1729:
4007:, which was sited in the center of the city. Markets were established at convenient points, which were overseen by market officers charged with ensuring the quality of goods. The cities were divided into quarters, and each quarter was reserved for particular tribes. During the reign of Umar, there were restrictions on the construction of palatial buildings by the rich and elites—symbolic of the egalitarian society of Islam, where all were equal—although the restrictions were later revoked by Uthman because of the rise in the overall standard of living, and the construction of two-story buildings were permitted. As a result, many palatial buildings were constructed throughout the empire, including Uthman's huge palace in Medina,
2155:
4169:
3511:
1628:
4587:
2268:
2397:
913:
1714:
2204:
2170:
2092:
4231:, Khalid ibn al-Walid's extraordinary march from the Persian border to Damascus). The cavalry was the army's main strike force and also served as a strategic mobile reserve. The common tactic was to use the infantry and archers to engage and maintain contact with the enemy while the cavalry was held back till the enemy was fully engaged. Once fully engaged, the enemy reserves were held by the infantry and archers, while the cavalry executed a pincer movement (like modern tank and mechanized divisions) to attack the enemy from the sides or to assault their base camps.
2003:
2389:
1243:
882:
74:
1122:
492:
4670:
4126:) and Uthman had "already inaugurated a nepotistic style of government", for which later Caliphs were condemned, and wonders if the idea of a divinely guided "golden age" of early Islam came from a need by late Umayyad and Abbasid religious scholars to differentiate the first caliphs (who had more power in law making) and the contemporary Caliphs who they wanted to defer to them (the ulama) in religious matters. Consequently, the companions were "given a makeover" as "model's of piety and beyond reproach".
1509:
1909:
garrisoned and administered. The continued existence of the
Persian government was, however, incitement to revolt in the conquered territories and unlike the Byzantine army, the Sasanian army was continuously striving to regain their lost territories. Finally, Umar pressed forward, which eventually resulted in the wholesale conquest of the Sasanian Empire. Yazdegerd, the Sasanian king, made yet another effort to regroup and defeat the invaders. By 641 he had raised a new force, which made a stand at the
4497:
2761:
4349:
4424:
9732:
2788:
969:, "Successor of the Messenger of God") or simply caliph. Abu Bakr embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes, which had claimed that although they pledged allegiance to Muhammad and accepted Islam, they owed nothing to Abu Bakr. As a caliph, Abu Bakr was not a monarch and never claimed such a title; nor did any of his three successors. Rather, their election and leadership were based upon
2502:
2585:
2127:
1357:, a bureau for transacting government affairs. The military was brought directly under state control and into its pay. Crucially, in conquered lands, Umar did not require that non-Muslim populations convert to Islam, nor did he try to centralize government. Instead, he allowed subject populations to retain their religion, language, and customs, and he left their government relatively untouched, imposing only a governor (
2804:
be the foundation stone of the
Caliphate. Caliph Umar has been reported to have said: "O Muslims, straighten me with your hands when I go wrong", and at that instance, a Muslim man stood up and said, "O Amir al-Mu'minin (Leader of the Believers) if you are not straightened by our hands we will use our sword to straighten you!". Hearing this Caliph Umar said "Alhamdulillah (Praise be to Allah) I have such followers."
9721:
573:
1101:, by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue amongst themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men.
4239:
of his
Caliphate, adopted a more hands-on approach, directing his generals where to stay and when to move to the next target and who was to command the left and right-wing of the army in each particular battle. This made conquests comparatively slower but made the campaigns well-organized. Uthman and Ali reverted to Abu Bakr's method, giving missions to their generals and leaving the details to them.
2119:, the Byzantine stronghold, was conquered shortly after on 19 September 634. The Byzantine army was given a deadline of 3 days to flee as far as they could, with their families and treasure, or simply agree to stay in Damascus and pay tribute. After the three days had passed, the Muslim cavalry, under Khalid's command, attacked the Roman army by catching up to them using an unknown shortcut at the
4196:. Reconstructing the military equipment of early Muslim armies is problematic. Compared with Roman armies or later medieval Muslim armies, the range of visual representation is very small, often imprecise. Physically, very little material evidence has survived, and much of it is difficult to date. The soldiers wore iron and bronze segmented helmets from Iraq, of Central Asian type.
4154:. The army maintained a very high level of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization, along with the motivation and initiative of the officer corps. For much of its history, this army was one of the most powerful and effective military forces throughout the region. At the height of the Rashidun Caliphate, the maximum size of the army was around 100,000 troops.
1485:
them, at which point, the protesters returned to Uthman's home, bearing the order. Uthman swore that he did not write the order and to talk the protesters down. The protesters responded by demanding he step down as caliph. Uthman refused and returned to his room, whereupon the protesters broke into Uthman's house from the back and killed him while he was reading the
3243:, or consultative assembly. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone.
1612:, a faction of his former supporters who, as a result of their dissatisfaction with the arbitration, opposed both Ali and Mu'awiya. Weakened by this internal rebellion and a lack of popular support in many provinces, Ali's forces lost control over most of the caliphate's territory to Mu'awiya while large sections of the empire—such as
1581:
It is said, according to Sunni Muslim traditions, that those who were involved in the assassination of Uthman initiated combat, as they were afraid that negotiations between Ali and the opposing army would result in their capture and execution. The battle thus fought was the first battle between
Muslims and is known as the
4034:. In important cities, guest houses were constructed to serve traders and merchants coming from faraway places. Roads and bridges were constructed for public use. On the road from Medina to Mecca, shelters, wells, and meal houses were constructed at every stage for the convenience of the people who came for hajj.
3384:
connected with Allah’s
Prescribed Punishments?" Then he got up and delivered a sermon saying, "What destroyed the nations preceding you, was that if a noble amongst them stole, they would forgive him, and if a poor person amongst them stole, they would inflict Allah's Legal punishment on him. By Allah, if
3859:
the
Muslims won heavy spoils, filling the coffers at Medina. The problem before Umar was what to do with this money. Someone suggested that the money should be kept in the treasury as a reserve for public expenditures. However, this view was not acceptable to the general body of Muslims. Accordingly,
3158:
The judicial administration, like the rest of the administrative structure of the
Rashidun Caliphate, was set up by Umar, and it remained basically unchanged throughout the duration of the Caliphate. In order to provide adequate and speedy justice for the people, justice was administered according to
2243:
in April 637. Abu Ubaida sent Amr bin al-As, Yazid bin Abu Sufyan, and
Sharjeel bin Hassana back to their areas to reconquer them; most submitted without a fight. Abu Ubaida himself, along with Khalid, moved to northern Syria to reconquer it with a 17,000-man army. Khalid, along with his cavalry, was
2195:
made peace with the
Muslims for one year in order to buy time for Heraclius to prepare his defences and raise new armies. The Muslims welcomed the peace and consolidated their control over the conquered territory. However, as soon as the Muslims received the news of reinforcements being sent to Emesa
4238:
Abu Bakr's strategy was to give his generals their mission, the geographical area in which that mission would be carried out, and resources for that purpose. He would then leave it to his generals to accomplish their missions in whatever manner they chose. On the other hand, Umar, in the latter part
3104:
During the reign of Abu Bakr the state was economically weak, while during Umar's reign because of an increase in revenues and other sources of income, the state was on its way to economic prosperity. Hence Umar felt it necessary to treat the officers strictly, in order to prevent corruption. During
2803:
The basic administrative system of the Dar al-Islamiyyah (The House of Islam) was laid down in the days of
Muhammad. Caliph Abu Bakr stated in his sermon when he was elected: "If I order any thing that would go against the order of Allah and his Messenger; then do not obey me". This is considered to
1908:
and onto the Iranian plateau. One tradition has it that he wished for a "wall of fire" to keep the Arabs and Persians apart. Later commentators explain this as a common-sense precaution against over-extension of his forces. The Arabs had only recently conquered large territories that still had to be
1580:
and captured it, whereupon 4,000 suspected seditionists were put to death. Subsequently, Ali turned towards Basra and the caliph's army met the rebel army. Though neither Ali nor the leaders of the opposing force, Talha and Zubayr, wanted to fight, a battle broke out at night between the two armies.
1374:
were given pensions on which to live, allowing them to pursue religious studies and exercise spiritual leadership in their communities and beyond. Umar is also remembered for establishing the Islamic calendar; it is lunar-like the Arabian calendar, but the origin is set in 622, the year of the Hijra
3499:
and Muiqib. A separate Accounts Department was also set up to maintain spending records. Later treasuries were set up in the provinces. After meeting the local expenditure the provincial treasuries were required to remit the surplus revenue to the central treasury at Medina. According to Yaqubi the
3392:
Various Islamic lawyers do, however, place multiple conditions, and stipulations—e.g., the poor cannot be penalised for stealing out of poverty—before executing such a law, making it very difficult to reach such a stage. It is well known that, during a time of drought during the Rashidun caliphate,
2215:
Abu Ubaida ordered the Muslim commanders to withdraw from all the conquered areas, return the tributes they had previously gathered, and move towards Yarmuk. Heraclius's army also moved towards Yarmuk, but the Muslim armies reached it in early July 636, a week or two before the Byzantines. Khalid's
1092:
Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned about a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that any attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own
3540:
Most historical accounts state that, among the Rashidun caliphs, Uthman was the first to strike coins; some accounts, however, state that Umar was the first to do so. When Persia was conquered, three types of coins were current there: the Baghli, of eight dang; Tabari of four dang; and Maghribi of
4234:
The Rashidun army was, in quality and strength, below the standard set by the Sasanian and Byzantine armies. Khalid ibn al-Walid was the first general of the Rashidun Caliphate to successfully conquer foreign lands. During his campaign against the Sasanian Empire (Iraq, 633–634) and the Byzantine
3958:
got 4,000. The ordinary Muslim citizens were given allowances of between 2,000 and 2,500. The regular annual allowance was given only to the urban population because they formed the backbone of the state's economic resources. The Bedouin living in the desert, cut off from the state's affairs, and
2231:
was fought. The battle lasted 6 days during which Abu Ubaida transferred the command of the entire army to Khalid. Outnumbered five-to-one, the Muslims nevertheless defeated the Byzantine army in October 636. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command officers, including Khalid, to decide on
2211:
The prisoners taken in the battle informed them about Emperor Heraclius's plans to take back Syria. They said that an army possibly 200,000 strong would soon emerge to recapture the province. Khalid stopped here on June 636. As soon as Abu Ubaida heard the news of the advancing Byzantine army, he
1484:
After a protest turned into a siege on his house, Uthman refused to initiate any military action, in order to avoid civil war between Muslims and preferred to negotiate a peaceful solution. After the negotiations, the protesters returned but found a man following them, holding an order to execute
3979:
The mosques were not merely places for offering prayers, but also community centers where the faithful gathered to discuss problems of social and cultural importance. During the caliphate of Umar, as many as four thousand mosques were constructed extending from Persia in the east to Egypt in the
3863:
The next question was what system should be adopted for distribution. One suggestion was to distribute it equally on an ad hoc basis. Others objected that, as the spoils were considerable, the proposal would make the people very rich. It was therefore agreed that, instead of ad hoc division, the
3383:
who had committed theft. They asked, "Who will intercede for her with Allah's Apostle?" Some said, "No one dare to do so except Usama bin Zaid the beloved one to Allah's Apostle." When Usama spoke about that to Allah's Apostle Allah's Apostle said: "Do you try to intercede for somebody in a case
1113:
stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely. Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance,
3825:
should be levied in such a way so as to avoid hardship, so as not to affect trade within the Caliphate. The tax was levied only on merchandise meant for sale; goods imported for consumption or personal use but not for sale were not taxed. Merchandise valued at 200 dirhams or less was not taxed.
1655:
briefly assumed the caliphate for six months and came to an agreement with Mu'awiya to fix relations between the two groups of Muslims that were each loyal to one of the two men. The treaty stated that Mu'awiya would not name a successor during his reign, and that he would let the Islamic world
3141:
At the time of an officer's appointment, a complete inventory of all his possessions was prepared and kept on record. If there was later an unusual increase in his possessions, he was immediately called to account, and the unlawful property confiscated by the State. The principal officers were
2106:
From Bosra, Khalid sent orders to the other corps commanders to join him at Ajnadayn, where, according to early Muslim historians, a Byzantine army of 90,000 (modern sources state 9,000) was concentrated to push back the Muslims. The Byzantine army was defeated decisively on 30 July 634 in the
3875:
Then the question arose as to what basis should be used for placing some above others. Some suggested that the Caliph should first get the highest allowance, with the remaining allowances graduating downward from that. Umar rejected the proposal and decided to start with the clan of Muhammad.
3099:
Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and tyrants over the people. I have sent you as leaders instead, so that the people may follow your example. Give the Muslims their rights and do not beat them lest they become abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall into the error of
2476:
The Muslims were assisted by some Copts, who found the Muslims more tolerant than the Byzantines, and of these, some turned to Islam. In return for a tribute of money and food for the occupation troops, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the
7375:
As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the drahms of the Sasanian-style, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic
3879:
Umar set up a committee to compile a list of persons by nearness to Muhammad. The committee produced the list clan-wise. Bani Hashim appeared as the first clan, then the clan of Abu Bakr, and then the clan of Umar. Umar accepted the first two placements but relegated his clan lower on the
2177:
The last large garrison of the Byzantine army was at Fahl, which was joined by survivors of Ajnadayn. With this threat at their rear, the Muslim armies could not move further north nor south. Thus Abu Ubaidah decided to deal with the situation, and defeated and routed this garrison at the
2190:
sent an army to re-capture the city. This army, however, could not make it to Damascus and was intercepted by Abu Ubaidah and Khalid on their way to Emesa. The army was destroyed in the battle of Maraj-al-Rome and the second battle of Damascus. Emesa and the strategic town of
3720:
imposed on able bodied non-Muslim men of military age since non-Muslims did not have to pay zakāt. Slaves, women, children, monks, the old, the sick, hermits and the poor were all exempt. In addition to the exemptions, some needy non-Muslims were given stipends by the state.
1254:. This corps was used to fight the most powerful of the rebel forces. Other corps were given areas of secondary importance in which to bring the less dangerous apostate tribes to submission. Abu Bakr's plan was first to clear Najd and Western Arabia near Medina, then tackle
3087:
The officers were appointed by the Caliph. Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment, an instrument of instructions was issued to regulate the conduct of the governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to assemble the people in the main
2674:. After apprehending a breach of the treaty, the Arabs re-invaded the island in 654 with five hundred ships. This time, however, a garrison of 12,000 men was left in Cyprus, bringing the island under Muslim influence. After leaving Cyprus, the Muslim fleet headed towards
1813:
in the last week of August 633. Returning from Arabia, he received news that a large Persian army was assembling. Within a few weeks, he decided to defeat them piecemeal in order to avoid the risk of defeat by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and
4226:
The basic strategy of early Muslim armies on the campaign was to exploit every possible weakness of the enemy. Their key strength was mobility. The cavalry had both horses and camels, the latter used as both transport and food for long marches through the desert
3239:(1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early Caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves, although there was no specified procedure for this
3137:
the state became more economically prosperous than ever before; the allowance of the citizens was increased by 25%, and the economic condition of the ordinary person was more stable, which led Caliph Uthman to revoke the second and third postulates of the oath.
2724:(the protected people). Those who accepted Islam were treated in a similar manner to other Muslims and were given equivalent rights in legal matters. Non-Muslims were given legal rights according to their faiths' law except where it conflicted with Islamic law.
2918:
Umar had instructed his successor, Uthman, not to make any change in the administrative setup for one year after his death, which Uthman honored; however, after the expiration of the moratorium, he made Egypt one province and created a new province comprising
701:
clan, who was elected by a six-person committee arranged by Umar. Under Uthman, the caliphate concluded its conquest of Persia in 651 and continued expeditions into the Byzantine territories. During his reign, rebels rose, and he was assassinated in June 656.
1008:
of Muhammad, where he foretold that the caliphate after him would last for 30 years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) and would then be followed by kingship (the Umayyad Caliphate was a hereditary monarchy). Furthermore, according to other hadiths in
2236:. The siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab in person. Amr ibn Al As suggested that Khalid should be sent as Caliph, because of his very strong resemblance to Caliph Umar.
1896:. After seizing the city, they continued their drive eastwards, following Yazdgird and his remaining troops. Within a short span of time, the Arab armies defeated a major Sasanian counterattack in the Battle of Jalūlā', as well as other engagements at
1104:
Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of Caliph) as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being
2435:. The imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more. However, the Muslims sent for reinforcements, and the invading army, joined by another 12,000 men in 640, defeated a Byzantine army at the
1338:. These were regions of great wealth controlled by powerful states, but the long conflict between Byzantines and Persians had left both sides militarily exhausted, and the Islamic armies easily prevailed against them. By 640, they had brought all of
1187:, the alms tax, without formally challenging Islam. Many tribal leaders made claims to prophethood; some made it during the lifetime of Muhammad. The first incident of apostasy was fought and concluded while Muhammad still lived; a supposed prophet
3176:
were chosen for their integrity and learning in Islamic law. Wealthy men and men of high social status, compensated highly by the Caliphate, were appointed in order to make them resistant to bribery or undue influence based on social position. The
3300:
Al-Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public, the people must obey their laws, but if they become either unjust or severely ineffective then the Caliph or ruler must be impeached via the Majlis al-Shura.
2628:. Each side also agreed to afford free passage to each other through their respective territories. Nubia agreed to provide 360 slaves to Egypt every year, while Egypt agreed to supply grain, horses, and textiles to Nubia according to demand.
1921:. The Rashidun army, under the command of Umar's appointed general Nu'man ibn Muqarrin al-Muzani, attacked and again defeated the Persian forces. The Muslims proclaimed it the Victory of Victories (Fath alfotuh), as it marked the End of the
1596:, a kinsman of Uthman and governor of the province of Syria. However, it is regarded more as an attempt by Mu'awiya to assume the caliphate, rather than to take revenge for Uthman's murder. Ali fought Mu'awiya's forces to a stalemate at the
3146:, during which people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff. Provincial governors received as much as five to seven thousand
2608:. The Muslim army pulled out of Nubia with nothing to show for it. Ten years later, Uthman's governor of Egypt, Abdullah ibn Saad, sent another army to Nubia. This army penetrated deeper into Nubia and laid siege to the Nubian capital of
4138:
and his descendants of the divinely ordained right to leadership. In this Shi'ite perspective, many of the companions and their successors were usurpers, even hypocrites, who never ceased to subvert the religion for their own interests.
3781:
usually denoted a lump-sum duty levied upon the conquered provinces and collected by the officials of the former Byzantine and Sasanian empires, or, more broadly, any kind of tax levied by Muslim conquerors on their non-Muslim subjects,
3466:(632–634) established a house where all money was kept on receipt. As all money was distributed immediately, the treasury generally remained locked up; at the time of Abu Bakr's death, there was only one dirham in the public treasury.
3336:
Islamic lawyers have commented that when the rulers refuse to step down via successful impeachment through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, the majority, upon agreement, has the option to launch a
3331:
And they (the sinners on qiyama) will say, "Our Lord! We obeyed our leaders and our chiefs, and they misled us from the right path. Our Lord! Give them (the leaders) double the punishment you give us and curse them with a very great
2212:
gathered all his officers to plan their next move. Khalid suggested that they should consolidate all of their forces present in the province of Syria (Syria, Jordan, Palestine) and then move towards the plain of Yarmouk for battle.
1258:
and his forces between the Najd and al-Bahrayn, and finally concentrate against the most dangerous enemy, Musaylimah and his allies in al-Yamama. After a series of successful campaigns Khalid ibn al-Walid defeated Musaylimah in the
7493:
Ghabban, A.I.I., Translation and concluding remarks by and Hoyland, R., 2008. The inscription of Zuhayr, the oldest Islamic inscription (24 AH/AD 644–645), the rise of the Arabic script and the nature of the early Islamic state 1.
4133:
of the companions, including the Rashidun Caliphs. Many of the Shi'a do not share the Sunni view that the companions were all models of piety, instead accusing many of them of conspiring after the Prophet's death to dispossess
1420:. Ali was from the Banu Hashim clan (the same clan as Muhammad) of the Quraysh tribe, and he was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and had been one of his companions from the inception of his mission. Uthman was from the
2076:
road. At Bosra, the Corps of Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil joined Khalid, upon which, per Abu Bakr's orders, Khalid assumed overall command from Abu Ubaidah. Bosra, caught unprepared, surrendered after a brief siege in July 634
2730:
were allowed to "practice their religion, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy" and were guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, but only in return for paying tax and acknowledging Muslim rule.
4110:
states that "writers who lived at the same time as the first four caliphs ... recorded next to nothing about them, and their names do not appear on coins, inscriptions, or documents. It is only with the fifth caliph",
1975:; these regions were later re-conquered during Uthman's reign with further expansion into the regions which were not conquered during Umar's reign; hence, the Rashidun Caliphate's frontiers in the east extended to the
4115:(661–680), "that was have evidence of a functioning Arab government, since his name appears on all official state media." However, there do exist inscriptions dating to the period, one of which for instance mentions
980:, were his closest companions by association and support and were often highly praised by Muhammad and delegated roles of leadership within the nascent Muslim community. These caliphs are collectively known in
4037:
Military cantonments were constructed at strategic points. Special stables were provided for cavalry, which could accommodate as many as 4,000 horses. Special pasture grounds were provided and maintained for
3265:. At that meeting, Abu Bakr was elected caliph by the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims developed the belief that the caliph is a temporal political ruler, appointed to rule within the bounds of Islamic law (
1848:
Khalid then left Mesopotamia to lead another campaign in Syria against the Byzantine Empire, after which Mithna ibn Haris took command in Mesopotamia. The Persians once again concentrated armies to regain
1469:
Uthman's most lasting project was the final compilation of the Qur'an. Under his authority diacritics were written with Arabic letters so that non-native speakers of Arabic could easily read the Qur'an.
1223:). Many tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended. Caliph Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined an
3871:
there were two opinions. Some held that it should be the same for all Muslims. Umar, on the other hand, believed that the allowance should be graduated according to one's merit with reference to Islam.
2290:
to clear the flank and rear of Byzantine troops. On their way to Antioch, a Roman army blocked them near a river on which there was an iron bridge. Because of this, the following battle is known as the
1873:
in 636. Umar was then able to transfer forces to the east and resume the offensive against the Sasanians. Umar dispatched 36,000 men along with 7500 troops from the Syrian front, under the command of
3488:, sent his revenue to Umar, amounting to five hundred thousand dirhams. Umar summoned a meeting of his Consultative Assembly and sought the opinion of the Companions about the disposal of the money.
1409:
Before Umar died, he appointed a committee of six men to decide on the next caliph and charged them with choosing one of their own numbers. All of the men, like Umar, were from the tribe of Quraysh.
1263:. The Campaign on the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned on 18 March 633 with the Arabian peninsula united under the caliph in Medina.
3460:. Whatever revenues or other amounts were received were distributed immediately. There were no salaries to be paid, and there was no state expenditure, thereby making a public treasury unnecessary.
1195:; he was killed on 30 May 632 (6 Rabi' al-Awwal, 11 Hijri) by Governor Fērōz of Yemen, a Persian Muslim. The news of his death reached Medina shortly after the death of Muhammad. The apostasy of
1805:
in the last week of July 633. By now, almost the whole of Iraq was under Islamic control. Khalid received a call for help from Daumat-ul-jandal in Northern Arabia, where another Muslim general,
1758:
The first Islamic invasion of the Sasanian Empire, launched by Caliph Abu Bakr in 633, was a swift conquest, taking only four months. Abu Bakr sent his general, Khalid ibn al-Walid, to conquer
2477:
observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Others sided with the Byzantines, hoping that they would provide a defense against the Arab invaders. During the reign of
2029:. However, their advance was halted by a concentration of the Byzantine army at Ajnadayn. Abu Ubaidah then sent for reinforcements. Abu Bakr ordered Khalid, who by now was planning to attack
3100:
conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces, lest the more powerful of them eat up the weaker ones. And do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is tyranny over them.
646:. It was ruled by the first four successive caliphs of Muhammad after his death in 632 CE. During its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in
2686:
and captured a large part of the island. Soon after this, Uthman was murdered, ending his expansionist policy, and the Muslims accordingly retreated from Sicily. In 655 Byzantine Emperor
1279:. Whether or not he intended a full-out imperial conquest is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the
1648:
as part of a Kharijite plot to assassinate all the different Islamic leaders in an attempt to end the civil war, but the Kharijites failed to assassinate Mu'awiya and 'Amr ibn al-'As.
11330:
2423:). The power of the Byzantine Empire was shattered during the Muslim conquest of Syria, and therefore the conquest of Egypt was much easier. In 639 some 4000 Rashidun troops led by
4122:
Hoyland also questions the alleged moral superiority of the Rashidun (or at least of Uthman and Ali) to their Umayyad successors, noting Ali was involved in the first civil war (
5984:
3492:
advised that the amount should be kept for future needs. Walid bin Hisham suggested that, like the Byzantines, separate departments of treasury and accounts should be set up.
4052:, was a nine-mile (14 km) long canal which brought water from the Tigris to Basra. The Maqal canal was also dug from the Tigris. The Amir al-Mu'minin canal, named for a
4261:
up to of their successor states such as the area Transoxiana from area located in between the Jihun River(Oxus/Amu Darya) and Syr Darya, to Sindh (present day Pakistan), by
3817:
was a reciprocal 10% levy on agricultural land as well as merchandise imported from states that taxed the Muslims on their products. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to levy
1553:, a garrison city in Iraq. Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides, such as
7349:
4219:. They also possessed spears and daggers. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to organize the army as a state department, in 637. A beginning was made with the Quraysh and the
1431:, while in the latter half of his reign he met increasing opposition, led by the Egyptians and concentrated around Ali, who would albeit briefly, succeed Uthman as caliph.
1109:, initially refused to acknowledge his authority. Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad. The theologian
748:
in 661 by Mu'awiya. The civil war permanently consolidated the divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims, with Shia Muslims believing Ali to be the first rightful caliph and
4119:
by name and the date of his death, and there were also coins struck during his rule (although as Hoyland notes, they do not bear his name, simply "In the name of God,")
3495:
After consulting the Companions, Umar decided to establish the central Treasury at Medina. Abdullah bin Arqam was appointed as the Treasury Officer. He was assisted by
4064:. During the famine of 639, grain was brought from Egypt to Arabia through this canal, which saved the lives of millions. The Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas canal, named for the
455:
430:
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1250:
Abu Bakr planned his strategy accordingly. He divided the Muslim army into several corps. The strongest corps, and the primary force of the Muslims, was the corps of
803:
in the east. The four Rashidun caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body - consisting of prominent members of the high-ranking companions of the Prophet - called
3456:) was the department that dealt with the revenues and all other economic matters of the state. In the time of Muhammad, there was no permanent Bait-ul-Mal or public
2359:
to enter into negotiations with Muawiyah. The truce that followed allowed a short respite and made it possible for Constans II to hold on to the western portions of
2166:
to the overall command of the Muslim armies. The conquest of Syria slowed down under him while he relied heavily on the advice of Khalid, who he kept close at hand.
2186:; Yazid was stationed in Damascus while Amr and Shurhabil marched south to capture Palestine. While the Muslims were at Fahl, sensing the weak defense of Damascus,
1833:. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq. In December 633, Khalid reached the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the
9481:
2299:
surrendered on 30 October 637 CE. Later during the year, Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm at the head of two separate armies against the western part of
3988:
were enlarged first during the reign of Umar and then during the reign of Uthman ibn Affan, who not only expanded them but also beautified them on a large scale.
2650:
but Umar rejected the proposal because of the risk to the soldiers. Once Uthman became caliph, however, he approved Muawiyah's request. In 650, Muawiyah attacked
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9363:
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2748:, which were also provided 'protection' by the Caliphate and were not expected to fight. Sometimes, particularly when there were not enough qualified Muslims,
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choose the next leader (this treaty would later be broken by Mu'awiya as he named his son Yazid I successor). Hasan was assassinated, and Mu'awiya founded the
1585:. Ali emerged victoriously and the dispute was settled. The eminent companions of Muhammad, Talha, and Zubayr, were killed in the battle and Ali sent his son
2532:
Uthman gave him permission after considering it in the Majlis al-Shura. A force of 10,000 soldiers was sent as reinforcement. The Rashidun army assembled in
1489:. It was later discovered that the order to kill the rebels did not, in fact, originate from Uthman, but was, rather, part of a conspiracy to overthrow him.
1821:
In November 633, Khalid divided his army into three units, and attacked these auxiliaries one by one from three different sides at night, starting with the
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9348:
2658:, after a brief siege, but signed a treaty with the local rulers. During this expedition, a relative of Muhammad, Umm-Haram, fell from her mule near the
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and reached Qasreen before Abu Ubaidah. The city surrendered to Khalid, and soon after, Abu Ubaidah arrived in June 637. Abu Ubaidah then moved against
73:
5977:
1881:
followed, with the Persians prevailing at first, but, on the third day of fighting, the Muslims gained the upper hand. The legendary Persian general
3281:. The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, meaning the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the
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9447:
7554:
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While the caliphate continued its rapid expansion, Umar laid the foundations of a political structure that could hold it together. He created the
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amount of the allowance to the stipend should be determined beforehand and this allowance should be paid regardless of the amount of the spoils.
1295:, but the decisive operation was only undertaken when Khalid, after completing the conquest of Iraq, was transferred to the Syrian front in 634.
1291:. He sent general Khalid ibn al-Walid to invade the Sassanian Empire in 633. He thereafter also sent four armies to invade the Roman province of
1097:, would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion,
6415:
Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb; Johannes Hendrik Kramers; Bernard Lewis; Charles Pellat; Joseph Schacht (1970). "The Encyclopaedia of Islam".
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3411:, kinship or prejudice. There were also a number of cases where caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to deliver their verdict.
2458:, and the incompetence of the Byzantine generals, as well as the loss of most of the Byzantine troops in Syria. Cyrus had persecuted the local
1695:
to the invading Rashidun army, although the civil wars among the Muslims halted the war of conquest for many years, and this gave time for the
1424:
clan of the Quraysh. He was the second cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and one of the early converts of Islam. Uthman was ultimately chosen.
10119:
3666:, that over a certain amount unused for a year) to give to the poor. All and only those persons whose annual wealth exceeded a minimum level (
2469:
In 645, during Uthman's reign, the Byzantines briefly regained Alexandria, but it was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by
976:
Notably, according to Sunnis, all four Rashidun Caliphs were connected to Muhammad through marriage, were early converts to Islam, were among
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2045:
6403:
He also foretold that there would be a caliphate for thirty years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) that would be followed by kingship.
3959:
making no contributions to development, were nevertheless often given stipends. On assuming office, Uthman increased these stipends by 25%.
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6431:
3583:
were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist
407:
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or remove rulers in the Caliphate. This is usually when the rulers are not meeting public responsibilities obliged upon them under Islam.
2013:
After Khalid consolidated his control of Iraq, Abu Bakr sent four armies to Syria on the Byzantine front under four different commanders:
1900:, and Masabadhan. By the mid-7th century, the Arabs controlled all of Mesopotamia, including the area that is now the Iranian province of
9378:
3317:
upon the people if the caliph began to act with no regard for Islamic law. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani said that to ignore such a situation is
2529:
sent raiding parties to the west, resulting in considerable booty and encouraging Sa'ad to propose a campaign to conquer the Exarchate.
2415:
In 639, Egypt was a prefecture of the Byzantine Empire. However, it had been occupied just a decade before by the Sasanian Empire under
8253:
7417:
Shadi Hamid (August 2003), "An Islamic Alternative? Equality, Redistributive Justice, and the Welfare State in the Caliphate of Umar",
7309:
4080:. This proposal, however, did not materialize due to unknown reasons, and it was 1200 years later that such a canal was dug—the modern
1508:
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1786:, fought in mid-May of 633. In the last week of May 633, the capital city of Iraq fell to the Muslims after initial resistance in the
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Demands to take revenge for the assassination of Caliph Uthman rose among parts of the population, and a large army of rebels led by
9469:
7539:
Zaman, M.Q., 1998. Sectarianism in Pakistan: The radicalization of Shi‘i and Sunni identities. Modern Asian Studies, 32(3), p. 691.
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and was killed. She was buried in that same spot, which became a holy site for many local Muslims and Christians and, in 1816, the
3305:
argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler that deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al-Ghazali believed that
9432:
9353:
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also were not allowed to engage in trade. Judges were appointed in sufficient numbers to staff every district with at least one.
7178:
11305:
11260:
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represented war booty, four-fifths of which was distributed among serving soldiers, while one-fifth was allotted to the state.
2455:
2450:
The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Byzantine Empire appears to have been due to the treachery of
1118:
which may have involved violence. However, after six months the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty.
1427:
Uthman reigned for twelve years as a caliph. During the first half of his reign, he was the most popular caliph among all the
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on 23 January 635, which proved to be the "Key to Palestine". After this battle Abu Ubaidah and Khalid marched north towards
1077:
clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the
740:, who were former supporters of Ali, rebelled against both Ali and Mu'awiya after refusing to accept the arbitration in the
7432:
2459:
10978:
3662:) is the Islamic equivalent of a luxury tax. It was taken from the Muslims in the amount of 2.5% of their dormant wealth (
3150:
annually besides their share of the spoils of war (if they were also the commander-in-chief of the army of their sector).
11300:
4253:
The early caliphate naval conquest managed to mark long time legacy of Islamic maritime enterprises from the Conquest of
3826:
Imports by citizens for trade purposes were subject to the customs duty or import tax at lower rates. In the case of the
1931:
was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive. In 642 Umar sent the army to conquer the remainder of the
977:
601:
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The evaluation greatly contributed to the prosperity of the citizens as trade increased, and their contributions to the
3403:
later formulated the concept of the rule of law, the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land. A
1885:
was killed during the battle. According to some sources, the Persian losses were 20,000, and the Arabs lost 10,500 men.
1865:
in which Abu Ubayd was killed. The response was delayed until after a decisive Muslim victory against the Romans in the
1728:
1350:
under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate; Egypt was conquered by 642, and almost the entire Sassanian Empire by 643.
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10124:
2637:
1754:
in margin/ Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames; date to left, mint name to right.
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was raided in 652. The Rashidun army fully conquered the Sasanian Empire, and its eastern frontiers extended up to the
17:
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The Rashidun Military was the primary arm of the Islamic armed forces of the seventh century, serving alongside the
3480:
In the time of Umar, things changed. With each conquest, revenue increased. Umar also granted salaries to the army.
2327:, which were all conquered by Khalid in the autumn of 638 CE. During Uthman's reign, the Byzantines recaptured many
2033:, to march from Iraq to Syria with half his army. There were 2 major routes to Syria from Iraq, one passing through
11280:
9106:
8962:
8497:
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6414:
4003:. These cities were laid out according to the principles of urban planning. All streets in these cities led to the
1155:
Troubles emerged soon after Muhammad's death, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state.
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The Rashidun Caliphate expanded steadily; within the span of 24 years, a vast territory was conquered comprising
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Empire (Syria, 634–638), Khalid developed brilliant tactics that he used effectively against both enemy armies.
2812:
Under Abu Bakr, the empire was not clearly divided into provinces, though it had many administrative districts.
2154:
1801:, and eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633. Khalid then moved towards the south, and
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9213:
9111:
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8148:
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3323:, and those who cannot revolt inside the caliphate should launch a struggle from outside. Al-Asqalani used two
3269:, the rules of life set by Allah in the Qur'an). The job of adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law was left to
2687:
2470:
736:), who believed that Uthman's murderers should be punished immediately. Additionally, a third faction known as
7278:"The Muslims Internet Directory: e Process of Choosing the Leader (Caliph) of the Muslims: The Muslim Khilafa"
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1766:. After entering Iraq with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the
158:
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9023:
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Shahid Alam, Articulating Group Differences: A Variety of Autocentrisms, Journal of Science and Society, 2003
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1997:
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The stark differences in these two views has led to sectarian tension that has even culminated in violence.
3587:(Algazel, 1058–1111), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case a
2473:
was repulsed. After this, no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country.
2331:
in the region and on Uthman's orders, a series of campaigns were launched to regain control of them. In 647
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against them. Many noted that this option is only exercised after factoring in the potential cost of life.
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and conquered them without much resistance. From 652 to 654, the Muslims launched a naval campaign against
2374:
in Turkey marked the western frontiers of the Rashidun Caliphate in Anatolia during Caliph Uthman's reign.
3674:
did not include one's primary residence, primary transportation, a moderate amount of woven jewelry, etc.
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shields were also used as protection in combat. The soldiers were usually equipped with swords hung in a
2568:. When the stipulated amount of the tribute was paid, the Muslim forces withdrew to Barqa. Following the
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1810:
7921:"Reformasi Sistem Administrasi Pemerintahan, Penakhlukkan di Darat Dan Dilautan Pada Era Bani Umayyah"
3006:. Each of the 100 or more districts of the empire, along with the main cities, were administered by a
2999:), the remaining ten provinces were under his control, with no change in administrative organization.
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685:
clan. Under Umar, the caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, ruling more than two-thirds of the
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6432:"The Khilaafah Lasted for 30 Years Then There Was Kingship Which Allaah Gives To Whomever He Pleases"
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three dang. Umar (or Uthman, according to some accounts) first struck an Islamic dirham of six dang.
2292:
2163:
2014:
1708:
1327:
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7901:
Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God [2 volumes]
2431:. The Rashidun army crossed into Egypt from Palestine in December 639 and advanced rapidly into the
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4072:, the governor of Egypt during the reign of Umar, even proposed the digging of a canal to join the
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In some districts there were separate military officers, though the governor was in most cases the
2617:
2549:
2383:
2240:
2120:
1893:
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1335:
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6616:, Volume 4, ed. William Bayne Fisher, Richard Nelson Frye (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 5–6.
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was the income from State land, whether an agricultural land or a meadow or land with any natural
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4084:. Shuaibia was the port for Mecca, but it was inconvenient, so Uthman had a new seaport built at
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were dug to irrigate fields as well as provide drinking water. The Abu Musa canal, named for the
3943:
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2282:
Abu Ubaidah and Khalid ibn al-Walid, after conquering all of northern Syria, moved north towards
1874:
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to delay war until reinforcement came from Medina. Umar sent reinforcements under the command of
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and the system was gradually extended to the whole of Arabia and to Muslims of conquered lands.
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salaries and stipends charged to the central treasury amounted to over 30 million dirhams.
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between the Muslims and Byzantines and cleared the way for the former to capture central Syria.
1370:
With the bounty secured from conquest, Umar was able to support its faith in material ways: the
1242:
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The caliphate arose following Muhammad’s passing in June 632 and the subsequent debate over the
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On 22 August 634, Abu Bakr died, making Umar his successor. As Umar became caliph, he restored
1367:. These new posts were integral to the efficient network of taxation that financed the empire.
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The Rashidun caliphs had placed special emphasis on relatively fair and just treatment of the
1691:, the Byzantines, after losing Syria, retreated back to Anatolia. As a result, they also lost
1017:, towards the end times, the Rightly Guided Caliphate will be restored once again by God. The
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2995:'s control) and Egypt (lost during the latter years of his caliphate to the rebel troops of
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While Umar was leading the morning prayers in 644, he was assassinated by the Persian slave
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a consensus was reached to distribute whatever was received during a year to the citizens.
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Following this Battle, the Arab Muslim armies pushed forward toward the Persian capital of
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1809:, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid diverted there and defeated the rebels in the
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3407:(Islamic judge) was also not allowed to discriminate on the grounds of religion, gender,
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and the other through Daumat ul-Jandal. Khalid took an unconventional route through the
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Tombs of caliphs: Abu Bakr and Umar (right), Medina, present-day Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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8163:. Brussels: Éditions de l'Institut de philologie et d'histoire orientales. p. 90.
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881:
874:) to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view. This term is not used by
587:
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2572:, the first Islamic civil war, Muslim forces withdrew from north Africa to Egypt. The
2303:, most of which was conquered without strong resistance, including parts of Anatolia,
1434:
Despite internal troubles, Uthman continued the wars of conquest started by Umar. The
744:. The war led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the
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caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body consisting of prominent members of the
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Thereafter, there rose another cry for revenge for the blood of Uthman, this time by
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The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis,
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A. I. Alkram. "Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains – Chapter 26: The Last Opposition".
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3105:
his reign, at the time of appointment, every officer was required to swear an oath:
1004:). According to Sunni Muslims, the term Rashidun Caliphate is derived from a famous
10985:
10772:
10767:
10723:
10710:
10640:
10608:
10603:
10467:
10462:
10444:
10405:
10338:
10321:
10262:
10252:
10247:
10188:
10144:
10114:
10074:
10057:
10040:
10003:
9754:
9697:
9682:
9442:
9147:
8869:
8807:
8797:
8787:
8772:
8578:
8481:
8453:
8341:
8181:
8124:
7966:
7932:
7818:
6834:
6160:
6144:
6083:
5905:
5901:
5890:
5871:
5536:
5516:
5496:
5416:
5211:
5091:
5016:
5006:
4956:
4886:
4786:
4736:
4531:
4266:
3981:
3489:
3408:
3134:
2970:
2926:
During Uthman's reign the caliphate was divided into twelve provinces. These were:
2552:, the Exarchate was defeated and Gregory was killed due to the superior tactics of
2371:
2316:
2272:
2135:
1940:
1905:
1830:
1822:
1783:
1775:
1767:
1696:
1632:
1597:
1272:
1260:
1010:
741:
686:
651:
554:
11203:
11171:
11044:
11012:
10995:
10951:
10946:
10924:
10919:
10877:
10870:
10845:
10705:
10700:
10541:
10422:
10316:
10311:
10279:
10104:
10094:
9988:
9981:
9976:
9961:
9917:
9799:
9785:
9623:
9330:
9275:
9075:
8761:
8721:
8672:
8624:
8398:
8128:
8104:
8064:
8043:
8018:
7874:
7852:
The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text
7850:
7786:
7579:
7436:
7210:
6341:
6039:
5841:
5811:
5576:
5566:
5476:
5456:
5346:
5281:
5241:
5221:
5131:
5056:
5046:
5036:
4996:
4966:
4906:
4896:
4776:
4726:
4538:
4432:
3985:
3206:
2655:
2400:
2340:
2248:
2081:
1922:
1892:(also called Madā'in in Arabic), which was quickly evacuated by Yazdgird after a
1842:
1826:
1779:
1771:
1681:
1554:
1322:, which later became the standard title of caliphs. The new caliph continued the
1288:
1276:
901:
812:
792:
698:
690:
619:
421:
393:
47:
10625:
7428:
6497:
Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God
3309:
by a caliph is enough for impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment,
3133:
Caliph Umar himself followed the above postulates strictly. During the reign of
2367:, but this plan was not carried out due to the civil war that broke out in 656.
1235:, community) of which he was the new head. The result of this situation was the
1121:
491:
11146:
11141:
11104:
11079:
11062:
10973:
10958:
10929:
10887:
10735:
10695:
10690:
10645:
10571:
10531:
10521:
10511:
10326:
10205:
10099:
9966:
9848:
9735:
9462:
9315:
9157:
8859:
6069:
6065:
5916:
5826:
5770:
5546:
5436:
5366:
5066:
4207:), the one under the main one being shorter or even made of fabric or leather.
4031:
3955:
3911:
3904:
3427:
3354:
3110:
2975:
2717:
2671:
2541:
2364:
2197:
2179:
2112:
2100:
1932:
1854:
1838:
1806:
1787:
1733:
1604:, pronouncing his support for Mu'awiya. After this Ali was forced to fight the
1208:
1074:
7970:
7822:
7164:
755:
The Rashidun Caliphate is characterized by a twenty-five-year period of rapid
11244:
11227:
11114:
10909:
10882:
10855:
10833:
10811:
10578:
10561:
10546:
10390:
10343:
10331:
10257:
10149:
10023:
10018:
9993:
9875:
9638:
9475:
9325:
8864:
8827:
8802:
8687:
8168:
8160:
7937:
7920:
5796:
5301:
5161:
4645:
4641:
4310:
4220:
4193:
4163:
4073:
4004:
3900:
3830:, the rate was 5% and, in the case of the Muslims, 2.5%, the same as that of
3596:
2960:
2955:
2907:
2871:
2865:
2482:
2424:
2328:
2038:
2018:
1928:
1897:
1722:
1652:
1586:
1435:
1203:, who arose before Muhammad's death; other centers of the rebels were in the
1050:
936:
776:
764:
726:
10655:
10635:
6295:
6087:
4669:
3249:
has said that the leader of the Muslims should simply be from the majority.
1271:
After Abu Bakr unified Arabia under Islam, he began the incursions into the
767:
numbered more than 100,000 men at its peak. By the 650s, in addition to the
11119:
10860:
10850:
10816:
10745:
10740:
10667:
10457:
10439:
10400:
10395:
10375:
10370:
10242:
10235:
10225:
10220:
10215:
10109:
10047:
10028:
10013:
9949:
9725:
9650:
9310:
9162:
9040:
8756:
8660:
8648:
8362:
7954:
6140:
5800:
5271:
5026:
3991:
During the caliphate of Umar, many new cities were founded. These included
3883:
The main provisions of the final scale of allowance approved by Umar were:
3795:
3380:
3293:
Sunni Islamic lawyers have commented on when it is permissible to disobey,
3246:
3057:
2920:
2780:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2308:
2217:
2131:
2061:
1853:, while Mithna ibn Haris withdrew from central Iraq to the region near the
1794:
1617:
1526:
1439:
1192:
875:
862:) means "rightly-guided". The reign of these four caliphs is considered in
796:
780:
577:
7619:
The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State
7588:
The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State
6070:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"
4203:. There are also references to the practice of wearing two coats of mail (
3388:, the daughter of Muhammad (my daughter) stole, I would cut off her hand."
2239:
Khalid was recognized and eventually, Caliph Umar ibn Al Khattab came and
2227:
Nothing further happened until the third week of August, during which the
1904:. It is said that Caliph Umar did not wish to send his troops through the
10838:
10823:
10672:
10385:
10294:
10284:
10210:
9858:
9853:
9287:
8777:
8716:
8643:
8530:
8214:
7870:
5660:
5426:
5336:
5121:
4976:
4926:
4627:
4123:
3523:
3481:
3475:
3444:
3419:
3364:
3294:
3232:
2889:
2885:
2760:
2569:
2463:
2443:, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. The
2356:
2049:
2041:, and after a perilous march of 5 days, appeared in north-western Syria.
2034:
1948:
1944:
1850:
1759:
1669:
1600:, and then lost a controversial arbitration that ended with the arbiter,
1503:
1339:
1172:
981:
970:
893:
863:
760:
718:
710:
321:
280:
8088:. Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford University Press.
7830:
7806:
4496:
4423:
4348:
2363:. In 654–655, on the orders of Uthman, an expedition prepared to attack
677:. His brief reign ended in August 634 when he died and was succeeded by
10865:
10682:
10556:
10516:
10449:
9580:
8677:
8652:
8010:
In God's Path: the Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire
6095:
5946:
5586:
5556:
5386:
5191:
4756:
4367:
4212:
4130:
4112:
4081:
3932:
3896:, the uncle of Muhammad, received an annual allowance of 7,000 dirhams;
3714:
3584:
3580:
3527:
3338:
3306:
3302:
2992:
2965:
2915:
2903:
2643:
2560:
sued for peace, agreeing to pay an annual tribute. Instead of annexing
2440:
2432:
2420:
2336:
2335:, the governor of Syria, sent an expedition against Anatolia, invading
2332:
2158:
Syrian tile panel (c. 1600) with the names of the four Rashidun Caliphs
2085:
1960:
1815:
1763:
1745:
1737:
1645:
1609:
1593:
1236:
1200:
1188:
939:
debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the
929:
800:
737:
722:
435:
7978:
7179:"John, Bishop of Nikiu: Chronicle. London (1916). English Translation"
10755:
10526:
10410:
10380:
10161:
10035:
9826:
9295:
8726:
8541:
7249:
5931:
5886:
5856:
5781:
5766:
5171:
5141:
4986:
4746:
4686:
4379:
4372:
4278:
4200:
4018:
quarters, government offices and residences for officers were sited.
3515:
3314:
3037:
3024:
2859:
2646:, sent a request to build a naval force to invade the islands of the
2625:
2613:
2537:
2233:
2187:
2143:
2068:
were the first to fall to the invading Muslims. Khalid marched on to
2030:
1980:
1901:
1889:
1818:
Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni, and Muzieh.
1486:
1443:
1196:
1082:
666:
647:
639:
474:
151:
97:
8207:"The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth"
3777:
Initially, after the first Muslim conquests in the seventh century,
1744:) mint. Dated YE 25 = AH 36 (AD 656). Sasanian style bust imitating
866:
to have been 'rightly-guided', meaning that it constitutes a model (
10156:
9939:
9897:
9836:
9628:
9134:
8992:
8944:
8738:
8692:
8656:
8381:
8273:
8231:
8155:. Corpus Bruxellense Historiae Byzantinae (in French). French ed.:
6716:
Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History: The Rashidun Caliphs
5715:
5486:
5446:
5396:
5356:
5261:
4916:
4866:
4766:
4454:
4386:
On 23 August 634, Abu Bakr fell sick and he developed a high fever.
4324:
4302:
4189:
4177:
3588:
3576:
3463:
3457:
3368:
3274:
3190:
3067:
3034:
3007:
3003:
2816:
2631:
2589:
2501:
2312:
2283:
2221:
2147:
2116:
2073:
1964:
1741:
1688:
1677:
1621:
1428:
1183:. In some cases, entire tribes apostatized. Others merely withheld
1176:
1156:
986:
952:
925:
846:
682:
662:
643:
177:
6247:(illustrated ed.). Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd. p. 37.
3507:, which, in large cities, was protected by as many as 400 guards.
2787:
2584:
2126:
10069:
9998:
9954:
9809:
9643:
9249:
8937:
8817:
8709:
8702:
8697:
8439:
8211:
Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought
6364:
Muslim Nationhood in India: Perceptions of Seven Eminent Thinkers
6171:
5875:
5785:
5755:
5690:
5526:
5506:
5466:
5376:
5311:
5101:
4716:
4598:
4216:
4208:
4181:
4173:
4077:
4061:
3798:
paid by dhimmis. Muslim landowners, on the other hand, paid only
3733:
3548:
3531:
3485:
3385:
3270:
3262:
3194:
3160:
3047:
2991:
During Ali's reign, with the exception of Syria (which was under
2985:
2663:
2609:
2545:
2522:
2506:
2444:
2428:
2360:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2324:
2296:
2276:
2192:
2065:
1968:
1914:
1749:
1421:
1094:
1039:
1018:
956:
897:
878:, who reject the rule of the first three caliphs as illegitimate.
788:
9870:
8133:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 268.
7057:
The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns
3503:
A separate building was constructed for the royal treasury, the
3012:
2207:
Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of northern Syria
1943:(which included the modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern
752:
after Muhammad, favouring his bloodline connection to Muhammad.
9902:
9777:
9167:
9141:
9100:
9061:
8978:
8891:
8812:
8667:
8613:
8608:
8375:
8299:
8283:
6630:
Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict
6301:(illustrated, annotated ed.). Marshall Cavendish. p.
5950:
5830:
5686:
4696:
4644:
in 661. He ruled for five to six months and then abdicated for
4472:
4254:
4085:
4000:
3783:
3766:
3592:
3552:
3360:
3350:
3319:
3282:
3147:
3089:
2930:
2855:
2831:
2768:
2711:
2698:) but it was defeated: both sides suffered heavy losses in the
2691:
2683:
2679:
2651:
2320:
2304:
2252:
2220:
defeated the Christian Arab auxiliaries of the Roman army in a
2173:
Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of central Syria
2053:
2007:
1956:
1866:
1673:
1613:
1546:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1413:
1387:
1376:
1371:
1314:) as his successor. Upon his accession, Umar adopted the title
1303:
Before dying in August 634 from an illness, Abu Bakr appointed
1168:
1005:
940:
933:
869:
772:
694:
670:
356:
204:
123:
107:
79:
8153:
Byzance et les Arabes, Tome I: La dynastie d'Amorium (820–867)
7791:, Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press,
6391:. Sira: Companion- versus Caliph-Oriented History: Routledge.
4014:
Many buildings were built for administrative purposes. In the
10536:
9416:
9241:
9195:
9183:
8985:
8971:
8930:
8603:
8460:
8446:
8367:
8330:
7584:"Chapter Seven: Weapons and equipment in early Muslim armies"
6586:
Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation-state
6216:
Indonesia, Islam, and Democracy: Dynamics in a Global Context
6008:
5920:
5675:
5645:
4357:
4103:
4045:
3996:
3803:
3745:
3691:
3667:
3648:
3400:
3376:
3278:
3240:
3200:
2980:
2950:
2940:
2935:
2881:
2875:
2841:
2827:
2772:
2737:
2695:
2675:
2597:
2533:
2408:
2404:
2271:
Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn al-Walid's invasion of
2183:
2069:
1976:
1692:
1577:
1573:
1513:
1463:
1354:
1343:
1225:
1184:
1164:
1086:
1078:
806:
784:
693:. Umar was assassinated in November 644 and was succeeded by
141:
7713:
6242:
2244:
sent to Hazir and Abu Ubaidah moved to the city of Qasreen.
78:
The Rashidun Caliphate at its greatest extent, under Caliph
9082:
9054:
9004:
8951:
8896:
8467:
8278:
7701:
7646:
6685:. 3. Arab Renaissance House – Beirut, Lebanon. p. 370.
5815:
4397:
4116:
4057:
4027:
3992:
3404:
3324:
3168:
3143:
2945:
2895:
2845:
2837:
2796:
2621:
2287:
2255:, with Khalid, as usual, commanding the cavalry. After the
1936:
1918:
1793:
After resting his armies, Khalid moved in June 633 towards
1550:
1446:
and even raided Spain, conquering the coastal areas of the
1359:
1304:
1284:
1204:
1180:
944:
892:, imitating Byzantine coins, featuring a Byzantine figure (
714:
678:
192:
112:
9746:
8020:
The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate
7725:
3172:(judges) were appointed at all administrative levels. The
2600:
during the Caliphate of Umar in 642, but failed after the
1021:
believe the first three caliphs to be legitimate leaders.
725:
was unrecognized by Uthman's kinsman and Syria's governor
8288:
7737:
7378:
https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-
6803:
6112:
Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective
4572:
4556:
3717:
3564:
3261:
Following the death of Muhammad, a meeting took place at
2490:
2478:
1535:
1517:
1417:
706:
216:
11331:
States and territories disestablished in the 7th century
7261:
6135:
3422:
were replaced by a law governed by the state due to the
3397:
were suspended until the effects of the drought passed.
3253:
also wrote that the leader must come from the majority.
2620:. As the Muslims were unable to overpower Makuria, they
2447:
seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.
1081:
among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the
7898:
Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (25 April 2014).
7761:
7749:
7658:
6696:
6694:
6692:
6676:
6674:
6672:
6670:
6668:
6666:
3092:, and read the instrument of instructions before them.
2513:
After the withdrawal of the Byzantines from Egypt, the
2392:
Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of Egypt
2006:
Map detailing the Rashidun Caliphate's invasion of the
1089:), though this has later become the subject of debate.
1049:
After Muhammad's death in June 632, a gathering of the
6651:
6389:
Medieval Islamic Historiography: Remembering Rebellion
6268:
Anheier, Helmut K.; Juergensmeyer, Mark, eds. (2012).
6139:; Marín, Manuela; Ayalon, A. (1960–2007). "Shūrā". In
4102:
Some secular scholars have questioned the traditional
4088:. Uthman also reformed the city's police departments.
3129:
That he would always keep his door open to the public.
2521:, its dominions extended from the borders of Egypt to
1576:, set out to fight the perpetrators. The army reached
1545:) was elected caliph by the rebels and townspeople of
1139: Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661
6815:
6183:
3595:
occurred. The Caliphate was thus one of the earliest
3418:, the legal scholars and jurists who once upheld the
2616:
in the center of the city, but Makuria also won this
2427:
were sent by Umar to conquer the land of the ancient
2259:
the city finally agreed to surrender in October 637.
1861:. This army was defeated by the Sasanian army at the
1145: Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750
943:
while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial.
7455:
7453:
6791:
6689:
6663:
6648:, Vol. 1, ed. Stanley Sandler (ABC-CLIO, 2002), 458.
6267:
4576:
4487:
4413:
4339:
3379:: The people of Quraish worried about the lady from
3198:
1986:
1845:. This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq.
1534:
Following Uthman's assassination, Muhammad's cousin
1315:
998:
867:
852:
844:
804:
633:
55:
7957:(October 1972). "The Murder of the Caliph Uthman".
7876:
Muhammad and the Believers, at the Origins of Islam
6489:
6195:
3273:, judiciary, or specialists individually termed as
2815:Under Umar the Empire was divided into a number of
1326:begun by his predecessor, pushing further into the
959:soon following suit. Abu Bakr adopted the title of
8178:Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights
7807:"Arab Attacks on Rhodes in the Pre-Ottoman Period"
6449:
6366:. Kanishka Publishers, Distributors. p. 173.
6340:
6294:
3602:
3184:
3095:Umar's general instructions to his officers were:
2752:were given important positions in the government.
2702:, and the emperor himself narrowly avoided death.
1778:, fought in May 633 (where he successfully used a
1702:
1266:
324:(internal conflict) ends after Hasan's abdication
7897:
7450:
7046:
7044:
6547:
6535:
6386:
4545:Assassinated at the end of a siege upon his house
3142:required to come to Mecca on the occasion of the
2705:
2579:
11242:
7621:. London: Routledge. p. 183. Archived from
7615:"Chapter Eight: Fortification and siege warfare"
7590:. London: Routledge. p. 168. Archived from
7382:
6768:
6292:
6044:. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 126–132.
4172:Rashidun soldier wears an iron-bronze helmet, a
3917:Those who had become Muslims by the time of the
3469:
3016:). Other officers at the provincial level were:
2720:, and Christians—in conquered lands were called
2632:Conquest of the islands of the Mediterranean Sea
1412:The committee narrowed down the choices to two:
7215:. Princeton University Press. pp. 10, 20.
7089:. The Sword of Allah. p. 1. Archived from
6605:
6603:
6338:
3806:, which carried a much lower rate of taxation.
3536:on their coins, instead of designing a new one.
2690:led a fleet in person to attack the Muslims at
2564:, the Muslims preferred to make North Africa a
2247:Khalid defeated a strong Byzantine army at the
2200:and eventually captured the city in March 636.
1925:, shattering the last strongest Sasanian army.
1620:, the coastal areas of Spain and some forts in
11326:States and territories established in the 630s
7788:A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period
7574:
7572:
7517:
7501:
7041:
6683:First Islamic Arab State (1–41 AH/ 623–661 CE)
6213:
6064:
3954:received an allowance of 3,000 dirhams, while
3414:According to Noah Feldman, a law professor at
2295:. The Muslim army defeated the Byzantines and
2196:and Chalcis, they marched against Emesa, laid
1991:
9762:
8315:
8247:
7471:
6646:Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia
5978:
4068:, brought water to Anbar from the Euphrates.
3846:
2540:, and from there they marched west, captured
2517:declared its independence. Under its exarch,
1774:, fought in the third week of April 633; the
1732:Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate. Imitation of
1029:
717:. Ali presided over the civil war called the
595:
345:6,400,000 km (2,500,000 sq mi)
11219:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy
7959:International Journal of Middle East Studies
7578:
7347:
7298:Sahih Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 56, Number 681
7157:"Catholic Encyclopedia: Cyrus of Alexandria"
7087:Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns
7036:Yarmuk 636 AD – The Muslim Conquest of Syria
6868:Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns
6600:
6580:
6578:
6576:
6574:
6477:
4563:
4479:
4404:
4331:
4022:were constructed to house official records.
3924:Those who became Muslims at the time of the
3704:
3657:
3126:That he would not keep a porter at his door.
2642:During Umar's reign, the governor of Syria,
1230:
1069:), the natives of Medina, took place in the
991:
964:
857:
478:
39:
8175:
7855:. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing.
7569:
7416:
7376:inscriptions like besmellāh in the margins.
7335:
7272:
7270:
6762:
6610:The Arab Conquest of Iran and its Aftermath
4284:
4011:, constructed from his personal resources.
3288:
3214:
2755:
2576:would later re-invade North Africa in 664.
1524:(16th-century miniature from a copy of the
1497:
1393:
1054:
820:
9769:
9755:
8322:
8308:
8254:
8240:
8176:Weeramantry, Judge Christopher G. (1997).
6429:
6361:
5985:
5971:
3834:. The levy was thus regarded as a part of
3607:The economic resources of the State were:
3153:
2496:
1473:
602:
588:
72:
8123:
8083:
7936:
7784:
7731:
7719:
6749:, Oxford University Press, p. 1892,
6571:
6189:
6102:
6037:
4180:leather armour. His sword is hung from a
2807:
2622:negotiated a mutual non-aggression treaty
2439:. Amr next proceeded in the direction of
2262:
2084:), effectively ending the dynasty of the
1298:
1044:
978:ten who were explicitly promised paradise
8201:
8147:
8045:A Concise History of Sunnis & Shi'is
8016:
7918:
7804:
7767:
7755:
7743:
7707:
7664:
7652:
7267:
6865:
6833:
6712:
6700:
6657:
6523:
6483:
6467:
6245:Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps
6177:
4167:
4091:
3509:
3002:The provinces were further divided into
2874:was divided in two provinces: Aylya and
2786:
2759:
2583:
2500:
2395:
2387:
2355:in 650–651 forced the Byzantine Emperor
2266:
2202:
2168:
2153:
2125:
2090:
2001:
1727:
1712:
1635:, from a 14th-century manuscript of the
1626:
1507:
1492:
1241:
1120:
911:
880:
11346:7th-century disestablishments in Africa
11043:
7845:
7612:
7548:
7341:
6777:(6th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
6739:
6588:(Amsterdam University Press, 2009), 52.
6243:C. T. R. Hewer; Allan Anderson (2006).
4634:Assassinated during Fajr prayer in the
4030:were constructed for the first time in
3914:got an allowance of 6,000 dirhams each;
3084:of the army quartered in the province.
1133: Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632
916:Rashidun Caliphate at greatest extent (
14:
11243:
8062:
8041:
7869:
7462:
7307:
7262:Bosworth, Marín & Ayalon 1960–2007
7050:
6821:
6809:
6201:
6157:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
6108:
1660:, supplanting the Rashidun Caliphate.
669:clan, was elected the first caliph in
11356:7th-century disestablishments in Asia
9750:
9502:
9270:
8886:
8303:
8235:
7953:
7410:
7388:
7229:
7208:
6888:"Chapter 20: The Battle of the River"
6797:
6680:
6343:The first Muslims: history and memory
6115:. Taylor & Francis. p. 159.
6014:The ten to whom Paradise was promised
3285:(example) of Muhammad in all things.
2771:, the empire's first capital, in the
2489:, the governor of Egypt appointed by
2017:(acting as their supreme commander),
1663:
1398:
1199:was led by another supposed prophet,
713:clan, who transferred the capital to
9271:
8887:
8261:
8102:
7811:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
7676:
7419:Renaissance: Monthly Islamic Journal
6988:"Chapter 25: Daumat-ul-Jandal Again"
6495:Coeli Fitzpatrick, Adam Hani Walker
6455:
4663:Historical Arab states and dynasties
4640:After his death he was succeeded by
4199:The standard form of body armor was
4026:was used to house royal treasuries.
3120:That he would not wear fine clothes.
2854:was divided into two provinces, the
2377:
1624:—were also lost to outside empires.
1363:) and a financial officer called an
1163:with the exception of the people in
11351:Historical transcontinental empires
8106:Islam and Contemporary Civilisation
7925:Jurnal Kajian Ekonomi Hukum Syariah
6968:"Chapter 24: Anbar and Ain-ut-Tamr"
6713:El-Hibri, Tayeb (19 October 2010).
4564:
4480:
4405:
4332:
4188:The Rashidun army was divided into
3705:
3658:
3210:
3123:That he would not eat sifted flour.
1231:
992:
965:
858:
816:
771:, the caliphate had subjugated the
681:, his appointed successor from the
623:
479:
40:
24:
7391:Medieval Islamic Political Thought
6948:"Chapter 23: The Conquest of Hira"
6876:"Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains"
6272:. Sage Publications. p. 151.
4184:, and he carries a leather shield.
3526:, the picture of the last emperor
2898:was divided into three provinces:
2795:, the empire's second capital, in
2638:History of Islam in southern Italy
2596:A campaign was undertaken against
2343:. In 648 the Rashidun army raided
759:followed by a five-year period of
25:
11367:
7805:Bosworth, C. Edmund (July 1996).
7496:Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy
7008:"Chapter 26: The Last Opposition"
6974:from the original on 6 March 2002
6954:from the original on 6 March 2002
6894:from the original on 6 March 2002
3327:from the Qur'an to justify this:
2716:The non-Muslim monotheists—Jews,
1987:Wars against the Byzantine Empire
1803:conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr
705:He was subsequently succeeded by
675:conquest of the Arabian Peninsula
27:First Islamic caliphate (632–661)
11286:History of the Arabian Peninsula
9731:
9730:
9719:
9250:Schools of islamic jurisprudence
8498:Timeline of the history of Islam
8329:
7557:from the original on 16 May 2011
7083:"Chapter 32: The Battle of Fahl"
6928:"Chapter 22: The River of Blood"
6908:"Chapter 21: The Hell of Walaja"
6870:. The Sword of Allah. p. 1.
6165:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1063
5084:Western dynasties and caliphates
4668:
4585:
4495:
4422:
4347:
4242:
4157:
3821:. Umar issued instructions that
3774:was a tax on agricultural land.
2884:was divided into two provinces:
2840:was divided into two provinces,
2826:was divided into two provinces,
1644:In 661, Ali was assassinated by
1589:to escort Aisha back to Medina.
1549:. He transferred the capital to
885:Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate,
571:
490:
453:
428:
414:
400:
386:
9591:List of ex-Muslim organisations
8048:. Georgetown University Press.
8007:
7670:
7637:
7606:
7542:
7533:
7523:
7507:
7487:
7477:
7441:
7369:
7328:
7301:
7292:
7255:
7242:
7202:
7193:
7171:
7149:
7127:
7105:
7075:
7028:
6859:
6849:Encyclopedia Iranica Foundation
6827:
6733:
6706:
6635:
6619:
6591:
6562:
6553:
6541:
6529:
6517:
6504:
6461:
6423:
6419:. 3 (Parts 57–58). Brill: 1164.
6408:
6380:
6355:
6332:
6319:
6286:
6261:
6075:International Studies Quarterly
4461:Assassinated by a Persian slave
4393:23 August 634 – 3 November 644
3974:
3603:Economic resources of the State
3438:
3256:
3185:Electing or appointing a caliph
2462:. He was one of the authors of
1959:(part of modern-day Pakistan),
1703:Conquest of the Sasanian Empire
1540:
1309:
1267:Expeditions to Persia and Syria
990:, or "Rightly Guided" caliphs (
731:
642:to succeed the Islamic prophet
540:Umayyad Caliphate in al-Andalus
8130:The Byzantine Revival, 780–842
7348:Noah Feldman (16 March 2008).
6746:Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
6548:Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014
6536:Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014
6430:Aqidah.Com (1 December 2009).
6270:Encyclopedia of Global Studies
6236:
6207:
6129:
6058:
6031:
4517:Umm Hakim bint Abd al-Muttalib
4468:11 November 644 – 20 June 656
3563:, since the time of Umar. The
3514:The Rashidun caliphs used the
3344:
2735:were also required to pay the
2706:Treatment of conquered peoples
2580:Campaign against Nubia (Sudan)
2232:future conquests, settling on
1935:. The entirety of present-day
1877:against the Persian army. The
1287:, the richest province of the
13:
1:
11306:Medieval history of Palestine
11261:Former countries in West Asia
7999:: CS1 maint: date and year (
7549:Fratini, Dan (1 April 2006).
7314:. A&C Black. p. 61.
6719:. Columbia University Press.
6614:The Cambridge History of Iran
6512:The Essentials of Ibadi Islam
6024:
4616:Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib
4552:20 June 656 – 29 January 661
4265:, naval cove of privateer in
3962:
3950:Under this scale, Umar's son
3890:received 12,000 dirhams each;
3470:Establishment of Bait-ul-Maal
3363:establishes the principle of
2311:. Other columns were sent to
1998:Muslim conquest of the Levant
1516:, battling the fourth caliph
1215:) and South Arabia (known as
1159:spread to every tribe in the
1150:
886:
661:. Muhammad's close companion
83:
11266:Countries in medieval Africa
9576:Apostasy in Islam by country
9453:Liberalism and progressivism
8209:. In al-Sarhan, Saud (ed.).
8084:Sowerwine, James E. (2010).
8063:Netton, Ian Richard (2013).
7785:Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. (1987),
7311:Islam Today: An Introduction
7053:"Chapter 31: The Unkind Cut"
6839:"Ḥasan B. ʿAli B. Abi Ṭāleb"
6612:, 'Abd Al-Husein Zarrinkub,
3946:received 2,000 dirhams each.
3935:received 3,000 dirhams each.
3928:received 3,000 dirhams each;
3907:received 5,000 dirhams each;
3841:
3838:rather than a separate tax.
2548:, Gregory's capital. In the
1913:, some forty miles south of
1450:, as well as the islands of
838:
659:succession to his leadership
7:
9776:
8008:Hoyland, Robert G. (2015).
7553:. Military History Online.
7551:"The Battle Of Yarmuk, 636"
7059:. p. 1. Archived from
7038:, p. 43: gives 9,000–10,000
7010:. p. 1. Archived from
6990:. p. 1. Archived from
6930:. p. 1. Archived from
6910:. p. 1. Archived from
6878:. p. 1. Archived from
6220:Equinox Publishing (London)
4804:Arab empires and caliphates
4655:
4608:, Muhammad's granddaughter.
4577:
4488:
4414:
4340:
4320:8 June 632 – 22 August 634
4145:
3899:The grandsons of Muhammad,
3894:`Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib
3794:, which later emerged as a
3670:) were collected from. The
3430:in the early 19th century.
3277:and collectively named the
3237:The Early Islamic Conquests
3199:
3115:which was a symbol of pride
2556:. Afterward, the people of
2095:Map detailing the route of
1992:Conquest of Byzantine Syria
1939:was conquered, followed by
1841:and Christian Arabs in the
1770:, fought in April 633; the
1717:Map detailing the route of
1572:and the widow of Muhammad,
1375:when Muhammad emigrated to
1316:
1179:and the Bani Abdul Qais of
999:
868:
853:
845:
805:
634:
56:
10:
11372:
11301:Medieval history of Jordan
9503:
8025:Cambridge University Press
8017:Madelung, Wilferd (1997).
8012:. Oxford University Press.
7777:
7395:Edinburgh University Press
6775:The Middle East: A History
6417:The Encyclopaedia of Islam
6387:Heather N. Keaney (2013).
6329:(I.B.Tauris, 2015), 51–54.
6180:, pp. 63, 72, note 1.
4519:, Muhammad's paternal aunt
4246:
4161:
4095:
3847:Beginning of the allowance
3764:
3743:
3689:
3646:
3473:
3442:
3433:
3348:
2709:
2654:, conquering the capital,
2635:
2612:. The Muslims damaged the
2381:
1995:
1811:Battle of Daumat-ul-jandal
1706:
1501:
1477:
1402:
1281:largest empires in history
1033:
1030:Abu Bakr's reign (632–634)
1024:
133:Various regional languages
11316:Medieval history of Syria
11212:
11164:
10681:
10085:
9784:
9714:
9599:
9566:
9516:
9512:
9498:
9425:
9392:
9364:Geography and cartography
9339:
9286:
9282:
9266:
9092:
9014:
8961:
8910:
8906:
8882:
8752:
8634:
8594:
8477:
8429:
8353:
8349:
8338:
8269:
7971:10.1017/S0020743800025216
7914:– via Google Books.
7823:10.1017/S1356186300007161
7338:, pp. 132 & 135)
6681:شبارو, عصام محمد (1995).
6293:Claire Alkouatli (2007).
3760:
3551:were introduced in early
3109:That he would not ride a
2347:. A major offensive into
2293:Battle of the Iron Bridge
2164:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah
2111:. It was the first major
2015:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah
1709:Muslim conquest of Persia
1334:territory, and went into
1099:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah
955:, with the Ansar and the
951:pledged their loyalty to
907:
624:ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ
480:
365:
349:
341:
336:
332:
318:
305:
291:
277:
269:• Ascension of Umar
267:
254:
241:
237:
229:
225:
210:
198:
186:
171:
167:
157:
147:
137:
129:
119:
103:
93:
71:
66:
41:ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ
34:
11321:Muslim conquest of Egypt
11296:Medieval history of Iraq
9673:Islamic view of miracles
7938:10.37567/shar-e.v6i2.227
7919:Frastuti, Melia (2020).
7881:Harvard University Press
7685:. Oxford. Archived from
7435:August 25, 2011, at the
7389:Crone, Patricia (2005),
7135:"The Conquest of Emessa"
6771:Fisher, Sydney Nettleton
6584:Gianluca Paolo Parolin,
6339:Asma Afsaruddin (2008).
6038:Versteegh, Kees (2014).
5112:Umayyad state of Córdoba
4594:Muhammad's first cousin.
4285:List of Rashidun caliphs
3739:
3685:
3642:
3289:Accountability of rulers
2756:Political administration
2384:Muslim conquest of Egypt
2319:, the important city of
2121:battle of Maraj-al-Debaj
1498:Crisis and fragmentation
1394:Uthman's reign (644–656)
993:الْخُلَفاءُ الرّاشِدُونَ
949:Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah
283:and Ascension of Uthman
11281:History of Central Asia
9438:Creationism (evolution)
8213:. London and New York:
8109:. Academic Monographs.
7209:Lewis, Bernard (1984).
6626:Battle of Yarmouk River
6568:Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 467.
6214:Azyumardi Azra (2006).
6088:10.1111/0020-8833.00053
4512:, Muhammad's daughters.
3971:increased accordingly.
3944:Battle of al-Qadisiyyah
3921:got 4,000 dirhams each;
3857:Battle of al-Qadisiyyah
3809:
3530:) by adding the phrase
3154:Judicial administration
2819:which were as follows:
2670:was built there by the
2606:First Battle of Dongola
2544:, and then advanced to
2497:Conquest of the Maghreb
2456:Patriarch of Alexandria
2454:, prefect of Egypt and
2307:and the area up to the
1879:Battle of al-Qādisiyyah
1608:against the rebellious
1480:Assassination of Uthman
1474:Assassination of Uthman
1015:Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal
928:'s death in 632 CE (11
918:orthographic projection
727:Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan
295:Assassination of Uthman
120:Official languages
11276:Early Muslim conquests
9688:Persecution of Muslims
9586:List of former Muslims
8503:Succession to Muhammad
8149:Vasiliev, Alexander A.
8066:Encyclopaedia of Islam
8023:. Cambridge, England:
7683:Oxford Islamic studies
7613:Kennedy, Hugh (2001).
6597:Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 518
6327:Islam: An Introduction
6109:Triana, María (2017).
4601:, Muhammad's daughter.
4185:
4106:view of the Rashidun.
4056:, was dug to join the
3888:The widows of Muhammad
3724:
3559:(charity), one of the
3537:
3390:
3334:
3102:
2808:Districts or provinces
2800:
2784:
2593:
2510:
2412:
2393:
2279:
2263:Occupation of Anatolia
2208:
2174:
2159:
2151:
2103:
2010:
1755:
1725:
1641:
1531:
1372:companions of Muhammad
1299:Umar's reign (634–644)
1283:. Abu Bakr began with
1247:
1147:
1045:Accession to Caliphate
1036:Succession to Muhammad
1000:al-Khulafāʾ ar-Rāšidūn
966:خَلِيفةُ رَسُولِ اللهِ
921:
904:
689:and nearly the entire
635:al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah
245:Succession to Muhammad
57:al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah
11341:661 disestablishments
11189:Medieval great powers
9482:Conversion to mosques
9349:Alchemy and chemistry
8203:Melchert, Christopher
8042:McHugo, John (2017).
7498:, 19(2), pp. 210–237.
7237:Encyclopedia of Islam
6769:Ochsenweld, William;
6632:(ABC-CLIO, 2010), 92.
5702:Sultanate of Zanzibar
5617:Mutawakkilite Kingdom
4636:Great Mosque of Kufah
4443:Al-Khattab ibn Nufayl
4171:
4129:This is in-line with
4098:Shia view of Abu Bakr
4092:Assessment and legacy
4054:title created by Umar
3919:Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
3867:On the amount of the
3680:Five Pillars of Islam
3561:Five Pillars of Islam
3513:
3373:
3329:
3311:Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani
3247:Abu Bakr Al-Baqillani
3097:
2790:
2763:
2636:Further information:
2587:
2519:Gregory the Patrician
2504:
2487:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr
2399:
2391:
2382:Further information:
2270:
2241:Jerusalem surrendered
2206:
2172:
2157:
2129:
2094:
2005:
1996:Further information:
1797:, which resisted and
1731:
1716:
1707:Further information:
1630:
1511:
1493:Ali's reign (656–661)
1390:to lead the prayers.
1245:
1124:
915:
884:
791:in the west; and the
297:and Ascension of Ali
281:Assassination of Umar
130:Common languages
11291:7th century in Egypt
11199:European colonialism
11184:Ancient great powers
9208:Ma malakat aymanukum
8783:Association football
8103:Rane, Halim (2010).
8086:Caliph and Caliphate
7397:, pp. 308–309,
7308:Geaves, Ron (2010).
7199:Nadvi (2000), p. 522
7139:Khalid bin Al-Waleed
7117:Khalid bin Al-Waleed
6855:on 17 November 2013.
6844:Encyclopædia Iranica
6510:Valerie J. Hoffman,
6347:. Oneworld. p.
6325:Catharina Raudvere,
4606:Umama bint Abi al-As
4249:Early Caliphate navy
4211:and large wooden or
3938:The veterans of the
3931:The veterans of the
3910:The veterans of the
3880:relationship scale.
3853:Battle of the Yarmuk
3790:was synonymous with
3497:Abdur Rahman bin Awf
3371:and accountability:
3251:Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man
3064:Sahib-ul-Bait-ul-Mal
2793:Great Mosque of Kufa
2588:The Grand Mosque of
2437:Battle of Heliopolis
2044:The border forts of
2027:Shurhabil ibn Hasana
2023:Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan
1863:Battle of the Bridge
1859:Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi
1687:Unlike the Sasanian
1631:Illustration of the
961:Khalīfaṫ Rasūl Allāh
309:Assassination of Ali
11311:7th century in Iran
11194:Modern great powers
7722:, pp. 285–286.
7679:"Islam and the Sea"
7655:, pp. 157–158.
7468:Lewis (2002), p. 72
7113:"The Eve of Yarmuk"
6882:on 26 January 2002.
6812:, pp. 157–159.
6362:Safia Amir (2000).
6041:The Arabic Language
5999:The Four Companions
4679:Ancient Arab states
4527:Affan ibn Abi al-As
4448:Hantama bint Hisham
4259:Battle of the Masts
3713:: cizye). It was a
3575:) collected in the
3395:capital punishments
3161:principles of Islam
2765:Al-Masjid an-Nabawi
2554:Abdullah ibn Zubayr
2515:Exarchate of Africa
2505:The Roman ruins of
2315:as far west as the
2286:taking the fort of
2097:Khalid ibn al-Walid
1875:Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās
1719:Khalid ibn al-Walid
1583:Battle of the Camel
1522:Battle of the Camel
1252:Khalid ibn al-Walid
1073:(courtyard) of the
560:Sharifian Caliphate
534:Parallel caliphates
11336:632 establishments
11251:Rashidun Caliphate
9693:Quran and miracles
9607:Criticism of Islam
9321:Geometric patterns
9173:Gender segregation
8744:Non-denominational
8217:. pp. 63–79.
7847:Charles, Robert H.
7710:, p. 131-207.
7689:on 27 January 2014
7459:Ali (1990), p. 507
7355:The New York Times
7189:on 9 January 2011.
7183:www.tertullian.org
7093:on 10 January 2003
6741:Kazhdan, Alexander
6628:, Spencer Tucker,
6147:; Bosworth, C.E.;
6068:(September 1997).
6019:Timeline of Medina
6004:Islamic Golden Age
5744:Current monarchies
5407:Sharifate of Mecca
4877:Emirate of Tbilisi
4867:Emirate of Armenia
4717:Kingdom of Osroene
4435:, Muhammad's wife.
4360:, Muhammad's wife.
4301:Relationship with
4186:
3538:
3484:, the Governor of
3454:the house of money
3416:Harvard University
3082:commander-in-chief
3076:, the Chief Judge.
2801:
2785:
2594:
2527:Abdullah ibn Sa'ad
2511:
2413:
2394:
2280:
2209:
2175:
2160:
2152:
2109:Battle of Ajnadayn
2104:
2011:
1911:Battle of Nihawānd
1829:, and finally the
1756:
1726:
1680:, and most of the
1664:Military expansion
1642:
1606:Battle of Nahrawan
1559:Salman the Persian
1532:
1512:Muhammad's widow,
1405:Election of Uthman
1399:Election of Uthman
1256:Malik ibn Nuwayrah
1248:
1219:and including the
1191:arose and invaded
1148:
1111:Ibrahim al-Nakha'i
1019:Zaydi Shia Muslims
922:
905:
757:military expansion
709:, a member of the
697:, a member of the
616:Rashidun Caliphate
507:Rashidun Caliphate
258:Conquest of Persia
36:Rashidun Caliphate
18:Rashidun caliphate
11271:7th-century Islam
11238:
11237:
11160:
11159:
11125:Polish–Lithuanian
10300:Gurjara-Pratihara
9744:
9743:
9710:
9709:
9706:
9705:
9678:Domestic violence
9668:Islamic terrorism
9663:Islamic extremism
9494:
9493:
9490:
9489:
9262:
9261:
9258:
9257:
9048:Marriage contract
8878:
8877:
8838:Political aspects
8625:Story of Prophets
8394:Prophets of Islam
8297:
8296:
8224:978-1-83860-765-4
8140:978-0-8047-1462-4
8125:Treadgold, Warren
8076:978-1-135-17960-1
8055:978-1-62-616587-8
7911:978-1-61069-178-9
7879:. Cambridge, MA:
7746:, pp. 68–69.
7734:, pp. 55–58.
7677:Fromherz, Allen.
7404:978-0-7486-2194-1
7222:978-0-691-00807-3
7212:The Jews of Islam
7167:on 24 March 2011.
7063:on 5 January 2003
6934:on 22 August 2002
6835:Madelung, Wilferd
6784:978-0-07-244233-5
6756:978-0-19-504652-6
6726:978-0-231-52165-9
6559:Balazuri: p. 113.
6526:, pp. 32–33)
6051:978-0-7486-4529-9
5995:
5994:
5960:
5959:
5735:
5734:
5727:Tippu Tip's State
5625:
5624:
5597:Emirate of Beihan
5329:Arabian Peninsula
5320:
5319:
5075:
5074:
4859:Eastern dynasties
4850:
4849:
4795:
4794:
4707:Nabataean Kingdom
4697:Kingdom of Lihyan
4653:
4652:
4621:Fatimah bint Asad
4136:Ali ibn Abi Talib
4108:Robert G. Hoyland
4050:governor of Basra
3952:Abdullah ibn Umar
3940:Battle of Yarmouk
3926:Conquest of Mecca
3520:Star and crescent
3426:of Sharia by the
2777:Arabian Peninsula
2668:Hala Sultan Tekke
2648:Mediterranean Sea
2624:with their king,
2574:Umayyad Caliphate
2460:Coptic Christians
2378:Conquest of Egypt
2229:Battle of Yarmouk
2188:Emperor Heraclius
1979:and north to the
1977:lower river Indus
1883:Rostam Farrokhzād
1871:Battle of Yarmouk
1835:Sasanian Persians
1658:Umayyad Caliphate
1464:lower Indus River
1448:Iberian Peninsula
1384:Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz
1161:Arabian Peninsula
1126:Islamic conquests
1107:Ali ibn Abi Talib
769:Arabian Peninsula
746:Umayyad Caliphate
673:and he began the
632:
612:
611:
550:Almohad Caliphate
545:Fatimid Caliphate
522:Ottoman Caliphate
517:Abbasid Caliphate
512:Umayyad Caliphate
469:
468:
465:
464:
461:
460:
449:Umayyad Caliphate
441:
440:
16:(Redirected from
11363:
11041:
11040:
10706:Austro-Hungarian
10406:Chagatai Khanate
9771:
9764:
9757:
9748:
9747:
9734:
9733:
9726:Islam portal
9724:
9723:
9722:
9514:
9513:
9506:
9500:
9499:
9341:Medieval science
9284:
9283:
9274:
9268:
9267:
8925:Economic history
8908:
8907:
8884:
8883:
8870:Islam by country
8703:Bektashi Alevism
8351:
8350:
8342:Outline of Islam
8324:
8317:
8310:
8301:
8300:
8263:Rashidun Caliphs
8256:
8249:
8242:
8233:
8232:
8228:
8195:
8182:Brill Publishers
8172:
8144:
8120:
8099:
8080:
8059:
8038:
8013:
8004:
7998:
7990:
7950:
7940:
7915:
7894:
7866:
7842:
7801:
7771:
7765:
7759:
7753:
7747:
7741:
7735:
7729:
7723:
7717:
7711:
7705:
7699:
7698:
7696:
7694:
7674:
7668:
7662:
7656:
7650:
7644:
7641:
7635:
7634:
7632:
7630:
7610:
7604:
7603:
7601:
7599:
7576:
7567:
7566:
7564:
7562:
7546:
7540:
7537:
7531:
7521:
7515:
7505:
7499:
7491:
7485:
7475:
7469:
7466:
7460:
7457:
7448:
7445:
7439:
7426:
7414:
7408:
7407:
7386:
7380:
7373:
7367:
7366:
7364:
7362:
7345:
7339:
7336:Weeramantry 1997
7332:
7326:
7325:
7305:
7299:
7296:
7290:
7289:
7284:. Archived from
7282:www.2muslims.com
7274:
7265:
7259:
7253:
7246:
7240:
7233:
7227:
7226:
7206:
7200:
7197:
7191:
7190:
7185:. Archived from
7175:
7169:
7168:
7163:. Archived from
7153:
7147:
7146:
7145:on 6 March 2007.
7141:. Archived from
7131:
7125:
7124:
7123:on 2 April 2007.
7119:. Archived from
7109:
7103:
7102:
7100:
7098:
7079:
7073:
7072:
7070:
7068:
7048:
7039:
7032:
7026:
7023:
7021:
7019:
7003:
7001:
6999:
6983:
6981:
6979:
6963:
6961:
6959:
6943:
6941:
6939:
6923:
6921:
6919:
6903:
6901:
6899:
6883:
6871:
6863:
6857:
6856:
6851:. Archived from
6831:
6825:
6819:
6813:
6807:
6801:
6795:
6789:
6788:
6766:
6760:
6759:
6737:
6731:
6730:
6710:
6704:
6698:
6687:
6686:
6678:
6661:
6655:
6649:
6642:Khalid ibn Walid
6639:
6633:
6623:
6617:
6607:
6598:
6595:
6589:
6582:
6569:
6566:
6560:
6557:
6551:
6545:
6539:
6533:
6527:
6521:
6515:
6508:
6502:
6493:
6487:
6481:
6475:
6465:
6459:
6453:
6447:
6446:
6444:
6442:
6427:
6421:
6420:
6412:
6406:
6405:
6384:
6378:
6377:
6359:
6353:
6352:
6346:
6336:
6330:
6323:
6317:
6316:
6300:
6290:
6284:
6283:
6265:
6259:
6258:
6240:
6234:
6233:
6211:
6205:
6199:
6193:
6187:
6181:
6175:
6169:
6168:
6133:
6127:
6126:
6106:
6100:
6099:
6062:
6056:
6055:
6035:
5987:
5980:
5973:
5748:
5747:
5712:Nabahani dynasty
5657:Nabahani dynasty
5642:Makhzumi dynasty
5638:
5637:
5333:
5332:
5088:
5087:
4887:Emirate of Crete
4863:
4862:
4808:
4807:
4787:Kingdom of Kinda
4737:Kingdom of Hatra
4687:Kingdom of Qedar
4683:
4682:
4672:
4660:
4659:
4589:
4580:
4567:
4566:
4532:Arwa bint Kurayz
4499:
4491:
4483:
4482:
4426:
4417:
4408:
4407:
4351:
4343:
4335:
4334:
4289:
4288:
4271:Cordoban Emirate
4267:La Garde-Freinet
4066:governor of Kufa
3982:Masjid an-Nabawi
3786:. At that time,
3708:
3707:
3661:
3660:
3490:Uthman ibn Affan
3228:
3225:
3222:
3219:
3216:
3212:
3204:
2372:Taurus Mountains
2317:Taurus Mountains
2273:Eastern Anatolia
2257:Battle of Aleppo
2136:Haram Ash-Sharif
1941:Greater Khorasan
1906:Zagros Mountains
1831:Battle of Zumail
1823:Battle of Muzieh
1784:Battle of Ullais
1776:Battle of Walaja
1768:Battle of Chains
1697:Byzantine Empire
1638:Tarikh-i Bal'ami
1633:Battle of Siffin
1598:Battle of Siffin
1544:
1542:
1458:. Also, coastal
1388:Suhayb ibn Sinan
1328:Sassanian Empire
1324:war of conquests
1321:
1318:amir al-mu'minin
1313:
1311:
1273:Byzantine Empire
1261:Battle of Yamama
1234:
1233:
1144:
1138:
1132:
1079:Muslim community
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1011:Sunan Abu Dawood
1002:
995:
994:
968:
967:
891:
888:
873:
861:
860:
856:
850:
843:The Arabic word
834:
831:
828:
825:
822:
818:
810:
742:Battle of Siffin
735:
733:
687:Byzantine Empire
652:Northeast Africa
638:) was the first
637:
627:
625:
604:
597:
590:
578:Islam portal
576:
575:
574:
555:Sokoto Caliphate
494:
485:
484:
482:
471:
470:
457:
456:
445:
444:
432:
431:
418:
417:
408:Byzantine Empire
404:
403:
390:
389:
383:
382:
367:
366:
221:
182:
88:
85:
76:
61:
60:
59:
51:
43:
42:
32:
31:
21:
11371:
11370:
11366:
11365:
11364:
11362:
11361:
11360:
11241:
11240:
11239:
11234:
11223:American Empire
11208:
11204:African empires
11156:
11039:
10731:Central African
10677:
10495:Romano-Germanic
10081:
9815:Middle Assyrian
9788:
9780:
9775:
9745:
9740:
9720:
9718:
9702:
9624:Cultural Muslim
9595:
9562:
9518:Other religions
9508:
9504:
9486:
9421:
9388:
9335:
9278:
9276:Islamic studies
9272:
9254:
9088:
9033:
9010:
8957:
8902:
8901:
8874:
8823:Moral teachings
8766:
8748:
8722:Nation of Islam
8683:Twelver Shi'ism
8630:
8596:Religious texts
8590:
8508:Early conquests
8491:
8473:
8425:
8345:
8334:
8328:
8298:
8293:
8265:
8260:
8225:
8198:
8192:
8141:
8117:
8096:
8077:
8056:
8035:
7992:
7991:
7912:
7891:
7871:Donner, Fred M.
7863:
7799:
7780:
7775:
7774:
7766:
7762:
7754:
7750:
7742:
7738:
7730:
7726:
7718:
7714:
7706:
7702:
7692:
7690:
7675:
7671:
7663:
7659:
7651:
7647:
7642:
7638:
7628:
7626:
7611:
7607:
7597:
7595:
7577:
7570:
7560:
7558:
7547:
7543:
7538:
7534:
7522:
7518:
7506:
7502:
7492:
7488:
7476:
7472:
7467:
7463:
7458:
7451:
7446:
7442:
7437:Wayback Machine
7415:
7411:
7405:
7387:
7383:
7374:
7370:
7360:
7358:
7346:
7342:
7333:
7329:
7322:
7306:
7302:
7297:
7293:
7288:on 7 July 2011.
7276:
7275:
7268:
7260:
7256:
7247:
7243:
7234:
7230:
7223:
7207:
7203:
7198:
7194:
7177:
7176:
7172:
7155:
7154:
7150:
7133:
7132:
7128:
7111:
7110:
7106:
7096:
7094:
7081:
7080:
7076:
7066:
7064:
7049:
7042:
7033:
7029:
7017:
7015:
7014:on 6 March 2002
7006:
6997:
6995:
6994:on 6 March 2002
6986:
6977:
6975:
6966:
6957:
6955:
6946:
6937:
6935:
6926:
6917:
6915:
6914:on 6 March 2002
6906:
6897:
6895:
6886:
6874:
6864:
6860:
6832:
6828:
6820:
6816:
6808:
6804:
6796:
6792:
6785:
6767:
6763:
6757:
6738:
6734:
6727:
6711:
6707:
6699:
6690:
6679:
6664:
6656:
6652:
6644:, Timothy May,
6640:
6636:
6624:
6620:
6608:
6601:
6596:
6592:
6583:
6572:
6567:
6563:
6558:
6554:
6546:
6542:
6534:
6530:
6522:
6518:
6509:
6505:
6494:
6490:
6482:
6478:
6466:
6462:
6454:
6450:
6440:
6438:
6428:
6424:
6413:
6409:
6399:
6385:
6381:
6374:
6360:
6356:
6337:
6333:
6324:
6320:
6313:
6291:
6287:
6280:
6266:
6262:
6255:
6241:
6237:
6230:
6212:
6208:
6200:
6196:
6188:
6184:
6176:
6172:
6153:Heinrichs, W.P.
6134:
6130:
6123:
6107:
6103:
6063:
6059:
6052:
6036:
6032:
6027:
5991:
5962:
5961:
5745:
5737:
5736:
5672:Mahdali dynasty
5635:
5627:
5626:
5567:Muscat and Oman
5337:Imamate of Oman
5330:
5322:
5321:
5085:
5077:
5076:
4860:
4852:
4851:
4805:
4797:
4796:
4727:Emesene Dynasty
4680:
4658:
4560:
4476:
4401:
4328:
4315:Notable events
4287:
4251:
4245:
4166:
4160:
4148:
4100:
4094:
4070:'Amr ibn al-'As
3986:Masjid al-Haram
3977:
3965:
3849:
3844:
3812:
3769:
3763:
3748:
3742:
3727:
3711:Ottoman Turkish
3694:
3688:
3651:
3645:
3605:
3478:
3472:
3447:
3441:
3436:
3401:Islamic jurists
3367:in relation to
3357:
3347:
3291:
3271:Islamic lawyers
3259:
3226:
3223:
3220:
3217:
3187:
3156:
3054:Sahib-ul-Ahdath
3044:Sahib-ul-Kharaj
2997:Amr ibn Al-A'as
2868:was a province.
2810:
2758:
2714:
2708:
2640:
2634:
2582:
2499:
2401:Al-Azhar Mosque
2386:
2380:
2341:Caesarea Mazaca
2265:
2249:Battle of Hazir
2099:'s invasion of
2082:Battle of Bosra
2000:
1994:
1989:
1843:Battle of Firaz
1827:Battle of Sanni
1780:pincer movement
1772:Battle of River
1721:'s conquest of
1711:
1705:
1682:Sasanian Empire
1666:
1602:'Amr ibn al-'As
1555:Malik al-Ashtar
1539:
1506:
1500:
1495:
1482:
1476:
1407:
1401:
1396:
1386:. He appointed
1308:
1301:
1289:Sasanian Empire
1277:Sasanian Empire
1269:
1211:(known then as
1153:
1146:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1085:(migrants from
1066:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1047:
1042:
1034:Main articles:
1032:
1027:
910:
902:globus cruciger
889:
841:
832:
829:
826:
823:
793:Iranian Plateau
787:to present-day
761:internal strife
730:
691:Sasanian Empire
608:
572:
570:
565:
564:
535:
527:
526:
502:
501:Main caliphates
477:
454:
429:
422:Sasanian Empire
415:
401:
394:State of Medina
387:
361:
325:
311:
298:
284:
270:
260:
247:
219:
213:
212:• 656–661
201:
200:• 644–656
189:
188:• 634–644
180:
174:
173:• 632–634
111:
89:
86:
62:
54:
53:
52:
45:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
11369:
11359:
11358:
11353:
11348:
11343:
11338:
11333:
11328:
11323:
11318:
11313:
11308:
11303:
11298:
11293:
11288:
11283:
11278:
11273:
11268:
11263:
11258:
11253:
11236:
11235:
11233:
11232:
11231:
11230:
11225:
11216:
11214:
11210:
11209:
11207:
11206:
11201:
11196:
11191:
11186:
11181:
11180:
11179:
11168:
11166:
11162:
11161:
11158:
11157:
11155:
11154:
11149:
11144:
11139:
11134:
11133:
11132:
11122:
11117:
11112:
11107:
11102:
11097:
11092:
11087:
11082:
11077:
11076:
11075:
11070:
11060:
11055:
11049:
11047:
11038:
11037:
11036:
11035:
11030:
11025:
11020:
11015:
11005:
11000:
10999:
10998:
10988:
10983:
10982:
10981:
10976:
10971:
10961:
10956:
10955:
10954:
10949:
10939:
10938:
10937:
10932:
10927:
10922:
10917:
10907:
10906:
10905:
10900:
10890:
10885:
10880:
10875:
10874:
10873:
10868:
10863:
10858:
10853:
10843:
10842:
10841:
10836:
10826:
10821:
10820:
10819:
10814:
10804:
10803:
10802:
10797:
10787:
10786:
10785:
10780:
10770:
10765:
10764:
10763:
10758:
10753:
10748:
10743:
10733:
10728:
10727:
10726:
10721:
10713:
10708:
10703:
10698:
10693:
10687:
10685:
10679:
10678:
10676:
10675:
10670:
10665:
10660:
10659:
10658:
10653:
10648:
10643:
10638:
10633:
10628:
10618:
10613:
10612:
10611:
10606:
10601:
10596:
10591:
10586:
10576:
10575:
10574:
10569:
10564:
10559:
10549:
10544:
10539:
10534:
10529:
10524:
10519:
10514:
10509:
10508:
10507:
10502:
10492:
10491:
10490:
10485:
10480:
10475:
10470:
10465:
10452:
10447:
10442:
10437:
10436:
10435:
10430:
10425:
10415:
10414:
10413:
10408:
10403:
10398:
10388:
10383:
10378:
10373:
10368:
10363:
10362:
10361:
10356:
10351:
10346:
10336:
10335:
10334:
10329:
10324:
10319:
10309:
10308:
10307:
10302:
10297:
10287:
10282:
10277:
10272:
10267:
10266:
10265:
10260:
10255:
10245:
10240:
10239:
10238:
10233:
10228:
10223:
10218:
10213:
10203:
10202:
10201:
10196:
10186:
10185:
10184:
10179:
10174:
10169:
10159:
10154:
10153:
10152:
10142:
10141:
10140:
10135:
10127:
10122:
10117:
10112:
10107:
10102:
10097:
10091:
10089:
10087:Post-classical
10083:
10082:
10080:
10079:
10078:
10077:
10067:
10062:
10061:
10060:
10055:
10045:
10044:
10043:
10033:
10032:
10031:
10026:
10021:
10016:
10011:
10006:
9996:
9991:
9986:
9985:
9984:
9979:
9974:
9969:
9959:
9958:
9957:
9952:
9942:
9937:
9936:
9935:
9930:
9925:
9920:
9915:
9905:
9900:
9895:
9894:
9893:
9888:
9886:Middle Kingdom
9883:
9873:
9868:
9867:
9866:
9861:
9856:
9846:
9845:
9844:
9842:Neo-Babylonian
9839:
9834:
9832:Old Babylonian
9824:
9823:
9822:
9817:
9807:
9802:
9796:
9794:
9782:
9781:
9774:
9773:
9766:
9759:
9751:
9742:
9741:
9739:
9738:
9728:
9715:
9712:
9711:
9708:
9707:
9704:
9703:
9701:
9700:
9695:
9690:
9685:
9680:
9675:
9670:
9665:
9660:
9659:
9658:
9648:
9647:
9646:
9641:
9636:
9626:
9621:
9620:
9619:
9614:
9603:
9601:
9600:Related topics
9597:
9596:
9594:
9593:
9588:
9583:
9578:
9572:
9570:
9564:
9563:
9561:
9560:
9555:
9550:
9545:
9540:
9539:
9538:
9533:
9522:
9520:
9510:
9509:
9496:
9495:
9492:
9491:
9488:
9487:
9485:
9484:
9479:
9472:
9467:
9466:
9465:
9455:
9450:
9445:
9440:
9435:
9429:
9427:
9423:
9422:
9420:
9419:
9414:
9409:
9404:
9398:
9396:
9390:
9389:
9387:
9386:
9381:
9376:
9371:
9366:
9361:
9356:
9351:
9345:
9343:
9337:
9336:
9334:
9333:
9328:
9323:
9318:
9313:
9308:
9303:
9298:
9292:
9290:
9280:
9279:
9264:
9263:
9260:
9259:
9256:
9255:
9253:
9252:
9247:
9246:
9245:
9233:
9231:Sources of law
9228:
9223:
9222:
9221:
9211:
9204:
9199:
9192:
9187:
9180:
9175:
9170:
9165:
9160:
9155:
9150:
9145:
9138:
9131:
9130:
9129:
9124:
9119:
9109:
9104:
9096:
9094:
9090:
9089:
9087:
9086:
9079:
9072:
9065:
9058:
9051:
9044:
9036:
9034:
9032:
9031:
9026:
9021:
9015:
9012:
9011:
9009:
9008:
9001:
8996:
8989:
8982:
8975:
8967:
8965:
8959:
8958:
8956:
8955:
8948:
8941:
8934:
8927:
8922:
8916:
8914:
8904:
8903:
8900:
8899:
8894:
8888:
8880:
8879:
8876:
8875:
8873:
8872:
8867:
8862:
8857:
8855:Social welfare
8852:
8847:
8840:
8835:
8830:
8825:
8820:
8815:
8810:
8805:
8800:
8795:
8790:
8785:
8780:
8775:
8769:
8767:
8765:
8764:
8759:
8753:
8750:
8749:
8747:
8746:
8741:
8736:
8735:
8734:
8724:
8719:
8714:
8713:
8712:
8707:
8706:
8705:
8695:
8690:
8685:
8675:
8670:
8665:
8664:
8663:
8640:
8638:
8632:
8631:
8629:
8628:
8621:
8616:
8611:
8606:
8600:
8598:
8592:
8591:
8589:
8588:
8587:
8586:
8581:
8576:
8571:
8566:
8561:
8556:
8551:
8539:
8534:
8527:
8520:
8518:Historiography
8515:
8510:
8505:
8500:
8494:
8492:
8490:
8489:
8484:
8478:
8475:
8474:
8472:
8471:
8464:
8457:
8450:
8443:
8435:
8433:
8427:
8426:
8424:
8423:
8418:
8413:
8406:
8401:
8396:
8391:
8390:
8389:
8379:
8372:
8371:
8370:
8359:
8357:
8347:
8346:
8339:
8336:
8335:
8327:
8326:
8319:
8312:
8304:
8295:
8294:
8292:
8291:
8286:
8281:
8276:
8270:
8267:
8266:
8259:
8258:
8251:
8244:
8236:
8230:
8229:
8223:
8197:
8196:
8190:
8173:
8157:Henri Grégoire
8145:
8139:
8121:
8115:
8100:
8094:
8081:
8075:
8060:
8054:
8039:
8033:
8014:
8005:
7965:(4): 450–469.
7951:
7931:(2): 119–127.
7916:
7910:
7895:
7889:
7867:
7861:
7843:
7817:(2): 157–164.
7802:
7797:
7781:
7779:
7776:
7773:
7772:
7770:, p. 308.
7760:
7758:, p. 139.
7748:
7736:
7732:Abun-Nasr 1987
7724:
7720:Treadgold 1988
7712:
7700:
7669:
7667:, p. 122.
7657:
7645:
7636:
7625:on 5 June 2011
7605:
7594:on 5 June 2011
7568:
7541:
7532:
7516:
7500:
7486:
7470:
7461:
7449:
7440:
7409:
7403:
7381:
7368:
7350:"Why Shariah?"
7340:
7327:
7320:
7300:
7291:
7266:
7254:
7241:
7228:
7221:
7201:
7192:
7170:
7148:
7126:
7104:
7074:
7040:
7027:
7025:
7024:
7004:
6984:
6964:
6944:
6924:
6904:
6884:
6858:
6826:
6824:, p. 358.
6814:
6802:
6800:, p. 457.
6790:
6783:
6761:
6755:
6743:, ed. (1991),
6732:
6725:
6705:
6688:
6662:
6650:
6634:
6618:
6599:
6590:
6570:
6561:
6552:
6540:
6538:, p. 186)
6528:
6524:Madelung (1997
6516:
6503:
6488:
6484:Madelung (1997
6476:
6460:
6448:
6422:
6407:
6397:
6379:
6372:
6354:
6331:
6318:
6311:
6285:
6278:
6260:
6253:
6235:
6228:
6206:
6194:
6190:Sowerwine 2010
6182:
6170:
6149:van Donzel, E.
6137:Bosworth, C.E.
6128:
6121:
6101:
6066:Rein Taagepera
6057:
6050:
6029:
6028:
6026:
6023:
6022:
6021:
6016:
6011:
6006:
6001:
5993:
5992:
5990:
5989:
5982:
5975:
5967:
5964:
5963:
5958:
5957:
5954:
5943:
5942:
5939:
5928:
5927:
5924:
5913:
5912:
5909:
5898:
5897:
5894:
5883:
5882:
5879:
5868:
5867:
5864:
5853:
5852:
5849:
5838:
5837:
5834:
5823:
5822:
5819:
5808:
5807:
5804:
5793:
5792:
5789:
5778:
5777:
5774:
5771:Ras al Khaymah
5763:
5762:
5759:
5746:
5743:
5742:
5739:
5738:
5733:
5732:
5729:
5723:
5722:
5719:
5708:
5707:
5704:
5698:
5697:
5694:
5687:Mazrui dynasty
5683:
5682:
5679:
5668:
5667:
5664:
5653:
5652:
5649:
5636:
5633:
5632:
5629:
5628:
5623:
5622:
5619:
5613:
5612:
5609:
5603:
5602:
5599:
5593:
5592:
5589:
5583:
5582:
5579:
5573:
5572:
5569:
5563:
5562:
5559:
5553:
5552:
5549:
5543:
5542:
5539:
5533:
5532:
5529:
5523:
5522:
5519:
5513:
5512:
5509:
5503:
5502:
5499:
5493:
5492:
5489:
5483:
5482:
5479:
5473:
5472:
5469:
5463:
5462:
5459:
5453:
5452:
5449:
5443:
5442:
5439:
5433:
5432:
5429:
5423:
5422:
5419:
5413:
5412:
5409:
5403:
5402:
5399:
5393:
5392:
5389:
5383:
5382:
5379:
5373:
5372:
5369:
5363:
5362:
5359:
5353:
5352:
5349:
5343:
5342:
5339:
5331:
5328:
5327:
5324:
5323:
5318:
5317:
5314:
5308:
5307:
5304:
5298:
5297:
5294:
5288:
5287:
5284:
5278:
5277:
5274:
5268:
5267:
5264:
5258:
5257:
5254:
5248:
5247:
5244:
5238:
5237:
5234:
5228:
5227:
5224:
5218:
5217:
5214:
5208:
5207:
5204:
5198:
5197:
5194:
5188:
5187:
5184:
5178:
5177:
5174:
5168:
5167:
5164:
5158:
5157:
5154:
5148:
5147:
5144:
5138:
5137:
5134:
5128:
5127:
5124:
5118:
5117:
5114:
5108:
5107:
5104:
5102:Fihrid Emirate
5098:
5097:
5094:
5086:
5083:
5082:
5079:
5078:
5073:
5072:
5069:
5063:
5062:
5059:
5053:
5052:
5049:
5043:
5042:
5039:
5033:
5032:
5029:
5023:
5022:
5019:
5013:
5012:
5009:
5003:
5002:
4999:
4993:
4992:
4989:
4983:
4982:
4979:
4973:
4972:
4969:
4963:
4962:
4959:
4953:
4952:
4949:
4943:
4942:
4939:
4933:
4932:
4929:
4923:
4922:
4919:
4913:
4912:
4909:
4903:
4902:
4899:
4893:
4892:
4889:
4883:
4882:
4879:
4873:
4872:
4869:
4861:
4858:
4857:
4854:
4853:
4848:
4847:
4844:
4838:
4837:
4834:
4828:
4827:
4824:
4818:
4817:
4814:
4806:
4803:
4802:
4799:
4798:
4793:
4792:
4789:
4783:
4782:
4779:
4773:
4772:
4769:
4763:
4762:
4759:
4753:
4752:
4749:
4743:
4742:
4739:
4733:
4732:
4729:
4723:
4722:
4719:
4713:
4712:
4709:
4703:
4702:
4699:
4693:
4692:
4689:
4681:
4678:
4677:
4674:
4673:
4665:
4664:
4657:
4654:
4651:
4650:
4649:
4648:
4638:
4630:
4625:
4624:
4623:
4618:
4611:
4610:
4609:
4602:
4595:
4590:
4583:
4553:
4549:
4548:
4547:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4535:
4534:
4529:
4522:
4521:
4520:
4513:
4500:
4493:
4469:
4465:
4464:
4463:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4451:
4450:
4445:
4438:
4437:
4436:
4427:
4420:
4394:
4390:
4389:
4388:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4376:
4375:
4370:
4363:
4362:
4361:
4352:
4345:
4321:
4317:
4316:
4313:
4308:
4305:
4299:
4296:
4293:
4286:
4283:
4247:Main article:
4244:
4241:
4162:Main article:
4159:
4156:
4147:
4144:
4093:
4090:
4032:Muslim history
3976:
3973:
3964:
3961:
3956:Usama ibn Zaid
3948:
3947:
3936:
3929:
3922:
3915:
3912:Battle of Badr
3908:
3905:Husayn ibn Ali
3897:
3891:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3811:
3808:
3802:, a religious
3765:Main article:
3762:
3759:
3744:Main article:
3741:
3738:
3726:
3723:
3690:Main article:
3687:
3684:
3678:is one of the
3647:Main article:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3604:
3601:
3597:welfare states
3579:of an Islamic
3545:Social welfare
3474:Main article:
3471:
3468:
3443:Main article:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3428:Ottoman Empire
3359:The following
3355:Islamic ethics
3346:
3343:
3290:
3287:
3258:
3255:
3235:, in his book
3186:
3183:
3155:
3152:
3131:
3130:
3127:
3124:
3121:
3118:
3078:
3077:
3071:
3061:
3051:
3041:
3031:Katib-ud-Diwan
3028:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2912:
2911:
2893:
2879:
2869:
2863:
2849:
2835:
2809:
2806:
2757:
2754:
2707:
2704:
2633:
2630:
2581:
2578:
2550:ensuing battle
2498:
2495:
2379:
2376:
2365:Constantinople
2264:
2261:
2180:Battle of Fahl
2132:Jami'a Al-Aqsa
2113:pitched battle
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1933:Persian Empire
1855:Arabian desert
1807:Iyad ibn Ghanm
1788:Battle of Hira
1734:Sasanid Empire
1704:
1701:
1665:
1662:
1543: 656–661
1502:Main article:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1478:Main article:
1475:
1472:
1403:Main article:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1312: 634–644
1300:
1297:
1268:
1265:
1209:Eastern Arabia
1152:
1149:
1141:
1135:
1129:
1116:an altercation
1046:
1043:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
909:
906:
890: 647–670
840:
837:
779:in the north;
734: 661–680
610:
609:
607:
606:
599:
592:
584:
581:
580:
567:
566:
563:
562:
557:
552:
547:
542:
536:
533:
532:
529:
528:
525:
524:
519:
514:
509:
503:
500:
499:
496:
495:
487:
486:
467:
466:
463:
462:
459:
458:
451:
442:
439:
438:
433:
425:
424:
419:
411:
410:
405:
397:
396:
391:
379:
378:
373:
363:
362:
360:
359:
353:
351:
347:
346:
343:
339:
338:
334:
333:
330:
329:
326:
319:
316:
315:
312:
306:
303:
302:
299:
292:
289:
288:
285:
278:
275:
274:
271:
268:
265:
264:
261:
255:
252:
251:
248:
242:
239:
238:
235:
234:
231:
227:
226:
223:
222:
214:
211:
208:
207:
202:
199:
196:
195:
190:
187:
184:
183:
175:
172:
169:
168:
165:
164:
161:
155:
154:
149:
145:
144:
139:
135:
134:
131:
127:
126:
121:
117:
116:
105:
101:
100:
95:
91:
90:
77:
69:
68:
64:
63:
38:
35:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11368:
11357:
11354:
11352:
11349:
11347:
11344:
11342:
11339:
11337:
11334:
11332:
11329:
11327:
11324:
11322:
11319:
11317:
11314:
11312:
11309:
11307:
11304:
11302:
11299:
11297:
11294:
11292:
11289:
11287:
11284:
11282:
11279:
11277:
11274:
11272:
11269:
11267:
11264:
11262:
11259:
11257:
11254:
11252:
11249:
11248:
11246:
11229:
11228:Soviet empire
11226:
11224:
11221:
11220:
11218:
11217:
11215:
11213:Miscellaneous
11211:
11205:
11202:
11200:
11197:
11195:
11192:
11190:
11187:
11185:
11182:
11178:
11175:
11174:
11173:
11170:
11169:
11167:
11163:
11153:
11150:
11148:
11145:
11143:
11140:
11138:
11135:
11131:
11128:
11127:
11126:
11123:
11121:
11118:
11116:
11113:
11111:
11108:
11106:
11103:
11101:
11098:
11096:
11093:
11091:
11088:
11086:
11083:
11081:
11078:
11074:
11071:
11069:
11066:
11065:
11064:
11061:
11059:
11056:
11054:
11051:
11050:
11048:
11046:
11042:
11034:
11031:
11029:
11026:
11024:
11021:
11019:
11016:
11014:
11011:
11010:
11009:
11006:
11004:
11001:
10997:
10994:
10993:
10992:
10989:
10987:
10984:
10980:
10977:
10975:
10972:
10970:
10967:
10966:
10965:
10962:
10960:
10957:
10953:
10950:
10948:
10945:
10944:
10943:
10940:
10936:
10933:
10931:
10928:
10926:
10923:
10921:
10918:
10916:
10913:
10912:
10911:
10908:
10904:
10901:
10899:
10896:
10895:
10894:
10891:
10889:
10886:
10884:
10881:
10879:
10876:
10872:
10869:
10867:
10864:
10862:
10859:
10857:
10854:
10852:
10849:
10848:
10847:
10844:
10840:
10837:
10835:
10832:
10831:
10830:
10827:
10825:
10822:
10818:
10815:
10813:
10812:German Empire
10810:
10809:
10808:
10805:
10801:
10798:
10796:
10793:
10792:
10791:
10788:
10784:
10781:
10779:
10776:
10775:
10774:
10771:
10769:
10766:
10762:
10759:
10757:
10754:
10752:
10749:
10747:
10744:
10742:
10739:
10738:
10737:
10734:
10732:
10729:
10725:
10722:
10720:
10717:
10716:
10714:
10712:
10709:
10707:
10704:
10702:
10699:
10697:
10694:
10692:
10689:
10688:
10686:
10684:
10680:
10674:
10671:
10669:
10666:
10664:
10661:
10657:
10654:
10652:
10649:
10647:
10644:
10642:
10639:
10637:
10634:
10632:
10629:
10627:
10624:
10623:
10622:
10619:
10617:
10614:
10610:
10607:
10605:
10602:
10600:
10597:
10595:
10592:
10590:
10587:
10585:
10582:
10581:
10580:
10577:
10573:
10570:
10568:
10565:
10563:
10560:
10558:
10555:
10554:
10553:
10552:Turco-Persian
10550:
10548:
10545:
10543:
10540:
10538:
10535:
10533:
10530:
10528:
10525:
10523:
10520:
10518:
10515:
10513:
10510:
10506:
10503:
10501:
10498:
10497:
10496:
10493:
10489:
10486:
10484:
10481:
10479:
10476:
10474:
10471:
10469:
10466:
10464:
10461:
10460:
10459:
10456:
10453:
10451:
10448:
10446:
10443:
10441:
10438:
10434:
10431:
10429:
10426:
10424:
10421:
10420:
10419:
10416:
10412:
10409:
10407:
10404:
10402:
10399:
10397:
10394:
10393:
10392:
10389:
10387:
10384:
10382:
10379:
10377:
10374:
10372:
10369:
10367:
10364:
10360:
10357:
10355:
10352:
10350:
10347:
10345:
10342:
10341:
10340:
10337:
10333:
10330:
10328:
10325:
10323:
10320:
10318:
10315:
10314:
10313:
10310:
10306:
10303:
10301:
10298:
10296:
10293:
10292:
10291:
10288:
10286:
10283:
10281:
10278:
10276:
10273:
10271:
10268:
10264:
10261:
10259:
10256:
10254:
10251:
10250:
10249:
10246:
10244:
10241:
10237:
10234:
10232:
10229:
10227:
10224:
10222:
10219:
10217:
10214:
10212:
10209:
10208:
10207:
10204:
10200:
10197:
10195:
10192:
10191:
10190:
10187:
10183:
10180:
10178:
10175:
10173:
10170:
10168:
10165:
10164:
10163:
10160:
10158:
10155:
10151:
10148:
10147:
10146:
10143:
10139:
10136:
10134:
10131:
10130:
10128:
10126:
10123:
10121:
10118:
10116:
10113:
10111:
10108:
10106:
10103:
10101:
10098:
10096:
10093:
10092:
10090:
10088:
10084:
10076:
10073:
10072:
10071:
10068:
10066:
10063:
10059:
10056:
10054:
10051:
10050:
10049:
10046:
10042:
10039:
10038:
10037:
10034:
10030:
10027:
10025:
10022:
10020:
10017:
10015:
10012:
10010:
10007:
10005:
10002:
10001:
10000:
9997:
9995:
9992:
9990:
9987:
9983:
9980:
9978:
9975:
9973:
9970:
9968:
9965:
9964:
9963:
9960:
9956:
9953:
9951:
9948:
9947:
9946:
9943:
9941:
9938:
9934:
9931:
9929:
9926:
9924:
9921:
9919:
9916:
9914:
9911:
9910:
9909:
9906:
9904:
9901:
9899:
9896:
9892:
9889:
9887:
9884:
9882:
9879:
9878:
9877:
9874:
9872:
9869:
9865:
9862:
9860:
9857:
9855:
9852:
9851:
9850:
9847:
9843:
9840:
9838:
9835:
9833:
9830:
9829:
9828:
9825:
9821:
9818:
9816:
9813:
9812:
9811:
9808:
9806:
9803:
9801:
9798:
9797:
9795:
9792:
9787:
9783:
9779:
9772:
9767:
9765:
9760:
9758:
9753:
9752:
9749:
9737:
9729:
9727:
9717:
9716:
9713:
9699:
9696:
9694:
9691:
9689:
9686:
9684:
9681:
9679:
9676:
9674:
9671:
9669:
9666:
9664:
9661:
9657:
9654:
9653:
9652:
9649:
9645:
9642:
9640:
9639:Post-Islamism
9637:
9635:
9632:
9631:
9630:
9627:
9625:
9622:
9618:
9615:
9613:
9610:
9609:
9608:
9605:
9604:
9602:
9598:
9592:
9589:
9587:
9584:
9582:
9579:
9577:
9574:
9573:
9571:
9569:
9565:
9559:
9556:
9554:
9551:
9549:
9546:
9544:
9541:
9537:
9536:Protestantism
9534:
9532:
9529:
9528:
9527:
9524:
9523:
9521:
9519:
9515:
9511:
9501:
9497:
9483:
9480:
9478:
9477:
9473:
9471:
9468:
9464:
9461:
9460:
9459:
9456:
9454:
9451:
9449:
9446:
9444:
9441:
9439:
9436:
9434:
9431:
9430:
9428:
9424:
9418:
9415:
9413:
9410:
9408:
9405:
9403:
9400:
9399:
9397:
9395:
9391:
9385:
9382:
9380:
9379:Ophthalmology
9377:
9375:
9372:
9370:
9367:
9365:
9362:
9360:
9357:
9355:
9352:
9350:
9347:
9346:
9344:
9342:
9338:
9332:
9329:
9327:
9324:
9322:
9319:
9317:
9314:
9312:
9309:
9307:
9304:
9302:
9299:
9297:
9294:
9293:
9291:
9289:
9285:
9281:
9277:
9269:
9265:
9251:
9248:
9244:
9243:
9239:
9238:
9237:
9234:
9232:
9229:
9227:
9224:
9220:
9217:
9216:
9215:
9212:
9210:
9209:
9205:
9203:
9200:
9198:
9197:
9193:
9191:
9188:
9186:
9185:
9181:
9179:
9176:
9174:
9171:
9169:
9166:
9164:
9161:
9159:
9156:
9154:
9151:
9149:
9146:
9144:
9143:
9139:
9137:
9136:
9132:
9128:
9127:Death penalty
9125:
9123:
9120:
9118:
9115:
9114:
9113:
9110:
9108:
9105:
9103:
9102:
9098:
9097:
9095:
9093:Other aspects
9091:
9085:
9084:
9080:
9078:
9077:
9073:
9071:
9070:
9066:
9064:
9063:
9059:
9057:
9056:
9052:
9050:
9049:
9045:
9043:
9042:
9038:
9037:
9035:
9030:
9027:
9025:
9022:
9020:
9017:
9016:
9013:
9007:
9006:
9002:
9000:
8997:
8995:
8994:
8990:
8988:
8987:
8983:
8981:
8980:
8976:
8974:
8973:
8969:
8968:
8966:
8964:
8960:
8954:
8953:
8949:
8947:
8946:
8942:
8940:
8939:
8935:
8933:
8932:
8928:
8926:
8923:
8921:
8918:
8917:
8915:
8913:
8909:
8905:
8898:
8897:Jurisprudence
8895:
8893:
8890:
8889:
8885:
8881:
8871:
8868:
8866:
8863:
8861:
8858:
8856:
8853:
8851:
8848:
8846:
8845:
8841:
8839:
8836:
8834:
8831:
8829:
8826:
8824:
8821:
8819:
8816:
8814:
8811:
8809:
8806:
8804:
8801:
8799:
8796:
8794:
8791:
8789:
8786:
8784:
8781:
8779:
8776:
8774:
8771:
8770:
8768:
8763:
8760:
8758:
8755:
8754:
8751:
8745:
8742:
8740:
8737:
8733:
8730:
8729:
8728:
8725:
8723:
8720:
8718:
8715:
8711:
8708:
8704:
8701:
8700:
8699:
8696:
8694:
8691:
8689:
8686:
8684:
8681:
8680:
8679:
8676:
8674:
8671:
8669:
8666:
8662:
8658:
8654:
8650:
8647:
8646:
8645:
8642:
8641:
8639:
8637:
8636:Denominations
8633:
8627:
8626:
8622:
8620:
8617:
8615:
8612:
8610:
8607:
8605:
8602:
8601:
8599:
8597:
8593:
8585:
8582:
8580:
8577:
8575:
8572:
8570:
8567:
8565:
8562:
8560:
8557:
8555:
8552:
8550:
8549:
8545:
8544:
8543:
8540:
8538:
8535:
8533:
8532:
8528:
8526:
8525:
8521:
8519:
8516:
8514:
8511:
8509:
8506:
8504:
8501:
8499:
8496:
8495:
8493:
8488:
8485:
8483:
8480:
8479:
8476:
8470:
8469:
8465:
8463:
8462:
8458:
8456:
8455:
8451:
8449:
8448:
8444:
8442:
8441:
8437:
8436:
8434:
8432:
8428:
8422:
8421:Holiest sites
8419:
8417:
8416:Judgement Day
8414:
8412:
8411:
8407:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8392:
8388:
8385:
8384:
8383:
8380:
8378:
8377:
8373:
8369:
8366:
8365:
8364:
8361:
8360:
8358:
8356:
8352:
8348:
8344:
8343:
8337:
8332:
8325:
8320:
8318:
8313:
8311:
8306:
8305:
8302:
8290:
8287:
8285:
8282:
8280:
8277:
8275:
8272:
8271:
8268:
8264:
8257:
8252:
8250:
8245:
8243:
8238:
8237:
8234:
8226:
8220:
8216:
8212:
8208:
8204:
8200:
8199:
8193:
8191:90-411-0241-8
8187:
8183:
8179:
8174:
8170:
8166:
8162:
8161:Marius Canard
8158:
8154:
8150:
8146:
8142:
8136:
8132:
8131:
8126:
8122:
8118:
8116:9780522857283
8112:
8108:
8107:
8101:
8097:
8095:9780199806003
8091:
8087:
8082:
8078:
8072:
8069:. Routledge.
8068:
8067:
8061:
8057:
8051:
8047:
8046:
8040:
8036:
8030:
8026:
8022:
8021:
8015:
8011:
8006:
8002:
7996:
7988:
7984:
7980:
7976:
7972:
7968:
7964:
7960:
7956:
7955:Hinds, Martin
7952:
7948:
7944:
7939:
7934:
7930:
7926:
7922:
7917:
7913:
7907:
7903:
7902:
7896:
7892:
7890:9780674050976
7886:
7882:
7878:
7877:
7872:
7868:
7864:
7862:9781889758879
7858:
7854:
7853:
7848:
7844:
7840:
7836:
7832:
7828:
7824:
7820:
7816:
7812:
7808:
7803:
7800:
7798:0-521-33767-4
7794:
7790:
7789:
7783:
7782:
7769:
7768:Madelung 1997
7764:
7757:
7756:Madelung 1997
7752:
7745:
7744:Madelung 1997
7740:
7733:
7728:
7721:
7716:
7709:
7708:Vasiliev 1935
7704:
7688:
7684:
7680:
7673:
7666:
7665:Frastuti 2020
7661:
7654:
7653:Bosworth 1996
7649:
7643:Augus Mcbride
7640:
7624:
7620:
7616:
7609:
7593:
7589:
7585:
7581:
7575:
7573:
7556:
7552:
7545:
7536:
7529:
7527:
7526:In God's Path
7520:
7513:
7511:
7510:In God's Path
7504:
7497:
7490:
7483:
7481:
7480:In God's Path
7474:
7465:
7456:
7454:
7444:
7438:
7434:
7430:
7424:
7420:
7413:
7406:
7400:
7396:
7392:
7385:
7379:
7372:
7357:
7356:
7351:
7344:
7337:
7331:
7323:
7321:9781847064783
7317:
7313:
7312:
7304:
7295:
7287:
7283:
7279:
7273:
7271:
7263:
7258:
7251:
7245:
7238:
7235:Cl. Cahen in
7232:
7224:
7218:
7214:
7213:
7205:
7196:
7188:
7184:
7180:
7174:
7166:
7162:
7158:
7152:
7144:
7140:
7136:
7130:
7122:
7118:
7114:
7108:
7092:
7088:
7084:
7078:
7062:
7058:
7054:
7047:
7045:
7037:
7031:
7013:
7009:
7005:
6993:
6989:
6985:
6973:
6970:. p. 1.
6969:
6965:
6953:
6950:. p. 1.
6949:
6945:
6933:
6929:
6925:
6913:
6909:
6905:
6893:
6890:. p. 1.
6889:
6885:
6881:
6877:
6873:
6872:
6869:
6862:
6854:
6850:
6846:
6845:
6840:
6836:
6830:
6823:
6818:
6811:
6806:
6799:
6794:
6786:
6780:
6776:
6772:
6765:
6758:
6752:
6748:
6747:
6742:
6736:
6728:
6722:
6718:
6717:
6709:
6702:
6701:Madelung 1997
6697:
6695:
6693:
6684:
6677:
6675:
6673:
6671:
6669:
6667:
6660:, p. 49.
6659:
6658:Madelung 1997
6654:
6647:
6643:
6638:
6631:
6627:
6622:
6615:
6611:
6606:
6604:
6594:
6587:
6581:
6579:
6577:
6575:
6565:
6556:
6549:
6544:
6537:
6532:
6525:
6520:
6513:
6507:
6501:
6499:(2014), p. 3
6498:
6492:
6486:, p. 32)
6485:
6480:
6473:
6469:
6468:Madelung 1997
6464:
6458:, p. 83.
6457:
6452:
6437:
6433:
6426:
6418:
6411:
6404:
6400:
6398:9781134081066
6394:
6390:
6383:
6375:
6373:9788173913358
6369:
6365:
6358:
6350:
6345:
6344:
6335:
6328:
6322:
6314:
6312:9780761421207
6308:
6304:
6299:
6298:
6289:
6281:
6279:9781412994224
6275:
6271:
6264:
6256:
6254:9780334040323
6250:
6246:
6239:
6231:
6229:9789799988812
6225:
6222:. p. 9.
6221:
6217:
6210:
6204:, p. 93.
6203:
6198:
6191:
6186:
6179:
6178:Melchert 2020
6174:
6166:
6162:
6158:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6145:Bianquis, Th.
6142:
6138:
6132:
6124:
6122:9781317423683
6118:
6114:
6113:
6105:
6097:
6093:
6089:
6085:
6081:
6077:
6076:
6071:
6067:
6061:
6053:
6047:
6043:
6042:
6034:
6030:
6020:
6017:
6015:
6012:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5996:
5988:
5983:
5981:
5976:
5974:
5969:
5968:
5966:
5965:
5955:
5952:
5948:
5945:
5944:
5940:
5937:
5933:
5930:
5929:
5925:
5922:
5918:
5915:
5914:
5910:
5907:
5903:
5900:
5899:
5895:
5892:
5888:
5885:
5884:
5880:
5877:
5873:
5870:
5869:
5865:
5862:
5861:Umm al-Quwain
5858:
5855:
5854:
5850:
5847:
5843:
5840:
5839:
5835:
5832:
5828:
5825:
5824:
5820:
5817:
5813:
5810:
5809:
5805:
5802:
5798:
5795:
5794:
5790:
5787:
5783:
5780:
5779:
5775:
5772:
5768:
5765:
5764:
5760:
5757:
5753:
5750:
5749:
5741:
5740:
5730:
5728:
5725:
5724:
5720:
5717:
5713:
5710:
5709:
5705:
5703:
5700:
5699:
5695:
5692:
5688:
5685:
5684:
5680:
5677:
5673:
5670:
5669:
5665:
5662:
5658:
5655:
5654:
5650:
5647:
5643:
5640:
5639:
5631:
5630:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5614:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5604:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5594:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5584:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5574:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5564:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5554:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5544:
5540:
5538:
5535:
5534:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5524:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5514:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5504:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5494:
5490:
5488:
5485:
5484:
5480:
5478:
5475:
5474:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5464:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5454:
5450:
5448:
5445:
5444:
5440:
5438:
5435:
5434:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5424:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5414:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5404:
5400:
5398:
5395:
5394:
5390:
5388:
5385:
5384:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5374:
5370:
5368:
5365:
5364:
5360:
5358:
5355:
5354:
5350:
5348:
5345:
5344:
5340:
5338:
5335:
5334:
5326:
5325:
5315:
5313:
5310:
5309:
5305:
5303:
5300:
5299:
5295:
5293:
5290:
5289:
5285:
5283:
5280:
5279:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5269:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5259:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5249:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5239:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5229:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5219:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5209:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5199:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5189:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5179:
5175:
5173:
5170:
5169:
5165:
5163:
5162:Muslim Sicily
5160:
5159:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5149:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5139:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5129:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5119:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5109:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5099:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5089:
5081:
5080:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5064:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5054:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5044:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5034:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5024:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5014:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5004:
5000:
4998:
4995:
4994:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4984:
4980:
4978:
4975:
4974:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4964:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4954:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4944:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4934:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4924:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4914:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4904:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4894:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4884:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4874:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4864:
4856:
4855:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4839:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4829:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4819:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4809:
4801:
4800:
4791:450 AD–550 AD
4790:
4788:
4785:
4784:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4774:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4764:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4754:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4744:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4734:
4731:64 BC–300s AD
4730:
4728:
4725:
4724:
4721:132 BC–244 AD
4720:
4718:
4715:
4714:
4711:400 BC–106 AD
4710:
4708:
4705:
4704:
4701:600 BC–100 BC
4700:
4698:
4695:
4694:
4691:800 BC–300 BC
4690:
4688:
4685:
4684:
4676:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4666:
4662:
4661:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4637:
4633:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4613:
4612:
4607:
4603:
4600:
4596:
4593:
4592:
4591:
4588:
4584:
4582:
4581:
4579:
4574:
4573:
4568:
4559:
4558:
4554:
4551:
4550:
4544:
4543:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4524:
4523:
4518:
4514:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4502:
4501:
4498:
4494:
4492:
4490:
4484:
4475:
4474:
4470:
4467:
4466:
4460:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4440:
4439:
4434:
4430:
4429:
4428:
4425:
4421:
4419:
4418:
4416:
4409:
4400:
4399:
4395:
4392:
4391:
4385:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4359:
4355:
4354:
4353:
4350:
4346:
4344:
4342:
4336:
4327:
4326:
4322:
4319:
4318:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4300:
4298:Calligraphic
4297:
4294:
4291:
4290:
4282:
4281:in later era
4280:
4276:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4257:, the famous
4256:
4250:
4243:Rashidun navy
4240:
4236:
4232:
4230:
4224:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4197:
4195:
4194:light cavalry
4191:
4183:
4179:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4164:Rashidun Army
4158:Rashidun army
4155:
4153:
4152:Rashidun navy
4143:
4140:
4137:
4132:
4131:Shi'ite views
4127:
4125:
4120:
4118:
4114:
4109:
4105:
4099:
4089:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4074:Mediterranean
4071:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4041:
4035:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4016:Dar-ul-Amarat
4012:
4010:
4006:
4005:Friday mosque
4002:
3998:
3994:
3989:
3987:
3983:
3972:
3970:
3960:
3957:
3953:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3934:
3933:Apostasy wars
3930:
3927:
3923:
3920:
3916:
3913:
3909:
3906:
3902:
3901:Hasan ibn Ali
3898:
3895:
3892:
3889:
3886:
3885:
3884:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3870:
3865:
3861:
3858:
3854:
3839:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3807:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3773:
3768:
3758:
3756:
3752:
3747:
3737:
3735:
3731:
3722:
3719:
3716:
3712:
3702:
3698:
3693:
3683:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3655:
3650:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3609:
3608:
3600:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3535:
3534:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3512:
3508:
3506:
3501:
3498:
3493:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3477:
3467:
3465:
3461:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3446:
3431:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3412:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3396:
3389:
3387:
3382:
3378:
3372:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3356:
3352:
3342:
3340:
3333:
3328:
3326:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3298:
3296:
3286:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3254:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3208:
3203:
3202:
3196:
3192:
3182:
3180:
3175:
3171:
3170:
3166:Accordingly,
3164:
3162:
3151:
3149:
3145:
3139:
3136:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3107:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3085:
3083:
3075:
3072:
3069:
3065:
3062:
3059:
3055:
3052:
3049:
3045:
3042:
3039:
3036:
3032:
3029:
3026:
3022:
3019:
3018:
3017:
3015:
3014:
3009:
3005:
3000:
2998:
2994:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2917:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2880:
2877:
2873:
2870:
2867:
2864:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2850:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2813:
2805:
2798:
2794:
2789:
2782:
2779:(present-day
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2742:
2740:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2713:
2703:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2639:
2629:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2592:, Sudan, 2013
2591:
2586:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2530:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2508:
2503:
2494:
2492:
2488:
2485:, who killed
2484:
2483:Amr ibn al-As
2480:
2474:
2472:
2467:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2448:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2425:Amr ibn al-As
2422:
2418:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2390:
2385:
2375:
2373:
2368:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2289:
2285:
2278:
2274:
2269:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2242:
2237:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2213:
2205:
2201:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2171:
2167:
2165:
2156:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2087:
2083:
2080:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2040:
2039:Syrian Desert
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2019:Amr ibn al-As
2016:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1898:Qasr-e Shirin
1895:
1891:
1886:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1846:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1817:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1753:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1724:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1661:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1647:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1588:
1587:Hasan ibn Ali
1584:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1537:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1490:
1488:
1481:
1471:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1436:Rashidun army
1432:
1430:
1425:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1391:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1366:
1362:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1330:, north into
1329:
1325:
1320:
1319:
1306:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1264:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1244:
1240:
1238:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1117:
1114:resulting in
1112:
1108:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1052:
1041:
1037:
1022:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1007:
1003:
1001:
989:
988:
983:
979:
974:
972:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
935:
931:
927:
919:
914:
903:
899:
895:
883:
879:
877:
872:
871:
865:
855:
849:
848:
836:
814:
809:
808:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
777:Transcaucasus
774:
770:
766:
765:Rashidun Army
762:
758:
753:
751:
747:
743:
739:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
703:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
655:
653:
649:
645:
641:
636:
630:
621:
617:
605:
600:
598:
593:
591:
586:
585:
583:
582:
579:
569:
568:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
537:
531:
530:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
510:
508:
505:
504:
498:
497:
493:
489:
488:
476:
473:
472:
452:
450:
447:
446:
443:
437:
434:
427:
426:
423:
420:
413:
412:
409:
406:
399:
398:
395:
392:
385:
384:
381:
380:
377:
374:
372:
369:
368:
364:
358:
355:
354:
352:
348:
344:
340:
335:
331:
327:
323:
317:
313:
310:
304:
300:
296:
290:
286:
282:
276:
272:
266:
262:
259:
253:
249:
246:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
218:
215:
209:
206:
203:
197:
194:
191:
185:
179:
176:
170:
166:
162:
160:
156:
153:
150:
146:
143:
140:
136:
132:
128:
125:
122:
118:
114:
109:
106:
102:
99:
96:
92:
81:
75:
70:
65:
58:
49:
33:
30:
19:
10979:Contemporary
10829:Indo-Persian
10817:Nazi Germany
10761:Contemporary
10663:Vijayanagara
10562:Great Seljuk
10473:Thessalonica
10401:Golden Horde
10166:
10041:Carthaginian
9820:Neo-Assyrian
9805:Neo-Sumerian
9651:Islamophobia
9526:Christianity
9474:
9407:Contemporary
9301:Architecture
9240:
9206:
9194:
9182:
9140:
9133:
9099:
9081:
9076:Nikah mut'ah
9074:
9067:
9060:
9053:
9046:
9039:
9003:
8991:
8984:
8977:
8970:
8950:
8943:
8936:
8929:
8842:
8623:
8547:
8546:
8529:
8522:
8466:
8459:
8452:
8445:
8438:
8431:Five Pillars
8408:
8374:
8363:God in Islam
8340:
8262:
8210:
8177:
8152:
8129:
8105:
8085:
8065:
8044:
8019:
8009:
7995:cite journal
7962:
7958:
7928:
7927:(in Malay).
7924:
7904:. ABC-CLIO.
7900:
7875:
7851:
7814:
7810:
7787:
7763:
7751:
7739:
7727:
7715:
7703:
7691:. Retrieved
7687:the original
7682:
7672:
7660:
7648:
7639:
7629:10 September
7627:. Retrieved
7623:the original
7618:
7608:
7598:10 September
7596:. Retrieved
7592:the original
7587:
7580:Hugh Kennedy
7559:. Retrieved
7544:
7535:
7525:
7519:
7509:
7503:
7495:
7489:
7479:
7473:
7464:
7443:
7422:
7418:
7412:
7390:
7384:
7371:
7359:. Retrieved
7353:
7343:
7330:
7310:
7303:
7294:
7286:the original
7281:
7257:
7244:
7231:
7211:
7204:
7195:
7187:the original
7182:
7173:
7165:the original
7160:
7151:
7143:the original
7138:
7129:
7121:the original
7116:
7107:
7095:. Retrieved
7091:the original
7086:
7077:
7065:. Retrieved
7061:the original
7056:
7051:A.I. Akram.
7035:
7034:D. Nicolle,
7030:
7016:. Retrieved
7012:the original
6996:. Retrieved
6992:the original
6976:. Retrieved
6956:. Retrieved
6936:. Retrieved
6932:the original
6916:. Retrieved
6912:the original
6896:. Retrieved
6880:the original
6867:
6861:
6853:the original
6842:
6829:
6817:
6805:
6793:
6774:
6764:
6745:
6735:
6715:
6708:
6682:
6653:
6645:
6641:
6637:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6613:
6609:
6593:
6585:
6564:
6555:
6550:, p. 4)
6543:
6531:
6519:
6514:(2012), p. 6
6511:
6506:
6496:
6491:
6479:
6463:
6451:
6439:. Retrieved
6435:
6425:
6416:
6410:
6402:
6388:
6382:
6363:
6357:
6342:
6334:
6326:
6321:
6296:
6288:
6269:
6263:
6244:
6238:
6215:
6209:
6197:
6192:, p. 5.
6185:
6173:
6156:
6131:
6111:
6104:
6079:
6073:
6060:
6040:
6033:
5956:1921–present
5941:1900–present
5926:1868–present
5911:1833–present
5896:1810–present
5881:1783–present
5866:1775–present
5851:1761–present
5836:1752–present
5821:1749–present
5806:1744–present
5801:Saudi Arabia
5791:1727–present
5776:1727–present
5761:1631–present
4811:
4771:300s–500s AD
4575:
4571:
4570:
4562:
4555:
4515:Grandson of
4486:
4478:
4471:
4412:
4411:
4403:
4396:
4338:
4330:
4323:
4275:Sack of Rome
4252:
4237:
4233:
4228:
4225:
4204:
4198:
4187:
4149:
4141:
4128:
4121:
4101:
4044:
4039:
4036:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4013:
4008:
3990:
3978:
3975:Public works
3969:bait al maal
3968:
3966:
3949:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3866:
3862:
3850:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3813:
3799:
3791:
3787:
3778:
3776:
3771:
3770:
3754:
3750:
3749:
3729:
3728:
3700:
3696:
3695:
3675:
3671:
3663:
3653:
3652:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3572:
3568:
3556:
3555:as forms of
3543:
3539:
3532:
3505:bait ul maal
3504:
3502:
3494:
3479:
3462:
3453:
3450:Bait-ul-Maal
3449:
3448:
3439:Bait-ul-Maal
3424:codification
3413:
3399:
3391:
3381:Bani Makhzum
3374:
3358:
3335:
3330:
3318:
3299:
3292:
3266:
3260:
3257:Sunni belief
3245:
3236:
3231:
3224:consultation
3188:
3178:
3173:
3167:
3165:
3157:
3140:
3132:
3114:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3086:
3079:
3073:
3063:
3058:Police Chief
3053:
3043:
3030:
3023:, the Chief
3020:
3011:
3001:
2990:
2925:
2921:North Africa
2913:
2814:
2811:
2802:
2781:Saudi Arabia
2749:
2745:
2743:
2736:
2732:
2727:
2726:
2721:
2718:Zoroastrians
2715:
2641:
2595:
2566:vassal state
2562:North Africa
2558:North Africa
2531:
2512:
2475:
2468:
2449:
2419:(616 to 629
2414:
2369:
2339:and sacking
2309:Ararat plain
2281:
2246:
2238:
2226:
2218:mobile guard
2214:
2210:
2176:
2161:
2105:
2078:
2062:al-Qaryatayn
2043:
2012:
1927:
1887:
1847:
1820:
1799:was defeated
1792:
1757:
1750:
1699:to recover.
1686:
1667:
1650:
1643:
1636:
1618:North Africa
1591:
1563:
1533:
1527:Siyer-i Nebi
1525:
1483:
1468:
1440:North Africa
1433:
1426:
1411:
1408:
1381:
1369:
1364:
1358:
1352:
1302:
1270:
1249:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1193:South Arabia
1154:
1103:
1091:
1070:
1048:
997:
985:
975:
960:
923:
896:) holding a
876:Shia Muslims
842:
830:consultation
797:Central Asia
795:to parts of
781:North Africa
754:
704:
656:
615:
613:
506:
376:Succeeded by
375:
370:
29:
10567:Khwarezmian
10500:Carolingian
10305:Rashtrakuta
10009:Shaishunaga
9908:Hellenistic
9891:New Kingdom
9881:Old Kingdom
9426:Other areas
9417:Theological
9412:Eschatology
9369:Mathematics
9306:Calligraphy
9236:Theological
9190:Inheritance
9107:Cleanliness
8537:Shi'a Imams
8531:Ahl al-Bayt
8215:I.B. Tauris
7561:29 November
6822:Netton 2013
6810:Donner 2010
6202:McHugo 2017
6141:Bearman, P.
5661:Pate Island
5634:East Africa
5427:Sulaymanids
5367:Ukhaidhirds
5152:Sulaymanids
5122:Muhallabids
5027:Munqidhites
4927:Shirvanshah
4781:300s–602 AD
4751:196–1100 AD
4741:100s–241 AD
4628:Banu Hashim
4604:Husband of
4597:Husband of
4539:Banu Umayya
4510:Umm Kulthum
4504:Husband of
4124:First Fitna
4040:Bait-ul-Mal
4024:Bait-ul-Mal
3567:(including
3553:Islamic law
3524:fire temple
3482:Abu Huraira
3476:Bayt al-mal
3445:Bayt al-mal
3420:rule of law
3365:rule of law
3345:Rule of law
3233:Fred Donner
2890:Lower Egypt
2886:Upper Egypt
2688:Constans II
2570:First Fitna
2471:Constans II
2464:monothelism
2357:Constans II
2198:siege to it
2035:Mesopotamia
1953:Balochistan
1949:Transoxania
1945:Afghanistan
1894:brief siege
1851:Mesopotamia
1825:, then the
1782:), and the
1760:Mesopotamia
1740:type. BYS (
1676:, parts of
1670:Mesopotamia
1504:First Fitna
1340:Mesopotamia
1173:Banu Thaqif
1093:tribe, the
1075:Banu Sa'ida
982:Sunni Islam
894:Constans II
864:Sunni Islam
851:(singular:
719:First Fitna
711:Banu Hashim
699:Banu Umayya
371:Preceded by
322:First Fitna
11256:Caliphates
11245:Categories
11137:Portuguese
11018:Revival Le
11008:Vietnamese
10651:Later Tran
10621:Vietnamese
10517:Singhasari
10505:Holy Roman
10129:Bulgarian
10065:Satavahana
10036:Phoenician
9972:Achaemenid
9933:Indo-Greek
9913:Macedonian
9827:Babylonian
9581:Ex-Muslims
9476:Shu'ubiyya
9470:Psychology
9458:Literature
9448:Inventions
9394:Philosophy
9202:Leadership
9178:Honorifics
8833:Philosophy
8688:Isma'ilism
8653:Maturidism
8542:Caliphates
8513:Golden Age
8404:Revelation
8034:0521646960
7693:31 October
7161:New Advent
6798:Hinds 1972
6436:Aqidah.Com
6082:(3): 495.
6025:References
5947:Hashemites
5902:Al Maktoum
5872:Al Khalifa
5557:Upper Yafa
5547:Ya'arubids
5387:Qarmatians
5272:Sumadihids
4761:220–638 AD
4757:Ghassanids
4508:and later
4431:Father of
4368:Abu Quhafa
4356:Father of
4273:, and the
4213:wickerwork
4113:Muawiyah I
4096:See also:
4082:Suez Canal
3963:Evaluation
3851:After the
3736:reserves.
3715:per capita
3585:Al-Ghazali
3581:government
3528:Khosrau II
3375:Narrated ‘
3349:See also:
3339:revolution
3307:oppression
3303:Al-Juwayni
3050:Collector.
2993:Muawiyah I
2966:Azerbaijan
2904:Azerbaijan
2710:See also:
2656:Constantia
2644:Muawiyah I
2509:(Sufetula)
2479:Caliph Ali
2441:Alexandria
2433:Nile Delta
2417:Khosrau II
2337:Cappadocia
2086:Ghassanids
1981:Oxus River
1967:(Russia),
1961:Azerbaijan
1917:in modern
1839:Byzantines
1764:Ridda wars
1762:after the
1746:Khosrau II
1738:Khosrau II
1651:Ali's son
1646:Ibn Muljam
1610:Kharijites
1444:Byzantines
1438:conquered
1237:Ridda wars
1213:al-Bahrayn
1201:Musaylimah
1189:Aswad Ansi
1151:Ridda wars
937:companions
801:South Asia
738:Kharijites
723:suzerainty
436:Ghassanids
148:Government
87: 654
11130:Couronian
10768:Ethiopian
10756:Manchukuo
10711:Brazilian
10557:Ghaznavid
10527:Srivijaya
10478:Trebizond
10463:Byzantine
10445:North Sea
10440:Norwegian
10428:Almoravid
10411:Ilkhanate
10381:Majapahit
10354:Muromachi
10263:Solomonic
10248:Ethiopian
10162:Caliphate
10095:Aragonese
9923:Ptolemaic
9698:Symbolism
9656:Incidents
9634:Criticism
9531:Mormonism
9433:Astrology
9359:Cosmology
9354:Astronomy
9296:Arabesque
9163:Etiquette
9122:Blasphemy
8912:Economics
8727:Ahmadiyya
8661:Mu'tazili
8649:Ash'arism
8169:181731396
7987:159763369
7947:234578454
7849:(2007) .
7839:163550092
7524:Hoyland,
7508:Hoyland,
7478:Hoyland,
7361:5 October
7250:Cambridge
7018:21 August
6998:21 August
6978:21 August
6958:21 August
6938:21 August
6918:21 August
6898:21 August
6456:Rane 2010
6441:16 August
5932:Al Sharqi
5887:Al Nuaimi
5857:Al Mualla
5846:Abu Dhabi
5842:Al Nahyan
5782:Al Qasimi
5767:Al Qasimi
5731:1860–1887
5721:1858–1895
5706:1856–1964
5696:1746–1828
5681:1277–1495
5666:1203–1894
5621:1926–1970
5611:1906–1934
5601:1903–1967
5591:1858–1967
5587:Qu'aitids
5581:1836–1921
5577:Rashidids
5571:1820–1970
5561:1800–1967
5551:1624–1742
5541:1597–1872
5531:1463–1521
5521:1454–1526
5511:1395–1967
5507:Kathirids
5501:1305–1487
5497:Jarwanids
5491:1253–1320
5481:1229–1454
5471:1159–1174
5461:1154–1624
5457:Nabhanids
5451:1083–1174
5441:1076–1253
5431:1063–1174
5421:1047–1138
5417:Sulayhids
5316:1837–1969
5312:Senussids
5306:1554–1659
5296:1230–1492
5286:1049–1078
5276:1041–1091
5266:1039–1110
5256:1031–1091
5252:Jawharids
5246:1027–1063
5242:Muzaynids
5236:1026–1057
5232:Hammudids
5226:1023–1062
5222:Yahsubids
5216:1023–1091
5206:1020–1086
5196:1013–1039
5186:1012–1051
5176:1004–1412
5142:Aghlabids
5071:1697–1842
5061:1517–1865
5051:1480–1677
5041:1517–1697
5031:1025–1157
5021:1024–1080
5017:Mirdasids
5007:Numayrids
4987:Jarrahids
4977:Mazyadids
4957:Hamdanids
4947:Hashimids
4907:Habbarids
4897:Dulafids
4747:Tanukhids
4578:Al-Haydar
4380:Banu Taym
4373:Umm Khayr
4341:Al-Siddiq
4279:Aghlabids
4201:chainmail
4042:animals.
3980:west. Al-
3869:allowance
3842:Allowance
3533:bismillah
3518:symbols (
3516:Sassanids
3332:curse"...
3315:rebellion
3275:Mujtahids
3189:The four
3038:Secretary
3025:Secretary
3004:districts
2916:testament
2872:Palestine
2860:Euphrates
2817:provinces
2678:and then
2660:Salt Lake
2626:Qalidurut
2614:cathedral
2602:Makurians
2538:Cyrenaica
2234:Jerusalem
2144:Jerusalem
2031:Ctesiphon
1929:Yazdegerd
1923:Sasanians
1902:Khuzestan
1890:Ctesiphon
1816:Christian
1751:bismillah
1442:from the
1429:Rashiduns
1348:Palestine
1332:Byzantine
1197:al-Yamama
1128:622–750:
1083:Muhajirun
839:Etymology
667:Banu Taym
665:, of the
648:West Asia
640:caliphate
629:romanized
475:Caliphate
152:Caliphate
138:Religion
115:(656–661)
110:(632–656)
98:Caliphate
11110:Japanese
11073:Scottish
11053:American
11045:Colonial
10974:Imperial
10942:Moroccan
10878:Japanese
10856:Afsharid
10715:Burmese
10701:Austrian
10656:Later Le
10631:Early Le
10616:Venetian
10542:Tiwanaku
10455:Hellenic
10418:Moroccan
10349:Kamakura
10339:Japanese
10322:Saffarid
10275:Georgian
10189:Chalukya
10167:Rashidun
10157:Calakmul
10125:Bruneian
10004:Haryanka
9982:Sasanian
9977:Parthian
9928:Bactrian
9918:Seleucid
9898:Goguryeo
9876:Egyptian
9810:Assyrian
9800:Akkadian
9791:Colonies
9736:Category
9629:Islamism
9612:Muhammad
9568:Apostasy
9543:Hinduism
9443:Feminism
9374:Medicine
9214:Military
9168:Gambling
9117:Apostasy
9112:Criminal
9024:Marriage
8993:Tayammum
8945:Murabaha
8818:Madrasas
8808:Holidays
8798:Clothing
8793:Children
8788:Calendar
8739:Quranism
8693:Alawites
8657:Atharism
8548:Rashidun
8387:In Islam
8382:Muhammad
8274:Abu Bakr
8205:(2020).
8151:(1935).
8127:(1988).
7873:(2010).
7831:25183178
7582:(2001).
7555:Archived
7530:: p. 227
7514:: p. 134
7433:Archived
6972:Archived
6952:Archived
6892:Archived
6837:(2003).
6773:(2004).
6155:(eds.).
5936:Fujairah
5917:Al Thani
5827:Al Sabah
5716:Wituland
5651:896–1279
5607:Idrisids
5537:Qasimids
5517:Tahirids
5487:Usfurids
5477:Rasulids
5447:Zurayids
5411:968–1925
5397:Wajihids
5391:899–1077
5381:897–1962
5371:865–1066
5357:Yufirids
5351:819–1138
5347:Ziyadids
5341:751–1970
5282:Tahirids
5212:Abbadids
5192:Tujibids
5166:831–1091
5132:Idrisids
5116:756–1031
5096:710–1019
5092:Salihids
5057:Harfushs
5047:Turabays
5011:990–1081
5001:990–1096
4997:Uqaylids
4991:970–1107
4981:961–1150
4971:955–1071
4967:Rawadids
4961:890–1004
4951:869–1075
4931:861–1538
4917:Kaysites
4911:854–1011
4881:736–1122
4846:909–1171
4842:Fatimids
4836:750–1258
4832:Abbasids
4822:Umayyads
4812:Rashidun
4777:Lakhmids
4767:Salihids
4656:See also
4646:Mu'awiya
4642:Al-Hasan
4489:Al-Ghani
4455:Banu Adi
4415:Al-Faruq
4325:Abu Bakr
4307:Parents
4303:Muhammad
4209:Hauberks
4190:infantry
4178:lamellar
4146:Military
4009:Al-Zawar
3942:and the
3796:poll tax
3751:Ghanimah
3589:disaster
3577:treasury
3549:pensions
3464:Abu Bakr
3458:treasury
3369:nepotism
3313:obliged
3211:شُـوْرَى
3191:Rashidun
3070:Officer.
3068:Treasury
3035:Military
3008:governor
2971:Khorasan
2900:Khorasan
2858:and the
2692:Phoinike
2672:Ottomans
2604:won the
2590:Khartoum
2546:Sufetula
2429:pharaohs
2333:Muawiyah
2313:Anatolia
2284:Anatolia
2222:skirmish
2148:Ash-Sham
2140:Old City
2117:Damascus
2074:Damascus
2072:via the
1965:Dagestan
1742:Bishapur
1689:Persians
1678:Anatolia
1622:Anatolia
1594:Mu'awiya
1275:and the
1217:al-Yaman
1157:Apostasy
987:Rashidun
953:Abu Bakr
926:Muhammad
847:rāshidūn
683:Banu Adi
663:Abu Bakr
644:Muhammad
350:Currency
178:Abu Bakr
11177:largest
11172:Empires
11152:Swedish
11147:Spanish
11142:Russian
11105:Italian
11080:Chinese
11068:English
11063:British
11058:Belgian
11033:Vietnam
11023:Tay son
10969:Tsarist
10964:Russian
10959:Ottoman
10925:Dzungar
10920:Khoshut
10893:Mexican
10888:Maratha
10871:Pahlavi
10851:Safavid
10846:Iranian
10773:Haitian
10736:Chinese
10696:Ashanti
10668:Wagadou
10594:Eastern
10589:Western
10572:Timurid
10532:Tibetan
10522:Songhai
10512:Serbian
10433:Almohad
10423:Idrisid
10327:Samanid
10317:Tahirid
10312:Iranian
10290:Kannauj
10270:Genoese
10206:Chinese
10199:Eastern
10194:Western
10182:Fatimid
10177:Abbasid
10172:Umayyad
10145:Burmese
10105:Ayyubid
10100:Angevin
10070:Xianbei
10058:Eastern
10053:Western
9999:Magadha
9962:Iranian
9955:Xiongnu
9940:Hittite
9849:Chinese
9837:Kassite
9786:Ancient
9778:Empires
9683:Nursing
9644:Qutbism
9558:Sikhism
9553:Judaism
9548:Jainism
9384:Physics
9331:Pottery
9316:Gardens
9311:Carpets
9226:Slavery
9148:Divorce
9135:Dhabiĥa
8963:Hygiene
8938:Takaful
8920:Banking
8850:Science
8844:Qurbani
8813:Mosques
8773:Animals
8762:Culture
8710:Zaydism
8698:Alevism
8584:Ottoman
8574:Almohad
8569:Fatimid
8564:Córdoba
8559:Abbasid
8554:Umayyad
8487:Leaders
8482:History
8440:Shahada
8355:Beliefs
7778:Sources
7484:: p. 98
7239:– Jizya
7097:16 July
7067:16 July
6096:2600793
5876:Bahrain
5812:Al Said
5797:Al Saud
5786:Sharjah
5756:Morocco
5752:'Alawis
5691:Mombasa
5527:Jabrids
5467:Mahdids
5437:Uyunids
5401:926–965
5377:Rassids
5361:847–997
5302:Saadids
5292:Nasrids
5202:Amirids
5182:Bakrids
5172:Kanzids
5156:814–922
5146:800–909
5136:788–974
5126:771–793
5106:745-757
5067:Shihabs
5037:Ma'nids
4941:864–928
4937:Alavids
4921:860–964
4901:840–897
4891:824–961
4871:654–884
4826:661–750
4816:632–661
4599:Fatimah
4506:Ruqayya
4333:أبو بكر
4295:Caliph
4292:Period
4277:by the
4263:Umayyad
4217:baldric
4205:dir’ayn
4182:baldric
4174:hauberk
4078:Red Sea
4076:to the
4062:Red Sea
4060:to the
3828:dhimmis
3784:dhimmis
3734:mineral
3486:Bahrain
3452:(lit.,
3434:Economy
3295:impeach
3263:Saqifah
3218:
3197:called
3195:Quraysh
3148:dirhams
3113:horse (
3048:Revenue
2986:Maghreb
2914:In his
2783:), 2008
2769:Medinah
2750:dhimmis
2746:dhimmis
2733:Dhimmis
2728:Dhimmis
2722:dhimmis
2664:Larnaca
2610:Dongola
2542:Tripoli
2523:Morocco
2507:Sbeitla
2445:Thebaid
2361:Armenia
2353:Isauria
2349:Cilicia
2345:Phrygia
2325:Malatya
2297:Antioch
2277:Armenia
2193:Chalcis
2066:Hawarin
2058:Sukhnah
1973:Georgia
1969:Armenia
1915:Hamadan
1869:at the
1748:right;
1520:in the
1422:Umayyad
1232:أُمَّـة
1095:Quraysh
1071:Saqifah
1064:Helpers
1058:
1040:Saqifah
1025:History
984:as the
957:Quraysh
941:Muslims
934:Medinan
932:), his
898:scepter
824:
789:Tunisia
775:to the
721:as his
631::
483:
320:•
307:•
293:•
279:•
263:633–654
256:•
243:•
230:History
181:(first)
104:Capital
67:632–661
11115:Mongol
11100:German
11095:French
11085:Danish
11028:Dainam
11003:Tongan
10991:Somali
10986:Sokoto
10952:'Alawi
10930:Kalmyk
10910:Mongol
10903:Second
10883:Korean
10834:Mughal
10824:Indian
10807:German
10800:Second
10790:French
10783:Second
10719:Second
10691:Afghan
10683:Modern
10609:Kyrgyz
10604:Uighur
10599:Second
10579:Turkic
10547:Toltec
10483:Epirus
10468:Nicaea
10391:Mongol
10344:Yamato
10280:Huetar
10138:Second
10075:Rouran
10024:Shunga
10019:Maurya
9994:Kushan
9967:Median
9945:Hunnic
9903:Harsha
9505:
9463:poetry
9273:
9158:Ethics
9142:Dhimmi
9101:Baligh
9062:Mahram
9019:Family
8999:Toilet
8979:Miswak
8732:Lahori
8673:Salafi
8619:Seerah
8614:Tafsir
8609:Hadith
8579:Sokoto
8524:Sahaba
8399:Angels
8376:Tawhid
8333:topics
8284:Uthman
8221:
8188:
8167:
8137:
8113:
8092:
8073:
8052:
8031:
7985:
7979:162492
7977:
7945:
7908:
7887:
7859:
7837:
7829:
7795:
7528:, 2015
7512:, 2015
7482:, 2015
7429:online
7401:
7318:
7219:
6781:
6753:
6723:
6395:
6370:
6309:
6276:
6251:
6226:
6119:
6094:
6048:
5951:Jordan
5831:Kuwait
5262:Hudids
4473:Uthman
4255:Cyprus
4086:Jeddah
4046:Canals
4020:Diwans
4001:Fustat
3999:, and
3792:jizyah
3788:kharaj
3779:kharaj
3772:Kharaj
3767:Kharaj
3761:Kharaj
3701:jizyah
3637:Kharaj
3593:famine
3409:colour
3386:Fatima
3361:hadith
3351:Sharia
3320:haraam
3283:sunnah
3207:Arabic
3135:Uthman
3111:Turkic
3090:mosque
3066:, the
3056:, the
3046:, the
3033:, the
2956:Jazira
2931:Medina
2906:, and
2896:Persia
2876:Ramlah
2856:Tigris
2852:Jazira
2832:Medina
2824:Arabia
2799:, 2016
2712:Dhimmi
2700:battle
2684:Sicily
2680:Rhodes
2652:Cyprus
2618:battle
2411:, 2013
2323:, and
2321:Marash
2305:Edessa
2301:Jazira
2253:Aleppo
2150:, 1982
2134:in Al-
2054:Tadmur
2008:Levant
1957:Makran
1867:Levant
1736:ruler
1674:Levant
1672:, the
1614:Sicily
1566:Zubayr
1547:Medina
1487:Qur'an
1460:Sicily
1456:Cyprus
1452:Rhodes
1414:Uthman
1377:Medina
1171:, the
1169:Medina
1143:
1137:
1131:
1006:hadith
924:After
908:Origin
870:sunnah
854:rāshid
817:شُورَى
813:Arabic
773:Levant
763:. The
695:Uthman
671:Medina
620:Arabic
481:خِلافة
357:Dirham
233:
220:(last)
205:Uthman
163:
159:Caliph
124:Arabic
108:Medina
94:Status
80:Uthman
48:Arabic
44:
11165:Lists
11120:Omani
11090:Dutch
10996:Isaaq
10947:Saadi
10915:Oirat
10898:First
10866:Qajar
10795:First
10778:First
10751:China
10724:Third
10584:First
10537:Tikal
10488:Morea
10458:Roman
10376:Latin
10371:Khmer
10366:Kanem
10332:Buyid
10258:Zagwe
10253:Aksum
10243:Chola
10150:First
10133:First
10120:Bornu
10115:Benin
10110:Aztec
10048:Roman
10029:Gupta
10014:Nanda
9950:White
9617:Quran
9507:Other
9402:Early
9326:Music
9242:Kalam
9196:Jizya
9184:Hudud
9069:Nikah
8986:Najis
8972:Ghusl
8931:Sukuk
8860:Women
8828:Music
8803:Flags
8717:Ibadi
8644:Sunni
8604:Quran
8461:Zakat
8447:Salah
8410:Qadar
8368:Allah
8331:Islam
7983:S2CID
7975:JSTOR
7943:S2CID
7835:S2CID
7827:JSTOR
7427:(see
6470:, p.
6297:Islam
6092:JSTOR
6009:Talut
5921:Qatar
5906:Dubai
5891:Ajman
5676:Kilwa
5646:Shewa
4481:عثمان
4433:Hafsa
4358:Aisha
4311:House
4221:Ansar
4104:Sunni
4028:Jails
3997:Basra
3836:zakāt
3832:zakāt
3804:tithe
3755:Khums
3746:Khums
3740:Khums
3706:جزْية
3697:Jizya
3692:Jizya
3686:Jizya
3676:Zakāt
3672:nisab
3668:nisab
3654:Zakāt
3649:Zakat
3643:Zakat
3632:Khums
3622:Jizya
3612:Zakāt
3573:jizya
3569:zakāt
3565:taxes
3557:zakāt
3377:Aisha
3325:ayahs
3279:Ulema
3241:shura
3201:shūrā
3179:Qadis
3174:Qadis
3169:Qadis
3021:Katib
2981:Egypt
2976:Syria
2951:Basra
2941:Yemen
2936:Mecca
2882:Egypt
2866:Syria
2842:Basra
2828:Mecca
2773:Hijaz
2738:jizya
2696:Lycia
2694:(off
2676:Crete
2598:Nubia
2534:Barqa
2452:Cyrus
2409:Egypt
2405:Cairo
2329:forts
2184:Emesa
2101:Syria
2070:Bosra
1795:Anbar
1693:Egypt
1653:Hasan
1578:Basra
1574:Aisha
1570:Talha
1514:Aisha
1355:Diwan
1344:Syria
1336:Egypt
1293:Syria
1226:ummah
1221:Mahra
1185:zakat
1177:Ta'if
1165:Mecca
1087:Mecca
1051:Ansar
971:merit
807:shūrā
785:Egypt
783:from
142:Islam
10935:Bogd
10861:Zand
10839:Sikh
10746:Qing
10741:Ming
10673:Wari
10641:Tran
10626:Dinh
10396:Yuan
10386:Mali
10295:Pala
10285:Inca
10236:Yuan
10226:Song
10221:Liao
10216:Tang
9989:Kush
9871:Dʿmt
9288:Arts
9219:POWs
9153:Diet
9083:Zina
9055:Mahr
9041:Haya
9005:Wudu
8952:Riba
8865:LGBT
8757:Life
8678:Shia
8668:Sufi
8659:and
8468:Hajj
8454:Sawm
8279:Umar
8219:ISBN
8186:ISBN
8165:OCLC
8135:ISBN
8111:ISBN
8090:ISBN
8071:ISBN
8050:ISBN
8029:ISBN
8001:link
7906:ISBN
7885:ISBN
7857:ISBN
7793:ISBN
7695:2021
7631:2017
7600:2017
7563:2014
7399:ISBN
7363:2008
7316:ISBN
7252:1970
7217:ISBN
7099:2010
7069:2010
7020:2007
7000:2007
6980:2007
6960:2007
6940:2007
6920:2007
6900:2007
6779:ISBN
6751:ISBN
6721:ISBN
6443:2014
6393:ISBN
6368:ISBN
6307:ISBN
6274:ISBN
6249:ISBN
6224:ISBN
6117:ISBN
6046:ISBN
5816:Oman
4398:Umar
4229:e.g.
4192:and
4176:and
4117:Umar
4058:Nile
3993:Kufa
3984:and
3903:and
3855:and
3823:ushr
3819:ushr
3815:Ushr
3810:Ushr
3800:ushr
3664:viz.
3659:زكاة
3617:Ushr
3571:and
3547:and
3405:Qadi
3353:and
3267:viz.
3215:lit.
3159:the
3144:Hajj
3074:Qadi
3013:Wāli
2961:Fars
2946:Kufa
2908:Fars
2888:and
2846:Kufa
2844:and
2838:Iraq
2830:and
2797:Iraq
2791:The
2370:The
2351:and
2288:Azaz
2275:and
2064:and
2050:Arak
2046:Sawa
2025:and
1971:and
1955:and
1937:Iran
1919:Iran
1723:Iraq
1557:and
1551:Kufa
1454:and
1416:and
1365:amil
1360:amir
1346:and
1305:Umar
1285:Iraq
1205:Najd
1181:Oman
1167:and
1055:lit.
1038:and
1013:and
947:and
945:Umar
900:and
859:راشد
821:lit.
799:and
750:Imam
715:Kufa
679:Umar
650:and
614:The
337:Area
193:Umar
113:Kufa
11013:Mac
10450:Oyo
10359:Edo
10231:Jīn
10211:Sui
9864:Jin
9859:Han
9854:Qin
9029:Sex
8892:Law
8778:Art
8289:Ali
7967:doi
7933:doi
7819:doi
7425:(8)
6161:doi
6084:doi
4565:علي
4557:Ali
4406:عمر
4269:by
3753:or
3730:Fay
3725:Fay
3718:tax
3699:or
3627:Fay
3591:or
3229:).
2767:at
2662:at
2536:in
2491:Ali
2403:in
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1175:in
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342:655
328:661
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