 12780:Middle Assyria 12777: 12775: 12770: 12766: 12765: 12753: 12741: 12737: 12736: 12726: 12721: 12717: 12716: 12700: 12695: 12683: 12679: 12678: 12673: 12669: 12668: 12661: 12657: 12656: 12651: 12647: 12646: 12633: 12630: 12626: 12625: 12620: 12615: 12610: 12605: 12602: 12601: 12593: 12592: 12585: 12578: 12570: 12564: 12561: 12560: 12548: 12547: 12537: 12534: 12533: 12531: 12530: 12517: 12512: 12507: 12502: 12496: 12494: 12490: 12489: 12487: 12486: 12481: 12476: 12471: 12466: 12461: 12455: 12453: 12449: 12448: 12446: 12445: 12440: 12435: 12430: 12425: 12420: 12415: 12410: 12409: 12408: 12403: 12392: 12390: 12386: 12385: 12383: 12382: 12377: 12372: 12367: 12362: 12357: 12352: 12347: 12342: 12337: 12332: 12327: 12321: 12319: 12315: 12314: 12307: 12305: 12303: 12302: 12297: 12292: 12291: 12290: 12283:House of Sasan 12279: 12277: 12273: 12272: 12270: 12269: 12264: 12258: 12255: 12254: 12240: 12239: 12232: 12225: 12217: 12211: 12210: 12205: 12200: 12195: 12190: 12178: 12166: 12161: 12156: 12134: 12129: 12124: 12119: 12113: 12105: 12093: 12084:Sassanid coins 12081: 12069: 12064: 12059: 12044: 12039: 12036:The Sassanians 12033: 12022: 12003: 11996: 11995:External links 11993: 11991: 11990: 11971: 11949: 11944: 11931: 11924: 11919: 11906: 11892: 11887: 11873: 11871: 11868: 11866: 11865: 11855:Chisholm, Hugh 11840: 11829: 11822: 11811: 11807:Ancient Persia 11802: 11794:on 27 May 2008 11776:Turchin, Peter 11772: 11769: 11760: 11747: 11742:978-0199733309 11741: 11728: 11717: 11706: 11701:978-1474401029 11700: 11685: 11665:978-1474400305 11664: 11651: 11640: 11634: 11619: 11614:978-1316146040 11613: 11596: 11582: 11576: 11563: 11558: 11543: 11526: 11519: 11514: 11501: 11496: 11481: 11475: 11462: 11456: 11438: 11433: 11420: 11403: 11398:978-0195304657 11397: 11380: 11375:978-1444390186 11374: 11353: 11347: 11332: 11319: 11303: 11292: 11287: 11269: 11267:. I.B. Tauris. 11260: 11255: 11242: 11237: 11222: 11200: 11195: 11180: 11175: 11158: 11153: 11138: 11133: 11117: 11112: 11097: 11089:"Yazdegerd II" 11084: 11078: 11059: 11053: 11034: 11028: 11013: 11008:978-0692864401 11007: 10990: 10985:978-1780835778 10984: 10969: 10958: 10953:978-0857716668 10952: 10934: 10929: 10916: 10905: 10900:978-0520379206 10899: 10879: 10873: 10855: 10850:978-0415239028 10849: 10834: 10828: 10805: 10794: 10779: 10769: 10764: 10749: 10744:978-1463206161 10743: 10730: 10725: 10710: 10678: 10671: 10663: 10661: 10658: 10655: 10654: 10632: 10610: 10594: 10577:"Yazdegerd II" 10568: 10542: 10516: 10486: 10477: 10468: 10462:978-0892369690 10461: 10441: 10426: 10417: 10408: 10406:, p. 102. 10396: 10381: 10379:, p. 763. 10369: 10367:, p. 755. 10357: 10355:, p. 773. 10345: 10335: 10333:, p. 101. 10318: 10311: 10293: 10291:, p. 321. 10281: 10269: 10260: 10251: 10228: 10213: 10200: 10188: 10165: 10152: 10139: 10121: 10112: 10103: 10077: 10065: 10053: 10040: 10031: 10020: 9993: 9987:978-9004294486 9986: 9966: 9960:978-1317543275 9959: 9939: 9935:978-0313291449 9915: 9891: 9866: 9849: 9845:Westview Press 9832: 9820: 9808: 9796: 9783: 9781:Nicolle, p. 11 9771: 9754: 9739: 9724: 9712: 9691: 9682: 9660: 9656:Zarinkoob 1999 9648: 9632: 9620: 9600: 9591: 9577: 9551: 9544: 9526: 9517: 9495: 9480: 9474:978-0226532387 9473: 9453: 9441: 9426: 9420:978-1846031083 9419: 9399: 9383: 9377:978-1841767130 9376: 9353: 9341: 9333:Ancient Persia 9324: 9322:Nicolle, p. 14 9315: 9313:Nicolle, p. 10 9306: 9288: 9279: 9277:, p. 125. 9267: 9246: 9237: 9212: 9187: 9175: 9162: 9153: 9136: 9124: 9108: 9099: 9062: 9046: 9034: 9007: 8998: 8968: 8966:, p. 114. 8956: 8944: 8931: 8919: 8902: 8883: 8881:, p. 288. 8871: 8869:, p. 295. 8859: 8857:, p. 287. 8847: 8843:Schindel 2013a 8830: 8828:, p. 305. 8826:McDonough 2011 8818: 8814:Zarinkoob 1999 8803: 8799:Zarinkoob 1999 8791: 8780: 8762: 8750: 8746:Zarinkoob 1999 8738: 8729: 8717: 8695: 8680: 8674:978-1784918552 8673: 8653: 8623: 8617:978-9004181595 8616: 8596: 8590:978-8280340061 8589: 8569: 8554: 8542: 8538:Zarinkoob 1999 8530: 8517: 8513:Zarinkoob 1999 8505: 8491: 8471: 8451: 8438: 8434:Zarinkoob 1999 8426: 8414: 8410:Zarinkoob 1999 8402: 8390: 8378: 8366: 8354: 8339: 8327: 8315: 8303: 8291: 8287:Zarinkoob 1999 8279: 8267: 8255: 8245: 8217: 8192: 8179: 8154: 8145: 8123: 8100: 8094:978-0195215830 8093: 8071: 8062: 8039: 8016: 8000: 7970: 7957: 7951: 7933: 7921: 7909: 7874: 7836: 7824: 7810: 7795: 7772: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7763: 7762: 7750: 7738: 7712: 7691:Modern Persian 7638: 7637: 7635: 7632: 7631: 7630: 7625: 7623:Sasanian music 7620: 7615: 7610: 7605: 7600: 7595: 7589: 7588: 7572: 7569: 7568: 7567: 7548: 7537: 7523: 7513: 7507: 7501: 7494: 7483: 7473: 7470:Constantinople 7466: 7460: 7453: 7447: 7441: 7426: 7407: 7392: 7385: 7378: 7371: 7348: 7332:Theodosiopolis 7320: 7309: 7294: 7291: 7288: 7287: 7286: 7281:rebels led by 7271: 7261: 7260: 7259: 7256: 7253: 7243: 7242: 7241: 7238: 7235:synod of Isaac 7226:"the Sinner": 7220: 7217: 7216: 7215: 7204: 7201: 7183: 7180: 7173: 7170: 7167: 7166: 7165: 7155: 7145: 7135: 7134: 7133: 7126: 7123:Zoroastrianism 7120: 7117: 7085: 7082: 7070:Qissa-i Sanjan 7045: 7042: 7018:Jewish history 7013: 7010: 6987:, Russia (the 6976: 6973: 6944: 6941: 6723: 6720: 6714:, like in the 6688:Middle Persian 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6629: 6626: 6534:Middle Persian 6497: 6494: 6399:Middle Persian 6344: 6341: 6333:Middle Persian 6313:Middle Persian 6284: 6281: 6188: 6185: 6151:spring equinox 6127: 6124: 6074:Naqsh-e Rostam 6058: 6055: 5987: 5984: 5946:Persian Empire 5921: 5920:Zoroastrianism 5918: 5915:Zoroastrianism 5913:Main article: 5910: 5907: 5843: 5840: 5815:Nahravan Canal 5779:Main article: 5776: 5773: 5638:Naqsh-e Rustam 5501:Sasanian music 5496: 5493: 5483: 5480: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5448: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5432:Zoroastrianism 5424: 5417: 5410: 5403: 5400: 5375: 5372: 5351: 5350: 5344: 5338: 5332: 5322:social classes 5317: 5316:Class division 5314: 5266:Touraj Daryaee 5235: 5232: 5165:medieval world 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5101:, which says: 5069:Middle Persian 4993: 303–330 4967:Indo-Sasanians 4962: 4959: 4857:Main article: 4854: 4851: 4810:Main article: 4807: 4804: 4785:North Caucasus 4762:In the north, 4748:Falak-ol-Aflak 4657:Constantinople 4628: 4625: 4609: 4606: 4522: 4519: 4500: 4497: 4448: 4445: 4439: 4436: 4411:, part of the 4397:Main article: 4394: 4391: 4314:House of Suren 4310:House of Karen 4269:prime minister 4213: 4210: 4209: 4208: 4193: 4176: 4169: 4158: 4149:(665–1598) of 4143: 4127: 4124: 3985:, once one of 3916:, daughter of 3899:Nahrawan Canal 3875:Constantinople 3778: 3775: 3701: 606/607 3616:state religion 3612:Zoroastrianism 3472:Al-Mundhir III 3452:Battle of Dara 3420:Theodosiopolis 3392: 3389: 3330:House of Karen 3236:Nvarsak Treaty 3081: 3078: 2888: 309–379 2872: 2869: 2686:The spread of 2653:Naqsh-e Rostam 2450:Naqsh-e Rostam 2286:King of Persis 2272:House of Sasan 2259: 2256: 2248: 2245: 2221:Sasanid Empire 2209:ruling dynasty 2193:Arianōn ethnos 2168:Middle Persian 2159: 2156: 2122:Following the 2119:medieval art. 2097:Western Europe 2092:Zoroastrianism 2022:late antiquity 2003:House of Sasan 1909: 1908: 1906: 1905: 1898: 1891: 1883: 1880: 1879: 1862: 1861: 1857: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1829:Heads of state 1826: 1821: 1815: 1814: 1811: 1810: 1807: 1806: 1801: 1800: 1797: 1791: 1790: 1787: 1781: 1780: 1777: 1769: 1764: 1763: 1760: 1759: 1754: 1753: 1750: 1744: 1743: 1740: 1732: 1727: 1726: 1723: 1722: 1717: 1716: 1713: 1707: 1706: 1703: 1697: 1696: 1693: 1685: 1684: 1681: 1673: 1668: 1667: 1664: 1663: 1658: 1657: 1654: 1648: 1647: 1644: 1638: 1637: 1634: 1628: 1627: 1624: 1622:Timurid Empire 1618: 1617: 1614: 1608: 1607: 1604: 1598: 1597: 1594: 1588: 1587: 1584: 1578: 1577: 1574: 1568: 1567: 1564: 1558: 1557: 1554: 1548: 1547: 1544: 1538: 1537: 1534: 1528: 1527: 1524: 1518: 1517: 1514: 1508: 1507: 1504: 1498: 1497: 1494: 1488: 1487: 1484: 1478: 1477: 1474: 1468: 1467: 1464: 1458: 1457: 1454: 1448: 1447: 1444: 1438: 1437: 1434: 1428: 1427: 1424: 1418: 1417: 1414: 1412:Nasrid dynasty 1408: 1407: 1404: 1398: 1397: 1394: 1388: 1387: 1384: 1378: 1377: 1374: 1368: 1367: 1364: 1358: 1357: 1354: 1348: 1347: 1344: 1338: 1337: 1334: 1328: 1327: 1324: 1318: 1317: 1314: 1308: 1307: 1306:pre-879 – 1215 1304: 1302:Ghurid dynasty 1298: 1297: 1294: 1288: 1287: 1284: 1282:Samanid Empire 1278: 1277: 1274: 1268: 1267: 1264: 1262:Alid dynasties 1258: 1257: 1254: 1248: 1247: 1244: 1238: 1237: 1234: 1228: 1227: 1224: 1218: 1217: 1214: 1208: 1207: 1204: 1198: 1197: 1194: 1188: 1187: 1184: 1171: 1166: 1165: 1162: 1161: 1156: 1155: 1152: 1146: 1145: 1142: 1136: 1135: 1132: 1126: 1125: 1122: 1116: 1115: 1112: 1106: 1105: 1102: 1096: 1095: 1092: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1076: 1075: 1072: 1066: 1065: 1062: 1056: 1055: 1052: 1046: 1045: 1042: 1036: 1035: 1032: 1026: 1025: 1016: 1010: 1009: 1006: 1000: 999: 996: 990: 989: 980: 974: 973: 970: 964: 963: 960: 954: 953: 950: 944: 943: 940: 932: 927: 926: 923: 922: 917: 916: 913: 907: 906: 903: 897: 896: 893: 887: 886: 883: 877: 876: 873: 867: 866: 860: 858:Avestan period 854: 853: 847: 841: 840: 837: 831: 830: 824: 818: 817: 811: 805: 804: 801: 795: 794: 788: 778: 777: 771: 769:Jiroft culture 765: 764: 761: 755: 754: 751: 743: 740:Ancient period 738: 737: 734: 733: 728: 727: 726:5th millennium 721: 715: 714: 713:6th millennium 708: 702: 701: 695: 689: 688: 682: 676: 675: 669: 656: 651: 650: 647: 646: 638: 637: 628: 627: 620: 608:, you may see 596: 595: 594: 591: 590: 587: 586: 583: 582: 575: 569: 568: 561: 555: 554: 547: 541: 540: 533: 527: 526: 519: 517:Bavand dynasty 513: 512: 505: 499: 498: 491: 482: 479: 478: 473: 465: 464: 459: 451: 450: 445: 437: 436: 431: 423: 422: 417: 405: 404: 399: 389: 388: 385: 381: 380: 376: 375: 372: 371: 368: 362: 359: 358: 355: 349: 346: 345: 342: 336: 333: 332: 329: 323: 320: 319: 316: 310: 307: 306: 303: 297: 294: 293: 290: 289: 287:Late Antiquity 284: 283:Historical era 280: 279: 276: 275: 267: 264: 261: 260: 252: 249: 246: 245: 242: 241: 238: 232: 231: 223: 217: 216: 214: 213: 206: 199: 192: 185: 178: 173:Zoroastrianism 169: 167: 163: 162: 153:Middle Persian 150: 146: 145: 143: 142: 134: 125: 123: 119: 118: 105: 97: 96: 87: 80: 79: 71: 64: 63: 62: 59: 58: 54: 53: 48:Middle Persian 38: 35: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 17931: 17920: 17917: 17915: 17912: 17910: 17907: 17905: 17902: 17900: 17897: 17895: 17892: 17890: 17887: 17885: 17882: 17880: 17877: 17875: 17872: 17870: 17867: 17865: 17864:Ancient Syria 17862: 17860: 17857: 17855: 17852: 17850: 17847: 17845: 17842: 17840: 17837: 17835: 17832: 17830: 17827: 17825: 17822: 17820: 17817: 17815: 17812: 17811: 17809: 17786: 17785:Soviet empire 17783: 17781: 17778: 17777: 17775: 17774: 17772: 17770:Miscellaneous 17768: 17762: 17759: 17757: 17754: 17752: 17749: 17747: 17744: 17742: 17739: 17735: 17732: 17731: 17730: 17727: 17726: 17724: 17720: 17710: 17707: 17705: 17702: 17700: 17697: 17695: 17692: 17688: 17685: 17684: 17683: 17680: 17678: 17675: 17673: 17670: 17668: 17665: 17663: 17660: 17658: 17655: 17653: 17650: 17648: 17645: 17643: 17640: 17638: 17635: 17631: 17628: 17626: 17623: 17622: 17621: 17618: 17616: 17613: 17611: 17608: 17607: 17605: 17603: 17599: 17591: 17588: 17586: 17583: 17581: 17578: 17576: 17573: 17571: 17568: 17567: 17566: 17563: 17561: 17558: 17554: 17551: 17550: 17549: 17546: 17544: 17541: 17537: 17534: 17532: 17529: 17527: 17524: 17523: 17522: 17519: 17517: 17514: 17510: 17507: 17505: 17502: 17501: 17500: 17497: 17493: 17490: 17488: 17485: 17483: 17480: 17478: 17475: 17473: 17470: 17469: 17468: 17465: 17461: 17458: 17456: 17453: 17452: 17451: 17448: 17446: 17443: 17441: 17438: 17436: 17433: 17429: 17426: 17424: 17421: 17419: 17416: 17414: 17411: 17409: 17406: 17405: 17404: 17401: 17397: 17394: 17392: 17389: 17388: 17387: 17384: 17382: 17379: 17375: 17372: 17370: 17369:German Empire 17367: 17366: 17365: 17362: 17358: 17355: 17353: 17350: 17349: 17348: 17345: 17341: 17338: 17336: 17333: 17332: 17331: 17328: 17326: 17323: 17319: 17316: 17314: 17311: 17309: 17306: 17304: 17301: 17299: 17296: 17295: 17294: 17291: 17289: 17286: 17282: 17279: 17277: 17274: 17273: 17271: 17269: 17266: 17264: 17261: 17259: 17256: 17254: 17251: 17249: 17246: 17245: 17243: 17241: 17237: 17231: 17228: 17226: 17223: 17221: 17218: 17214: 17211: 17209: 17206: 17204: 17201: 17199: 17196: 17194: 17191: 17189: 17186: 17184: 17181: 17180: 17179: 17176: 17174: 17171: 17167: 17164: 17162: 17159: 17157: 17154: 17152: 17149: 17147: 17144: 17142: 17139: 17138: 17137: 17134: 17130: 17127: 17125: 17122: 17120: 17117: 17115: 17112: 17111: 17110: 17109:Turco-Persian 17107: 17105: 17102: 17100: 17097: 17095: 17092: 17090: 17087: 17085: 17082: 17080: 17077: 17075: 17072: 17070: 17067: 17063: 17060: 17058: 17055: 17054: 17053: 17050: 17046: 17043: 17041: 17038: 17036: 17033: 17031: 17028: 17026: 17023: 17021: 17018: 17017: 17016: 17013: 17010: 17008: 17005: 17003: 17000: 16998: 16995: 16991: 16988: 16986: 16983: 16981: 16978: 16977: 16976: 16973: 16969: 16966: 16964: 16961: 16959: 16956: 16954: 16951: 16950: 16949: 16946: 16944: 16941: 16939: 16936: 16934: 16931: 16929: 16926: 16924: 16921: 16917: 16914: 16912: 16909: 16907: 16904: 16902: 16899: 16898: 16897: 16894: 16890: 16887: 16885: 16882: 16880: 16877: 16875: 16872: 16871: 16870: 16867: 16863: 16860: 16858: 16855: 16853: 16850: 16849: 16848: 16845: 16843: 16840: 16838: 16835: 16833: 16830: 16828: 16825: 16821: 16818: 16816: 16813: 16811: 16808: 16807: 16806: 16803: 16801: 16798: 16794: 16791: 16789: 16786: 16784: 16781: 16779: 16776: 16774: 16771: 16769: 16766: 16765: 16764: 16761: 16757: 16754: 16752: 16749: 16748: 16747: 16744: 16740: 16737: 16735: 16732: 16730: 16727: 16725: 16722: 16721: 16720: 16717: 16715: 16712: 16708: 16705: 16704: 16703: 16700: 16696: 16693: 16691: 16688: 16687: 16685: 16683: 16680: 16678: 16675: 16673: 16670: 16668: 16665: 16663: 16660: 16658: 16655: 16653: 16650: 16649: 16647: 16645: 16641: 16633: 16630: 16629: 16628: 16625: 16623: 16620: 16616: 16613: 16611: 16608: 16607: 16606: 16603: 16599: 16596: 16595: 16594: 16591: 16587: 16584: 16582: 16579: 16577: 16574: 16572: 16569: 16567: 16564: 16562: 16559: 16558: 16557: 16554: 16552: 16549: 16547: 16544: 16540: 16537: 16535: 16532: 16530: 16527: 16525: 16522: 16521: 16520: 16517: 16513: 16510: 16508: 16505: 16504: 16503: 16500: 16498: 16495: 16491: 16488: 16486: 16483: 16481: 16478: 16476: 16473: 16471: 16468: 16467: 16466: 16463: 16461: 16458: 16456: 16453: 16449: 16446: 16444: 16441: 16439: 16436: 16435: 16434: 16431: 16429: 16426: 16422: 16419: 16417: 16414: 16412: 16409: 16408: 16407: 16404: 16400: 16397: 16395: 16392: 16390: 16387: 16386: 16385: 16382: 16378: 16375: 16373: 16370: 16369: 16368: 16365: 16363: 16360: 16358: 16355: 16354: 16352: 16349: 16344: 16340: 16336: 16329: 16324: 16322: 16317: 16315: 16310: 16309: 16306: 16294: 16290: 16286: 16284: 16276: 16275: 16272: 16258: 16255: 16253: 16250: 16248: 16245: 16244: 16242: 16238: 16228: 16227: 16223: 16221: 16218: 16216: 16213: 16211: 16208: 16206: 16203: 16201: 16198: 16196: 16193: 16192: 16190: 16188: 16184: 16177: 16173: 16170: 16168: 16165: 16163: 16160: 16158: 16155: 16153: 16150: 16148: 16145: 16143: 16140: 16137: 16133: 16130: 16128: 16125: 16123: 16120: 16117: 16114: 16111: 16107: 16106:news agencies 16103: 16100: 16098: 16095: 16092: 16088: 16085: 16083: 16080: 16078: 16075: 16073: 16070: 16068: 16065: 16062: 16058: 16055: 16053: 16050: 16048: 16045: 16043: 16040: 16037: 16035: 16029: 16026: 16024: 16021: 16019: 16016: 16013: 16009: 16006: 16003: 16000: 15998: 15994: 15991: 15990: 15987: 15984: 15982: 15978: 15968: 15965: 15963: 15960: 15958: 15955: 15953: 15950: 15947: 15944: 15942: 15939: 15937: 15934: 15932: 15928: 15925: 15923: 15920: 15918: 15915: 15914: 15912: 15908: 15902: 15899: 15896: 15892: 15889: 15887: 15884: 15881: 15877: 15874: 15872: 15869: 15868: 15866: 15864: 15860: 15852: 15849: 15847: 15844: 15842: 15839: 15837: 15834: 15832: 15829: 15827: 15824: 15822: 15819: 15817: 15814: 15813: 15812: 15809: 15806: 15802: 15799: 15798: 15796: 15792: 15786: 15783: 15781: 15778: 15776: 15773: 15771: 15768: 15766: 15763: 15761: 15758: 15756: 15753: 15751: 15748: 15747: 15745: 15743: 15739: 15736: 15734: 15730: 15726: 15722: 15717: 15713: 15699: 15696: 15694: 15691: 15689: 15686: 15684: 15681: 15680: 15678: 15674: 15668: 15665: 15663: 15660: 15658: 15655: 15653: 15650: 15648: 15645: 15643: 15640: 15639: 15637: 15635: 15629: 15623: 15620: 15617: 15614: 15612: 15609: 15607: 15604: 15602: 15598: 15595: 15592: 15588: 15585: 15582: 15578: 15575: 15573: 15570: 15568: 15565: 15562: 15558: 15555: 15553: 15550: 15548: 15545: 15541: 15538: 15536: 15533: 15532: 15531: 15528: 15525: 15521: 15518: 15517: 15515: 15513: 15509: 15502: 15498: 15495: 15493: 15490: 15488: 15485: 15483: 15480: 15478: 15475: 15473: 15470: 15468: 15467:Privatization 15465: 15462: 15458: 15455: 15453: 15450: 15448: 15445: 15443: 15440: 15438: 15435: 15433: 15430: 15428: 15425: 15423: 15420: 15418: 15415: 15413: 15410: 15408: 15405: 15403: 15400: 15398: 15395: 15393: 15390: 15388: 15385: 15383: 15380: 15378: 15375: 15373: 15370: 15367: 15363: 15360: 15358: 15355: 15353: 15350: 15349: 15347: 15343: 15339: 15335: 15330: 15326: 15312: 15309: 15307: 15304: 15302: 15299: 15297: 15294: 15293: 15291: 15289: 15285: 15279: 15276: 15274: 15271: 15269: 15266: 15264: 15261: 15259: 15256: 15254: 15251: 15250: 15248: 15244: 15238: 15235: 15233: 15230: 15227: 15223: 15220: 15218: 15215: 15213: 15210: 15208: 15205: 15203: 15200: 15197: 15193: 15190: 15188: 15185: 15183: 15180: 15177: 15174: 15172: 15169: 15167: 15163: 15160: 15158: 15155: 15151: 15148: 15146: 15143: 15141: 15138: 15137: 15136: 15133: 15131: 15128: 15126: 15123: 15120: 15116: 15113: 15111: 15108: 15105: 15101: 15098: 15096: 15093: 15092: 15090: 15086: 15082: 15078: 15073: 15069: 15059: 15056: 15054: 15051: 15049: 15046: 15044: 15041: 15039: 15036: 15034: 15031: 15029: 15026: 15024: 15021: 15019: 15016: 15014: 15011: 15009: 15006: 15002: 14999: 14998: 14997: 14994: 14992: 14989: 14985: 14982: 14980: 14977: 14976: 14975: 14972: 14970: 14967: 14966: 14963: 14959: 14954: 14950: 14936: 14935:Years in Iran 14933: 14931: 14928: 14926: 14923: 14921: 14918: 14916: 14913: 14911: 14908: 14906: 14903: 14901: 14898: 14896: 14893: 14891: 14888: 14886: 14883: 14879: 14876: 14875: 14874: 14871: 14865: 14862: 14860: 14859:Turco-Persian 14857: 14856: 14855: 14852: 14851: 14850: 14847: 14845: 14842: 14840: 14837: 14836: 14834: 14830: 14820: 14817: 14815: 14812: 14810: 14807: 14805: 14802: 14800: 14797: 14795: 14792: 14790: 14787: 14783: 14780: 14779: 14778: 14775: 14773: 14770: 14768: 14765: 14763: 14760: 14758: 14755: 14753: 14750: 14748: 14742: 14740: 14737: 14735: 14732: 14730: 14728:War (1980–88) 14724: 14722: 14719: 14717: 14711: 14709: 14706: 14704: 14701: 14699: 14696: 14694: 14691: 14689: 14686: 14684: 14679: 14678: 14676: 14671: 14666: 14660: 14654: 14652: 14649: 14647: 14644: 14642: 14639: 14637: 14634: 14632: 14629: 14627: 14621: 14620: 14618: 14614: 14611: 14607: 14597: 14594: 14592: 14589: 14587: 14584: 14582: 14579: 14577: 14574: 14572: 14566: 14564: 14558: 14556: 14550: 14548: 14542: 14540: 14534: 14532: 14526: 14524: 14520:Qara Qoyunlu 14518: 14516: 14510: 14509: 14507: 14503: 14497: 14491: 14489: 14483: 14481: 14475: 14473: 14468: 14466: 14460: 14458: 14452: 14450: 14444: 14442: 14436: 14434: 14428: 14426: 14420: 14419: 14417: 14413: 14407: 14401: 14399: 14393: 14391: 14385: 14383: 14377: 14375: 14369: 14367: 14361: 14359: 14353: 14351: 14345: 14343: 14337: 14336: 14334: 14330: 14327: 14321: 14311: 14305: 14304: 14302: 14298: 14292: 14286: 14284: 14278: 14276: 14270: 14268: 14262: 14260: 14254: 14252: 14246: 14244: 14238: 14236: 14230: 14228: 14222: 14221: 14219: 14217:550 BC–AD 224 14215: 14209: 14203: 14201: 14195: 14193: 14187: 14185: 14179: 14177: 14173:Neo-Assyrian 14171: 14169: 14163: 14161: 14155: 14153: 14147: 14145: 14139: 14137: 14131: 14129: 14123: 14121: 14115: 14114: 14112: 14108: 14105: 14101: 14097: 14092: 14088: 14084: 14079: 14075: 14070: 14063: 14058: 14056: 14051: 14049: 14044: 14043: 14040: 14025: 14020: 14010: 14007: 14005: 14002: 14000: 13997: 13995: 13992: 13990: 13987: 13985: 13982: 13980: 13977: 13975: 13972: 13970: 13967: 13965: 13962: 13960: 13957: 13955: 13952: 13950: 13947: 13945: 13942: 13940: 13937: 13935: 13932: 13930: 13927: 13924: 13921: 13919: 13916: 13914: 13911: 13909: 13906: 13904: 13901: 13898: 13895: 13893: 13890: 13888: 13885: 13883: 13880: 13878: 13875: 13873: 13870: 13868: 13865: 13862: 13859: 13856: 13853: 13851: 13848: 13846: 13843: 13841: 13838: 13836: 13833: 13831: 13828: 13826: 13823: 13821: 13818: 13816: 13813: 13812: 13809: 13805: 13797: 13792: 13790: 13785: 13783: 13778: 13777: 13774: 13762: 13759: 13757: 13754: 13752: 13749: 13747: 13744: 13742: 13739: 13737: 13734: 13733: 13731: 13727: 13721: 13718: 13716: 13713: 13711: 13708: 13706: 13703: 13701: 13698: 13696: 13693: 13691: 13688: 13687: 13685: 13681: 13675: 13672: 13670: 13667: 13665: 13662: 13661: 13659: 13655: 13649: 13646: 13644: 13641: 13639: 13636: 13634: 13631: 13629: 13626: 13624: 13621: 13619: 13616: 13614: 13611: 13609: 13606: 13604: 13601: 13599: 13596: 13594: 13591: 13589: 13586: 13584: 13581: 13579: 13576: 13574: 13571: 13569: 13566: 13565: 13563: 13559: 13553: 13550: 13548: 13545: 13543: 13540: 13538: 13535: 13533: 13530: 13528: 13525: 13523: 13520: 13518: 13515: 13513: 13510: 13508: 13505: 13503: 13500: 13498: 13495: 13493: 13490: 13488: 13485: 13483: 13480: 13478: 13475: 13473: 13470: 13468: 13465: 13464: 13462: 13460: 13456: 13446: 13443: 13441: 13438: 13436: 13433: 13431: 13428: 13426: 13423: 13421: 13418: 13416: 13413: 13411: 13408: 13406: 13403: 13401: 13398: 13396: 13393: 13391: 13388: 13386: 13383: 13381: 13378: 13376: 13373: 13371: 13368: 13366: 13363: 13361: 13358: 13357: 13355: 13353: 13349: 13343: 13340: 13338: 13335: 13333: 13330: 13328: 13325: 13323: 13320: 13318: 13314: 13311: 13309: 13306: 13304: 13301: 13299: 13296: 13294: 13291: 13289: 13286: 13284: 13281: 13279: 13276: 13274: 13271: 13269: 13266: 13265: 13263: 13261: 13257: 13254: 13250: 13245: 13231: 13228: 13226: 13223: 13221: 13218: 13216: 13213: 13211: 13208: 13206: 13203: 13201: 13198: 13196: 13193: 13191: 13188: 13186: 13183: 13181: 13178: 13176: 13173: 13171: 13168: 13166: 13163: 13161: 13158: 13156: 13153: 13151: 13148: 13146: 13143: 13141: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13131: 13128: 13127: 13125: 13121: 13115: 13112: 13110: 13107: 13105: 13102: 13098: 13095: 13093: 13090: 13089: 13088: 13085: 13083: 13080: 13078: 13077:Syrian Desert 13075: 13073: 13070: 13068: 13065: 13063: 13060: 13058: 13055: 13054: 13052: 13048: 13045: 13043: 13039: 13035: 13028: 13023: 13021: 13016: 13014: 13009: 13008: 13005: 12991: 12984: 12980: 12979: 12974: 12970: 12963: 12960: 12955: 12948: 12945: 12938: 12934: 12933: 12929: 12924: 12918: 12917: 12914: 12908: 12907: 12903: 12902: 12897: 12891: 12890: 12882: 12881: 12878: 12872: 12871: 12868: 12867: 12862: 12861: 12856: 12855: 12849: 12844: 12843: 12837: 12833: 12828: 12824: 12819: 12813: 12812: 12809: 12808: 12804: 12801: 12799: 12793: 12792: 12785: 12784: 12781: 12776: 12774: 12768: 12767: 12763: 12762: 12757: 12751: 12750: 12745: 12739: 12738: 12734: 12730: 12725: 12719: 12718: 12715: 12713: 12708: 12704: 12699: 12694: 12692: 12687: 12681: 12680: 12677: 12671: 12670: 12667: 12666: 12659: 12658: 12655: 12649: 12648: 12645: 12641: 12637: 12628: 12627: 12624: 12619: 12614: 12609: 12608: 12603: 12599: 12591: 12586: 12584: 12579: 12577: 12572: 12571: 12568: 12562: 12555: 12545: 12535: 12529: 12528: 12523: 12522: 12518: 12516: 12513: 12511: 12508: 12506: 12503: 12501: 12498: 12497: 12495: 12491: 12485: 12482: 12480: 12477: 12475: 12472: 12470: 12467: 12465: 12462: 12460: 12457: 12456: 12454: 12450: 12444: 12441: 12439: 12436: 12434: 12431: 12429: 12426: 12424: 12421: 12419: 12416: 12414: 12411: 12407: 12406:Defense lines 12404: 12402: 12399: 12398: 12397: 12394: 12393: 12391: 12387: 12381: 12378: 12376: 12373: 12371: 12368: 12366: 12363: 12361: 12358: 12356: 12353: 12351: 12348: 12346: 12343: 12341: 12338: 12336: 12333: 12331: 12328: 12326: 12323: 12322: 12320: 12316: 12311: 12301: 12298: 12296: 12293: 12289: 12286: 12285: 12284: 12281: 12280: 12278: 12274: 12268: 12265: 12263: 12260: 12259: 12256: 12252: 12247: 12238: 12233: 12231: 12226: 12224: 12219: 12218: 12215: 12209: 12206: 12204: 12201: 12199: 12196: 12194: 12191: 12189: 12185: 12182: 12179: 12177: 12173: 12170: 12167: 12165: 12162: 12160: 12157: 12154: 12153: 12149: 12145: 12141: 12138: 12135: 12133: 12130: 12128: 12125: 12123: 12120: 12117: 12114: 12112: 12109: 12106: 12104: 12100: 12097: 12094: 12092: 12088: 12085: 12082: 12080: 12076: 12073: 12070: 12068: 12065: 12063: 12060: 12058: 12054: 12051: 12050: 12045: 12043: 12040: 12037: 12034: 12032: 12031: 12027:entry in the 12026: 12023: 12020: 12016: 12013: 12012: 12007: 12004: 12002: 11999: 11998: 11979: 11978: 11972: 11960: 11959: 11954: 11953:Edward Thomas 11950: 11947: 11941: 11937: 11932: 11929: 11925: 11922: 11920:0-860-78992-6 11916: 11912: 11907: 11905: 11904:0-415-10317-7 11901: 11897: 11893: 11890: 11888:0-521-04494-4 11884: 11880: 11875: 11874: 11862: 11861: 11856: 11851: 11849: 11841: 11838: 11834: 11830: 11827: 11823: 11820: 11816: 11812: 11808: 11803: 11790: 11783: 11782: 11777: 11773: 11770: 11766: 11761: 11757: 11753: 11748: 11744: 11738: 11734: 11729: 11725: 11724: 11718: 11714: 11713: 11707: 11703: 11697: 11693: 11692: 11686: 11682: 11675: 11671: 11667: 11661: 11657: 11652: 11648: 11647: 11641: 11637: 11631: 11627: 11626: 11620: 11616: 11610: 11606: 11602: 11597: 11595: 11594:964-445-177-5 11591: 11587: 11583: 11579: 11573: 11569: 11564: 11561: 11559:0-415-23943-5 11555: 11552:, Routledge, 11551: 11550: 11544: 11542: 11541:964-90495-1-7 11538: 11534: 11530: 11527: 11524: 11520: 11517: 11511: 11507: 11502: 11499: 11497:90-04-02146-9 11493: 11489: 11488: 11482: 11478: 11476:9783940598561 11472: 11468: 11463: 11459: 11453: 11449: 11448: 11443: 11439: 11436: 11434:964-426-076-7 11430: 11426: 11421: 11417: 11413: 11409: 11404: 11400: 11394: 11390: 11386: 11381: 11377: 11371: 11367: 11363: 11359: 11354: 11350: 11344: 11340: 11339: 11333: 11329: 11325: 11320: 11317:. p. 32. 11316: 11312: 11308: 11304: 11301: 11297: 11293: 11290: 11288:0-571-22664-7 11284: 11280: 11279: 11274: 11270: 11266: 11261: 11258: 11256:0-521-31917-X 11252: 11249:, Cambridge, 11248: 11243: 11240: 11238:0-415-14687-9 11234: 11231:, Routledge, 11230: 11229: 11223: 11212: 11208: 11205: 11201: 11198: 11196:0-521-30199-8 11192: 11188: 11187: 11181: 11178: 11176:0-521-20092-X 11172: 11168: 11164: 11159: 11156: 11150: 11146: 11145: 11139: 11136: 11130: 11126: 11122: 11118: 11115: 11113:0-415-00342-3 11109: 11106:, Routledge, 11105: 11104: 11098: 11094: 11090: 11085: 11081: 11075: 11071: 11070: 11065: 11060: 11056: 11050: 11046: 11045: 11040: 11035: 11031: 11025: 11021: 11020: 11014: 11010: 11004: 11000: 10996: 10991: 10987: 10981: 10977: 10976: 10970: 10966: 10965: 10959: 10955: 10949: 10945: 10944: 10939: 10935: 10932: 10926: 10922: 10917: 10913: 10912: 10906: 10902: 10896: 10892: 10888: 10884: 10880: 10876: 10874:0-486-20399-9 10870: 10866: 10865: 10860: 10856: 10852: 10846: 10842: 10841: 10835: 10831: 10829:0-521-24693-8 10825: 10821: 10818:. Cambridge: 10817: 10816: 10811: 10806: 10803: 10799: 10795: 10792: 10788: 10784: 10780: 10777: 10774: 10770: 10767: 10761: 10757: 10756: 10750: 10746: 10740: 10736: 10731: 10728: 10726:0-521-30200-5 10722: 10718: 10717: 10711: 10708: 10704: 10700: 10696: 10692: 10688: 10684: 10679: 10676: 10672: 10669: 10665: 10664: 10642: 10636: 10620: 10614: 10607: 10601: 10599: 10582: 10578: 10572: 10556: 10552: 10546: 10530: 10526: 10520: 10504: 10500: 10496: 10490: 10481: 10472: 10464: 10458: 10454: 10453: 10445: 10437: 10430: 10421: 10412: 10405: 10400: 10393: 10388: 10386: 10378: 10373: 10366: 10361: 10354: 10349: 10339: 10332: 10327: 10325: 10323: 10314: 10312:9780719010880 10308: 10304: 10297: 10290: 10285: 10278: 10273: 10264: 10255: 10247: 10242: 10241: 10232: 10224: 10217: 10210: 10204: 10197: 10192: 10185: 10180: 10178: 10176: 10174: 10172: 10170: 10162: 10156: 10149: 10143: 10135: 10131: 10125: 10116: 10107: 10091: 10087: 10081: 10075:Nicolle, p. 6 10072: 10070: 10060: 10058: 10050: 10044: 10035: 10029: 10024: 10008: 10004: 9997: 9989: 9983: 9979: 9978: 9970: 9962: 9956: 9952: 9951: 9943: 9936: 9932: 9928: 9922: 9920: 9912: 9908: 9904: 9898: 9896: 9888: 9884: 9880: 9876: 9870: 9863: 9858: 9856: 9854: 9846: 9842: 9836: 9827: 9825: 9817: 9812: 9805: 9800: 9793: 9787: 9778: 9776: 9769:, p. 92. 9768: 9763: 9761: 9759: 9752:, p. 42. 9751: 9746: 9744: 9737:, p. 41. 9736: 9731: 9729: 9721: 9716: 9709: 9704: 9702: 9700: 9698: 9696: 9689:Daniel, p. 57 9686: 9670: 9664: 9658:, p. 239 9657: 9652: 9645: 9639: 9637: 9630: 9624: 9613: 9612: 9604: 9595: 9586: 9584: 9582: 9565: 9561: 9555: 9547: 9541: 9537: 9530: 9521: 9506: 9499: 9491: 9484: 9476: 9470: 9466: 9465: 9457: 9451:, p. 47. 9450: 9445: 9437: 9430: 9422: 9416: 9412: 9411: 9403: 9397: 9393: 9387: 9379: 9373: 9369: 9368: 9360: 9358: 9350: 9345: 9338: 9334: 9328: 9319: 9310: 9301: 9299: 9297: 9295: 9293: 9283: 9276: 9271: 9265: 9261: 9257: 9254: 9250: 9241: 9226: 9222: 9221:"Baduspanids" 9216: 9201: 9197: 9191: 9184: 9179: 9172: 9166: 9157: 9149: 9148: 9140: 9134:, p. 291 9133: 9128: 9121: 9115: 9113: 9103: 9087: 9083: 9077: 9075: 9073: 9071: 9069: 9067: 9059: 9055: 9050: 9043: 9038: 9023:. Fordham.edu 9022: 9016: 9014: 9012: 9002: 8986: 8982: 8975: 8973: 8965: 8960: 8954:, p. 27. 8953: 8948: 8941: 8935: 8929:, p. 78. 8928: 8923: 8916: 8911: 8909: 8907: 8899: 8898:Shahbazi 2005 8894: 8892: 8890: 8888: 8880: 8875: 8868: 8863: 8856: 8851: 8844: 8839: 8837: 8835: 8827: 8822: 8816:, p. 219 8815: 8810: 8808: 8801:, p. 217 8800: 8795: 8788: 8783: 8777: 8773: 8766: 8760:, p. 32. 8759: 8754: 8748:, p. 218 8747: 8742: 8733: 8727:, p. 145 8726: 8721: 8705: 8699: 8692: 8687: 8685: 8676: 8670: 8666: 8665: 8657: 8641: 8634: 8627: 8619: 8613: 8609: 8608: 8600: 8592: 8586: 8582: 8581: 8573: 8566: 8561: 8559: 8552:, p. 421 8551: 8550:Blockley 1998 8546: 8540:, p. 206 8539: 8534: 8527: 8521: 8515:, p. 200 8514: 8509: 8494: 8492:9780415103176 8488: 8485:. Routledge. 8484: 8483: 8475: 8468: 8464: 8458: 8456: 8448: 8442: 8436:, p. 199 8435: 8430: 8424:, p. 128 8423: 8418: 8412:, p. 197 8411: 8406: 8399: 8394: 8388:, p. 238 8387: 8386:Southern 2001 8382: 8376:, p. 126 8375: 8370: 8363: 8362:Southern 2001 8358: 8352:, p. 125 8351: 8346: 8344: 8337:, p. 51. 8336: 8331: 8324: 8319: 8312: 8307: 8301:, p. 180 8300: 8295: 8288: 8283: 8277:, p. 178 8276: 8271: 8265:, p. 461 8264: 8259: 8252: 8248: 8242: 8238: 8234: 8230: 8229: 8221: 8206: 8202: 8196: 8189: 8183: 8167: 8161: 8159: 8149: 8133: 8127: 8120: 8116: 8115: 8110: 8104: 8096: 8090: 8086: 8082: 8075: 8066: 8060: 8056: 8052: 8046: 8044: 8037: 8033: 8029: 8023: 8021: 8013: 8012:Shahbazi 2005 8007: 8005: 7988: 7984: 7980: 7974: 7967: 7961: 7954: 7948: 7944: 7937: 7930: 7925: 7918: 7913: 7905: 7901: 7897: 7893: 7889: 7885: 7878: 7863: 7859: 7855: 7851: 7847: 7840: 7833: 7828: 7821: 7820: 7814: 7807: 7802: 7800: 7783: 7777: 7773: 7760: 7754: 7748: 7742: 7735: 7729: 7723: 7716: 7710: 7706: 7702: 7692: 7687: 7675: 7664: 7659: 7653: 7648: 7643: 7639: 7629: 7626: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7616: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7590: 7586: 7575: 7565: 7561: 7558:(present-day 7557: 7553: 7552:Yazdegerd III 7549: 7546: 7542: 7538: 7536: 7532: 7531:Sasanian army 7528: 7524: 7522: 7518: 7514: 7512: 7511:Yazdegerd III 7508: 7506: 7502: 7499: 7495: 7492: 7488: 7484: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7471: 7467: 7465: 7461: 7458: 7454: 7452: 7448: 7446: 7442: 7439: 7435: 7431: 7427: 7424: 7423:Bahram Chobin 7420: 7416: 7412: 7408: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7390: 7386: 7383: 7379: 7376: 7372: 7369: 7365: 7361: 7357: 7356:Eternal Peace 7353: 7349: 7346: 7342: 7337: 7333: 7329: 7325: 7321: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7307: 7303: 7299: 7295: 7292: 7289: 7284: 7280: 7276: 7272: 7269: 7268: 7266: 7262: 7257: 7254: 7251: 7250: 7248: 7244: 7239: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7227: 7225: 7221: 7218: 7213: 7209: 7205: 7202: 7199: 7195: 7191: 7190: 7189:"the Great": 7188: 7184: 7181: 7178: 7174: 7171: 7168: 7164: 7161:, founder of 7160: 7156: 7154: 7150: 7146: 7143: 7142: 7141:"the Great": 7140: 7136: 7131: 7127: 7124: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7112: 7111: 7109: 7105: 7104: 7102: 7098: 7090: 7081: 7078: 7076: 7072: 7071: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7041: 7039: 7035: 7031: 7027: 7023: 7019: 7009: 7007: 7002: 6998: 6990: 6989:Caspian Gates 6986: 6981: 6972: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6954: 6950: 6940: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6922: 6918: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6902: 6898: 6894: 6890: 6887:, an unknown 6886: 6882: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6849: 6847: 6846:Middle Syriac 6843: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6819: 6815: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6794: 6792: 6788: 6784: 6780: 6776: 6771: 6769: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6752:Proto-Caspian 6750:and probably 6749: 6748:Pre-Daylamite 6746:). Unwritten 6745: 6741: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6719: 6717: 6713: 6709: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6674: 6672: 6667: 6663: 6659: 6655: 6651: 6647: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6625: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6610: 6607:(present day 6606: 6602: 6598: 6592: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6570: 6565: 6562: 6559: 6555: 6551: 6547: 6539: 6535: 6531: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6513: 6507: 6503: 6493: 6491: 6490: 6485: 6481: 6480: 6475: 6474: 6473:Khwaday-Namag 6468: 6466: 6465: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6436: 6431: 6427: 6425: 6421: 6420: 6415: 6414: 6409: 6408: 6403: 6400: 6395: 6393: 6389: 6388: 6383: 6382: 6377: 6376: 6371: 6370: 6365: 6364: 6363:Staota Yesnya 6360: 6356: 6355: 6350: 6340: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6305: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6280: 6278: 6274: 6273:Adur Gushnasp 6269: 6267: 6263: 6262:Adur Gushnasp 6259: 6255: 6251: 6246: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6235: 6230: 6226: 6225: 6224:Adur Gushnasp 6220: 6219: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6198: 6197:Adur Gushnasp 6193: 6184: 6182: 6181: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6156: 6152: 6147: 6144: 6139: 6137: 6133: 6123: 6121: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6082:Naqsh-e Rajab 6079: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6063: 6054: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6024: 6019: 6015: 6014: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5983: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5968: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5953: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5935: 5934:Parthian rule 5926: 5916: 5906: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5890: 5888: 5883: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5863: 5860: 5853: 5850:Sasanian sea 5848: 5839: 5836: 5832: 5828: 5824: 5819: 5816: 5808: 5804: 5799: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5772: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5756: 5754: 5750: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5715: 5714:Achaemenidae. 5710: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5683: 5679: 5674: 5670: 5668: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5629: 5624: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5597: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5582: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5555: 5548: 5543: 5535: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5492: 5490: 5489:Sasanian army 5479: 5474: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5444: 5440: 5438:was required. 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5422: 5418: 5415: 5411: 5408: 5404: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5392: 5391: 5389: 5384: 5382: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5365: 5360: 5356: 5348: 5345: 5342: 5339: 5336: 5333: 5330: 5327: 5326: 5325: 5323: 5313: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5294: 5289: 5288: 5283: 5282: 5277: 5276: 5269: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5258: 5249: 5245: 5240: 5231: 5229: 5225: 5219: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5200: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5123: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5108: 5102: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5083: 5078: 5074: 5073:Islamic world 5070: 5065: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5054: 5049: 5048: 5043: 5037: 5033: 5031: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5010: 5006: 5001: 4987: 4984: 4983: 4977: 4972: 4968: 4958: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4935: 4933: 4928: 4924: 4919: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4884: 4883: 4878: 4874: 4869: 4865: 4860: 4850: 4846: 4844: 4839: 4835: 4830: 4828: 4823: 4819: 4813: 4806:War with Axum 4803: 4801: 4797: 4792: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4739: 4735: 4730: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4715:Kushan Empire 4711: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4680:Muslim forces 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4660: 4658: 4654: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4633: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4605: 4603: 4598: 4595: 4594: 4587: 4582: 4581: 4575: 4573: 4569: 4568:siege engines 4564: 4562: 4561:war elephants 4558: 4554: 4548: 4539: 4532: 4527: 4518: 4516: 4515: 4510: 4506: 4505:Sasanian navy 4496: 4494: 4490: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4472: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4453: 4444: 4435: 4433: 4432:siege warfare 4429: 4425: 4421: 4414: 4410: 4405: 4400: 4390: 4388: 4382: 4380: 4379: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4357: 4352: 4351: 4345: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4301: 4299: 4294: 4292: 4291: 4286: 4282: 4281: 4276: 4275: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4261: 4256: 4255: 4250: 4249: 4244: 4240: 4239: 4233: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4191: 4190:Yazdegerd III 4187: 4186: 4181: 4177: 4174: 4173:Banu Munajjim 4170: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4132: 4131: 4123: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4092: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4057: 4055: 4051: 4046: 4042: 4041:al-Qādisiyyah 4038: 4034: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3981:'s commander 3980: 3974: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3959:Yazdegerd III 3956: 3947: 3943: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3919: 3915: 3910: 3906: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3840: 3836: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3774: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3745:fell in 614, 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3727: 3725: 3721: 3716: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3679: 3674: 3670: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3655:John Mystacon 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3639:Bahram Chobin 3636: 3628: 3625:15th-century 3623: 3619: 3617: 3613: 3607: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3591: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3564: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3537: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3510: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3488: 3483: 3479: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3436: 3434: 3430: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3402: 3397: 3388: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3349: 3347: 3346:Shapur Mihran 3343: 3339: 3335: 3332:, one of the 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3298: 3292: 3288: 3283: 3279: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3210: 3205: 3201: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3162: 3160: 3159:Theodosius II 3156: 3155:Constantine I 3152: 3147: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3132: 3130: 3126: 3125:second in 440 3122: 3118: 3114: 3113:Eastern Roman 3110: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3077: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3046: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2973: 2969: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2930: 2928: 2924: 2919: 2917: 2913: 2907: 2905: 2901: 2893: 2882: 2877: 2868: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2852: 2850: 2847:(near modern 2846: 2842: 2838: 2835:), Arzanene ( 2834: 2831:, Sophanene ( 2830: 2825: 2819: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2792: 2788: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2761: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2725: 2722:rabbi called 2721: 2717: 2713: 2710:, protecting 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2689: 2684: 2680: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2633: 2631: 2630: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2563: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2493: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2446: 2442: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2421:, modern day 2420: 2416: 2412: 2411: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2389: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2365: 2361: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2338: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2311: 2305: 2301: 2300: 2287: 2283: 2278: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2254: 2244: 2242: 2239:), while the 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2205: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2165: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2120: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2093: 2088: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2057: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2042:King of Kings 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2014: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1982: 1916: 1904: 1899: 1897: 1892: 1890: 1885: 1884: 1882: 1881: 1878: 1867: 1864: 1863: 1855: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1816: 1809: 1808: 1798: 1796: 1793: 1792: 1788: 1786: 1783: 1782: 1778: 1776: 1773: 1772: 1767: 1762: 1761: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1745: 1741: 1739: 1736: 1735: 1730: 1729:Modern period 1725: 1724: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1708: 1704: 1702: 1701:Afsharid Iran 1699: 1698: 1694: 1691: 1690:Hotak dynasty 1687: 1686: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1665: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1649: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1639: 1635: 1633: 1630: 1629: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1619: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1609: 1605: 1603: 1600: 1599: 1595: 1593: 1590: 1589: 1585: 1583: 1580: 1579: 1575: 1573: 1570: 1569: 1565: 1563: 1560: 1559: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1549: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1539: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1529: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1519: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1509: 1505: 1503: 1500: 1499: 1495: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1479: 1475: 1473: 1470: 1469: 1465: 1463: 1460: 1459: 1455: 1453: 1450: 1449: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1439: 1435: 1433: 1432:Seljuk Empire 1430: 1429: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1419: 1415: 1413: 1410: 1409: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1399: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1389: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1379: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1369: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1359: 1355: 1353: 1352:Buyid dynasty 1350: 1349: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1339: 1335: 1333: 1330: 1329: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1319: 1315: 1313: 1312:Sajid dynasty 1310: 1309: 1305: 1303: 1300: 1299: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1289: 1285: 1283: 1280: 1279: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1269: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1259: 1255: 1253: 1250: 1249: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1229: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1219: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1209: 1205: 1203: 1200: 1199: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1189: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1179: 1176: 1175: 1169: 1164: 1163: 1153: 1151: 1148: 1147: 1143: 1141: 1138: 1137: 1133: 1131: 1128: 1127: 1123: 1121: 1118: 1117: 1113: 1111: 1108: 1107: 1104:132 BC–224 AD 1103: 1101: 1098: 1097: 1094:141 BC–222 AD 1093: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1084:147 BC–224 AD 1083: 1081: 1078: 1077: 1074:247 BC–224 AD 1073: 1071: 1068: 1067: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1047: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1037: 1034:320s BC–17 AD 1033: 1031: 1028: 1027: 1022: 323 BC 1017: 1015: 1012: 1011: 1008:331 BC–428 AD 1007: 1005: 1002: 1001: 998:550 BC–330 BC 997: 995: 992: 991: 981: 979: 976: 975: 972:626 BC–539 BC 971: 969: 966: 965: 962:635 BC–550 BC 961: 959: 956: 955: 951: 949: 946: 945: 941: 939: 938:Median Empire 936: 935: 930: 925: 924: 914: 912: 909: 908: 904: 902: 899: 898: 894: 892: 889: 888: 884: 882: 879: 878: 874: 872: 869: 868: 861: 859: 856: 855: 848: 846: 843: 842: 838: 836: 833: 832: 825: 823: 820: 819: 812: 810: 807: 806: 802: 800: 797: 796: 789: 787: 783: 780: 779: 772: 770: 767: 766: 762: 760: 759:Proto-Elamite 757: 756: 752: 750: 747: 746: 741: 736: 735: 722: 720: 719:Dalma culture 717: 716: 709: 707: 704: 703: 696: 694: 691: 690: 687:20,000–10,000 683: 681: 678: 677: 674:36,000–18,000 670: 668: 665: 664: 661: 660: 654: 649: 648: 644: 640: 639: 636: 630: 629: 624: 619: 618: 611: 607: 603: 601: 576: 574: 571: 570: 562: 560: 557: 556: 548: 546: 543: 542: 534: 532: 529: 528: 520: 518: 515: 514: 506: 504: 501: 500: 492: 490: 487: 486: 483: 477: 474: 467: 466: 463: 460: 453: 452: 449: 448:Kushan Empire 446: 439: 438: 435: 432: 425: 424: 421: 418: 411: 410: 407: 406: 403: 400: 398: 395: 394: 390: 386: 382: 377: 373: 369: 366: 360: 356: 353: 347: 343: 340: 334: 330: 327: 321: 317: 314: 308: 304: 301: 295: 291: 288: 285: 281: 277: 271: 270:Yazdegerd III 268: 262: 256: 253: 247: 243: 239: 237: 233: 230: 227: 224: 222: 218: 211: 207: 204: 200: 197: 193: 190: 186: 183: 179: 174: 171: 170: 168: 164: 161: 154: 151: 147: 138: 135: 130: 127: 126: 124: 120: 116: 103: 98: 90: 84: 74: 68: 60: 55: 49: 33: 30: 19: 17536:Contemporary 17386:Indo-Persian 17374:Nazi Germany 17318:Contemporary 17220:Vijayanagara 17119:Great Seljuk 17030:Thessalonica 16958:Golden Horde 16598:Carthaginian 16538: 16377:Neo-Assyrian 16362:Neo-Sumerian 16240:Other topics 16224: 16152:Persian name 16091:Islamization 16033: 15993:Architecture 15946:universities 15891:Zoroastrians 15886:Christianity 15876:Baháʼí Faith 15826:Azerbaijanis 15733:Demographics 15547:Construction 15535:Central Bank 15477:Space Agency 15372:Child labour 15207:Principlists 15187:Cyberwarfare 15135:Human rights 15100:Constitution 14895:Azerbaijanis 14864:Indo-Persian 14844:Greater Iran 14715:siege (1980) 14674:1979–present 14325:early modern 14323:Medieval and 14306: 14117:Kura-Araxes 13803: 13643:Royal titles 13568:Architecture 13439: 13405:Neo-Assyrian 13252:(Pre)history 13072:Persian Gulf 12976: 12969:Ancient Rome 12940:311–129 BCE 12926: 12919:336–301 BCE 12909:539–331 BCE 12899: 12892:626–539 BCE 12883:729–609 BCE 12873:911–729 BCE 12864: 12858: 12852: 12840: 12805: 12795: 12789: 12759: 12747: 12732: 12709: 12688: 12663: 12622: 12617: 12612: 12596:Timeline of 12525: 12519: 12360:Inscriptions 12325:Architecture 12250: 12150: 12110: 12048: 12028: 12010: 12005: 11982:, retrieved 11976: 11963:, retrieved 11957: 11935: 11927: 11926:Labourt, J. 11910: 11895: 11878: 11858: 11847: 11836: 11825: 11818: 11814: 11806: 11796:, retrieved 11789:the original 11780: 11764: 11755: 11732: 11722: 11711: 11690: 11655: 11645: 11624: 11604: 11585: 11567: 11548: 11532: 11522: 11505: 11486: 11466: 11446: 11424: 11416:the original 11411: 11388: 11357: 11337: 11327: 11314: 11299: 11277: 11264: 11246: 11227: 11214:. Retrieved 11211:fordham.edu/ 11210: 11185: 11166: 11143: 11124: 11121:Durant, Will 11102: 11092: 11067: 11042: 11018: 10998: 10974: 10963: 10942: 10920: 10910: 10886: 10863: 10839: 10814: 10801: 10790: 10775: 10754: 10734: 10715: 10690: 10686: 10674: 10667: 10660:Bibliography 10645:. Retrieved 10635: 10623:. Retrieved 10613: 10605: 10585:. Retrieved 10580: 10571: 10559:. Retrieved 10554: 10545: 10533:. Retrieved 10528: 10519: 10507:. Retrieved 10503:the original 10498: 10489: 10480: 10471: 10451: 10444: 10435: 10429: 10420: 10411: 10404:Daryaee 2008 10399: 10392:Brunner 1983 10377:Brunner 1983 10372: 10365:Brunner 1983 10360: 10353:Brunner 1983 10348: 10338: 10331:Daryaee 2008 10302: 10296: 10284: 10277:Daryaee 2008 10272: 10263: 10254: 10239: 10231: 10222: 10216: 10208: 10203: 10191: 10160: 10155: 10147: 10142: 10133: 10124: 10115: 10110:Frye, p. 325 10106: 10096:25 September 10094:. Retrieved 10090:the original 10080: 10048: 10043: 10034: 10023: 10011:. Retrieved 10007:the original 9996: 9976: 9969: 9949: 9942: 9926: 9902: 9874: 9869: 9862:Daryaee 2008 9840: 9835: 9811: 9804:Daryaee 2008 9799: 9786: 9750:Daryaee 2008 9735:Daryaee 2008 9720:Daryaee 2008 9715: 9708:Daryaee 2008 9685: 9673:. Retrieved 9663: 9651: 9643: 9623: 9610: 9603: 9594: 9568:. Retrieved 9564:the original 9554: 9535: 9529: 9520: 9508:. Retrieved 9498: 9489: 9483: 9463: 9456: 9449:Daryaee 2008 9444: 9435: 9429: 9409: 9402: 9391: 9386: 9366: 9349:Daryaee 2008 9344: 9336: 9332: 9331:Wiesehöfer, 9327: 9318: 9309: 9282: 9275:Daryaee 2008 9270: 9263: 9249: 9240: 9228:. Retrieved 9224: 9215: 9203:. Retrieved 9199: 9190: 9182: 9178: 9170: 9165: 9156: 9146: 9139: 9127: 9119: 9102: 9090:. Retrieved 9086:the original 9049: 9037: 9025:. Retrieved 9001: 8989:. Retrieved 8985:the original 8959: 8952:Daryaee 2008 8947: 8934: 8922: 8874: 8862: 8850: 8821: 8794: 8785: 8771: 8765: 8753: 8741: 8732: 8720: 8708:. Retrieved 8698: 8693:, p. 68 8691:Neusner 1969 8663: 8656: 8644:. Retrieved 8642:(216): 24–34 8639: 8626: 8606: 8599: 8579: 8572: 8545: 8533: 8525: 8520: 8508: 8496:. Retrieved 8481: 8474: 8466: 8462: 8446: 8441: 8429: 8417: 8405: 8397: 8393: 8381: 8369: 8357: 8330: 8318: 8306: 8299:Farrokh 2007 8294: 8282: 8275:Farrokh 2007 8270: 8258: 8250: 8227: 8220: 8208:. Retrieved 8204: 8195: 8187: 8182: 8170:. Retrieved 8148: 8136:. Retrieved 8126: 8118: 8113: 8109:Durant, Will 8103: 8084: 8074: 8065: 8050: 8027: 7993:11 September 7991:. Retrieved 7987:the original 7982: 7973: 7960: 7942: 7936: 7931:, p. 1. 7929:Daryaee 2018 7924: 7919:, p. 9. 7912: 7887: 7883: 7877: 7867:11 September 7865:. Retrieved 7853: 7849: 7839: 7834:, p. 4. 7827: 7818: 7813: 7806:Daryaee 2008 7786:. Retrieved 7776: 7753: 7741: 7725:, Parthian: 7715: 7708: 7704: 7647:Book Pahlavi 7642: 7613:Sasanian art 7560:Turkmenistan 7354:. Treaty of 7336:Martyropolis 7265:Yazdegerd II 7132:is assembled 7079: 7068: 7065: 7058:"Parsees of 7038:Shushandukht 7015: 6994: 6959:. In modern 6953:civilization 6946: 6850: 6816:divided the 6795: 6783:Old Armenian 6775:Old Georgian 6772: 6725: 6710: 6685: 6665: 6631: 6593: 6566: 6563: 6543: 6537: 6496:Christianity 6487: 6477: 6471: 6469: 6467:invocation. 6462: 6439: 6417: 6411: 6405: 6396: 6385: 6379: 6373: 6367: 6361: 6352: 6346: 6306: 6286: 6276: 6272: 6270: 6265: 6261: 6254:Adur Farnbag 6253: 6249: 6247: 6232: 6222: 6218:Adur Farnbag 6216: 6202: 6178: 6159: 6148: 6140: 6129: 6119: 6115: 6098: 6060: 6041: 6035: 6021: 6011: 6004:Artabanus IV 5989: 5969: 5954: 5931: 5891: 5887:Persian Gulf 5884: 5868:Indian Ocean 5864: 5856: 5852:trade routes 5820: 5812: 5761:Chal Tarkhan 5757: 5717: 5712: 5686: 5675: 5671: 5634:Taq-e Bostan 5631: 5626: 5605:Central Asia 5598: 5583: 5560: 5525:A bowl with 5505:Sasanian art 5485: 5476: 5456: 5452: 5449: 5421:Tigris River 5414:fire temples 5396:Zoroastrians 5385: 5377: 5369: 5362: 5358: 5352: 5346: 5341:Wastaryoshan 5340: 5334: 5328: 5319: 5297: 5291: 5285: 5279: 5273: 5270: 5261: 5255: 5253: 5220: 5201: 5173:Veh-Ardashir 5154: 5104: 5090: 5082:Panchatantra 5080: 5066: 5064:) to India. 5061: 5051: 5045: 5038: 5034: 5030:Gupta Empire 5014: 5009:Pulakesin II 5005:Ajanta Caves 4980: 4979:Coin of the 4946: 4936: 4923:Hephthalites 4920: 4899:Northern Wei 4888: 4880: 4862: 4847: 4831: 4815: 4793: 4761: 4734:Bedouin Arab 4731: 4712: 4708:North Africa 4700:the Caucasus 4661: 4653:Roman Empire 4650: 4599: 4592: 4588: 4586:encounters. 4584: 4578: 4577: 4565: 4550: 4531:Taq-e Bostan 4512: 4509:Persian Gulf 4502: 4473: 4465:Paygan-salar 4458: 4441: 4434:techniques. 4423: 4422:, the first 4417: 4385:resuscitate 4383: 4376: 4372: 4364: 4360: 4354: 4348: 4347:In general, 4346: 4341: 4337: 4328:, Sakastan, 4302: 4295: 4288: 4284: 4278: 4272: 4258: 4252: 4246: 4242: 4236: 4234: 4221: 4215: 4183: 4129: 4119: 4093: 4085:Central Asia 4058: 4030: 3975: 3952: 3923: 3860: 3817:Shahraplakan 3798: 3771:architecture 3728: 3717: 3690:Hephthalites 3683: 3632: 3608: 3603:South Arabia 3592: 3565: 3551:near modern 3538: 3511: 3492: 3437: 3416:Hephthalites 3413: 3378: 3350: 3299: 3295: 3240: 3226:in 451, the 3220:Christianity 3216:Yazdegerd II 3213: 3209:Yazdegerd II 3186:Hephthalites 3178:Shushandukht 3163: 3148: 3133: 3106: 3047: 3019:Hephthalites 3004: 2931: 2920: 2908: 2903: 2896: 2853: 2820: 2797: 2762: 2741:high-priest 2728: 2693: 2634: 2627: 2585: 2571: 2513:Turkmenistan 2494: 2486:Adhur-Anahid 2481: 2474:Vologases VI 2470:Artabanus IV 2467: 2418: 2408: 2406: 2399:supreme god 2381:Artabanus IV 2339: 2324: 2318: 2309: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2297: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2206: 2200:, where the 2161: 2152:Muslim world 2132:architecture 2128:Sasanian art 2121: 2089: 2085:Central Asia 2077:South Arabia 2058: 2046:Artabanus IV 2026:Roman Empire 2015: 1990: 1986: 1914: 1912: 1839:LGBT history 1799:1979–present 1748:Pahlavi Iran 1711:Zand dynasty 1679:Safavid Iran 1642:Qara Qoyunlu 1532:Kurt dynasty 1372:Hasanwayhids 1172: 1150:Qarinvandids 1129: 1054:281 BC–62 BC 1044:312 BC–63 BC 657: 597: 402:Succeeded by 401: 396: 305:28 April 224 182:Christianity 29: 17124:Khwarezmian 17057:Carolingian 16862:Rashtrakuta 16566:Shaishunaga 16465:Hellenistic 16448:New Kingdom 16438:Old Kingdom 16257:Tehrangeles 16220:Traditional 15957:Nationality 15895:persecution 15880:persecution 15831:Circassians 15780:Neo-Aramaic 15760:Azerbaijani 15632:State-owned 15557:Health care 15520:Agriculture 15357:Brain drain 15296:Ambassadors 14991:Earthquakes 14528:Aq Qoyunlu 14477:Muzaffarid 14454:Eldiguzids 14446:Anushtegin 14272:Kingdom of 14248:Kingdom of 14240:Kingdom of 14232:Atropatene 14224:Achaemenid 14165:Kingdom of 14110:3400–539 BC 13913:Kushanshahr 13820:Adurbadagan 13746:Hittitology 13736:Assyriology 13657:Archaeology 13527:Old Persian 13337:Jemdet Nasr 12986:224–mid 7C 12950:129–63 BCE 12932:Macedonians 12827:city-states 12823:Neo-Hittite 12798:Sea Peoples 12714:city-states 12693:city-states 12636:Uruk period 12598:Mesopotamia 12469:Baduspanids 12452:Descendants 12418:Arab tribes 12288:Family tree 12152:In Our Time 11204:Frye, R. N. 10889:. Oakland: 10587:16 December 10561:16 December 10535:16 December 10525:"Shapur II" 10509:3 September 10438:, Macmillan 10047:Fergusson, 9937:(see p. 87) 9913:(see p. 87) 9889:(see p. 87) 9877:, 224 pp., 9767:Morony 2005 9675:16 December 9510:10 December 9230:16 December 9205:16 December 9092:16 December 9027:16 December 8991:16 December 8938:Procopius, 8879:Payne 2015b 8855:Payne 2015b 8758:Hewsen 1987 8710:16 December 8498:16 December 8172:16 December 8138:16 December 7917:Canepa 2018 7788:16 December 7701:New Persian 7699:whence the 7585:Iran portal 7519:during the 7489:overthrows 7417:overthrows 7304:grants the 7224:Yazdegerd I 7163:Manichaeism 6965:Iranosphere 6913:Gundeshapur 6873:Khwarazmian 6806:Neo-Elamite 6764:Mazandarani 6740:Adurbadagan 6692:Koine Greek 6690:along with 6666:Exilarchate 6615:kingdom of 6581:Christology 6426:originals. 6392:Ahura Mazda 6298:Ahura Mazda 6277:Great Fires 6250:Great Fires 6070:Sar Mashhad 5895:Transoxania 5831:Gundeshapur 5709:Fergusson: 5682:Hellenistic 5667:Middle Ages 5621:Will Durant 5617:Islamic art 5613:Merovingian 5611:, and even 5436:manumission 5381:fire-temple 5357:system the 5343:(commoners) 5335:Arteshtaran 5275:proskynesis 5157:charismatic 5151:in 570–622. 5141:Taq-i Kisra 5062:Nēw-Ardašēr 4905:during the 4893:during the 4752:Khorramabad 4723:Tus citadel 4690:and in the 4593:Strategikon 4557:Cataphracts 4226:sacred fire 4147:Paduspanids 4126:Descendants 3763:Persian art 3584:Caspian Sea 3514:Justinian I 3456:Mihr-Mihroe 3268:Hormizd III 3192:(in modern 3151:Yazdegerd I 3136:Ardashir II 3023:Alchon Huns 3017:, then the 2977:Alchon Huns 2950:Transoxiana 2942:Afghanistan 2923:Transoxiana 2851:, Turkey). 2785:Mesopotamia 2763:Succeeding 2739:Zoroastrian 2716:Shabuhragan 2708:Manichaeism 2688:Manichaeism 2637:Barbalissos 2612:Gordian III 2604:Timesitheus 2511:(in modern 2401:Ahura Mazda 2397:Zoroastrian 2321:in Pahlavi. 2306:in Pahlavi. 1997:before the 1522:Mihrabanids 1482:Hazaraspids 1242:Baduspanids 1120:Paratarajas 1114:19 AD–224/5 632:History of 397:Preceded by 313:Iberian War 311:• The 196:Manichaeism 17808:Categories 17694:Portuguese 17575:Revival Le 17565:Vietnamese 17208:Later Tran 17178:Vietnamese 17074:Singhasari 17062:Holy Roman 16686:Bulgarian 16622:Satavahana 16593:Phoenician 16529:Achaemenid 16490:Indo-Greek 16470:Macedonian 16384:Babylonian 16157:Philosophy 16116:newspapers 16097:Literature 16002:architects 15997:Achaemenid 15917:Corruption 15377:Corruption 15217:Reformists 15212:Propaganda 15110:Corruption 15095:Censorship 15038:Lake Urmia 14726:Iran–Iraq 14422:Ghaznavid 14300:AD 224–651 14264:Frataraka 14096:Prehistory 13929:Machelonia 13897:Kadagistan 13830:Arbayistan 13710:Divination 13420:Achaemenid 13385:Isin-Larsa 13278:Trialetian 13273:Mousterian 13260:Prehistory 12710:and other 12689:and other 12375:Punishment 12365:Literature 11846:"Persia § 11798:2008-05-02 11307:Hewsen, R. 10196:Boyce 1984 10184:Boyce 1984 9816:Shaki 1992 9196:"Dabuyids" 8867:Potts 2018 8787:Christian. 8781:1560986298 8524:Agathias, 8235:. p. 8210:9 November 8059:075465740X 8036:0827611552 7856:(2): 223. 7768:References 7757:See also: 7745:See also: 7665:spelling: 7649:spelling: 7491:Khosrow II 7430:Khosrow II 7419:Hormizd IV 7415:Khosrow II 7396:Hormizd IV 7108:Ardashir I 7084:Chronology 7048:See also: 7001:Roman army 6929:Himyaritic 6777:, various 6768:Tabaristan 6744:Azerbaijan 6599:, Lazica, 6510:See also: 6407:Bundahishn 6349:Mary Boyce 6290:'non-Iran' 6180:Frashegerd 6167:Achaemenid 6162:Ardashir I 6136:Gatha days 6132:Ardashir I 6094:iconoclast 6032:Tabarestan 5996:Ardashir I 5950:Darius III 5859:Good roads 5823:Silk Route 5689:Achaemenid 5658:tapestries 5499:See also: 5471:See also: 5359:shahanshah 5349:(artisans) 5347:Hutukhshan 5337:(warriors) 5310:Mihr's day 5281:pushtigban 5257:shahanshah 5234:Shahanshah 5199:ideology. 5116:Bozorgmehr 5058:backgammon 5047:chaturanga 4982:Kushanshah 4822:Himyarites 4800:White Huns 4719:White Huns 4637:fine cameo 4612:See also: 4553:Clibanarii 4480:Dailamites 4424:shahanshah 4420:Ardashir I 4342:shahanshah 4338:shahanshah 4243:shahanshah 4222:shahanshah 4212:Government 4201:Divashtich 4166:Hormizd IV 4151:Mazandaran 4081:Tang China 4079:, fled to 4061:Farrukhzad 4025:Khosrau II 4009:Khosrau II 3931:True Cross 3918:Khosrau II 3825:assistance 3809:Shahrbaraz 3801:Khosrau II 3755:Achaemenid 3747:Alexandria 3731:Shahrbaraz 3678:Khosrow II 3643:Khosrow II 3635:Hormizd IV 3588:Tamkhosrow 3557:Mamikonian 3448:Belisarius 3255:Oxus river 3207:A coin of 3194:Uzbekistan 3170:al-Mundhir 3140:Shapur III 3043:fire altar 3031:Shapur III 2892:Met Museum 2857:Hormizd II 2777:Callinicum 2765:Bahram III 2758:Diocletian 2720:Babylonian 2677:Odaenathus 2665:Persepolis 2482:shahanshah 2417:(formerly 2393:Ardashir I 2373:Ardashir I 2371:, showing 2350:Bazrangids 2335:Ardashir I 2282:Ardashir I 2251:See also: 2223:, and the 2144:philosophy 2140:literature 2038:Ardashir I 1738:Qajar Iran 1652:Aq Qoyunlu 1636:1370s–1592 1472:Salghurids 1452:Eldiguzids 1422:Shabankara 1396:990/1–1117 1140:Zarmihrids 1060:Fratarakas 1014:Atropatene 952:652–625 BC 942:678–550 BC 531:Zarmihrids 255:Ardashir I 236:Shahanshah 221:Government 176:(official) 156:(official) 115:Khosrow II 111: 620 17687:Couronian 17325:Ethiopian 17313:Manchukuo 17268:Brazilian 17114:Ghaznavid 17084:Srivijaya 17035:Trebizond 17020:Byzantine 17002:North Sea 16997:Norwegian 16985:Almoravid 16968:Ilkhanate 16938:Majapahit 16911:Muromachi 16820:Solomonic 16805:Ethiopian 16719:Caliphate 16652:Aragonese 16480:Ptolemaic 16122:Mythology 16028:Calendars 16018:Astronomy 15927:Education 15836:Georgians 15821:Assyrians 15816:Armenians 15742:Languages 15634:companies 15597:Transport 15577:Petroleum 15362:Companies 15301:President 15288:Officials 15222:Terrorism 15171:Air Force 15115:Elections 15053:Provinces 15048:Mountains 14958:Geography 14878:languages 14616:1925–1979 14544:Afsharid 14505:1370–1925 14493:Chobanid 14387:Saffarid 14339:Rashidun 14307:Sasanian 14288:Kings of 14280:Parthian 14256:Seleucid 14197:Scythian 14157:Kassites 14141:Akkadian 13903:Khuzistan 13845:Balasagan 13840:Asoristan 13815:Abarshahr 13583:Cuneiform 13459:Languages 13268:Acheulean 13155:Babylonia 13092:Euphrates 13042:Geography 12901:Chaldeans 12818:Phoenicia 12756:Karduniaš 12484:Qarinvand 12355:Glassware 12350:Education 12047:ECAI.org 11833:Zarinkoob 11490:, Brill, 11444:(2005) . 11311:"Avarayr" 10707:0013-8266 9335:, or the 9058:Bury 1958 8725:Frye 1993 8565:Frye 1993 8526:Histories 8469:, p. 293. 8422:Frye 1993 8374:Frye 1993 8350:Frye 1993 8335:Haug 2019 8323:Frye 2005 8311:Frye 2005 8263:Frye 2005 7862:1076-156X 7731:, Greek: 7705:Iranshahr 7696:ایران‌شهر 7686:ʾylʾnštry 7674:ʾyrʾnštry 7658:ʾylʾnštr' 7564:Peroz III 7539:644: The 7525:641: The 7505:Civil war 7503:628–632: 7477:Heraclius 7445:Hormizd V 7375:Khosrow I 7343:received 7306:Armenians 7187:Shapur II 7157:215–271: 7030:Pumbedita 6975:In Europe 6881:Scythians 6853:Scythians 6842:Asoristan 6826:Palmyrene 6822:Nabataean 6798:Khuzestan 6704:reign of 6589:Theotokos 6573:Nestorius 6479:Shahnameh 6381:Gahambars 6366:with the 6323:, son of 6243:Vishtaspa 6239:Zoroaster 6195:Ruins of 6112:Hormizd I 6099:khvedodah 6084:). Under 5980:Bahram II 5976:Zurvanite 5807:Saint Len 5753:squinches 5736:Asoristan 5732:Ctesiphon 5720:Firuzabad 5642:sculpture 5575:Shahnameh 5567:Aristotle 5527:Khosrau I 5467:Education 5428:Christian 5331:(priests) 5224:Dailamite 5177:Asoristan 5145:Ctesiphon 5107:Khosrau I 5099:Shahnameh 4945:(Chinese 4939:Peroz III 4915:Silk Road 4684:conquered 4322:Abarshahr 4218:Asoristan 4096:caliphate 4019:) mint; " 3939:civil war 3935:Jerusalem 3927:Kavadh II 3895:Dastagerd 3879:Bosphorus 3827:from the 3805:Heraclius 3743:Jerusalem 3739:Heraclius 3627:Shahnameh 3576:Sebasteia 3541:Justin II 3534:Lazic War 3526:Khosrow I 3495:Khosrow I 3487:Khosrow I 3370:Khuzestan 3358:Miskawayh 3285:Plate of 3251:Kidarites 3144:Bahram IV 3015:Kidarites 3007:Shapur II 2981:Shapur II 2962:Ctesiphon 2954:Grumbates 2934:Shapur II 2927:Silk Road 2900:Shapur II 2881:Shapur II 2845:Zabdicene 2750:Bahram II 2690:(300–500) 2673:Palmyrene 2616:Euphrates 2521:Chorasmia 2478:Ctesiphon 2423:Firuzabad 2369:Firuzabad 2358:Darabgerd 2183:aryānšahr 2075:and from 2048:, at the 1752:1925–1979 1742:1789–1925 1715:1751–1794 1705:1736–1796 1695:1722–1729 1683:1501–1736 1656:1468–1508 1646:1406–1468 1626:1370–1507 1616:1359–1596 1612:Mar'ashis 1606:1349–1504 1596:1335–1357 1586:1337–1376 1582:Sarbadars 1576:1337–1376 1566:1335–1393 1556:1335–1357 1546:1256–1335 1536:1244–1396 1526:1236–1537 1516:1223-1306 1506:1184-1597 1496:1155–1231 1486:1155–1424 1476:1148–1282 1466:1141–1319 1456:1135–1225 1446:1077–1231 1436:1037–1194 1426:1030–1355 1416:1029–1236 1406:1008–1141 1252:Justanids 1222:Bavandids 1090:Characene 852:1500–1155 839:2400–2150 829:2400–1700 816:2550-2020 776:3100–2200 763:3200–2700 753:3400–2000 700:6000–5000 339:Civil war 203:Mazdakism 166:Religion 140:(226–637) 137:Ctesiphon 132:(224–226) 17667:Japanese 17630:Scottish 17610:American 17602:Colonial 17531:Imperial 17499:Moroccan 17435:Japanese 17413:Afsharid 17272:Burmese 17258:Austrian 17213:Later Le 17188:Early Le 17173:Venetian 17099:Tiwanaku 17012:Hellenic 16975:Moroccan 16906:Kamakura 16896:Japanese 16879:Saffarid 16832:Georgian 16746:Chalukya 16724:Rashidun 16714:Calakmul 16682:Bruneian 16561:Haryanka 16539:Sasanian 16534:Parthian 16485:Bactrian 16475:Seleucid 16455:Goguryeo 16433:Egyptian 16367:Assyrian 16357:Akkadian 16348:Colonies 16283:Category 16176:football 16167:Scouting 16077:Iranians 16067:Folklore 15863:Religion 15775:Georgian 15755:Armenian 15616:shipping 15611:railways 15601:airlines 15567:Industry 15432:Taxation 15246:Councils 15162:Military 15077:Politics 15058:Wildlife 15023:Caucasus 14905:Persians 14832:See also 14656:Iranian 14623:Pahlavi 14536:Safavid 14512:Timurid 14415:977–1432 14395:Ziyarid 14371:Tahirid 14363:Samanid 14355:Abbasid 14347:Umayyad 14332:632–1090 14149:Lullubi 14133:Elamite 13999:Suristan 13984:Sakastan 13918:Khwarazm 13872:Garmekan 13850:Dihistan 13729:Academia 13683:Religion 13552:Urartian 13547:Sumerian 13532:Parthian 13467:Akkadian 13440:Sasanian 13430:Parthian 13425:Seleucid 13375:Simurrum 13365:Akkadian 13298:Khiamian 13288:Natufian 13200:Simurrum 13185:Kassites 13180:Hittites 13135:Adiabene 12842:Arameans 12836:Damascus 12807:Arameans 12761:Kassites 12749:Hurrians 12544:Category 12479:Mikalids 12459:Dabuyids 12345:Dressing 12267:Timeline 12184:Archived 12172:Archived 12140:Archived 12099:Archived 12087:Archived 12075:Archived 12053:Archived 12015:Archived 11955:(1868), 11309:(1987). 11298:(eds.), 11275:(1991), 11039:"Mazdak" 10940:(2008). 10885:(2018). 10861:(1958). 10789:(eds.): 9881:, 1995, 9339:, vol. 3 9256:Archived 9173:, p. 117 8461:Barnes, 8449:, p. 18. 8445:Barnes, 8190:, p. 305 8111:(1950). 7571:See also 7545:Khorasan 7543:conquer 7498:Kavad II 7487:Kavad II 7362:and the 7279:Armenian 7247:Bahram V 7153:Valerian 7139:Shapur I 7044:In India 6925:Germanic 6877:Sakastan 6869:Bactrian 6861:Khorasan 6791:Scythian 6696:Parthian 6677:Language 6662:Khorasan 6650:Margiana 6642:Buddhism 6634:Buddhist 6484:Ferdowsi 6464:Ahunavar 6424:Parthian 6375:Visperad 6325:Shapur I 6309:Parthian 6302:Seleucid 6205:Parthian 6108:Bahram I 6086:Shapur I 6028:Gushnasp 6000:Parthian 5972:Shapur I 5909:Religion 5880:Sogdians 5835:Shushtar 5724:Bishapur 5706:Parthian 5662:Assyrian 5650:brocades 5615:France. 5364:wuzurgan 5306:Mihragan 5298:hazarbed 5293:hazarbed 5204:deported 5095:Ferdowsi 5053:chatrang 5017:Shapur I 4947:neh-shie 4932:Sogdiana 4927:Göktürks 4903:Chang'an 4877:Jingzhou 4818:Axumites 4781:Dagestan 4766:and the 4756:Shapur I 4727:Nishapur 4682:swiftly 4641:Valerian 4478:and the 4447:Infantry 4378:spahbeds 4373:marzbans 4369:Caucasus 4365:marzbans 4361:marzbans 4350:Wuzurgan 4334:Adiabene 4312:and the 4238:shahrdar 4205:Bahram V 4197:Mikalids 4168:'s line. 4065:Khorasan 4015:. BCRA ( 3987:Muhammad 3979:Abu Bakr 3887:Rhahzadh 3869:forces, 3676:Coin of 3580:Melitene 3568:besieged 3512:Emperor 3499:taxation 3433:Iberians 3384:peasants 3344:general 3342:Mihranid 3314:Nishapur 3310:Khorasan 3289:hunting 3247:Nishapur 3182:Exilarch 3174:al-Hirah 3166:Bahram V 3123:and the 3089:Bahram V 3058:apostasy 2946:Pakistan 2904:in utero 2879:Bust of 2865:Bedouins 2861:Sakastan 2841:Corduene 2837:Aghdznik 2829:Ingilene 2812:Nusaybin 2804:Adiabene 2781:Danubian 2773:Galerius 2746:Bahram I 2735:Bahram I 2704:Nishapur 2700:Bishapur 2669:Anatolia 2657:Bishapur 2645:Valerian 2608:Rhesaina 2557:Adiabene 2545:Shapur I 2505:Khorasan 2497:Sakastan 2454:Valerian 2178:Parthian 2173:ērānšahr 2164:Iranians 2113:European 2081:Caucasus 2018:Persians 1991:Ērānšahr 1866:Timeline 1824:Monarchs 1402:Kakuyids 1392:Annazids 1386:977–1186 1376:959–1095 1366:955–1070 1356:934–1062 1342:Ilyasids 1336:930–1090 1326:919–1062 1296:861–1003 1246:665–1598 1226:651–1349 1212:Dabuyids 1206:750–1258 865:1500–500 845:Kassites 803:2700–539 793:3100-675 659:BCE / BC 623:a series 621:Part of 229:monarchy 210:Buddhism 113:, under 36:Ērānšahr 17734:largest 17729:Empires 17709:Swedish 17704:Spanish 17699:Russian 17662:Italian 17637:Chinese 17625:English 17620:British 17615:Belgian 17590:Vietnam 17580:Tay son 17526:Tsarist 17521:Russian 17516:Ottoman 17482:Dzungar 17477:Khoshut 17450:Mexican 17445:Maratha 17428:Pahlavi 17408:Safavid 17403:Iranian 17330:Haitian 17293:Chinese 17253:Ashanti 17225:Wagadou 17151:Eastern 17146:Western 17129:Timurid 17089:Tibetan 17079:Songhai 17069:Serbian 16990:Almohad 16980:Idrisid 16884:Samanid 16874:Tahirid 16869:Iranian 16847:Kannauj 16827:Genoese 16763:Chinese 16756:Eastern 16751:Western 16739:Fatimid 16734:Abbasid 16729:Umayyad 16702:Burmese 16662:Ayyubid 16657:Angevin 16627:Xianbei 16615:Eastern 16610:Western 16556:Magadha 16519:Iranian 16512:Xiongnu 16497:Hittite 16406:Chinese 16394:Kassite 16343:Ancient 16335:Empires 16226:Ey Iran 16174: ( 16134: ( 16110:student 16108: ( 16104: ( 16089: ( 16057:Cuisine 16042:Fashion 16030: ( 16010: ( 15995: ( 15981:Culture 15929: ( 15893: ( 15878: ( 15851:Turkmen 15803: ( 15794:Peoples 15765:Kurdish 15721:Society 15622:Tourism 15599: ( 15589: ( 15579: ( 15559: ( 15552:Defense 15522: ( 15512:Sectors 15499: ( 15459: ( 15364: ( 15345:General 15334:Economy 15224: ( 15194: ( 15164: ( 15117: ( 15102: ( 15088:General 15043:Islands 14979:largest 14969:Borders 14438:Seljuk 14430:Ghurid 14379:Alavid 14189:Median 14181:Urartu 14103:Ancient 14083:History 13979:Parthia 13964:Paradan 13934:Makuran 13835:Armenia 13825:Albania 13715:Prayers 13700:Deities 13664:Looting 13507:Kassite 13502:Hurrian 13497:Hittite 13487:Elamite 13482:Eblaite 13477:Aramaic 13472:Amorite 13395:Kassite 13370:Gutians 13352:History 13317:Samarra 13313:Hassuna 13283:Zarzian 13205:Subartu 13195:Mitanni 13160:Chaldea 13150:Assyria 13123:Ancient 12744:Mitanni 12712:Amorite 12691:Amorite 12665:Gutians 12505:Economy 12493:Related 12464:Bavands 12335:Coinage 12318:Culture 12276:Dynasty 12148:Radio 4 11857:(ed.). 11850:" 11848:History 11216:7 March 10812:(ed.). 10647:30 June 10625:30 June 10013:30 June 9570:21 June 9304:Durant. 8704:"XIV.1" 7904:1170959 7541:Muslims 7527:Muslims 7464:Dhu-Qar 7451:Vistahm 7406:starts. 7298:Peroz I 7212:Armenia 7208:Georgia 7075:Gujarat 6985:Derbent 6933:Sabaean 6897:Paratan 6865:Sogdian 6818:Semitic 6712:Aramaic 6658:Babylon 6654:Isfahan 6646:Bactria 6621:Armenia 6613:Arabian 6609:Bahrain 6526:Abraham 6454:Avestan 6450:Pahlavi 6294:Armenia 6229:Parthia 6175:Kavad I 6051:Avestan 5809:, Paris 5803:simurgh 5775:Economy 5734:in the 5654:damasks 5646:pottery 5547:simurgh 5482:Society 5462:Culture 5442:status. 5407:chattel 5374:Slavery 5329:Asronan 5287:darigan 5127:Society 5120:Pahlavi 5087:Borzuya 5025:Kushans 4943:Narsieh 4891:Luoyang 4827:Red Sea 4777:Derbent 4764:Khazars 4591:in his 4547:aswaran 4521:Cavalry 4469:Asvaran 4387:Persian 4356:marzban 4280:spahbed 4248:shahrab 4108:Hamadan 4104:Isfahan 3955:Estakhr 3889:in the 3856:Romania 3850:of the 3829:Khazars 3686:Balkans 3663:Armenia 3647:Maurice 3553:Yerevan 3518:Armenia 3507:dehqans 3468:Lakhmid 3440:Perozes 3401:Kavad I 3354:Kavad I 3287:Peroz I 3276:Bactria 3272:Peroz I 3238:(484). 3230:led by 3198:Armenia 3190:Bukhara 3109:Kavad I 3101:Safavid 3074:Armenia 3011:Bactria 2999:obverse 2997:on the 2987:symbol 2912:Singara 2849:Hakkâri 2833:Sophene 2808:Erzurum 2641:Antioch 2629:denarii 2620:Meshike 2600:Nisibis 2596:Carrhae 2588:Bactria 2553:Armenia 2541:Makuran 2525:Bahrain 2488:as his 2435:Susiana 2431:Isfahan 2377:victory 2346:Gochihr 2331:Estakhr 2247:History 2079:to the 2071:to the 1592:Injuids 1346:932–968 1316:889–929 1286:819–999 1276:821–873 1236:651–760 1216:642–760 1196:661–750 1186:632-661 1174:CE / AD 1134:224–651 1124:125–300 1080:Elymais 1024:–226 AD 915:720-670 911:Saparda 905:750-521 901:Zikirti 895:850–616 891:Mannaea 885:860–590 875:911–609 809:Marhaši 363:• 357:633–651 350:• 344:628–632 337:• 331:602–628 324:• 318:526–532 298:• 258:(first) 189:Judaism 129:Istakhr 122:Capital 89:Simurgh 57:224–651 17672:Mongol 17657:German 17652:French 17642:Danish 17585:Dainam 17560:Tongan 17548:Somali 17543:Sokoto 17509:'Alawi 17487:Kalmyk 17467:Mongol 17460:Second 17440:Korean 17391:Mughal 17381:Indian 17364:German 17357:Second 17347:French 17340:Second 17276:Second 17248:Afghan 17240:Modern 17166:Kyrgyz 17161:Uighur 17156:Second 17136:Turkic 17104:Toltec 17040:Epirus 17025:Nicaea 16948:Mongol 16901:Yamato 16837:Huetar 16695:Second 16632:Rouran 16581:Shunga 16576:Maurya 16551:Kushan 16524:Median 16502:Hunnic 16460:Harsha 16293:Portal 16052:Cinema 16034:Nowruz 15931:higher 15805:abroad 15770:Hebrew 15676:Places 15572:Mining 15397:Energy 14974:Cities 14890:Aryans 14609:Modern 14560:Qajar 14403:Buyid 14071:topics 13994:Spahan 13989:Sogdia 13954:Meshan 13923:Lazica 13908:Kirman 13892:Iberia 13877:Gurgan 13542:Sutean 13517:Median 13512:Luwian 13492:Gutian 13380:Ur III 13293:Nemrik 13230:Cities 13225:Urartu 13175:Hamazi 13170:Gutium 13145:Armani 13097:Tigris 13050:Modern 12527:anērān 12340:Crowns 12146:BBC – 12011:Livius 11984:5 July 11965:5 July 11942: 11917: 11902: 11885: 11739: 11698: 11672: 11662: 11632: 11611: 11592: 11574: 11556: 11539: 11512: 11494: 11473: 11454: 11431: 11395: 11372: 11345: 11285: 11253: 11235: 11193: 11173: 11151: 11131: 11110: 11076: 11051: 11026: 11005: 10982: 10950: 10927: 10897: 10871: 10847: 10826: 10762: 10741: 10723: 10705: 10608:, 118. 10583:. 2012 10557:. 1990 10531:. 2009 10459: 10309: 10130:"Seal" 9984: 9957: 9933: 9909: 9885: 9542: 9471: 9417: 9374: 9120:passim 8778: 8671: 8646:8 July 8614: 8587: 8489: 8243: 8091: 8057: 8034: 7949: 7902: 7860: 7703:terms 7360:Iberia 7198:vassal 7177:Narseh 7149:Edessa 7130:Avesta 7060:Bombay 7022:Talmud 7006:courts 6921:Slavic 6905:Makran 6893:Kirman 6838:Malays 6814:Strabo 6810:Meshan 6756:Gilaki 6736:Adhari 6706:Narseh 6671:Shmuel 6601:Iberia 6575:, the 6558:Syriac 6446:Avesta 6435:Avesta 6387:Nowruz 6359:Gathic 6321:Narseh 6231:, the 6171:spring 6155:autumn 6143:Nowruz 6120:herbad 6062:Kartir 6043:Tansar 6013:herbad 6008:Tansar 6002:King, 5965:Mazdak 5957:Avesta 5932:Under 5903:Tajiks 5833:, and 5694:Persia 5594:Syriac 5579:Athens 5515:, and 5446:years. 5302:Nowruz 5228:Gilani 5216:Latins 5197:Avesta 5193:Meshan 5112:Kalila 5044:, the 4843:Vahriz 4838:Abraha 4789:Russia 4706:, and 4620:, and 4533:, Iran 4514:nāvbed 4493:Sana'a 4489:Vahriz 4461:Paygan 4332:, and 4330:Iberia 4326:Kirman 4298:Masudi 4265:vizier 4254:mowbed 4251:and a 4185:dehqan 4155:Jamasp 4140:Jamasp 4120:Kharaj 4112:dhimmi 4106:, and 4077:Bahram 3912:Queen 3903:Diyala 3867:Slavic 3848:murals 3821:Ganzak 3815:, and 3813:Shahin 3793:, and 3769:, and 3735:Shahin 3720:Phocas 3694:Spahan 3651:Narses 3595:Vahriz 3561:Iberia 3522:Anglon 3464:Sittas 3460:Satala 3429:Lazica 3380:Jamasp 3374:Jamasp 3362:Mazdak 3338:Balash 3326:Sukhra 3291:argali 3097:Nizami 3054:heresy 3050:Avesta 3035:Tamgha 2985:Tamgha 2975:Early 2966:Jovian 2958:Julian 2843:, and 2816:Tigris 2769:Narseh 2743:Kartir 2731:Jewish 2724:Samuel 2649:Edessa 2533:Kushan 2501:Gorgan 2462:Edessa 2439:Mesene 2427:Kerman 2270:, and 2237:Persis 2219:, the 2107:, and 2101:Africa 2069:Levant 978:Sogdia 881:Urartu 625:on the 273:(last) 240: 226:Feudal 44: 17722:Lists 17677:Omani 17647:Dutch 17553:Isaaq 17504:Saadi 17472:Oirat 17455:First 17423:Qajar 17352:First 17335:First 17308:China 17281:Third 17141:First 17094:Tikal 17045:Morea 17015:Roman 16933:Latin 16928:Khmer 16923:Kanem 16889:Buyid 16815:Zagwe 16810:Aksum 16800:Chola 16707:First 16690:First 16677:Bornu 16672:Benin 16667:Aztec 16605:Roman 16586:Gupta 16571:Nanda 16507:White 16187:Music 16172:Sport 16102:Media 16087:Islam 16023:Blogs 15967:Women 15922:Crime 15910:Other 15871:Islam 15841:Kurds 15606:metro 15524:fruit 15482:Setad 14552:Zand 14462:Kart 14009:Yemen 14004:Turan 13949:Media 13944:Mazun 13882:Harev 13855:Egypt 13628:Music 13578:Akitu 13435:Roman 13327:Ubaid 13322:Halaf 13220:Tukri 13215:Sumer 13210:Suhum 13190:Media 13140:Akkad 12978:Syria 12854:Chal- 12832:Aram- 12707:Larsa 12500:Roads 12380:Women 12370:Music 12300:Kayus 11853:. 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