713:, and exhume the remains of victims from this particular massacre in an attempt to figure out how many casualties were recorded. Exhumation took place from 13 to 17 November 1992 under the supervision of Dr. Clyde Snow, Dr. Robert H. Kirschner, Dr. Douglass Scott, and Dr. John Fitzpatrick of the Santa Tecla Institute of Forensic Medicine and of the Commission for the Investigation of Criminal Acts. In the exhumation the doctors worked alongside Patricia Bernardi, Mercedes Doretti and Luis Fondebrider of the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team. The process discovered skeletal remains of at least 143, however they noted that there may have been a greater number of casualties. The forensic report supported victim testimonies that "victims were summarily executed," and that at least 24 people participated in the shootings.
517:
28:
740:
561:
1525:
358:
543:, who continued to enforce severe offences against the FMLN. In November 1989 the FMLN organized a major offensive against multiple urban cities, including the capital city. The military was taken by surprise and had to fight vehemently for weeks before the guerrillas were forced to retreat. The battle employed egregious indiscriminate violence throughout
802:
in 1996. More recently in 2003, the
Monument of Memory and Truth was erected in San Salvador. The tribute is a granite wall engraved with the names of those killed or disappeared during the country's civil war. However at the time the project began, a list of victims' names was incomplete, thus as of
776:
established special commissions to address reparations, which have yet to result in the payment of reparations. Funes is the first president to officially apologize and acknowledge the abuses of the civil war. In 2016, the El
Salvador Supreme Court ruled that the amnesty law was unconstitutional and
730:
According to the commission's mandate, its recommendations were legally binding. These recommendations urged the dismissal of any military officers or civil servants that were involved in the atrocities from government employment, as well as disqualifying them from holding positions in public office.
664:
The ambiguity of the wording gave the commission the authority to decide which incidents they would investigate, as not every account could be heard. The commission had to take the importance and social impact affiliated with each event into consideration in order to pursue further investigation. The
581:
In
December 1991 the Salvadoran government and FMLN representatives met at the United Nations headquarters in New York City to sign the Act of New York, which effectively combined several agreements signed up until that date, including the Mexico Agreement of 1991 that called for the establishment of
551:
and two women were executed by soldiers who entered their residence under the pretense that they were aiding leftist fighters. The massacre garnered widespread international coverage of the atrocities in El
Salvador, urging pressure for negotiations between the conflicting sides. By the conclusion of
411:
387:
was elected to a four-year term as president in 1935 and re-elected in 1939 to a six-year term. In 1944 legislation was passed to allow Hernández MartĂnez to serve another five years yet this proved too much for the
Salvadoran people. In May 1944 revolution broke out forcing him to resign from office
763:
Many of the commission's recommendations were not accepted or implemented by the government. Approximately 200 senior members of the military were removed from their positions; they retired with full honours and benefits. In 1996, a new
Criminal Procedure Code was introduced into the judicial system
726:
The commission concluded that approximately 85% of the abuses committed between 1980 and 1991 were committed by government forces. Controversially, the commission named over 40 senior members of the military, judicial system, and armed opposition in the report for their involvement in the conduction
603:
The commission was established in accordance with the Mexico
Agreement of 1991, assigned to investigate "serious acts of violence that had occurred between January 1980 and July 1991" that required "public knowledge of the truth". Three international public figures were appointed as commissioners by
756:. The high commander of the Salvadoran military publicly responded to the report on national television, through a statement read by the defense minister. The statement claimed that the report was "unfair, incomplete, illegal, unethical, biased, and insolent." Furthermore, the Salvadoran president,
573:
With increasing international pressure and
Cristiani's doubt over the military's abilities to stifle the FMLN, UN-mediated peace talks began in July 1990 when both signed the Agreement on Human Rights. This accord was tasked with establishing a United Nations mission that would monitor human rights
647:
The commission's final report with conclusions and recommendations was to be transmitted to the
Secretary-General who would make the report public. In the commission's mandate, both parties agreed to comply with its final recommendations. Lastly, the commission was granted for a period of only six
504:
control leading to "another
Nicaragua" situation. The United States government continued to finance the war in El Salvador throughout the 1980s, providing approximately $ 4.5 billion in military and other aid. The United States provided elite training and organization, sophisticated weaponry, and
686:
The commission heard approximately 2,000 witness testimonies on the scope of atrocities committed. Additionally it collected data from national and international human rights groups, detailing the accounts of over 20,000 additional witnesses. All of this painstaking research was conducted by the
751:
in March 1993, human rights advocates in El Salvador and the United States accepted and applauded the commission for its analysis of the atrocities, and for its recommendations. However it was criticized for failing to scrutinize the involvement of the United States, as well as the activity of
691:
They realized that the Secretary-General... had not been wrong in seeking to preserve the Commission's credibility by looking beyond considerations of sovereignty and entrusting this task to three scholars from other countries, in contrast to what had been done in Argentina and Chile after the
672:
The mandate also entrusted the commission with producing "legal, political or administrative" recommendations, however it failed to specify the principles of law applicable to it. Moreover, during the time the commission took place, El Salvador was obligated by international law to adjust its
403:, executed a countercoup. The new administration demonstrated their progressive ideologies, introducing over 300 new laws within nine months. In 1962, Rivera resigned from the junta in order to seek the presidency. He was elected and served a full term which concluded in 1967. His successor
731:
The commission also proposed an overhaul of El Salvador's judicial and legal system. Furthermore, it called for reparations and monetary compensation to victims and survivors. Lastly, the commission recommended the creation of a forum to oversee the implementation of its recommendations.
466:
was responsible for ordering Romero's assassination. In October 1980 the FMLN was officially created as an amalgamation of five leftist guerrilla groups. Their main opposition was D'Aubuisson, and he is assumed to have been the main organizer behind an attempted coup against the JRG.
668:
The commission understood that the purpose of its formation was to "find and publicize the truth about the acts of violence committed by both sides during the war". Furthermore, they agreed that the necessity of a public report on their findings was an urgent matter.
793:
in an attempt to nationally recognize the atrocities of the war. In 1992 Salvadoran sculptor Ruben Martinez was commissioned to create a monument dedicated to "the birth of an era of peace in El Salvador." Following the signing of the Chapultepec Peace Accords,
337:
appointed three lead commissioners, with the agreement of both the Salvadoran government and the FMLN, to head the investigation. Unlike preceding restorative justice initiatives, the Salvadoran commission was composed entirely of international commissioners.
1712:
492:
to speak out against the injustices. In October 1979 Romero was ousted in yet another military coup. The coup compounded with the assassination of Archbishop Ă“scar Romero was ultimately the tipping point, marking the beginning of civil war.
768:
law, modifying an amnesty law passed on 23 January 1992, a week after the signing of the peace agreement ending the civil war. To date, the government has yet to adopt the recommendation to award reparations to victims or survivors.
431:, the oligarchy which controls a disproportionate share of wealth. The two-day revolt was opposed and suppressed by Hernández MartĂnez, who authorized the execution of thousands of Salvadorans, in what is commonly referred to as
665:
mandate however did not distinguish large-scale acts of violence from smaller ones, it simply emphasized "serious acts of violence" which often outraged the Salvadoran public or potentially garnered international attention.
687:
three lead commissioners and a support staff of twenty members, as well as an additional twenty five short-term staff in the concluding months of the commission. The commission staff did not include any Salvadorans.
764:
in accordance with the commission's recommendation, one of the few recommendations implemented. On 20 March 1993, five days after the release of the UN commission's report, the government passed a blanket
438:
Clashes between the right-wing military government and left-wing guerrillas continued virtually incessantly until the 1970s. Throughout the 1970s guerrillas faced constant antagonization from paramilitary
135:. It is estimated that 1.4 percent of the Salvadoran population was killed during the war. The commission operated from July 1992 until March 1993, when its findings were published in the final report,
505:
helicopters to the Salvadoran military. According to Benjamin Schwarz, America's involvement in El Salvador was the most "prolonged and expensive military endeavour in the period between the
660:
The commission shall have the task of investigating serious acts of violence that have occurred since 1980 and whose impact on society urgently demands that the public should know the truth.
1242:
1750:
1385:
388:
and allowing the military to seize control of the government. General Andrés Menéndez assumed the presidency, however after only five months another revolt took place leaving
1557:
536:, in which nearly 1,000 civilians were killed during a military counterinsurgency operation. The decade would continue to see violent clashes between the opposing parties.
1839:
1755:
229:
163:
1672:
435:. It is estimated that between 10,000 and 30,000 civilians were killed as a result of the peasant revolt, with a majority of the casualties being indigenous people.
1780:
727:
of the mass atrocities. Furthermore, from the 22,000 testimonies documented, at least 60% involved murders, 25% involved disappearances, and 20% involved torture.
1722:
1787:
1582:
447:(JRG) promising reform. By January 1980 right-wing extremists were threatening violence against the JRG, forcing all of its civilian members to resign.
1727:
1592:
1732:
1667:
1550:
1717:
427:
led a peasant revolt in the western countryside of El Salvador. The revolt was in opposition to the military dictatorship and what is known as the
261:
373:. Despite this unrest however, political violence was relatively low until 1931 with the emergence of military dictatorship. In 1931, President
1775:
156:
1829:
1677:
1652:
1602:
444:
1737:
1574:
1543:
1048:
1005:
139:. The eight-month period heard from over 2,000 witness testimonies and compiled information from an additional 20,000 witness statements.
1854:
1767:
414:
A Farabundo MartĂ National Liberation Front (FMLN) soldier takes aim during a wartime "road advisory" near Suchitoto, El Salvador (1984).
1702:
1392:
798:, a Venezuelan journalist, proposed an initiative to preserve and commemorate Salvadoran history. The result was the foundation of the
1859:
1647:
149:
1171:
1617:
605:
327:
overseeing the negotiations. The agreement was finalized and signed by both parties on 16 January 1992, at what is known as the
1762:
548:
369:
experienced years of political strife mostly due to the unequal spread of wealth throughout the country, a long-term effect of
286:
1692:
880:
217:
1296:
1844:
1687:
1612:
1417:
702:
626:
370:
200:
1849:
1662:
760:, claimed that the report did not fulfill the desires of the Salvadoran people who wanted to "forget this painful past."
673:
domestic judicial system, and constrained to observe international human rights laws as the ONUSAL mission was underway.
384:
378:
124:
1657:
1587:
1083:"The killing of Archbishop Oscar Romero was one of the most notorious crimes of the cold war. Was the CIA to blame?"
212:
1742:
799:
529:
400:
256:
1435:
1834:
1707:
1682:
1119:
404:
334:
324:
239:
195:
70:
1330:
795:
1637:
564:
UN intervention led to the signing of the Chapultepec Peace Agreements ending the twelve year civil war.
1515:
407:
was elected in March 1967, what was considered the most honest presidential election up to that point.
222:
1270:
389:
1597:
1243:"'Removing the Veil': El Salvador Apologizes for State Violence on 20th Anniversary of Peace Accords"
1082:
587:
328:
298:
582:
a truth commission. Both parties also agreed to sign a final Peace Agreement on 16 January 1992 in
500:
began to show an increasing interest in Salvadoran affairs, fearing the country was susceptible to
1697:
1607:
1468:
234:
1360:
790:
644:
The commission opened offices throughout the country in Chalatenango, Santa Ana and San Miguel.
482:
463:
459:
347:
281:
377:
permitted the country's first free elections. This however resulted in a military coup led by
251:
1808:
476:
276:
173:
132:
395:
This cycle of instability and military intervention plagued the country until 1961 when a
374:
8:
525:
271:
121:
1144:
971:
867:
743:
Monumento a la ConstituciĂłn located in San Salvador, erected in 1992 to symbolize peace.
131:
to investigate the grave wrongdoings that occurred throughout the country's twelve year
1529:
706:
622:
612:
533:
316:
266:
90:
532:(Arena), to combat the FMLN. One of the most violent markers of the civil war was the
516:
424:
1443:
1179:
1090:
1056:
876:
757:
648:
months to perform its investigation, although this was later extended by two months.
540:
428:
315:
In December 1991, preliminary talks began between the Salvadoran government and the
1566:
1217:
1205:
820:
739:
633:
510:
443:, leading to increasing violence. In October 1979 the government was ousted by the
111:
100:
Investigate the extent of human rights violations throughout the 12 year civil war.
1493:
1331:"UNITED NATIONS OBSERVER MISSION IN EL SALVADOR (ONUSAL) – Background (Full text)"
1172:"El Salvador ex-colonel fights extradition for notorious murder of Jesuit priests"
1049:"Participant in 1980 assassination of Romero in El Salvador provides new details"
486:
27:
869:
Unspeakable Truths: Transitional Justice and the Challenges of Truth Commissions
451:
1803:
773:
560:
396:
128:
481:
By late 1979, tensions once again rose in El Salvador, with the government of
1823:
1630:
1625:
1447:
1222:
1183:
1094:
1060:
497:
455:
1033:. Vol. 4. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2007. pp. 414–415.
920:
From Madness to Hope: Report of the Commission on the Truth for El Salvador
753:
544:
190:
918:
Betancur, Belisario, Thomas Buergenthal and Reinaldo Figueredo Planchart.
361:
General Maximiliano Hernández MartĂnez served as President from 1935–1944.
583:
506:
462:
ceremony in San Salvador. It is alleged that death squad commander Major
440:
366:
80:
141:
1418:"El Salvador's 1993 Amnesty Law Overturned: Implications for Colombia"
710:
637:
539:
The presidential election of 1989 saw the victory of Arena candidate
501:
410:
357:
1535:
1145:"El Salvador told to investigate 1981 El Mozote massacre – BBC News"
803:
2008 the wall had engraved 30,000 names and was an ongoing project.
786:
616:
552:
the war in 1992, an estimated 75,000 Salvadorans had been killed.
765:
777:
that the El Salvador government could prosecute war criminals.
575:
489:
593:
392:
in control, marking another period of unrest in the country.
320:
1469:"Monuments of interest Historical | Visit EL Salvador"
1513:
1494:"Museum Information: MUSEO DE LA PALABRA Y LA IMAGEN"
1271:"El Salvador's Funes apologizes for civil war abuses"
520:
Guerrilla combatants in PerquĂn, El Salvador in 1990.
1386:"El Salvador's Amnesty Law: A Monument to Impunity?"
524:
In September 1981, Roberto D'Aubuisson formed a new
1840:
United Nations organizations based in North America
821:"What is Restorative Justice? – Suffolk University"
721:
1297:"Database – Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP)"
1821:
785:In recent years there has been a push to create
701:The commission contracted the assistance of the
485:committing various human rights abuses, leading
1006:"Encyclopedia – Britannica Online Encyclopedia"
568:
1551:
157:
1046:
1206:"How Did the Civil War in El Salvador End?"
594:The Commission on the Truth for El Salvador
1558:
1544:
1433:
945:Blutstein, Howard I.; et al. (1985).
656:The commission's official mandate stated:
598:
399:of conservative military officers, led by
164:
150:
1221:
944:
454:, an outspoken human rights advocate was
401:Lieutenant Colonel Julio Adalberto Rivera
321:Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front
738:
734:
559:
515:
418:
409:
356:
341:
171:
1436:"An incomplete monument in El Salvador"
1117:
875:. New York: Routledge. pp. 49–51.
692:military dictatorships there had ended.
555:
1822:
1429:
1427:
1203:
972:"CJA : Background on El Salvador"
949:. Washington: The American University.
914:
912:
865:
818:
696:
379:General Maximiliano Hernández MartĂnez
117:ComisiĂłn de la Verdad para El Salvador
1565:
1539:
1355:
1353:
1351:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1265:
1263:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1113:
1111:
1047:O'Connor, Anne-Marie (6 April 2010).
910:
908:
906:
904:
902:
900:
898:
896:
894:
892:
861:
681:
632:Reinaldo Figueredo Planchart, former
547:, leading to one of 16 November 1989
145:
1830:Truth and reconciliation commissions
1204:Chavez, Joaquin M. (December 2015).
1170:Katz, Jonathan M. (20 August 2015).
1169:
1080:
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843:
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796:Carlos "Santiago" Henriquez Consalvi
703:Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team
627:Inter-American Court of Human Rights
1424:
1118:Schwarz, Benjamin (December 1998).
716:
13:
1855:El Salvador and the United Nations
1348:
1314:
1260:
1230:
1108:
889:
780:
352:
323:(FMLN), with UN secretary-general
14:
1871:
1037:
989:
953:
925:
838:
705:to investigate the controversial
1860:Truth and reconciliation reports
1788:Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)
1618:Democratic Republic of the Congo
1523:
1434:Ellingwood, Ken (28 July 2008).
1365:United States Institute of Peace
365:Since its independence in 1838,
108:Truth Commission for El Salvador
26:
21:Truth Commission for El Salvador
1486:
1461:
1410:
1378:
1361:"Truth Commission: El Salvador"
1289:
1197:
1163:
1137:
1031:The New Encyclopædia Britannica
800:Museo de la Palabra y la Imagen
722:Conclusions and Recommendations
530:Nationalist Republican Alliance
423:In January 1932, labour leader
405:Colonel Fidel Sánchez Hernández
390:Colonel OsmĂn Aguirre y Salinas
1210:The American Historical Review
1074:
1023:
812:
528:political party, known as the
445:Revolutionary Government Junta
1:
866:Hayner, Priscilla B. (2011).
806:
676:
651:
450:On 24 March 1980, Salvadoran
1391:. 2 May 2013. Archived from
947:El Salvador: A Country Study
574:issues in the country, thus
549:murder of six Jesuit priests
470:
329:Chapultepec Peace Agreements
7:
1845:Human rights in El Salvador
1081:Gibb, Tom (22 March 2000).
569:United Nations Intervention
10:
1876:
1850:United Nations commissions
625:, former president of the
474:
345:
1796:
1772:United States of America
1747:Timor-Leste (East Timor)
1573:
588:Chapultepec Peace Accords
183:
96:
86:
76:
66:
58:
50:
42:
34:
25:
20:
922:. 11–13. 1993. PDF file.
1473:www.visitelsalvador.net
599:Formation and Structure
586:, what is known as the
452:Archbishop Ă“scar Romero
425:AgustĂn Farabundo MartĂ
335:Javier Pérez de Cuéllar
325:Javier Pérez de Cuéllar
319:guerrilla militia, the
1223:10.1093/ahr/120.5.1784
744:
694:
662:
615:, former president of
565:
521:
415:
362:
348:History of El Salvador
115:
819:University, Suffolk.
742:
735:Impact and Criticisms
689:
658:
563:
519:
483:General Carlos Romero
419:Formation of the FMLN
413:
360:
342:Historical background
1835:Salvadoran Civil War
1809:Transitional justice
1398:on 19 September 2016
749:From Madness to Hope
747:With the release of
556:End of the Civil War
477:Salvadoran Civil War
371:Spanish colonization
175:Salvadoran Civil War
137:From Madness to Hope
71:UN Secretary General
1053:The Washington Post
772:In 2010, President
697:External Assistance
464:Roberto D'Aubuisson
240:Lolotique shootdown
122:restorative justice
59:Scope of Commission
1151:. 11 December 2012
745:
682:Collection of Data
623:Thomas Buergenthal
613:Belisario Betancur
566:
534:El Mozote massacre
522:
416:
385:Hernández MartĂnez
363:
201:Political tensions
91:Belisario Betancur
1817:
1816:
1567:Truth commissions
1440:Los Angeles Times
1277:. 16 January 2010
882:978-0-415-80635-0
758:Alfredo Cristiani
606:Secretary-General
541:Alfredo Cristiani
496:In late 1980 the
429:Fourteen Families
375:PĂo Romero Bosque
312:
311:
235:Offensive of 1989
230:Offensive of 1982
218:Offensive of 1981
196:1972 coup attempt
104:
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1797:Related concepts
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1216:(5): 1784–1797.
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717:The Final Report
634:foreign minister
304:Truth Commission
257:Romero's funeral
223:Ilopango Airport
213:1979 coup d'Ă©tat
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127:approved by the
125:truth commission
30:
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1723:Solomon Islands
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1420:. 25 July 2016.
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825:www.suffolk.edu
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791:sites of memory
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781:Sites of Memory
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709:in the town of
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1781:Maine Wabanaki
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367:El Salvador
277:El Calabozo
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46:1 July 1992
43:Established
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1588:Bangladesh
1335:www.un.org
807:References
677:Activities
652:Objectives
526:right-wing
433:la matanza
272:Santa Rita
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638:Venezuela
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293:Aftermath
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267:El Mozote
246:Massacres
207:Civil War
133:civil war
62:1980–1992
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1478:24 March
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707:massacre
617:Colombia
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1306:2 March
1281:2 March
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