2261:
deeply in debt, and the forced selling of their land left them struggling to maintain their lavish lifestyle. In many cases, the newly freed serfs were forced to "rent" their land from wealthy landowners. Furthermore, when the peasants had to work for the same landowners to pay their "labor payments", they often neglected their own fields. Over the next few years, the yields from the peasants' crops remained low, and soon famine struck a large portion of Russia. With little food, and finding themselves in a similar condition as when they were serfs, many peasants started to voice their disdain for the new social system. On one occasion, on 12 April 1861, a local leader murdered a large number of uprising peasants in the village of Bezdna. When the incident was over, the official report counted 70 peasants dead and another 100 wounded. After further investigation, and trial of some members of the uprising, five peasants were found guilty of "agitation" and not uprising. That said, several different instances did take the form of an uprising.
31:
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property, free competition, entrepreneurship, and hired labor. This they hoped would bring about an economic system with minimal regulations and tariffs, thus a more "laissez-faire" economy. Soon after the reforms there was a substantial rise in the amount of production of grain for sale. Because of this there was also a rise in the number of hired laborers and in farm machinery. Furthermore, a significant measuring stick in the growth of the
Russian economy post-reform was the huge growth in non-gentry private landownership. Although the gentry land-holdings fell from 80% to 50%, the peasant holdings grew from 5% all the way to 20%.
2243:. In regards to new localized government, the reforms put in place a system where the landowners were now able to have more of a say within their newly formed "provinces". While this was not the direct intent of the reforms, it was evident that this significantly weakened the idea of the autocracy. Now, the "well-to-do" serfs, along with previously free peoples, were able to purchase land as private property. While early in the reforms the creation of local government had not changed many things about Russian society, the rise in
2110:("cut off lands"), making many forests, roads and rivers accessible only for a fee. The third measure was that the serfs must pay the land-owner for their allocation of land in a series of redemption payments, which in turn, were used to compensate the landowners with bonds. The government would advance 75% of the total sum to the land-owner, and then the peasants would repay the government, plus interest, over forty-nine years. The government finally cancelled these redemption payments in 1907.
2206:
2226:
1962:") and the inhabitants, as serfs, were typically not allowed to leave the property where they were born. The peasants were duty-bound to make regular payments in labor and goods. It has been estimated that landowners took at least one third of income and production by the first half of the nineteenth century.
2273:
and in northern Russia peasants became both free and landless (batraks), with only their labour to sell, while in other areas peasants became the majority land-owners in their province(s). The 1861 Emancipation
Manifesto affected only the privately owned serfs. The state-owned serfs were emancipated
2247:
drastically affected not only the social structure of Russia, but the behaviors and activities of the self-government institutions. With new, capitalistic ideals, local government was not responsible for the rules and regulations dictating how the new market would operate. If there was a positive of
2277:
Lastly, the reforms transformed the
Russian economy. The individuals who led the reform favored an economic system similar to that in other European countries, which promoted the ideas of capitalism and free trade. The reformers aimed to promote development and to encourage the ownership of private
2177:
factory in the city. A peasant was required to pay off long-term loans received by the government. The money from these loans was given to the primary landowner. The land allotted to the recently freed serfs did not include the best land in the country, which remained in the hands of the nobility.
2176:
communities had the power to distribute the land given to newly freed serfs by the
Russian government amongst individuals within the community. Due to the community's ownership of the land, as opposed to the individual's, an individual peasant could not sell his portion of the land to go work in a
2037:
My intention is to abolish serfdom ... you can yourself understand that the present order of owning souls cannot remain unchanged. It is better to abolish serfdom from above, than to wait for that time when it starts to abolish itself from below. I ask you to think about the best way to carry this
2180:
The implementation of land settlement varied over the vast and diverse territory of the
Russian Empire, but typically a peasant had rights to buy out about half of the land he cultivated for himself. If he could not afford to pay it off, he would receive a half of the half, i.e., a quarter of the
2196:
Some Mir's did not enter the land redemption process at all, remaining as temporarily obligated peasants under their former owners until an 1881 decree made redemption compulsory. In 1883, concerned by rising levels of tax arrears, the government made a 13% cut (varying by commune, as a national
2105:
To 'balance' this, the legislation contained three measures to reduce the potential economic self-sufficiency of the peasants. Firstly a transition period of two years was introduced, during which the peasant was obligated as before to the old land-owner. Secondly large parts of common land were
2260:
The serfs of private estates received less land than they needed to survive, which led to civil unrest. The redemption tax was so high that the serfs had to sell all the grain they produced to pay the tax, which left nothing for their survival. Landowners also suffered because many of them were
2192:
Though well planned in the legislation, the reform did not work smoothly. Many reform-minded peasants believed the manifesto's conditions were unacceptable: "In many localities the peasants refused to believe that the manifesto was genuine. There were troubles, and troops had to be called in to
2162:
This
Manifesto proclaimed the emancipation of the serfs on private estates and of the domestic (household) serfs. Serfs were granted the full rights of free citizens, gaining the rights to marry without having to gain consent, to own property and to own a business. The Manifesto also permitted
2101:
land seemed to leave the existing land-owners without the large and cheap labour-force they needed to maintain their estates and lifestyles. By 1859 however, a third of their estates and two-thirds of their serfs were mortgaged to the state or noble banks. This was why they had to accept the
2237:
strengthening the autocracy. In reality, the reforms forced the monarch to coexist with an independent court, free press, and local governments—all operating differently and more freely than they had in the past. This new form of local government involved in each area an assembly called a
2236:
Despite newly acquired freedom, the life of a serf remained grim in many aspects. Household serfs benefited the least, gaining their freedom, but no land. Many bureaucrats believed that these reforms would bring about drastic changes that would only affect the "lower stories" of society,
2068:
left the government acutely aware of the empire's weaknesses. Eager to grow and develop industrial and therefore military and political strength, they introduced a number of economic reforms. It was optimistically hoped that after the abolition the
1644:
97:
on private estates and of the domestic (household) serfs. By this edict more than 23 million people received their liberty. Serfs gained the full rights of free citizens, including rights to marry without having to gain consent, to
1970:
The need for urgent reform was well understood in 19th-century Russia. Much support for it emanated from universities, authors and other intellectual circles. Various projects of emancipation reforms were prepared by
2193:
disperse the angry crowds." The land-owners and nobility were paid in government bonds, with their debts deducted. The bonds soon fell in value. The management skills of the land-owners were generally poor.
1639:
102:
and to own a business. The
Manifesto prescribed that peasants would be able to buy the land from the landlords. Household serfs were the least affected: they gained only their freedom and no land.
2338:
1948:
in central Russia shared land and resources. The strips were periodically redistributed within the villages to produce level economic conditions. The land however, was not owned by the
2028:
expressed his desire for emancipation on many occasions, and even improved the lives of serfs on state properties, but did not change the condition of serfs on private estates.
2086:
The main point at issue was whether the serfs should remain dependent on the landlords, or whether they should be transformed into a class of independent communal proprietors.
1880:. They comprised an estimated 38% of the population. As well as having obligations to the state, they also were obliged to the landowner, who had great power over their lives.
2409:
On 30 March 1856 Alexander II made a speech to the
Marshalls of the Nobility in which he signalled the start of a process that led to the abolition of serfdom in 1861.
1765:
2327:
2252:
would "provide activity for the considerable portion of the press as well as those malcontents who currently stir up trouble because they have nothing to do".
1629:
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1514:
886:
623:
1250:
891:
2024:
appointed a committee to study possible emancipation, but its only effect was to prohibit the sale of serfs without their families. Beginning in 1825,
2494:
Charles
Wetherell, Andrejs Plakans, "Borders, ethnicity, and demographic patterns in the Russian Baltic provinces in the late nineteenth century",
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17:
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1711:
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913:
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provinces, a committee "for ameliorating the condition of the peasants" was founded and the principles of the abolition considered.
1684:
1504:
677:
2332:
105:
The serfs were emancipated in 1861, a process which took place following a speech given by Tsar
Alexander II on 30 March 1856. In
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1842:
948:
366:
2483:
1526:
1203:
975:
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The land-owners initially pushed for granting the peasants freedom but not any land. The tsar and his advisers, mindful of
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1479:
903:
672:
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106:
30:
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this movement towards localized government, from the autocracy's point of view; it was (as Petr Valuev put it): the
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874:
559:
549:
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373:
229:
1449:
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1944:) to deal with any external issues. Although there were many regional differences and customs, peasants within a
1728:
1499:
305:
2525:
1198:
1186:
766:
578:
224:
2844:
Gorshkov, Boris B (Fall 2000). "Serfs on the Move: Peasant Seasonal Migration in Pre-Reform Russia, 1800–61".
1997:
in 1807), but it was largely restored once Russia took over in 1815. Serfdom was abolished in governorates of
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1553:
414:
1775:
1619:
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918:
898:
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1976:
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554:
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3071:
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2749:
1860:
1694:
1546:
1531:
1422:
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109:, the emancipation took place later, in 1864, and on much better terms for the nobles than in Russia.
3056:
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2020:
was limited to 3 days a week, and never on Sunday, but this law was not enforced. Beginning in 1801,
1790:
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771:
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2423:"'The Peasants Have Always Fed Us': The Georgian Nobility and the Peasant Emancipation, 1856–1871"
446:
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1444:
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850:
281:
64:
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Pushkarev, Sergei G (April 1968). "The Russian Peasants' Reaction to the Emancipation of 1861".
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2079:, unlike his father, was willing to deal with this problem. Moving on from a petition from the
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1998:
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19 February] 1861, accompanied by the set of legislative acts under the general name
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833:
818:
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300:
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2584:"Dmitry Medvedev took part in the conference The Great Reforms and Modernisation of Russia"
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would dissolve into individual peasant land owners and the beginnings of a market economy.
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2002:
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2013:
1983:. However, conservative or reactionary nobility thwarted their efforts. In Western
1814:
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Russia in the Nineteenth Century: Autocracy, Reform, And Social Change, 1814–1914
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436:
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35:
2893:
Gorshkov, Boris B (2001). "Serfdom: Eastern Europe". In Sterns, Peter N. (ed.).
2210:
The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia: Work in Freedom is the Foundation of a State
2060:—also recognized that their country was one of a few remaining feudal states in
2771:
2213:
1980:
1807:
1701:
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234:
192:
87:
2968:
A Life Under Russian Serfdom: Memoirs of Savva Dmitrievich Purlevskii, 1800–68
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113:(those living on and working Imperial lands) were emancipated in 1866.
110:
75:
2804:
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2422:
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and the instability this could bring. But giving the peasants freedom
2043:
Alexander II's speech to the Marshalls of the Nobility, 30 March 1856.
74:– "peasants' reform of 1861") was the first and most important of the
2935:; Rosenwein, Barbara H.; Hsia, R. Po-chia; Smith, Bonnie G. (2008) .
2928:
2171:
2080:
1985:
1911:
985:
650:
512:
2719:
Polunov, Alexander (2005). Owen, Thomas C.; Zakharova, L.G. (eds.).
2157:
Polozheniya o krestyanakh, vykhodyashchikh iz krepostnoi zavisimosti
667:
2788:
2440:
2339:
Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century
2232:
coin commemorating the 150th anniversary of the emancipation reform
1994:
1952:; the land was the legal property of the 100,000 or so landowners (
1936:
1575:
1133:
1077:
1029:
689:
534:
389:
295:
93:
The 1861 Emancipation Manifesto proclaimed the emancipation of the
42:
listening to the proclamation of the Emancipation Manifesto in 1861
27:
Edict by Tsar Alexander II abolishing serfdom in the Russian Empire
2725:. New Russian history. Marshall S. Shatz, translator. Armonk, NY:
1859:
Those who lived on state lands, many of them under control of the
2239:
1855:
Just prior to 1861 Russia had three main categories of peasants:
1558:
640:
320:
137:
94:
2895:
Encyclopedia of European social history : from 1350 to 2000
2812:
2390:. Hachette UK: Hodder Education; Dynamic Learning. p. 11.
2225:
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1872:
Those who lived on private land, the so-called estate peasants.
1260:
1082:
662:
645:
507:
342:
310:
1877:
517:
503:
478:
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The liberal politicians who stood behind the 1861 manifesto—
2387:
AQA A-level History Tsarist and Communist Russia: 1855–1964
2154:Положения о крестьянах, выходящих из крепостной зависимости
2133:
384:
214:
2970:. Gorshkov, Boris B, ed. & trans. Budapest; New York:
2677:"Russian Serfdom and Emancipation: New Empirical Evidence"
1993:, serfdom had been abolished before it became Russian (by
1915:
in official terms). Imperial Russia had around 20 million
2274:
in 1866 and were given better and larger plots of land.
1863:. Also included many non-Russians throughout the empire.
2927:
2146:
Regulations Concerning Peasants Leaving Serf Dependence
2939:. Vol. C: Since 1740 (3rd ed.). Boston, MA:
2328:
Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
1919:, forty percent of them containing six to ten people.
2846:
Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History
2544:
A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891–1924
69:
1876:
Only those who were owned privately were considered
1515:
Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery
2748:
2613:
2514:A World History of Land Tenure and Agrarian Reform
2333:Economy of the Russian Empire#Abolition of serfdom
2616:Leaders of Russia and the Soviet Union Since 1613
2197:average) to payment rates to combat the problem.
3018:
2365:Mee, Arthur; Hammerton, J.A.; Innes, Arthur D.;
1630:13th Amendment to the United States Constitution
2064:. The pitiful display by Russian forces in the
1989:serfdom was abolished early in the century. In
2093:in Western Europe, were opposed to creating a
2163:peasants to buy the land from the landlords.
1836:
3062:1861 disestablishments in the Russian Empire
2937:The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures
2764:
2762:
2760:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2355:
2298:Government reforms of Alexander II of Russia
1635:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom
78:reforms enacted during the reign of Emperor
2838:Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)
2596:
2383:
2123:Peasants Reading the Emancipation Manifesto
2031:
2965:
2714:
2712:
2710:
2708:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2570:"Taras Shevchenko: Aral Sea expeditionary"
1883:The rural population lived in households (
1843:
1829:
2768:
2757:
2371:, 1907, Carmelite House, London; p. 5193.
2368:Harmsworth History of the World: Volume 7
2352:
2113:
2892:
2843:
2507:
2224:
2204:
2117:
1640:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf
1505:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery
1485:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90
29:
2718:
2697:
2568:Stakhiv, Eugene Z. (27 November 2015).
2567:
2501:
2255:
1965:
14:
3019:
2966:Purlevskii, Savva Dmitrievich (2005).
2611:
2605:
2132:The legal basis of the reform was the
1866:Those who lived on crown domains, the
2540:
2379:
2377:
1527:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention
1204:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea
48:emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia
2674:
2599:"Alexander II Emancipates the Serfs"
2421:Suny, Ronald Grigor (January 1979).
2420:
2384:Corrin, Chris; Feihn, Terry (2015).
1719:Slave marriages in the United States
1323:Human trafficking in the Middle East
2597:Worthington, Daryl (2 March 2015).
2106:passed to the major land-owners as
1058:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia
82:. The reform effectively abolished
24:
3067:19th century in the Russian Empire
3012:Emancipation Manifesto, in Russian
2831:
2374:
1712:last survivors of American slavery
25:
3093:
3005:
2972:Central European University Press
2166:
673:Field slaves in the United States
540:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate
2663:Peasant Wars of the 20th Century
2518:Lincoln Institute of Land Policy
550:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
545:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate
374:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
144:
2668:
2656:
2590:
2576:
2476:The Governing of Tsarist Russia
2313:Judicial reform of Alexander II
1500:Committee of Experts on Slavery
1051:East, Southeast, and South Asia
71:Krestyanskaya reforma 1861 goda
3037:Politics of the Russian Empire
2561:
2534:
2488:
2468:
2455:
2414:
1199:Slave raiding in Easter Island
60:Крестьянская реформа 1861 года
18:Abolition of serfdom in Russia
13:
1:
2345:
116:
2684:Yale Department of Economics
2303:Reform movement#Russia 1860s
2264:
1490:Temporary Slavery Commission
1151:Slavery in the Mongol Empire
7:
2622:Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers
2586:. Kremlin.ru. 3 March 2011.
2463:Russia Under the Old Regime
2281:
2200:
1510:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery
555:Volga Bulgarian slave trade
70:
10:
3098:
3027:1861 in the Russian Empire
2835:
2181:land, free. It was called
1861:Ministry of State Property
1695:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
1532:Anti-Slavery International
1297:North Africa and West Asia
3042:Law of the Russian Empire
2897:. Vol. 2. New York:
2478:Palgrave Macmillan p. 61
2153:
1891:), gathered as villages (
1791:Emancipation Proclamation
1463:Opposition and resistance
1221:Sex trafficking in Europe
1209:Blackbirding in Polynesia
772:Trans-Saharan slave trade
59:
2854:Johns Hopkins University
2032:Shaping of the manifesto
1571:Compensated emancipation
782:Indian Ocean slave trade
2572:. The Ukrainian Weekly.
2541:Figes, Orlando (1996).
2508:Powelson, John (1987).
1934:), appointed an elder (
1899:with a church became a
1495:1926 Slavery Convention
1251:Germany in World War II
868:North and South America
390:Contract of manumission
3077:Alexander II of Russia
2612:Paxton, John (2004) .
2516:]. Cambridge, MA:
2233:
2230:Central Bank of Russia
2222:
2138:Emancipation Manifesto
2129:
2125:, an 1873 painting by
2114:Emancipation Manifesto
2046:
976:British Virgin Islands
528:Circassian slave trade
494:Safavid imperial harem
489:Ottoman Imperial Harem
80:Alexander II of Russia
43:
2862:10.1353/kri.2008.0061
2496:Continuity and Change
2228:
2208:
2140:of 3 March [
2121:
2035:
2022:Alexander I of Russia
1215:Europe and North Asia
1175:Australia and Oceania
875:Pre-Columbian America
447:Slave raid of Suðuroy
379:Slavery in al-Andalus
301:Black Sea slave trade
230:21st-century jihadism
52:Edict of Emancipation
33:
2941:Bedford-St. Martin's
2852:(4). Baltimore, MD:
2288:Free agriculturalist
2256:Effects on the serfs
2026:Nicholas I of Russia
1966:Earlier reform moves
1958:, an equivalent of "
1670:Indentured servitude
1598:Underground Railroad
1398:United Arab Emirates
787:Zanzibar slave trade
754:By country or region
567:Atlantic slave trade
469:Ma malakat aymanukum
353:Venetian slave trade
50:, also known as the
2990:10.7829/j.ctt2jbnnh
2901:. pp. 379–88.
2474:Waldron, P. (2007)
1756:Slave Route Project
887:Americas indigenous
777:Red Sea slave trade
767:Contemporary Africa
630:Topics and practice
400:Crimean slave trade
395:Bukhara slave trade
348:Genoese slave trade
225:Contemporary Africa
205:Forced prostitution
34:A 1907 painting by
2779:(2). Hoboken, NJ:
2675:Nafziger, Steven.
2428:The Russian Review
2234:
2223:
2183:pauper's allotment
2130:
2127:Grigory Myasoyedov
1537:Blockade of Africa
844:Somali slave trade
760:Sub-Saharan Africa
452:Turkish Abductions
410:Khivan slave trade
405:Khazar slave trade
358:Balkan slave trade
316:Prague slave trade
44:
3072:March 1861 events
2933:Martin, Thomas R.
2665:, Eric Wolf, 1969
2547:. Jonathan Cape.
2510:The Story of Land
2498:(1999), 14: 33–56
2484:978-0-333-71718-9
2293:Serfdom in Russia
2187:bednyatskiy nadel
1977:Nikolay Mordvinov
1973:Mikhail Speransky
1940:) and a 'clerk' (
1853:
1852:
1803:Freedmen's Bureau
1625:Third Servile War
1620:International law
1187:Human trafficking
949:Human trafficking
624:Thirteen colonies
442:Sack of Baltimore
210:Human trafficking
111:State-owned serfs
68:
16:(Redirected from
3089:
3057:Reform in Russia
3001:
2962:
2924:
2889:
2825:
2824:
2766:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2747:. Archived from
2716:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2681:
2672:
2666:
2660:
2654:
2653:
2651:
2650:
2619:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2580:
2574:
2573:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2505:
2499:
2492:
2486:
2472:
2466:
2459:
2453:
2452:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2406:
2404:
2381:
2372:
2363:
2323:Slave Trade Acts
2155:
2058:Yakov Rostovtsev
2054:Alexei Strol'man
2050:Nikolay Milyutin
2044:
2014:Paul I of Russia
2005:in 1817, and in
1845:
1838:
1831:
1815:Emancipation Day
1648:
1615:Slave Trade Acts
306:Byzantine Empire
148:
121:
120:
73:
63:
61:
21:
3097:
3096:
3092:
3091:
3090:
3088:
3087:
3086:
3017:
3016:
3008:
2982:
2951:
2909:
2840:
2834:
2832:Further reading
2829:
2828:
2781:Wiley-Blackwell
2767:
2758:
2737:
2717:
2698:
2688:
2686:
2679:
2673:
2669:
2661:
2657:
2648:
2646:
2632:
2610:
2606:
2601:. NewHistorian.
2595:
2591:
2582:
2581:
2577:
2566:
2562:
2555:
2539:
2535:
2528:
2520:. p. 115.
2506:
2502:
2493:
2489:
2473:
2469:
2461:Richard Pipes,
2460:
2456:
2419:
2415:
2402:
2400:
2398:
2382:
2375:
2364:
2353:
2348:
2308:Stolypin reform
2284:
2271:Congress Poland
2267:
2258:
2203:
2169:
2116:
2045:
2042:
2034:
1991:Congress Poland
1968:
1909:('commune', or
1849:
1820:
1819:
1724:Slave narrative
1680:Fugitive slaves
1660:
1652:
1651:
1642:
1610:Slave rebellion
1465:
1455:
1454:
1413:
1403:
1402:
1225:United Kingdom
1161:Yankee princess
755:
747:
746:
474:Avret Pazarları
420:Avret Pazarları
289:Medieval Europe
255:
245:
244:
183:Forced marriage
158:
119:
86:throughout the
36:Boris Kustodiev
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3095:
3085:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3015:
3014:
3007:
3006:External links
3004:
3003:
3002:
2981:978-6155053955
2980:
2963:
2950:978-0312465100
2949:
2925:
2908:978-0684805788
2907:
2890:
2833:
2830:
2827:
2826:
2789:10.2307/127028
2772:Russian Review
2756:
2753:on 2014-03-04.
2736:978-0765606716
2735:
2696:
2667:
2655:
2631:978-0203505328
2630:
2604:
2589:
2575:
2560:
2553:
2533:
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2500:
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2467:
2454:
2441:10.2307/129075
2413:
2397:978-1471837807
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2266:
2263:
2257:
2254:
2214:Alphonse Mucha
2202:
2199:
2168:
2167:Implementation
2165:
2115:
2112:
2102:emancipation.
2040:
2033:
2030:
1981:Pavel Kiselyov
1967:
1964:
1932:sel'skii skhod
1926:assembly, the
1874:
1873:
1870:
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1736:
1731:
1721:
1716:
1715:
1714:
1709:
1702:List of slaves
1699:
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1672:
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1293:
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1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1246:Dutch Republic
1243:
1238:
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1236:
1231:
1223:
1217:
1216:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
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1126:
1125:
1124:
1114:
1109:
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1085:
1080:
1070:
1065:
1060:
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1047:
1046:
1041:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1027:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1006:
1005:
995:
990:
989:
988:
983:
978:
973:
963:
958:
953:
952:
951:
946:
941:
936:
931:
926:
921:
916:
911:
906:
896:
895:
894:
884:
883:
882:
871:
870:
864:
863:
858:
853:
848:
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846:
836:
831:
826:
821:
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811:
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791:
790:
789:
779:
774:
769:
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762:
756:
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752:
749:
748:
745:
744:
739:
734:
729:
724:
718:
717:
713:
712:
707:
705:Child soldiers
702:
697:
692:
687:
682:
681:
680:
670:
665:
660:
655:
654:
653:
648:
643:
632:
631:
627:
626:
621:
616:
614:Spanish Empire
611:
606:
601:
596:
594:Middle Passage
591:
586:
581:
576:
570:
569:
563:
562:
557:
552:
547:
542:
537:
532:
531:
530:
525:
520:
515:
510:
501:
496:
491:
486:
481:
476:
471:
466:
456:
455:
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
424:
423:
422:
415:Ottoman Empire
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
382:
376:
370:
369:
363:
362:
361:
360:
350:
345:
340:
339:
338:
333:
328:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
292:
291:
285:
284:
279:
274:
269:
263:
262:
256:
251:
250:
247:
246:
243:
242:
237:
235:Sexual slavery
232:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
201:
200:
195:
193:Child marriage
190:
180:
175:
170:
168:Child soldiers
165:
159:
154:
153:
150:
149:
141:
140:
130:
129:
118:
115:
88:Russian Empire
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3094:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3047:Russian serfs
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3013:
3010:
3009:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2773:
2765:
2763:
2761:
2751:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2723:
2715:
2713:
2711:
2709:
2707:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2685:
2678:
2671:
2664:
2659:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2617:
2608:
2600:
2593:
2585:
2579:
2571:
2564:
2556:
2554:0-224-04162-2
2550:
2546:
2545:
2537:
2529:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2504:
2497:
2491:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2464:
2458:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2429:
2424:
2417:
2410:
2399:
2393:
2389:
2388:
2380:
2378:
2370:
2369:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2356:
2351:
2341:
2340:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2318:Bezdna Unrest
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2279:
2275:
2272:
2262:
2253:
2251:
2246:
2242:
2241:
2231:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2219:The Slav Epic
2215:
2211:
2207:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2188:
2184:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2164:
2160:
2158:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2128:
2124:
2120:
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2100:
2096:
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2087:
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2078:
2074:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2039:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2016:decreed that
2015:
2010:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1987:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1963:
1961:
1960:landed gentry
1957:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1913:
1908:
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1746:Slave catcher
1744:
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1730:
1727:
1726:
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1722:
1720:
1717:
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1703:
1700:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1682:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1675:Forced labour
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1646:
1641:
1638:
1636:
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1618:
1616:
1613:
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1600:
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1579:
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1556:
1555:
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1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1539:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1521:
1520:Abolitionists
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
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1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1464:
1459:
1458:
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1441:
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1429:
1426:
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1416:
1415:
1412:
1407:
1406:
1399:
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1371:
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1324:
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1300:
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1287:
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1279:
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1274:
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1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1135:
1132:
1131:
1130:
1127:
1123:
1122:comfort women
1120:
1119:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1105:Chukri System
1103:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1074:
1071:
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1035:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1004:
1001:
1000:
999:
996:
994:
993:Latin America
991:
987:
984:
982:
979:
977:
974:
972:
969:
968:
967:
964:
962:
959:
957:
954:
950:
947:
945:
944:interregional
942:
940:
937:
935:
932:
930:
929:prison labour
927:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
905:
902:
901:
900:
899:United States
897:
893:
890:
889:
888:
885:
881:
878:
877:
876:
873:
872:
869:
866:
865:
862:
859:
857:
854:
852:
849:
845:
842:
841:
840:
837:
835:
832:
830:
827:
825:
822:
820:
817:
815:
812:
810:
807:
805:
802:
800:
797:
795:
792:
788:
785:
784:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
764:
761:
758:
757:
751:
750:
743:
740:
738:
735:
733:
730:
728:
725:
723:
720:
719:
715:
714:
711:
710:White slavery
708:
706:
703:
701:
700:Slave raiding
698:
696:
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
679:
676:
675:
674:
671:
669:
668:Corvée labour
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
638:
637:
634:
633:
629:
628:
625:
622:
620:
617:
615:
612:
610:
607:
605:
602:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
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582:
580:
577:
575:
572:
571:
568:
565:
564:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
529:
526:
524:
521:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
484:Abbasid harem
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
461:
460:
457:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
429:
428:
427:Barbary Coast
425:
421:
418:
417:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
380:
377:
375:
372:
371:
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134:Forced labour
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40:Russian serfs
37:
32:
19:
3082:Emancipation
2967:
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2894:
2849:
2845:
2776:
2770:
2750:the original
2721:
2687:. Retrieved
2683:
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2647:. Retrieved
2615:
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2435:(1): 27–51.
2432:
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2077:Alexander II
2075:
2070:
2047:
2036:
2018:corvee labor
2011:
2001:in 1816, in
1984:
1969:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1921:
1916:
1910:
1904:
1903:), run by a
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1882:
1875:
1854:
1751:Slave patrol
1588:Freedom suit
1564:Sierra Leone
1554:Colonization
1470:Abolitionism
1450:Baháʼí Faith
1423:Christianity
1373:Saudi Arabia
1229:Penal Labour
1194:Blackbirding
1100:Debt bondage
1088:penal system
914:Contemporary
904:Field slaves
892:U.S. Natives
851:South Africa
722:Galley slave
695:Slave market
685:House slaves
658:Blackbirding
636:Conscription
560:21st century
523:Umm al-walad
367:Muslim world
336:Emancipation
335:
240:Wage slavery
220:Penal labour
198:Wife selling
188:Bride buying
173:Conscription
163:Child Labour
156:Contemporary
104:
100:own property
92:
54:of Russia, (
51:
47:
45:
3032:1861 in law
2783:: 199–214.
2727:M.E. Sharpe
2689:9 September
2403:8 September
2212:(1914), by
2095:proletariat
2091:1848 events
2066:Crimean War
1955:pomeshchiks
1887:, singular
1766:court cases
1643: [
1593:Slave Power
1581:Manumission
1428:Catholicism
1303:Afghanistan
1044:Puerto Rico
956:The Bahamas
934:Slave codes
737:Shanghaiing
727:Impressment
619:Slave Coast
499:Qajar harem
459:Concubinage
432:slave trade
3021:Categories
2929:Hunt, Lynn
2856:: 627–56.
2836:See also:
2821:4892437069
2649:2014-03-04
2620:. London:
2527:0899462189
2346:References
2245:capitalism
2081:Lithuanian
1986:guberniyas
1781:J.Q. Adams
1771:Washington
1741:Slave name
1690:convention
1665:Common law
1038:Encomienda
834:Seychelles
819:Mauritania
742:Slave ship
609:Panyarring
604:New France
253:Historical
117:Background
38:depicting
2959:277156654
2921:833759358
2886:161338060
2878:741613421
2870:1531-023X
2797:1467-9434
2745:191935709
2640:437056484
2265:Aftermath
2012:In 1797,
2009:in 1819.
1912:obshchina
1776:Jefferson
1433:Mormonism
1368:Palestine
1182:Australia
1112:Indonesia
1003:Lei Áurea
986:Code Noir
966:Caribbean
939:Treatment
678:Treatment
651:Devshirme
513:Odalisque
331:In Russia
272:Babylonia
260:Antiquity
65:romanized
2998:57698677
2917:84386264
2899:Scribner
2813:43016148
2644:60161944
2282:See also
2201:Outcomes
2041:—
2003:Courland
1995:Napoleon
1937:starosta
1897:derevnya
1808:Iron bit
1798:40 acres
1761:breeding
1576:Freedman
1411:Religion
1271:Portugal
1156:Thailand
1146:Maldives
1141:Malaysia
1134:Kwalliso
1078:Booi Aha
1030:Restavek
1010:Colombia
981:Trinidad
971:Barbados
861:Zanzibar
809:Ethiopia
690:Saqaliba
584:Database
535:Saqaliba
296:Ancillae
126:a series
124:Part of
3052:Serfdom
2250:zemstvo
2240:zemstvo
2150:Russian
2108:otrezki
2007:Livonia
1999:Estonia
1893:derevni
1786:Lincoln
1659:Related
1559:Liberia
1445:Judaism
1383:Tunisia
1358:Morocco
1348:Lebanon
1313:Bahrain
1308:Algeria
1276:Romania
1241:Denmark
1234:Slavery
1168:Vietnam
839:Somalia
829:Nigeria
804:Comoros
732:Pirates
641:Ghilman
574:Bristol
464:history
437:pirates
326:History
215:Peonage
138:slavery
107:Georgia
84:serfdom
76:liberal
67::
56:Russian
2996:
2988:
2978:
2957:
2947:
2915:
2905:
2884:
2876:
2868:
2819:
2811:
2805:127028
2803:
2795:
2743:
2733:
2638:
2628:
2551:
2524:
2482:
2449:129075
2447:
2394:
2062:Europe
1979:, and
1707:owners
1343:Kuwait
1338:Jordan
1291:Sweden
1281:Russia
1266:Poland
1261:Norway
1083:Laogai
1068:Brunei
1063:Bhutan
1025:revolt
998:Brazil
961:Canada
924:partus
909:female
794:Angola
663:Coolie
646:Mamluk
599:Nantes
579:Brazil
508:Cariye
343:Thrall
311:Kholop
277:Greece
2986:JSTOR
2882:S2CID
2801:JSTOR
2680:(PDF)
2512:[
2445:JSTOR
1942:pisar
1928:skhod
1917:dvory
1885:dvory
1878:serfs
1734:songs
1729:films
1647:]
1603:songs
1440:Islam
1418:Bible
1393:Yemen
1388:Qatar
1378:Syria
1353:Libya
1318:Egypt
1286:Spain
1256:Malta
1129:Korea
1117:Japan
1095:India
1073:China
1020:Haiti
880:Aztec
856:Sudan
824:Niger
716:Naval
589:Dutch
518:Qiyan
504:Jarya
479:Harem
321:Serfs
267:Egypt
95:serfs
2994:OCLC
2976:ISBN
2955:OCLC
2945:ISBN
2913:OCLC
2903:ISBN
2874:OCLC
2866:ISSN
2817:OCLC
2809:LCCN
2793:ISSN
2741:OCLC
2731:ISBN
2691:2023
2636:OCLC
2626:ISBN
2549:ISBN
2522:ISBN
2480:ISBN
2405:2015
2392:ISBN
2142:O.S.
2134:Tsar
2056:and
1922:The
1901:selo
1895:; a
1889:dvor
1868:udel
1685:laws
1547:U.S.
1542:U.K.
1480:U.S.
1475:U.K.
1363:Oman
1333:Iraq
1328:Iran
1015:Cuba
919:maps
814:Mali
799:Chad
385:Baqt
282:Rome
178:Debt
136:and
46:The
2858:doi
2785:doi
2437:doi
2269:In
2189:).
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