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Switch-reference markers often appear attached to verbs, but they are not a verbal category. They often appear attached to sentence-initial particles, sentence-initial recapitulative verbs, adverbial conjunctions ('when', 'because', etc.), or coordinators ('and' or 'but' though it seems never 'or'),
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Switch-reference is also sensitive to syntactic structure. It can skip a clause that is string-adjacent (spoken one right after another) and refer to a matrix clause. For instance, in the configuration ], for which B and C are subordinate clauses to A, any switch-reference-marking on C refers to A,
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of northwestern Mexico also has a switch-reference system which is similar in most ways to those of other languages except for one very salient fact: the relevant argument in a passive clause is not the superficial subject of the passive verb but rather the always unexpressed underlying subject. In
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One certain typological fact about switch-reference is that switch-reference markers appear at the 'edges' of clauses. It is found at the edge of either a subordinate clause (referring to the matrix clause) or at the edge of a coordinate clause (referring to the previous clause). It is also very
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of
California and Nevada exhibits a switch-reference system. When the subject of one verb is the same as the subject of the following verb, the verb takes no switch-reference marker. However, if the subject of one verb differs from the subject of the following verb, the verb takes the "different
132:. For purposes of switch-reference, subject is defined as it is for languages with a nominative–accusative alignment: a subject is the sole argument of an intransitive clause or the agent of a transitive one. It holds even in languages with a high degree of
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languages, with verbs as well as complementizers and conjunctions coming at the end of clauses. Therefore, switch-reference often appears attached to verbs, a fact that has led to the common but erroneous claim that switch-reference is a verbal category.
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Switch-reference markers often carry additional meanings or are at least fused with connectives that carry them. For instance, a switch-reference marker might mark a different subject and sequential events.
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phylum, but not in many Papuan language families of northern New Guinea), and the South
Pacific. Typologies exist for North America (Jacobsen 1983), Australia (Austin 1981), and New Guinea (Roberts 1997).
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The basic distinction made by a switch-reference system is whether the following clause has the same subject (SS) or a different subject (DS). That is known as
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Marlett (1984), Farrell, Marlett & Perlmutter (1991). The facts are almost opposite of what is predicted by the proposals made in Finer (1984, 1985).
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of the verb in one clause is coreferent with that of the previous clause, or of a subordinate clause to the matrix (main) clause that is dominating it.
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Farrell, Patrick; Stephen A. Marlett; & David M. Perlmutter. (1991). Notions of subjecthood and switch-reference: Evidence from Seri.
436:('that'). They can also appear as free morphemes or as differing agreement paradigms. However, most switch-reference languages are
575:
Jacobsen, William. (1983). "Typological and
Genetic Notes on Switch-Reference in North American Languages". In Haiman and Munro.
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indicates that the two subjects wrote letters at the same time, to the same person, and with the same subject (Watkins 1993).
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The nominative subject is not always marked by switch-reference. For instance, many clauses, including those with
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Stirling, Lesley (1993). "Switch-Reference and
Discourse Representation". Cambridge, England: Cambridge U. Press.
316:, the co-referents of arguments other than the subject being marked by switch-reference. Here is an example from
599:, 101–241. Number 3 in Papers in Papuan Linguistics. Canberra, ACT, Australia: Australian National University.
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485:, which accounts for the fact that the morphological marking varies from one language to the next.
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or weather verbs, have no subject at all but can both bear and trigger switch-reference.
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Finer, Daniel. (1985). "The syntax of switch-reference". Linguistic
Inquiry 16: 35-55.
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518:. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 895–938.
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514:(2018). "The morphosyntactic typology of Papuan languages". In Palmer, Bill (ed.).
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Watkins, Laurel (1993). "The
Discourse Function of Kiowa Switch-Reference".
592:, pp. 247–68, eds. E.-D. Cook & D. Gerdts. New York: Academic Press.
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Marlett, Stephen A. (1984). '"Switch-reference and subject raising in Seri."
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The
Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide
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Syntax and semantics 16: the syntax of Native
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that signals whether certain prominent arguments in 'adjacent'
545:. (1981). "Switch-Reference in Australia". Language
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subject" marker, -š (examples from Mithun 1999:269):
605:van Gijn, Rik & Hammond, Jeremy (eds.) (2016).
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411:In this case, the use of the same-subject marker
407:Kathryn wrote a letter and Esther wrote one, too.
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614:International Journal of American Linguistics
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292:, it is the raised subject that is relevant.
432:relativizers ('which,'that'), or sentence
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80:Learn how and when to remove this message
585:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
461:It is found in hundreds of languages in
415:rather than the switch-reference marker
186:yá·saʼ duléʼšugi yá·saʼ gedumbéc̓edášaʼi
43:This article includes a list of general
445:common in clause-chaining languages of
116:. In most cases, it marks whether the
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570:Switch Reference and Universal Grammar
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312:In addition, many languages exhibit
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568:, and Pamela Munro, eds. (1983).
457:Distribution of switch-reference
423:Form of switch-reference markers
279:will drink" (different subjects)
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314:non-canonical switch-reference
308:Non-canonical switch-reference
204:is reaching toward him, again
193:.is.reaching.toward.him again
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404:Esther-too 'she-it' write.PFV
208:will poke him" (same subject)
104:) describes any clause-level
296:Non-subject switch-reference
124:Meanings of switch-reference
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400:Kathryn 'she-it' write.PFV
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197:.is.going.to.poke.him
182:.is.going.to.poke.him
607:Switch reference 2.0
438:subject–object–verb
554:Linguistic Inquiry
397:Esther-àl gʲà kwút
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268:.will.drink
247:.will.drink
94:linguistics
62:introducing
627:Categories
537:References
447:New Guinea
370:Esther-too
302:impersonal
134:ergativity
45:references
638:Ambiguity
559::431-456.
471:Australia
367:Esther-àl
251:mémluyi -
157:duléʼšugi
581:(1999).
378:'she-it'
336:'she-it'
106:morpheme
633:Grammar
453:not B.
328:Kathryn
325:Kathryn
214:mémluyi
200:"Again
118:subject
110:clauses
58:improve
522:
402:and.SS
386:write.
344:write.
261:.eat -
255:lémehi
241:lémehi
189:again
168:yá·saʼ
149:yá·saʼ
47:, but
489:Notes
318:Kiowa
275:eat,
171:again
152:again
520:ISBN
383:kwút
358:and.
341:kwút
283:The
271:"If
220:.eat
139:The
112:are
388:PFV
375:gʲà
346:PFV
333:gʲà
273:you
259:you
218:you
136:.
92:In
629::
617:59
557:22
547:57
469:,
465:,
417:nɔ
413:gɔ
395:gɔ
360:SS
353:gɔ
263:DS
234:DS
206:he
202:he
195:he
191:he
180:he
161:he
102:SR
96:,
619:.
549:.
528:.
277:I
266:I
253:š
245:I
231:-
227:š
225:-
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