International Military Tribunal for the Far East

815: 353: 1265:—while acknowledging the brutality of the incident—he said that there was nothing to show that it was the "product of government policy" or that Japanese government officials were directly responsible. There is "no evidence, testimonial or circumstantial, concomitant, prospectant, restrospectant, that would in any way lead to the inference that the government in any way permitted the commission of such offenses," he said. In any case, he added, conspiracy to wage aggressive war was not illegal in 1937, or at any point since. In addition, Pal thought the refusal to try what he perceived as Allied crimes (particularly the use of atomic bombs) weakened the tribunal's authority. Recalling a letter by 806:: "I would hold that each and every one of the accused must be found not guilty of each and every one of the charges in the indictment and should be acquitted on all those charges." While taking into account the influence of wartime propaganda, exaggerations, and distortions of facts in the evidence, and "over-zealous" and "hostile" witnesses, Pal concluded, "The evidence is still overwhelming that atrocities were perpetrated by the members of the Japanese armed forces against the civilian population of some of the territories occupied by them as also against the prisoners of war." 274:, murder, and various war crimes and crimes against humanity (such as torture and forced labor) against prisoners-of-war, civilian internees, and the inhabitants of occupied territories; ultimately, 45 of the counts, including all the murder charges, were ruled either redundant or not authorized under the IMTFE Charter. The Tokyo Trial lasted more than twice as long as the better-known Nuremberg trials, and its impact was similarly influential in the development of international law; similar international war crimes tribunals would not be established until the 1990s. 301: 1057:, who acted as the local representatives of the nations of the Far Eastern Commission. Six of those representatives made no recommendations for clemency. Australia, Canada, India, and the Netherlands were willing to see the general make some reductions in sentences. He chose not to do so. The issue of clemency was thereafter to disturb Japanese relations with the Allied powers until the late 1950s, when a majority of the Allied powers agreed to release the last of the convicted major war criminals from captivity. 7891: 8060: 48: 443: 1641: 1463: 382: 1626:

parole with respect to such prisoners may not be exercised except on the decision of the government or governments which imposed the sentence in each instance, and on the recommendation of Japan. In the case of persons sentenced by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, such power may not be exercised except on the decision of a majority of the governments represented on the Tribunal, and on the recommendation of Japan.

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crimes tribunals" and the "misery and hardship of the families of war criminals." The movement quickly garnered the support of more than ten million Japanese. The government commented that "public sentiment in our country is that the war criminals are not criminals. Rather, they gather great sympathy as victims of the war, and the number of people concerned about the war crimes tribunal system itself is steadily increasing."

493:"Class C" charges covered crimes against humanity, that is, systematic violence, deportation, or enslavement of any civilian population in time of peace or war, or persecutions on political or racial grounds in the execution of or in connection with any foregoing crimes. This category was created mainly to address atrocities committed by a state against its own nationals or allied citizens, such as Japan's use of 814: 4621: 740:. The defense insisted that there was no basis in international law for holding individuals responsible for acts of state, as the Tokyo Trial proposed to do. The defense attacked the notion of negative criminality, by which the defendants were to be tried for failing to prevent breaches of law and war crimes by others, as likewise having no basis in international law. 328:. The Potsdam Declaration (July 1945) had stated, "stern justice shall be meted out to all war criminals, including those who have visited cruelties upon our prisoners," though it did not specifically foreshadow trials. The terms of reference for the Tribunal were set out in the IMTFE Charter, issued on January 19, 1946. There was major disagreement, both among the 1806:. Those enshrined include Hideki Tōjō, Kenji Doihara, Iwane Matsui, Heitarō Kimura, Kōki Hirota, Seishirō Itagaki, Akira Mutō, Yosuke Matsuoka, Osami Nagano, Toshio Shiratori, Kiichirō Hiranuma, Kuniaki Koiso and Yoshijirō Umezu. Since 1985, visits made by Japanese government officials to the Shrine have aroused protests in China and South Korea. 1356:'s interpreter, Fellers met the two men at his office on March 6, 1946, and told Yonai, "It would be most convenient if the Japanese side could prove to us that the emperor is completely blameless. I think the forthcoming trials offer the best opportunity to do that. Tōjō, in particular, should be made to bear all responsibility at this trial." 1093:. The charges covered a wide range of crimes including prisoner abuse, rape, sexual slavery, torture, ill-treatment of laborers, execution without trial, and inhumane medical experiments. The trials took place in around fifty locations in Asia and the Pacific. Most trials were completed by 1949, but Australia held some trials in 1951. 701:, which obviated the need to prove the various alleged atrocities were the result of the defendants' illegal orders. The prosecution instead had to prove three things: that war crimes were systematic or widespread; the accused knew that troops were committing atrocities; and the accused had power or authority to stop the crimes. 795:

could have convincingly argued issues of government policy which were unfamiliar to the Allied justices." Pointing out the difficulties and limitations in holding individuals responsible for an act of state and making omission of responsibility a crime, Röling called for the acquittal of several defendants, including Hirota.

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one of two justices to vote for acquittal on all counts, observed, "in a proceeding where we had to allow the prosecution to bring in any amount of hearsay evidence, it was somewhat misplaced caution to introduce this best evidence rule particularly when it operated practically against the defense only".

1143:, there was only a single prosecution team, led by an American, although the members of the tribunal represented eleven different Allied countries. The IMTFE had less official support than the Nuremberg trials. Keenan, a former U.S. assistant attorney general, had a much lower position than Nuremberg's 1273:

to a swift conclusion through brutal means if necessary, Pal stated that "This policy of indiscriminate murder to shorten the war was considered to be a crime. In the Pacific war under our consideration, if there was anything approaching what is indicated in the above letter of the German Emperor, it

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held 13 tribunals, resulting in 504 convictions and 149 executions. Of the 5,700 Japanese individuals indicted for Class B war crimes, 984 were sentenced to death; 475 received life sentences; 2,944 were given more limited prison terms; 1,018 were acquitted; and 279 were never brought to trial or not

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Wartime press releases of the Allies offered as evidence by the prosecution were admitted, while those sought to be entered by the defense were excluded. The recollection of a conversation with a long-dead man was admitted. Letters allegedly written by Japanese citizens were admitted with no proof of

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Many Japanese reacted to the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal by demanding parole for the detainees or mitigation of their sentences. Shortly after the San Francisco Peace Treaty came into effect, a movement demanding the release of B- and C-class war criminals began, emphasizing the "unfairness of the war

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detailing the experiments of Unit 731 and its open-air tests of germ warfare on civilians. It was printed with a statement by Judge Röling, the last surviving member of the Tokyo Tribunal, who wrote, "As one of the judges in the International Military Tribunal, it is a bitter experience for me to be

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about the criminal responsibility of Hirohito. Judge-in-Chief Webb declared, "No ruler can commit the crime of launching aggressive war and then validly claim to be excused for doing so because his life would otherwise have been in danger ... It will remain that the men who advised the commission of

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of France argued that the tribunal's course of action was flawed due to Hirohito's absence and the lack of sufficient deliberation by the judges. He concluded that Japan's declaration of war "had a principal author who escaped all prosecution and of whom in any case the present Defendants could only

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After the defense had finished its presentation on September 9, 1947, the IMT spent fifteen months reaching judgement and drafting its 1,781-page opinion. The reading of the judgement and the sentences lasted from December 4 to 12, 1948. Five of the eleven justices released separate opinions outside

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once the Prosecution had rested. The best evidence rule dictates that the "best" or most authentic evidence must be produced (for example, a map instead of a description of the map; an original instead of a copy; and a witness instead of a description of what the witness may have said). Justice Pal,

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George Furness, a Defense Counsel, stated, "e say that regardless of the known integrity of the individual members of this tribunal they cannot, under the circumstances of their appointment, be impartial; that under the circumstances this trial, both in the present day and in history, will never be

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was not granted parole until March 1956, the last of the Class A Japanese war criminals to be released. With the concurrence of a majority of the powers represented on the tribunal, the Japanese government announced on April 7, 1957, that the last ten major Japanese war criminals who had previously

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Similarly, the indiscriminate bombing of Chinese cities by Japanese Imperial forces was never raised in the Tokyo Trials in fear of America being accused of the same thing for its air attacks on Japanese cities. As a result, Japanese pilots and officers were not prosecuted for their aerial raids on

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had been captured by the Japanese and survived the Bataan Death March. The defense sought to remove him from the bench claiming he would be unable to maintain objectivity. The request was rejected but Jaranilla did excuse himself from presentation of evidence for atrocities in his native country of

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of the Netherlands in his dissent. He stated, "I think that not only should there have been neutrals in the court, but there should have been Japanese also." He argued that they would always have been a minority and therefore would not have been able to sway the balance of the trial. However, "they

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who accepted "ministerial and other advice for war" and that "no ruler can commit the crime of launching aggressive war and then validly claim to be excused for doing so because his life would otherwise have been in danger ... It will remain that the men who advised the commission of a crime, if it

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with regard to its involvement in World War II would be remembered by his future subjects; as Naruhito put it at that time: it was "important to look back on the past humbly and correctly," in reference to Japan's role in World War II-era war crimes and that he was concerned about the ongoing need

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wrote that the campaign to absolve Emperor Hirohito of responsibility "knew no bounds." He argued that with MacArthur's full approval, the prosecution effectively acted as "a defense team for the emperor," who was presented as "an almost saintly figure" let alone someone culpable of war crimes. He

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from the list of crimes and the lack of judges from the vanquished nations on the bench signified the "failure of the Tribunal to provide anything other than the opportunity for the victors to retaliate". In this he was not alone among Indian jurists, with one prominent barrister writing that the

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The United States had provided the funds and staff necessary for running the Tribunal and also held the function of Chief Prosecutor. The argument was made that it was difficult, if not impossible, to uphold the requirement of impartiality with which such an organ should be invested. This apparent

1125:. On May 6, 1947, he wrote to Washington that "additional data, possibly some statements from Ishii probably can be obtained by informing Japanese involved that information will be retained in intelligence channels and will not be employed as 'War Crimes' evidence." The deal was concluded in 1948. 1701:

In 1950, after most Allied war crimes trials had ended, thousands of convicted war criminals sat in prisons across Asia and Europe, detained in the countries where they had been convicted. Some executions had not yet been carried out, as Allied courts agreed to reexamine their verdicts. Sentences

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Part of Article 13 of the Charter provided that evidence against the accused could include any document "without proof of its issuance or signature" as well as diaries, letters, press reports, and sworn or unsworn out-of-court statements relating to the charges. Article 13 of the Charter read, in

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Japan accepts the judgments of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and of other Allied War Crimes Courts both within and outside Japan, and will carry out the sentences imposed thereby upon Japanese nationals imprisoned in Japan. The power to grant clemency, reduce sentences and

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The International Prosecution Section (IPS) of the SCAP decided to try the seventy Japanese apprehended for "Class A" war crimes in three groups. The first group of 28 were major leaders in the military, political, and diplomatic sphere. The second group (23 people) and the third group (nineteen

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Bix also argues that "MacArthur's truly extraordinary measures to save Hirohito from trial as a war criminal had a lasting and profoundly distorting impact on Japanese understanding of the lost war" and "months before the Tokyo tribunal commenced, MacArthur's highest subordinates were working to

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that the emperor's abdication would not be necessary. Before the war crimes trials actually convened, SCAP, the International Prosecution Section (IPS), and court officials worked behind the scenes not only to prevent the imperial family from being indicted, but also to skew the testimony of the

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as the 60th anniversary of the start of the trial approached in 2006, 70% of those who were questioned were unaware of the details of the trial, a figure that rose to 90% among those who were in the 20–29 age group. Some 76% of the people who were polled recognized the fact that a degree of the

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Despite Class C charges being created to prosecute Japan for atrocities against its nationals, this never occurred at all. Britain, France, Netherlands, and the U.S.—four-nation members of the Tokyo trials—had colonies themselves and feared that their own colonial atrocities might be brought to

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showed that a "common plan or conspiracy" to commit "crimes against peace" bound the accused together. Thus, the prosecution argued that the conspiracy had begun in 1927 and continued through to the end of the war in 1945. The Tanaka Memorial is now considered by most historians to have been an

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On September 4, 1952, President Truman issued Executive Order 10393, establishing a Clemency and Parole Board for War Criminals. Its purpose was to advise the President regarding recommendations by the Government of Japan for clemency, reduction of sentence, or parole of Japanese war criminals

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The focus changed from the top wartime leaders to "ordinary" war criminals (Class B and C in Japan), and an intense campaign for amnesty for all imprisoned war criminals ensued which enjoyed widespread public support. The campaign reframed the issue of criminal responsibility as a humanitarian

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against other nations, and only applied to Japan's top leaders who had planned and directed the war. Unlike the Nuremberg trials, the charge of crimes against peace was a prerequisite to prosecution—only those individuals whose crimes included crimes against peace could be prosecuted by the

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On May 3 the prosecution opened its case, charging the defendants with crimes against peace, conventional war crimes, and crimes against humanity. The trial continued for more than two and a half years, hearing testimony from 419 witnesses and admitting 4,336 exhibits of evidence, including

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stated, "Even Japanese activists who endorse the ideals of the Nuremberg and Tokyo charters and who have labored to document and publicize the atrocities of the Shōwa regime cannot defend the American decision to exonerate the emperor of war responsibility and then, in the chill of the

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On March 7, 1950, MacArthur issued a directive that reduced the sentences by one-third for good behavior and authorized the parole after fifteen years of those who had received life sentences. Several of those who were imprisoned were released earlier on parole due to ill health.

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people) were industrial and financial magnates who had been engaged in weapons manufacturing industries or were accused of trafficking in narcotics, as well as a number of lesser known leaders in military, political, and diplomatic spheres. The most notable among these were:

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of Australia took issue with Emperor Hirohito's legal status, writing, "The suggestion that the Emperor was bound to act on advice is contrary to the evidence." While refraining from personal indictment of Hirohito, Webb indicated that Hirohito bore responsibility as a

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Defendants at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East: (front row, left to right) Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tojo, Admiral Takazumi Oka, (back row, left to right) Chairman of the Privy Council of Japan Kiichiro Hiranuma, Foreign Minister Shigenori

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A South Korean government commission cleared 83 of the 148 Koreans who were convicted of war crimes by the Allies. The commission ruled that the Koreans, who were categorized as Class B and Class C war criminals, were actually victims of Japanese imperialism.

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The defendants were represented by over a hundred attorneys, three-quarters of them Japanese and one-quarter American, plus a support staff. The defense opened its case on January 27, 1947, and finished its presentation 225 days later on September 9, 1947.

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defendants to ensure that no one implicated the emperor. High officials in court circles and the Japanese government collaborated with Allied GHQ in compiling lists of prospective war criminals. People arrested as Class A suspects and incarcerated in the

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on December 23, 1948. MacArthur, afraid of embarrassing and antagonizing the Japanese people, defied the wishes of President Truman and barred photography of any kind, instead bringing in four members of the Allied Council to act as official witnesses.

270:. Twenty-eight high-ranking Japanese military and political leaders were tried by the court, including current and former prime ministers, cabinet members, and military commanders. They were charged with fifty-five separate counts, including the waging 1340:"immediately on landing in Japan went to work to protect Hirohito from the role he had played during and at the end of the war" and "allowed the major criminal suspects to coordinate their stories so that the emperor would be spared from indictment." 1260:

raised substantive objections in a dissenting opinion: he found the entire prosecution case to be weak regarding the conspiracy to commit an act of aggressive war, which would include the brutalization and subjugation of conquered nations. About the

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Zachary D. Kaufman, "Transitional Justice for Tojo's Japan: the United States Role in the Establishment of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and Other Transitional Justice Mechanisms for Japan after World War II"

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Justice Henri Bernard of France concluded that Japan's declaration of war "had a principal author who escaped all prosecution and of whom in any case the present Defendants could only be considered as accomplices."

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is the decision coming from the Allied powers to use the bomb", adding that "Future generations will judge this dire decision". Pal was the only judge to argue for the acquittal of all of the defendants.

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to, in his own words: "correctly pass down tragic experiences and the history behind Japan to the generations who have no direct knowledge of the war, at the time memories of the war are about to fade."

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of the Philippines disagreed with the penalties imposed by the tribunal as being "too lenient, not exemplary and deterrent, and not commensurate with the gravity of the offence or offences committed."

368:. On April 25, in accordance with the provisions of Article 7 of the CIMTFE, the original Rules of Procedure of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East with amendments were promulgated. 1702:

were reduced in some cases, and a system of parole was instituted, but without relinquishing control over the fate of the imprisoned (even after Japan and Germany had regained their sovereignty).

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and his family was excluded from the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, as the United States believed it needed him to maintain order in Japan and achieve their postwar objectives.

587:, issued a press statement along with the indictment: "War and treaty-breakers should be stripped of the glamour of national heroes and exposed as what they really are—plain, ordinary murderers." 1732:

rejected a proposed amnesty for the imprisoned war criminals but instead agreed to "change the ground rules" by reducing the period required for eligibility for parole from 15 years to 10 years.

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The defense challenged the indictment, arguing that crimes against peace, and more specifically, the undefined concepts of conspiracy and aggressive war, had yet to be established as crimes in

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As leaders, organizers, instigators, or accomplices in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy to wage wars of aggression, and war or wars in violation of international law

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On January 19, 1946, MacArthur issued a special proclamation ordering the establishment of an International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE). On the same day, he also approved the

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aggression which was perpetrated during the war was perpetrated by Japan, while only 7% of them believed that the war was a war which was strictly waged for the purpose of self-defense.

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account for crimes against humanity. As a consequence, this left the Korean and Taiwanese victims of Japanese colonial atrocities without any recourse in the international legal system.

9432: 2244: 1949: 218:, issued a special proclamation establishing the IMTFE. A charter was drafted to establish the court's composition, jurisdiction, and procedures; the crimes were defined based on the 750:

maintained that Japan had had no choice but to enter the war for self-defense purposes. He asserted that " we felt at the time that Japan was being driven either to war or suicide".

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conflict gave the impression that the tribunal was no more than a means for the dispensation of victors' justice. Solis Horowitz argues that IMTFE had an American bias: unlike the

364:(CIMTFE), which prescribed how it was to be formed, the crimes that it was to consider, and how the tribunal was to function. The charter generally followed the model set by the 9069: 2296: 1389:

Justice Röling did not find the emperor's immunity objectionable and further argued that five defendants (Kido, Hata, Hirota, Shigemitsu, and Tōgō) should have been acquitted.

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The prosecution began opening statements on May 3, 1946, and took 192 days to present its case, finishing on January 24, 1947. It submitted its evidence in fifteen phases.

281:, was ruled unfit to stand trial. All remaining defendants were found guilty of at least one count, of whom seven were sentenced to death and sixteen to life imprisonment. 8347: 8265: 628:

Waging aggressive war against the British Commonwealth (Crown colonies and protectorates of the United Kingdom in the Far East and South Asia, Australia and New Zealand)

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Thousands of other "lesser" war criminals were tried by domestic tribunals convened across Asia and the Pacific by Allied nations, with most concluding by 1949. Due to

266:; the defense consisted of Japanese and American lawyers. The Tokyo Trial exercised broader temporal jurisdiction than its counterpart in Nuremberg, beginning from the 5815: 9407: 9310: 9064: 7813: 5831: 1162: 1602:

Eiji Amo: Chief of the Intelligence Section of Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs; Director of Intelligence Bureau in the Tojo cabinet.

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Yakichiro Suma: Consul General at Nanking; in 1938, he served as counselor at the Japanese Embassy in Washington; after 1941, Minister Plenipotentiary to Spain.

1435:, were imprisoned in the expectation that they would be prosecuted at a second Tokyo Tribunal but they were never charged. They were released in 1947 and 1948. 7792: 6471: 6158: 5292: 6774: 6137: 5446: 5071: 3500: 9457: 9427: 9137: 8500: 8007: 5787: 5733: 4919: 8953: 6244: 5740: 5356: 2113: 1185:. It was horrible that we went there for the purpose of vindicating the laws of war, and yet saw every day how the Allies had violated them dreadfully." 1621:, signed on September 8, 1951, Japan accepted the jurisdiction of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. Article 11 of the treaty reads: 4766: 2506: 1045:

was sentenced to 7 years and paroled in 1950. He later served as Foreign Minister and as Deputy Prime Minister of post-war Japan under Prime Minister

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The verdict and sentences of the tribunal were confirmed by MacArthur on November 24, 1948, two days after a perfunctory meeting with members of the

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Six defendants were sentenced to death by hanging for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crimes against peace (Class A, Class B and Class C):

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part: "The tribunal shall not be bound by technical rules of evidence ... and shall admit any evidence which it deems to have probative value.

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The parole for war criminals movement was driven by two groups: people who had "a sense of pity" for the prisoners demanded, "Just set them free" (

790:"It is well-nigh impossible to define the concept of initiating or waging a war of aggression both accurately and comprehensively," wrote Justice 8034: 5867: 5179: 1415:

informed now that centrally ordered Japanese war criminality of the most disgusting kind was kept secret from the Court by the U.S. government".

340:, decided to initiate arrests. On September 11, a week after the surrender, he ordered the arrest of 39 suspects—most of them members of General 1228: 9335: 5686: 4988: 3858: 2492: 7685: 1609:

All remaining people apprehended and accused of Class A war crimes who had not yet come to trial were set free by MacArthur in 1947 and 1948.

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Sixteen defendants were sentenced to life imprisonment. Three (Koiso, Shiratori, and Umezu) died in prison, while the other thirteen were

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The International Military Tribunal for the Far East was convened at Ichigaya Court, formerly the Imperial Japanese Army H building, in

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The Tokyo major war crimes trial: the transcripts of the court proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East

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Following months of preparation, the IMTFE convened on April 29, 1946. The trials were held in the War Ministry office in Tokyo.

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View of the Tribunal in session: the bench of judges is on the right, the defendants on the left, and the prosecutors in the back

211: 8012: 4432: 3240:"United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency" 9017: 8991: 6753: 6265: 5115: 4653: 3684: 2354: 1595:: Ambassador to Manchukuo, Minister of Foreign Affairs and concurrently Director of the Intelligence Bureau; Ambassador to the 1561:: Chief of Staff of the Kwantung Army, Commander-in-Chief of China Expeditionary Army, 1939–41; war-time Minister of Education. 967: 337: 729:

The defense argued that the trial could never be free from substantial doubt as to its "legality, fairness and impartiality".

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held by the Soviets tried and found guilty some members of Japan's bacteriological and chemical warfare unit, also known as

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be considered as accomplices" and that a "verdict reached by a Tribunal after a defective procedure cannot be a valid one."

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of 1,068 convicted war criminals, including the kami of 14 convicted Class-A war criminals, were secretly enshrined in the

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Legal Tools, Other International(ised) Criminal Jurisdictions, International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE)

1531:: In charge of industry and commerce of Manchukuo, 1936–40; Minister of Industry and Commerce under Tojo administration. 9172: 8661: 8656: 8555: 8495: 8286: 8276: 7967: 7706: 7575: 7453: 7031: 6746: 6697: 6455: 6010: 5262: 5101: 4949: 4803: 4263: 3940:"[IMTFE] Dissenting Judgment of the Member from France of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East" 3792: 3460: 3344: 3188: 1850: 1317:

both believed the occupation reforms would be implemented smoothly if they used Hirohito to legitimise their changes."

1148: 736:; in effect, the IMTFE was contradicting accepted legal procedure by trying the defendants retroactively for violating 4228:

The Tokyo Judgment: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (I.M.T.F.E), 29 April 1946 – 12 November 1948

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and other members of the imperial family might have been regarded as potential suspects. They included career officer

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One defendant was sentenced to death by hanging for war crimes and crimes against humanity (Class B and Class C):

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More than 5,700 lower-ranking personnel were charged with conventional war crimes in separate trials convened by

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and within their administrations, about whom to try and how to try them. Despite the lack of consensus, General

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Following the model used at the Nuremberg trials in Germany, the Allies established three broad categories:

9422: 9340: 9325: 9154: 8966: 8837: 8296: 8237: 8227: 7903: 7799: 7174: 7135: 6054: 5889: 5874: 5801: 5780: 5598: 5276: 5062: 5055: 5039: 4750: 4709: 4681: 2601: 2282: 2071: 1551:: Sworn brother of Fusanosuke Kuhara, founder of Japan Industrial Corporation; went to Manchuria after the 1438: 4609: 9381: 9162: 8646: 8465: 8336: 7866: 7190: 7142: 6760: 6732: 6585: 6200: 6179: 5700: 5363: 5269: 4759: 4080: 2616: 2586: 2188: 1875:

MacArthur appointed a panel of 11 judges, nine from the nations that signed the Instrument of Surrender.

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By the end of 1958, all Japanese war criminals were released from prison and politically rehabilitated.

9218: 9146: 8928: 8897: 7664: 7160: 7079: 7024: 6912: 6868: 6518: 6144: 6068: 5970: 5847: 5719: 5712: 5672: 5645: 5377: 5310: 4905: 4716: 4646: 3916:"Dissenting judgment of the member from France of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East" 2658: 2629: 1941: 1813: 1266: 1189: 783: 498: 9371: 8887: 8882: 8809: 8769: 8560: 8247: 7566: 7483: 7268: 7128: 7100: 6933: 6838: 6628: 6061: 5135: 4789: 3764: 3605: 3445:

War and State Terrorism: The United States, Japan, and the Asia-Pacific in the Long Twentieth Century

2007: 1917: 494: 8749: 8039: 5333: 3866: 344:'s war cabinet. Tojo tried to commit suicide but was resuscitated with the help of U.S. physicians. 9001: 8784: 8731: 8679: 8301: 8129: 7930: 7305: 7282: 6534: 6335: 6328: 5992: 5652: 5624: 5617: 5004: 2678: 2272: 2107: 1651: 1473: 1302: 931: 392: 325: 5349: 5326: 1404:, received immunity in exchange for data gathered from his experiments on live prisoners. In 1981 1382:

a crime, if it be one, are in no worse position than the man who directs the crime be committed."

277:

By the time it adjourned on November 12, 1948, two defendants had died of natural causes and one,

9229: 8824: 8701: 8631: 8440: 8192: 8119: 7727: 7671: 7541: 7401: 7086: 6739: 6635: 6541: 6109: 5977: 5947: 5911: 5896: 5768: 5660: 5638: 5584: 5570: 5552: 5216: 4997: 4725: 4674: 4562: 3452: 2917: 2001: 1911: 1899: 1655: 1618: 1477: 1294: 1188:

However, in respect to Pal and Röling's statement about the conduct of air attacks, there was no

1121:

and all members of the bacteriological research units in exchange for germ warfare data based on

1001: 768: 396: 300: 247: 196: 180: 79: 668:

Deliberately and recklessly disregarded their duty to take adequate steps to prevent atrocities

9386: 9361: 9254: 8541: 8505: 8481: 8378: 8363: 8212: 8124: 7419: 7312: 7114: 7065: 6968: 6861: 6831: 6614: 6502: 6228: 6019: 5610: 5591: 5561: 5108: 5078: 4597:

University of Virginia The International Military Tribunal for the Far East Digital Collection

2794:

Hidden Atrocities: Japanese Germ Warfare and American Obstruction of Justice at the Tokyo Trial

2792: 2669: 2571: 2029: 1965: 1824:"; this rebuttal was posthumously published in 1987, four years after Arnold Brackman's death. 1788:

been paroled were granted clemency and were to be regarded henceforth as unconditionally free.

1345: 1212: 1122: 1094: 1070: 698: 483: 329: 313: 207: 4329: 3660: 2979: 2945: 2911: 1101:

The Soviet Union and Chinese Communist forces also held trials of Japanese war criminals. The

8565: 8027: 7910: 7633: 7476: 7372: 7342: 7298: 7038: 7003: 6996: 6919: 6817: 6258: 6235: 6082: 5693: 5230: 4970: 4956: 4639: 1290: 5528: 3740: 2721: 1329:

solemnly vowed to protect their sovereign against any possible taint of war responsibility.

9447: 9442: 9437: 9330: 9187: 8696: 8520: 8510: 8022: 7734: 7589: 7240: 7197: 7167: 7093: 6903: 6882: 5808: 5285: 4963: 3617: 2897:

Rules of Procedure of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. April 25, 1946.

2743: 2292: 2128: 1893: 1847: 1054: 763: 743:

The defense argued that Allied Powers' violations of international law should be examined.

172: 71: 4042:, Minister for External Affairs and Attorney General. Letter of 3 July 1946. Available at 3336:

Documents on the Tokyo International Military Tribunal: Charter, Indictment, and Judgments

2513: 2422: 2338: 1008: 944: 8: 9287: 9234: 9197: 8923: 8870: 8843: 8833: 8779: 8774: 8759: 8636: 8460: 8139: 8134: 8017: 7852: 7626: 7504: 7460: 6982: 6116: 5882: 5409: 5239: 5223: 5172: 4557:

Documents on the Tokyo International Military Tribunal: Charter, Indictment and Judgments

2951: 2621: 2591: 2365: 2323:

Twenty-eight defendants were charged, mostly military officers and government officials.

1971: 1821: 1596: 1035: 803: 747: 317: 8711: 3710: 3621: 2439: 1576: 1439:

Failure to prosecute Japan's atrocities against its nationals as crimes against humanity

1392: 859: 776: 288:, the trials did not charge imperial Japanese leaders who may have been responsible for 9271: 9266: 9239: 9177: 8892: 8829: 8651: 8621: 8162: 7845: 7678: 7603: 7557: 7527: 7435: 7275: 6940: 6824: 6718: 6669: 6607: 6363: 6314: 6123: 5747: 5402: 5200: 4572: 4568: 4453: 4292: 3394: 3272: 3239: 2947:

War Crimes Tribunals and Transitional Justice: The Tokyo Trial and the Nuremberg Legacy

2576: 2093: 1991: 1729: 1564: 1232: 1204: 1182: 1078: 987: 690: 553: 487: 164: 4160: 2531: 2383: 1028: 831: 9182: 8933: 8626: 8606: 8373: 8002: 7836: 7720: 7610: 7550: 7511: 7444: 7426: 7392: 7335: 7289: 7233: 7058: 6796: 6788: 6725: 6578: 6172: 5704: 5165: 5144: 4854: 4576: 4535: 4516: 4479: 4460: 4402: 4383: 4376: 4316: 4259: 4231: 4167: 4141: 4134: 3744: 3664: 3653: 3633: 3456: 3420: 3386: 3340: 3277: 3259: 3226:

Factories of Death. Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up

3184: 2985: 2955: 2921: 2798: 2663: 2552: 2371: 1776: 1756: 1736: 1548: 1534: 1314: 1207:, an American defense counsel for Japanese defendants, argued that "f the killing of 1144: 1042: 927: 824: 733: 660:

Ordered, authorized, and permitted inhumane treatment of prisoners of war and others

522: 467: 333: 278: 271: 219: 215: 8082: 3688: 3443:(2003). "State Terror versus Humanitarian Law". In Mark Selden; Alvin Y. So (eds.). 2499: 2446: 1558: 994: 866: 478:

in which only enemy and neutral nationals can be the principal victims, such as the

9300: 9249: 9074: 8794: 8515: 8187: 7755: 7748: 7692: 7356: 7121: 7107: 7010: 6947: 6898: 6711: 6564: 6511: 6321: 6272: 6186: 5416: 5393: 4926: 4444:

Unjust Enrichment: How Japan's Companies Built Postwar Fortunes Using American POWs

4419: 4182: 3733: 3629: 3625: 3448: 3378: 3267: 3251: 2818: 2611: 2397: 2359: 2265: 2261: 2161: 2140: 2024: 1932: 1858: 1428: 1283: 1262: 1174: 1154: 1140: 1014: 772:

be one, are in no worse position than the man who directs the crime be committed."

584: 537: 479: 365: 188: 120: 67: 9049: 4935: 4055: 3835: 1109:. However, those who surrendered to the Americans were never brought to trial. As 802:

of India produced a judgment in which he dismissed the legitimacy of the IMTFE as

9366: 9167: 9094: 8799: 8721: 8641: 8114: 7953: 7778: 7490: 7405: 7363: 7261: 7204: 7072: 6854: 6845: 6374: 5956: 5932: 5186: 3964:"Dissentient Judgement of Pal | Society for the Dissemination of Historical Fact" 2606: 2211: 2144: 2084: 2062: 1809: 1803: 1573:: A radical ultranationalist. War profiteer, smuggler and underground crime boss. 1567:: Garrison Commander of Port Arthur and Minister of Interior in the Tojo cabinet. 1552: 1542: 1353: 1321: 1046: 709: 533: 518: 168: 8716: 7890: 2888:

Within documents relating to the IMTFE, it is also referred to as the "Charter".

2867: 9044: 8938: 8764: 8754: 8611: 8575: 7997: 7785: 7321: 7247: 5299: 5158: 4247:

The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Pursuit of Justice in the Wake of World War Two

4214: 3416: 2524: 2184: 2179: 2044: 1959: 1841: 1780: 1772: 1528: 1424: 1405: 1369: 1337: 1333: 1306: 1257: 1220: 1200: 1086: 1021: 799: 259: 160: 9079: 9054: 4532:

The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Pursuit of Justice in the Wake of World War II

3310:. Republic Of The Philippines, Office Of The Solicitor General. Archived from 3255: 2467: 2350: 2332: 1982: 1397: 980: 963: 852: 791: 474:"Class B" charges covered conventional war crimes, that is, violations of the 9401: 9115: 8570: 8291: 8281: 8109: 8074: 7596: 5521: 5370: 5209: 4338: 4274: 4254:

Wilson, Sandra; Cribb, Robert; Trefalt, Beatrice; Aszkielowicz, Dean (2017).

4155: 4011: 3987: 3939: 3915: 3637: 3390: 3263: 3179:

Wilson, Sandra; Cribb, Robert; Trefalt, Beatrice; Aszkielowicz, Dean (2017).

2648: 2581: 2535: 2453: 2432: 2415: 2344: 2204: 2104: 2068: 1829: 1760: 1740: 1592: 1570: 1377: 1360: 1326: 1208: 1090: 973: 950: 937: 900: 846: 737: 526: 513:

The indictment accused the defendants of promoting a scheme of conquest that:

506: 502: 361: 263: 239: 8671: 4563:

International Military Tribunal for the Far East; R. John Pritchard (1998).

4290: 3963: 3796: 2474: 873: 9207: 8167: 8044: 7895: 7699: 5999: 5904: 5535: 4898: 4662: 4012:"[IMTFE] Opinion of Mr. Justice Roling, Member for the Netherlands" 3440: 3281: 3119:

free from substantial doubt as to its legality, fairness and impartiality."

2481: 2463:, commander of the Shanghai Expeditionary Force and Central China Area Army 2460: 2377: 2124: 1846:

Some time before the situation emerged about his expected accession to the

1764: 1748: 1452: 1236: 956: 892: 835: 255: 200: 184: 8741: 8358: 4495:

The Japanese on Trial: Allied War Crimes Operations in the East, 1945–1951

4434:

The Tokyo Trial: War Criminals and Japan's Postwar International Relations

4256:

Japanese War Criminals: the Politics of Justice after the Second World War

4038:, as President of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East to 3181:

Japanese War Criminals: the Politics of Justice after the Second World War

8814: 8368: 7534: 7520: 7182: 5858: 5679: 5664: 5018: 4109: 4043: 3238:

Brody, Howard; Leonard, Sarah E.; Nie, Jing-Bao; Weindling, Paul (2014).

2637: 2408: 2198: 2074:; Resigned from the tribunal; replaced by Major General Myron C. Cramer. 1768: 1752: 1744: 1349: 1270: 1251: 1118: 920: 880: 713:

anti-Japanese forgery; however, it was not regarded as such at the time.

557: 341: 243: 203:

for their war crimes, crimes against peace, and crimes against humanity.

4360: 3006:"Should the United States be Blamed for Japan's Historical Revisionism?" 47: 8616: 8232: 6889: 6642: 6621: 5514: 4847: 4775: 3398: 2633: 1582: 576: 565: 475: 75: 62: 8525: 3793:"Enshrinement Politics: War Dead and War Criminals at Yasukuni Shrine" 2640:

in 1997, the sixtieth anniversary of the start of the Nanjing Massacre

717:

authenticity and no opportunity for cross examination by the defense.

442: 9276: 8943: 8918: 8913: 8726: 8597: 8530: 8202: 7152: 6557: 6354: 6165: 5963: 5918: 4039: 3819:

The Other Nuremberg: The Untold Story of the Tokyo War Crimes Trial,

2426: 2195: 1987: 1926: 1393:

Failure to prosecute perpetrators of inhumane medical experimentation

1224: 1066: 1038:

was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. Togo died in prison in 1950.

904: 895:, commander, Shanghai Expeditionary Force and Central China Area Army 738:

laws which had not existed when the alleged crimes had been committed

223: 192: 176: 5439: 3890:"World War II Should Not Be Forgotten, Japan's Prince Naruhito Says" 3382: 1818:

The Other Nuremberg: The Untold Story of the Tokyo War Crimes Trial,

1640: 1462: 1173:

Justice Röling stated, "f course, in Japan we were all aware of the

517:

ontemplated and carried out ... murdering, maiming and ill-treating

381: 9244: 9022: 8455: 8146: 8090: 5423: 5151: 4136:

The Other Nuremberg: The Untold Story of the Tokyo War Crimes Trial

3834:. Mansfield Asian Opinion Poll Database. April 2006. Archived from 2653: 2315: 1538: 1401: 1365: 1286: 1178: 1106: 827:, was found mentally unfit for trial and the charges were dropped. 680: 573: 561: 305: 289: 53: 7922: 2977: 2767: 899:

The seven defendants who were sentenced to death were executed at

636:

Waging aggressive war against the Netherlands (Dutch East Indies)

466:"Class A" charges covered crimes against peace, that is, waging a 8197: 4307:

Ming-Hui Yao. "Nanjing Massacre and the Tokyo War Crimes Trial".

3769: 3413:

Terror from the Sky: The Bombing of German Cities in World War II

2864:"Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East" 2597:

Justice Erima Harvey Northcroft Tokyo War Crimes Trial Collection

2400:, prime minister (1941–44), war minister (1940–44), chief of the 2021: 1227:," although Pearl Harbor was classified as a war crime under the 569: 549: 530: 4598: 1857:

on the occasion of his 55th birthday in February 2015 about how

9261: 8875: 8049: 6033: 4631: 4620: 4604: 2456:, prime minister (1944–45), governor-general of Korea (1942–44) 2335:, prime minister (1936–37), foreign minister (1933–36, 1937–38) 1432: 1254: 1216: 912: 541: 362:

Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East

227: 4455:

The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility

4253: 1865: 1320:

As early as November 26, 1945, MacArthur confirmed to Admiral

8242: 6221: 4413: 4399:

Judgment at Tokyo: World War II and the Making of Modern Asia

4378:

Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Trials

3142: 3140: 3127: 3125: 4504:

Horror in the East: Japan and the Atrocities of World War II

4293:"Judgment: International Military Tribunal for the Far East" 2913:

The Handbook of the International Law of Military Operations

1842:

Potential concerns expressed by the Japanese Imperial Family

1827:

In a survey of 3,000 Japanese people which was conducted by

1352:." According to a written report by Shūichi Mizota, Admiral 1243:

Pearl Harbor and cities in China and other Asian countries.

983:, commander, Kwantung Army, former governor-general of Korea 3988:"Opinion of Mr. Justice Roling, Member for the Netherlands" 3570:『戦争裁判余録』, Taiseisha Kabushiki Kaisha,泰生社 1986, pp. 170–172. 3526: 3524: 3522: 2909: 1798: 545: 9433:

Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II

4437:. Tokyo: Japan Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture. 4279:. Japan: Society for the Dissemination of Historical Fact. 3332: 3137: 3122: 484:

attack on the neutral U.S. at Pearl Harbor without warning

9311:

International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia

3012: 2720:. The University of Georgia School of Law. Archived from 2632:: a book about the Nanjing Massacre which was written by 708:

The prosecution argued that a 1927 document known as the

4125:

The Tokyo International Military Tribunal: A Reappraisal

3519: 3237: 3024: 1219:, we know the name of the very man who hands loosed the 644:

Waging aggressive war against France (French Indochina)

9346:

International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals

3685:"Taiwan Documents Project – Treaty of Peace with Japan" 3308:"Hon. Delfin J. Jaranilla, Attorney General, 1927–1932" 2341:, prime minister (1939), president of the privy council 454:

depositions and affidavits from 779 other individuals.

5293:

Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany

3036: 2768:"The International Military Tribunal for the Far East" 1418: 29:"The Tokyo Trial" redirects here. For other uses, see 4382:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 3100: 3076: 2127:

was also apparently favourably disposed to replacing

1277: 4599:

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East

4221:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 4162:

War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War

3585: 3339:. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. p. lv. 3288: 3194: 2981:

Trials and Tribulations of International Prosecution

1630: 1161:

Justice Radhabinod Pal argued that the exclusion of

3206: 3088: 2239:Crown Prosecutor and Judge, Supreme Court of India 2131:as a judge, but his appointment did not eventuate. 2114:

Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR

1170:Tribunal was little more than "a sword in a wig." 9301:International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials) 4452: 4375: 4291:International Military Tribunal for the Far East. 4276:The Tokyo Trials and the Truth of "Pal's Judgment" 4159: 4133: 3732: 3652: 3573: 3548: 3536: 3164:"Abe's Japan Cannot Apologize for the Pacific War" 1579:: Ultranationalist businessman and philanthropist. 1031:, war minister and Chief of the Army General Staff 4476:Judgment at Tokyo: The Japanese War Crimes Trials 4424:Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire 3832:"'Asahi Shimbun' May 2, 2006 'Tokyo Trials Poll'" 3469: 2744:"Milestones: 1945–1952 – Office of the Historian" 2636:, the book was published in the United States by 2626:: A 2007 Chinese film about the Nanjing Massacre. 2143:of the United States, was appointed by President 976:, governor-general of Korea, later prime minister 883:, commander, Kwantung Army (later prime minister) 849:, chief of the intelligence services in Manchukuo 9408:International Military Tribunal for the Far East 9399: 9331:Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia 9306:International Military Tribunal for the Far East 9100:International Military Tribunal for the Far East 4626:International Military Tribunal for the Far East 4515:. Paducah, Kentucky: Turner Publishing Company. 4343:Society for the Dissemination of Historical Fact 4230:. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: APA-University Press. 2978:Henry F. Carey, Stacey M. Mitchell, ed. (2013). 2418:, chief of the intelligence service in Manchukuo 1853:, some degree of concern was voiced by the then 620:Waging aggressive war against the United States 145:International Military Tribunal for the Far East 40:International Military Tribunal for the Far East 22:International Military Tribunal for the Far East 9070:German pre–World War II industrial co-operation 4446:. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. 4249:. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Asia Center. 3481: 2943: 2303:Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Soviet Union 2167:Assistant Attorney General of the United States 1820:a rebuttal of charges that the trial had been " 697:The prosecution team relied on the doctrine of 572:and other barbaric cruelties upon the helpless 206:Following Japan's defeat and occupation by the 9145: 8059: 1453:Release of the remaining 42 "Class A" suspects 1133: 312:The Tribunal was established to implement the 9131: 7938: 4647: 4534:. Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center. 4459:. Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources. 2228:Provisional Government of the French Republic 1946:Avocat-General (Solicitor-General) at Bangui 1612: 679:Any possible evidence that would incriminate 4219:Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial 4122: 3367:"The Tokyo Judgment and the Rape of Nanking" 9458:Courts and tribunals disestablished in 1948 9428:Sexual violence in Asia during World War II 8422:Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office 4513:War Crimes: International Military Tribunal 4497:. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. 4478:. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. 4225: 4201:Horowitz, Solis (1950). "The Tokyo Trial". 3161: 3146: 3131: 2689:Post-World War II Romanian war crime trials 2540:Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office 2402:Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office 1866:List of judges, prosecutors, and defendants 1669:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1491:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1246: 838:, died of natural causes during the trial. 410:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 9316:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 9138: 9124: 7945: 7931: 4654: 4640: 4492: 3650: 2172:Department of Justice of the United States 1060: 9336:Special Panels of the Dili District Court 8820:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 8435:Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors 4430: 3271: 2910:Dieter Fleck, Terry D. Gill, ed. (2015). 2790: 2170:Director of the Criminal Division of the 1689:Learn how and when to remove this message 1511:Learn how and when to remove this message 1167:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1024:, president of the Cabinet Planning Board 855:, prime minister (later foreign minister) 674: 430:Learn how and when to remove this message 371: 9453:Courts and tribunals established in 1946 8208:National Spiritual Mobilization Movement 4306: 4272: 4200: 4140:. New York: William Morrow and Company. 4131: 4056:"Supreme Court of India - Former Judges" 3493: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3333:Neil Boister, Robert Cryer, ed. (2008). 3294: 3244:Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 3042: 2939: 2937: 2516:, navy minister (1941–44), chief of the 2484:, navy minister (1936–37), chief of the 2314: 2277:Associate Prosecutor of the Philippines 2249:Associate Prosecutor of the Netherlands 2216:Minister of Justice and Foreign Affairs 1597:Reorganized National Government of China 813: 441: 351: 347: 299: 4510: 4258:. New York: Columbia University Press. 4226:Röling, B. V. A.; Rüter, C. F. (1977). 4115:Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan 3887: 3856: 3730: 3503:Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan 3183:. New York: Columbia University Press. 3175: 3173: 2973: 2971: 2905: 2903: 2666:: A 1998 Japanese film about the trial. 2555:, a political philosopher and ideologue 1427:, who later became Prime Minister, and 1111:Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers 652:Waging aggressive war against the USSR 212:Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers 9400: 9018:Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere 6501: 6479:Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union 4571:: Robert M.W. Kempner Collegium by E. 4555:Boister, Neil, and Robert Cryer, eds. 4529: 4441: 4359:(a 2016 documentary by Tim B. Toidze) 4244: 4213: 4044:http://www.naa.gov.au/go.aspx?i=819494 3603: 3106: 3082: 3030: 3018: 2674:: A 2006 Chinese film about the trial. 2509:, chief of the Military Affairs Bureau 2495:, chief of the Bureau of Naval Affairs 2477:, chief of staff of the 14th Area Army 1344:attribute ultimate responsibility for 1269:signalling his determination to bring 1004:, chief of the Military Affairs Bureau 338:Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers 9119: 7926: 7350:Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign 6782:Japanese invasion of French Indochina 6428:Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union 6384:Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union 5489:Rape during the occupation of Germany 4635: 4418: 4339:"Dissentient Judgment of Justice Pal" 4180: 4154: 4123:Boister, Niel; Cryer, Robert (2008). 3857:Koehler, Robert (November 13, 2006). 3739:. Columbia University Press. p. 3591: 3530: 3475: 3364: 3353: 3200: 3157: 3155: 3094: 2934: 2567:Allied war crimes during World War II 2527:, chief of the Cabinet Planning Board 2470:, governor-general of Korea (1936–42) 2326: 1751:were all released on parole in 1954. 52:Court chamber during the tribunal in 8427:Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff 8183:Imperial Rule Assistance Association 6472:Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union 5504:Rape during the liberation of France 4501: 4473: 4450: 4396: 4373: 4191: 4127:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4036:William Webb (judge)Sir William Webb 3439: 3212: 3170: 2968: 2900: 2518:Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff 2486:Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff 2390: 2301:Head of the Legal Department of the 2097:Replaced Judge Higgins in July 1946 1728:On May 26, 1954, Secretary of State 1667:adding citations to reliable sources 1634: 1489:adding citations to reliable sources 1456: 612:Waging unprovoked war against China 408:adding citations to reliable sources 375: 9090:Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman 8337:East Asia Development Board (Kōain) 7952: 4108: 3888:Itasaka, Kiko (February 24, 2015). 3765:"Where war criminals are venerated" 3757: 3579: 3554: 3542: 3487: 2546: 2203:Vice-Judge Advocate General of the 1419:Failure to prosecute other suspects 1055:Allied Control Commission for Japan 268:1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria 16:Post–World War II war crimes trials 13: 9463:International courts and tribunals 6698:German invasion of the Netherlands 4978:Weather events during World War II 4549: 4366: 3228:, revised ed. Routledge, New York. 3152: 2449:, commander of the Burma Area Army 2368:, foreign minister (1941–42, 1945) 1278:Exoneration of the imperial family 1175:bombings and the burnings of Tokyo 762:In his concurring opinion Justice 199:, which prosecuted the leaders of 187:. The IMTFE was modeled after the 14: 9474: 7329:Northern Burma and Western Yunnan 4591: 3610:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2054:Senator of the College of Justice 1812:, who had covered the trials for 1783:were released on parole in 1955. 1725:sentenced by military tribunals. 1631:Parole for war criminals movement 1411:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 8790:Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 8058: 7889: 4661: 4619: 4559:(Oxford University Press, 2008). 2984:. Lexington Books. p. 169. 2644:Philippine War Crimes Commission 2245:W.G. Frederick Borgerhoff-Mulder 2035:Supreme Court of the Philippines 1950:First Military Tribunal in Paris 1639: 1461: 1203:before and during World War II. 876:, chief of staff, 14th Area Army 380: 46: 31:The Tokyo Trial (disambiguation) 8805:Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact 4336: 4073: 4048: 4028: 4004: 3980: 3956: 3932: 3908: 3881: 3850: 3824: 3811: 3785: 3724: 3703: 3677: 3644: 3597: 3560: 3433: 3405: 3326: 3300: 3231: 3218: 3112: 3048: 2998: 1918:Court of King's Bench of Quebec 189:International Military Tribunal 183:, leading up to and during the 105: 9377:International humanitarian law 9321:Special Court for Sierra Leone 9060:Japanese settlers in Manchuria 8178:Imperial Rescript on Education 7576:Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 5286:Territorial changes of Germany 5194:Indonesian National Revolution 4613:Emory International Law Review 4493:Piccigallo, Philip R. (1979). 3859:"Korean war criminals cleared" 3630:10.1080/00963402.1981.11458900 2891: 2882: 2856: 2832: 2811: 2784: 2760: 2736: 2706: 2134: 1197:international humanitarian law 529:under inhumane conditions ... 1: 8511:Imperial Way Faction (Kōdōha) 8417:Imperial General Headquarters 8008:Foreign commerce and shipping 6976:Japanese invasion of Thailand 6927:Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran 6691:German invasion of Luxembourg 5072:Mediterranean and Middle East 4431:Higurashi, Yoshinobu (2022). 4081:"Parakulangara Govinda Menon" 3606:"A hidden chapter in history" 3056:"Charter of the Tokyo trials" 2797:. Columbia University Press. 2694: 2355:Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal 2310: 2297:Sergei Alexandrovich Golunsky 1587:Minister of Greater East Asia 1235:and without a just cause for 968:Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal 809: 295: 163:convened on 29 April 1946 to 9341:Special Tribunal for Lebanon 9326:International Criminal Court 8838:Hirohito surrender broadcast 8238:Greater East Asia Conference 6883:Invasion of the Soviet Union 6572:Occupation of Czechoslovakia 5890:Independent State of Croatia 4442:Holmes, Linda Goetz (2001). 4414:online scholarly book review 4374:Bass, Gary Jonathan (2000). 4132:Brackman, Arnold C. (1987). 3817:Brackman, Arnold C. (1987), 3795:. JapanFocus. Archived from 2602:Khabarovsk war crimes trials 2386:, foreign minister (1940–41) 2380:, finance minister (1941–44) 2374:, foreign minister (1943–45) 2283:Arthur Strettell Comyns Carr 1447: 1423:Forty-two suspects, such as 1408:published an article in the 1128: 869:, commander, Burma Area Army 552:beyond any justification of 286:U.S. government intervention 7: 9382:International speech crimes 9163:Customary international law 8223:Supreme Court of Judicature 7867:End of World War II in Asia 7707:Western invasion of Germany 7214:Chinese famine of 1942–1943 7191:Second Battle of El Alamein 6761:Hundred Regiments Offensive 6733:Battle of the Mediterranean 6586:Italian invasion of Albania 4760:Air warfare of World War II 4511:Sherman, Christine (2001). 3651:Barenblatt, Daniel (2004). 2664:プライド運命の瞬間 ("Praido", Pride) 2617:Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal 2587:Indian National Army trials 2559: 2189:Supreme Court of Queensland 1931:Attorney and Member of the 1231:, as it happened without a 1134:Charges of victors' justice 1103:Khabarovsk War Crime Trials 753: 135: 10: 9479: 9203:Convention Against Torture 9147:International criminal law 8929:Second Philippine Republic 8707:Manchuria–Mongolia problem 7793:Naval bombardment of Japan 7161:First Battle of El Alamein 7080:Battle of Christmas Island 7025:Japanese invasion of Burma 6789:Italian invasion of Greece 6705:German invasion of Belgium 6677:German invasion of Denmark 6650:1939–1940 Winter Offensive 6519:Second Italo-Ethiopian War 4783:Comparative military ranks 4426:. New York: Penguin Books. 4273:Watanabe, Shōichi (2008). 4203:International Conciliation 4016:Legal-tools.org/doc/462134 3992:Legal-tools.org/doc/fb16ff 3944:Legal-tools.org/doc/675a23 3920:Legal-tools.org/doc/d1ac54 3731:Maguire, Peter H. (2000). 3659:. Harper Collins. p. 2791:Guillemin, Jeanne (2017). 2659:Yokohama War Crimes Trials 2630:The Rape of Nanking (book) 1903:President of the Tribunal 1814:United Press International 1619:San Francisco Peace Treaty 1613:San Francisco Peace Treaty 930:, major instigator of the 720: 689:The Tribunal embraced the 579:of the over-run countries. 457: 356:The judges (July 29, 1946) 28: 18: 9372:Joint criminal enterprise 9354: 9285: 9216: 9153: 9037: 9010: 8952: 8906: 8863: 8856: 8810:Japan during World War II 8770:Pacification of Manchukuo 8740: 8670: 8662:Invasion of Taiwan (1895) 8657:Invasion of Taiwan (1874) 8595: 8588: 8539: 8526:Control Faction (Tōseiha) 8479: 8405: 8398: 8345: 8263: 8256: 8248:Imperial Japanese Airways 8155: 8102: 8067: 8056: 7960: 7882: 7714:Bratislava–Brno offensive 7654: 7645:Dutch famine of 1944–1945 7382: 7269:Allied invasion of Sicily 7223: 7129:Aleutian Islands campaign 7101:Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign 7048: 7039:Greek famine of 1941–1944 6934:Second Battle of Changsha 6839:German invasion of Greece 6807: 6684:Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang 6659: 6597: 6492: 6373: 6099: 6009: 5857: 5560: 5551: 5309: 5134: 5026:North and Central Pacific 4987: 4749: 4742: 4669: 4474:Maga, Timothy P. (2001). 4451:Lael, Richard L. (1982). 4034:Personal correspondence, 3256:10.1017/S0963180113000753 2347:, chief cabinet secretary 2287:British MP and Barrister 2155: 2152: 2033:Associate Justice of the 1886: 1883: 1880: 1870: 1791: 953:, Chief Cabinet Secretary 664: 656: 648: 640: 632: 624: 616: 608: 600: 595: 592: 216:General Douglas MacArthur 157:Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal 131: 126: 116: 111: 101: 93: 85: 61: 45: 38: 19:For the documentary, see 9413:War crimes organizations 9292:(in order of foundation) 8785:Second Sino-Japanese War 8732:Racial Equality Proposal 8312:Agriculture and Commerce 7306:Allied invasion of Italy 7283:Solomon Islands campaign 7032:Third Battle of Changsha 6629:First Battle of Changsha 6535:Second Sino-Japanese War 5475:German military brothels 5341:United States war crimes 4506:. Boston: Da Capo Press. 4102: 3604:Powell, John W. (1981). 3453:Rowman & Littlefield 3371:Journal of Asian Studies 2944:Madoka Futamura (2007). 2699: 2442:, war minister (1938–39) 2435:, war minister (1939–40) 2411:, war minister (1931–34) 2014:of the New Zealand Army 1851:at the end of April 2019 1617:Under Article 11 of the 1375:Three justices wrote an 1247:Pal's dissenting opinion 932:second Sino-Japanese War 746:Former Foreign Minister 9418:Crimes against humanity 9230:Crimes against humanity 8702:Washington Naval Treaty 8647:Anglo–Japanese Alliance 8632:First Sino-Japanese War 8451:Nuclear weapons program 8193:Great Japan Youth Party 8120:National seals of Japan 7728:Second Guangxi campaign 7583:Philippines (1944–1945) 7087:Battle of the Coral Sea 6990:Fall of the Philippines 6636:Battle of South Guangxi 6542:Battles of Khalkhin Gol 5948:Italian Social Republic 4502:Rees, Laurence (2001). 4350: 3365:Brook, Timothy (2001). 3147:Röling & Rüter 1977 3132:Röling & Rüter 1977 2918:Oxford University Press 2502:, ambassador to Germany 2010:of New Zealand; former 2002:Erima Harvey Northcroft 1912:Edward Stuart McDougall 1900:High Court of Australia 1332:According to historian 1295:Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu 1213:bombing of Pearl Harbor 1061:Other war crimes trials 997:, Ambassador to Germany 915:between 1952 and 1958: 322:Instrument of Surrender 181:crimes against humanity 80:crimes against humanity 9387:Universal jurisdiction 9362:Command responsibility 9255:Incitement to genocide 9193:United Nations Charter 8750:Shōwa financial crisis 8542:Imperial Japanese Navy 8482:Imperial Japanese Army 8213:Peace Preservation Law 7313:Armistice of Cassibile 7115:Battle of Dutch Harbor 7066:Battle of the Java Sea 6969:Attack on Pearl Harbor 6869:Syria–Lebanon campaign 6862:Battle of South Shanxi 6832:Invasion of Yugoslavia 6615:Battle of the Atlantic 6229:Korean Liberation Army 5942:(until September 1943) 5899:(until September 1944) 5877:(until September 1944) 4397:Bass, Gary J. (2023). 4284: 4085:Imtfe.law.virginia.edu 3655:A Plague upon Humanity 2772:imtfe.law.virginia.edu 2714:"More about the IMTFE" 2572:Bangka Island massacre 2320: 2139:The chief prosecutor, 2090:Judge Advocate General 2012:Judge Advocate General 1966:University of Calcutta 1628: 820: 769:constitutional monarch 699:command responsibility 675:Evidence and testimony 583:The chief prosecutor, 581: 540:, wantonly destroying 447: 372:Tokyo War Crimes Trial 357: 309: 8692:Siberian Intervention 8501:Railways and Shipping 8317:Commerce and Industry 8013:Industrial production 7477:Second Battle of Guam 7373:Bengal famine of 1943 7343:Second Battle of Kiev 7299:Battle of the Dnieper 7004:Battle of Wake Island 6876:East African campaign 6818:Battle of South Henan 6463:atrocities by Germans 6236:Korean Volunteer Army 5217:Occupation of Germany 4971:Music in World War II 4530:Totani, Yuma (2009). 4245:Totani, Yuma (2008). 3419:. 2010. p. 167. 2819:"Potsdam Declaration" 2362:, Ambassador to Italy 2318: 2256:Ronald Henry Quilliam 1855:Crown Prince Naruhito 1623: 1311:Truman Administration 1291:Prince Yasuhiko Asaka 1229:1907 Hague Convention 1123:human experimentation 1017:, Ambassador to Italy 959:, Minister of Finance 817: 527:forcing them to labor 515: 445: 355: 348:Creation of the court 303: 151:), also known as the 9288:International courts 9188:Nuremberg principles 9105:Political dissidence 8954:Occupied territories 8697:General Election Law 8521:Taiwan Army of Japan 7763:Surrender of Germany 7241:Battle of West Hubei 7198:Guadalcanal campaign 7168:Battle of Stalingrad 7094:Battle of Madagascar 5868:Albania protectorate 5655:(formerly Swaziland) 5364:Wehrmacht war crimes 5180:Expulsion of Germans 4964:Art and World War II 4862:British contribution 4811:Governments in exile 4628:at Wikimedia Commons 4209:(November): 473–584. 4181:Dower, John (1999). 3691:on February 21, 2001 3224:Harris, S.H. (2002) 2952:Taylor & Francis 2920:. pp. 548–549. 2870:on February 22, 1999 2718:Guides @ Georgia Law 1848:Chrysanthemum Throne 1663:improve this section 1589:in the Tojo cabinet. 1537:: Leader of the pro- 1485:improve this section 1336:, Brigadier General 404:improve this section 173:crimes against peace 72:crimes against peace 9423:Crime of aggression 9235:Crime of aggression 9198:Genocide Convention 8924:Wang Jingwei regime 8834:Potsdam Declaration 8825:Soviet–Japanese War 8780:Anti-Comintern Pact 8775:January 28 incident 8760:London Naval Treaty 8637:Triple Intervention 8466:Supreme War Council 8350:deliberative bodies 7853:Potsdam Declaration 7742:Italy (Spring 1945) 7505:Liberation of Paris 6962:Siege of Sevastopol 5980:(until August 1944) 5883:Wang Jingwei regime 5705:from September 1943 5665:from September 1944 5603:from September 1944 5463:Romanian war crimes 5454:Persecution of Jews 5440:Croatian war crimes 5410:Japanese war crimes 5224:Occupation of Japan 5173:First Indochina War 4885:Military production 4797:Declarations of war 4401:. New York: Knopf. 4194:Unit 731: Testimony 3838:on November 8, 2006 3799:on October 16, 2007 3622:1981BuAtS..37h..44P 3568:Sensô saiban yoroku 3566:Kumao Toyoda 豊田隈雄, 3533:, pp. 323–325. 3501:"Herbert P. Bix on 3021:, pp. 122–123. 2682:: a 2016 miniseries 2592:Japanese war crimes 2534:, commander of the 2523:Lieutenant General 2505:Lieutenant General 2498:Lieutenant General 2473:Lieutenant General 2185:Senior Puisne Judge 1972:Calcutta High Court 1163:Western colonialism 1147:, a justice of the 1020:Lieutenant General 1000:Lieutenant General 993:Lieutenant General 872:Lieutenant General 318:Potsdam Declaration 9240:Crime of apartheid 9178:Geneva Conventions 8652:Russo-Japanese War 8622:Two Lords Incident 8277:Imperial Household 7846:Surrender of Japan 7679:Battle of Iwo Jima 7528:Belgrade offensive 6941:Siege of Leningrad 6825:Battle of Shanggao 6754:British Somaliland 6719:Dunkirk evacuation 6670:Norwegian campaign 6608:Invasion of Poland 6435:Japanese prisoners 5403:Italian war crimes 5334:British war crimes 5249:Soviet occupations 5033:South-West Pacific 4920:Allied cooperation 4878:Military equipment 4573:Edwin Mellen Press 4569:Lewiston, New York 4215:Minear, Richard H. 4192:Gold, Hal (2003). 3821:New York: Morrow. 3455:. pp. 41–61. 3033:, pp. 122–23. 2577:Bataan Death March 2327:Civilian officials 2321: 2226:Prosecutor of the 2094:United States Army 2052:Judge (Scottish), 1992:Utrecht University 1948:Chief Prosecutor, 1730:John Foster Dulles 1719:tonikaku shakuho o 1299:Prince Higashikuni 1233:declaration of war 1205:Ben Bruce Blakeney 1149:U.S. Supreme Court 1079:Netherlands Indies 821: 691:best evidence rule 554:military necessity 523:civilian internees 499:Taiwanese subjects 488:Bataan Death March 448: 358: 310: 272:wars of aggression 9395: 9394: 9221:international law 9183:Nuremberg Charter 9173:Hague Conventions 9113: 9112: 9085:Socialist thought 9033: 9032: 8972:Dutch East Indies 8934:Empire of Vietnam 8852: 8851: 8627:Satsuma Rebellion 8607:Meiji Restoration 8584: 8583: 8394: 8393: 8332:Greater East Asia 8218:Political parties 8173:Foreign relations 7920: 7919: 7878: 7877: 7721:Battle of Okinawa 7620:Burma (1944–1945) 7454:Mariana and Palau 7234:Tunisian campaign 7059:Fall of Singapore 6983:Fall of Hong Kong 6726:Battle of Britain 6579:Operation Himmler 6488: 6487: 6152:Dutch East Indies 5795:Southern Rhodesia 5547: 5546: 5447:Genocide of Serbs 5350:German war crimes 5327:Soviet war crimes 5320:Allied war crimes 5166:Division of Korea 5145:Chinese Civil War 4943:Strategic bombing 4855:Manhattan Project 4624:Media related to 4582:978-0-7734-8313-2 4541:978-0-674-03339-9 4522:978-1-56311-728-2 4485:978-0-8131-2177-2 4420:Frank, Richard B. 4337:Pal, Radhabinod. 4324:Missing or empty 4237:978-90-6042-041-6 3773:. January 4, 2003 3750:978-0-231-12051-7 3426:978-1-8454-5844-7 3162:Baird, J. Kevin. 2927:978-0-1987-4462-7 2804:978-0-231-54498-6 2748:history.state.gov 2514:Shigetarō Shimada 2423:Kingorō Hashimoto 2391:Military officers 2372:Mamoru Shigemitsu 2339:Kiichirō Hiranuma 2308: 2307: 2121: 2120: 1777:Shimada Shigetarô 1757:Hiranuma Kiichirô 1737:Hashimoto Kingorô 1699: 1698: 1691: 1549:Yoshisuke Ayukawa 1535:Fusanosuke Kuhara 1521: 1520: 1513: 1315:General MacArthur 1267:Kaiser Wilhelm II 1158:the Philippines. 1155:Justice Jaranilla 1145:Robert H. Jackson 1113:, MacArthur gave 1043:Mamoru Shigemitsu 1041:Foreign minister 1034:Foreign minister 1009:Shigetarō Shimada 945:Kiichirō Hiranuma 928:Kingorō Hashimoto 734:international law 672: 671: 556:; (perpetrating) 468:war of aggression 440: 439: 432: 334:Douglas MacArthur 326:Moscow Conference 314:Cairo Declaration 220:Nuremberg Charter 141: 140: 97:December 12, 1948 9470: 9355:Related concepts 9293: 9250:Genocidal intent 9140: 9133: 9126: 9117: 9116: 9075:Shinmin no Michi 9065:Internment camps 8977:French Indochina 8861: 8860: 8712:Taishō Democracy 8593: 8592: 8516:Japanese holdout 8403: 8402: 8327:Colonial Affairs 8261: 8260: 8188:Yokusan Sonendan 8094: 8086: 8078: 8062: 8061: 7988:Economic history 7947: 7940: 7933: 7924: 7923: 7913: 7906: 7899: 7896:World portal 7894: 7893: 7869: 7862: 7855: 7848: 7839: 7832: 7825: 7816: 7809: 7802: 7795: 7788: 7781: 7772: 7765: 7758: 7756:Prague offensive 7751: 7749:Battle of Berlin 7744: 7737: 7730: 7723: 7716: 7709: 7702: 7695: 7693:Vienna offensive 7688: 7681: 7674: 7672:Battle of Manila 7667: 7647: 7638: 7629: 7622: 7613: 7606: 7599: 7592: 7585: 7578: 7571: 7562: 7553: 7546: 7537: 7530: 7523: 7516: 7507: 7500: 7493: 7486: 7479: 7472: 7465: 7456: 7449: 7440: 7431: 7422: 7415: 7413:Korsun–Cherkassy 7408: 7397: 7375: 7366: 7359: 7352: 7345: 7338: 7331: 7324: 7315: 7308: 7301: 7294: 7285: 7278: 7271: 7264: 7257: 7255:Bombing of Gorky 7250: 7243: 7236: 7216: 7209: 7200: 7193: 7186: 7177: 7170: 7163: 7156: 7145: 7138: 7131: 7124: 7122:Battle of Midway 7117: 7110: 7108:Battle of Gazala 7103: 7096: 7089: 7082: 7075: 7068: 7061: 7041: 7034: 7027: 7020: 7018:Battle of Borneo 7013: 7011:Malayan campaign 7006: 6999: 6992: 6985: 6978: 6971: 6964: 6957: 6955:Bombing of Gorky 6950: 6948:Battle of Moscow 6943: 6936: 6929: 6922: 6915: 6908: 6892: 6885: 6878: 6871: 6864: 6857: 6848: 6841: 6834: 6827: 6820: 6800: 6791: 6784: 6777: 6770: 6763: 6756: 6749: 6742: 6735: 6728: 6721: 6714: 6712:Battle of France 6707: 6700: 6693: 6686: 6679: 6672: 6652: 6645: 6638: 6631: 6624: 6617: 6610: 6588: 6581: 6574: 6567: 6565:Munich Agreement 6560: 6553: 6544: 6537: 6530: 6521: 6514: 6499: 6498: 6481: 6474: 6465: 6458: 6451: 6450:Soviet prisoners 6444: 6437: 6430: 6421: 6414: 6405: 6398: 6391: 6390:German prisoners 6386: 6366: 6357: 6350: 6343: 6338: 6331: 6324: 6317: 6310: 6303: 6296: 6289: 6282: 6275: 6268: 6261: 6254: 6247: 6238: 6231: 6224: 6217: 6210: 6203: 6196: 6189: 6182: 6175: 6168: 6161: 6154: 6147: 6140: 6133: 6126: 6119: 6112: 6092: 6085: 6078: 6071: 6064: 6057: 6050: 6043: 6036: 6029: 6022: 6002: 5995: 5988: 5981: 5973: 5966: 5959: 5950: 5943: 5935: 5928: 5926:French Indochina 5921: 5914: 5907: 5900: 5892: 5885: 5878: 5870: 5850: 5841: 5834: 5825: 5818: 5811: 5804: 5797: 5790: 5783: 5776: 5773:from August 1944 5764: 5757: 5750: 5743: 5736: 5729: 5722: 5715: 5708: 5696: 5689: 5682: 5675: 5668: 5656: 5648: 5641: 5634: 5627: 5620: 5613: 5606: 5594: 5587: 5580: 5573: 5558: 5557: 5538: 5531: 5524: 5517: 5510: 5499: 5484: 5477: 5470: 5465: 5456: 5449: 5442: 5433: 5426: 5419: 5417:Nanjing Massacre 5412: 5405: 5396: 5394:Nuremberg trials 5387: 5380: 5373: 5366: 5359: 5352: 5343: 5336: 5329: 5322: 5302: 5295: 5288: 5279: 5272: 5265: 5258: 5251: 5244: 5235: 5226: 5219: 5212: 5205: 5196: 5189: 5182: 5175: 5168: 5161: 5154: 5147: 5127: 5118: 5111: 5104: 5095: 5088: 5081: 5074: 5065: 5058: 5051: 5042: 5035: 5028: 5021: 5014: 5007: 5000: 4998:Asia and Pacific 4980: 4973: 4966: 4959: 4952: 4945: 4938: 4929: 4927:Mulberry harbour 4922: 4915: 4908: 4901: 4894: 4887: 4880: 4873: 4864: 4857: 4850: 4841: 4834: 4827: 4820: 4813: 4806: 4799: 4792: 4785: 4778: 4769: 4762: 4747: 4746: 4735: 4728: 4719: 4712: 4705: 4698: 4691: 4684: 4677: 4656: 4649: 4642: 4633: 4632: 4623: 4615:, vol. 27 (2013) 4586: 4545: 4526: 4507: 4498: 4489: 4470: 4458: 4447: 4438: 4427: 4412: 4393: 4381: 4346: 4333: 4327: 4322: 4320: 4312: 4309:archives.cnd.org 4303: 4301: 4299: 4280: 4269: 4250: 4241: 4222: 4210: 4197: 4188: 4184:Embracing Defeat 4177: 4165: 4151: 4139: 4128: 4119: 4096: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4077: 4071: 4070: 4068: 4066: 4052: 4046: 4032: 4026: 4025: 4023: 4022: 4008: 4002: 4001: 3999: 3998: 3984: 3978: 3977: 3975: 3974: 3960: 3954: 3953: 3951: 3950: 3936: 3930: 3929: 3927: 3926: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3885: 3879: 3878: 3876: 3874: 3865:. Archived from 3854: 3848: 3847: 3845: 3843: 3828: 3822: 3815: 3809: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3761: 3755: 3754: 3738: 3728: 3722: 3721: 3719: 3717: 3707: 3701: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3687:. Archived from 3681: 3675: 3674: 3658: 3648: 3642: 3641: 3601: 3595: 3589: 3583: 3577: 3571: 3564: 3558: 3552: 3546: 3540: 3534: 3528: 3517: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3497: 3491: 3485: 3479: 3473: 3467: 3466: 3449:Lanham, Maryland 3437: 3431: 3430: 3409: 3403: 3402: 3362: 3351: 3350: 3330: 3324: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3314:on 30 April 2013 3304: 3298: 3292: 3286: 3285: 3275: 3235: 3229: 3222: 3216: 3210: 3204: 3198: 3192: 3177: 3168: 3167: 3159: 3150: 3144: 3135: 3129: 3120: 3116: 3110: 3104: 3098: 3092: 3086: 3080: 3074: 3073: 3071: 3069: 3060: 3052: 3046: 3040: 3034: 3028: 3022: 3016: 3010: 3009: 3002: 2996: 2995: 2991:9-7807-3916-9414 2975: 2966: 2965: 2961:9-7811-3409-1317 2941: 2932: 2931: 2907: 2898: 2895: 2889: 2886: 2880: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2866:. Archived from 2860: 2854: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2844: 2836: 2830: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2815: 2809: 2808: 2788: 2782: 2781: 2779: 2778: 2764: 2758: 2757: 2755: 2754: 2740: 2734: 2733: 2731: 2729: 2710: 2612:Nanjing Massacre 2547:Other defendants 2440:Seishirō Itagaki 2360:Toshio Shiratori 2266:New Zealand Army 2262:Adjutant-General 2235:P. Govinda Menon 2162:Joseph B. Keenan 2150: 2149: 2141:Joseph B. Keenan 2030:Attorney General 2025:Delfin Jaranilla 1933:Legislative Yuan 1878: 1877: 1859:Japanese history 1822:victor's justice 1694: 1687: 1683: 1680: 1674: 1643: 1635: 1577:Ryōichi Sasakawa 1516: 1509: 1505: 1502: 1496: 1465: 1457: 1429:Yoshisuke Aikawa 1309:explained, "The 1284:Japanese emperor 1263:Nanking Massacre 1199:with respect to 1183:other big cities 1141:Nuremberg trials 1015:Toshio Shiratori 1011:, naval minister 990:, naval minister 947:, prime minister 860:Seishirō Itagaki 830:Two defendants, 804:victor's justice 777:Delfín Jaranilla 681:Emperor Hirohito 590: 589: 585:Joseph B. Keenan 538:private property 519:prisoners of war 435: 428: 424: 421: 415: 384: 376: 366:Nuremberg trials 214:, United States 185:Second World War 127:Court membership 121:Nuremberg trials 50: 41: 36: 35: 9478: 9477: 9473: 9472: 9471: 9469: 9468: 9467: 9398: 9397: 9396: 9391: 9367:Superior orders 9350: 9294: 9291: 9290: 9281: 9223: 9220: 9212: 9168:Peremptory norm 9149: 9144: 9114: 9109: 9095:Yasukuni Shrine 9029: 9006: 8948: 8902: 8848: 8800:Tripartite Pact 8795:Rape of Nanking 8736: 8722:Tapani incident 8666: 8642:Boxer Rebellion 8600: 8580: 8544: 8535: 8484: 8475: 8410: 8390: 8384:Representatives 8352: 8349: 8348:Legislative and 8341: 8307:Foreign Affairs 8270: 8267: 8252: 8151: 8130:Government Seal 8115:Rising Sun Flag 8098: 8092: 8084: 8076: 8063: 8054: 7956: 7954:Empire of Japan 7951: 7921: 7916: 7909: 7902: 7888: 7886: 7874: 7865: 7858: 7851: 7844: 7835: 7828: 7821: 7812: 7807:Atomic bombings 7805: 7798: 7791: 7784: 7777: 7768: 7761: 7754: 7747: 7740: 7733: 7726: 7719: 7712: 7705: 7698: 7691: 7684: 7677: 7670: 7663: 7650: 7643: 7632: 7625: 7618: 7609: 7602: 7595: 7588: 7581: 7574: 7565: 7556: 7549: 7540: 7533: 7526: 7519: 7510: 7503: 7498:Eastern Romania 7496: 7491:Warsaw Uprising 7489: 7484:Tannenberg Line 7482: 7475: 7470:Western Ukraine 7468: 7459: 7452: 7443: 7434: 7425: 7418: 7411: 7400: 7391: 7378: 7371: 7362: 7355: 7348: 7341: 7334: 7327: 7320: 7311: 7304: 7297: 7288: 7281: 7274: 7267: 7262:Battle of Kursk 7260: 7253: 7246: 7239: 7232: 7219: 7212: 7203: 7196: 7189: 7180: 7173: 7166: 7159: 7150: 7141: 7134: 7127: 7120: 7113: 7106: 7099: 7092: 7085: 7078: 7073:St Nazaire Raid 7071: 7064: 7057: 7044: 7037: 7030: 7023: 7016: 7009: 7002: 6995: 6988: 6981: 6974: 6967: 6960: 6953: 6946: 6939: 6932: 6925: 6918: 6911: 6897: 6888: 6881: 6874: 6867: 6860: 6855:Anglo-Iraqi War 6853: 6846:Battle of Crete 6844: 6837: 6830: 6823: 6816: 6803: 6794: 6787: 6780: 6775:Eastern Romania 6773: 6766: 6759: 6752: 6745: 6738: 6731: 6724: 6717: 6710: 6703: 6696: 6689: 6682: 6675: 6668: 6655: 6648: 6641: 6634: 6627: 6620: 6613: 6606: 6593: 6584: 6577: 6570: 6563: 6556: 6549: 6540: 6533: 6526: 6517: 6510: 6484: 6477: 6470: 6461: 6454: 6449: 6440: 6433: 6426: 6417: 6410: 6401: 6394: 6389: 6382: 6369: 6362: 6353: 6346: 6341: 6336:Western Ukraine 6334: 6327: 6320: 6313: 6306: 6299: 6292: 6285: 6280:Northeast China 6278: 6271: 6264: 6257: 6250: 6243: 6234: 6227: 6220: 6213: 6206: 6199: 6192: 6185: 6178: 6171: 6164: 6157: 6150: 6143: 6136: 6129: 6122: 6115: 6108: 6095: 6088: 6081: 6074: 6067: 6060: 6053: 6046: 6039: 6032: 6025: 6018: 6005: 5998: 5991: 5986:Slovak Republic 5984: 5976: 5969: 5962: 5957:Empire of Japan 5955: 5946: 5938: 5931: 5924: 5917: 5910: 5903: 5895: 5888: 5881: 5873: 5866: 5853: 5846: 5837: 5830: 5821: 5814: 5807: 5800: 5793: 5786: 5779: 5767: 5760: 5753: 5746: 5739: 5732: 5725: 5718: 5711: 5699: 5692: 5685: 5678: 5671: 5659: 5651: 5644: 5637: 5630: 5623: 5616: 5609: 5597: 5590: 5583: 5576: 5569: 5543: 5534: 5527: 5520: 5513: 5502: 5487: 5480: 5473: 5469:Sexual violence 5468: 5461: 5452: 5445: 5438: 5429: 5422: 5415: 5408: 5401: 5392: 5383: 5376: 5369: 5362: 5355: 5348: 5339: 5332: 5325: 5318: 5305: 5298: 5291: 5284: 5275: 5268: 5261: 5254: 5247: 5238: 5229: 5222: 5215: 5208: 5199: 5192: 5187:Greek Civil War 5185: 5178: 5171: 5164: 5157: 5150: 5143: 5130: 5123: 5114: 5107: 5100: 5091: 5084: 5077: 5070: 5061: 5054: 5047: 5038: 5031: 5024: 5017: 5012:South-East Asia 5010: 5003: 4996: 4983: 4976: 4969: 4962: 4955: 4948: 4941: 4934: 4925: 4918: 4911: 4904: 4897: 4890: 4883: 4876: 4871:Military awards 4869: 4860: 4853: 4846: 4837: 4830: 4823: 4816: 4809: 4802: 4795: 4788: 4781: 4774: 4765: 4758: 4738: 4731: 4724: 4715: 4708: 4701: 4696: 4687: 4680: 4673: 4665: 4660: 4605:ICC Legal Tools 4594: 4589: 4583: 4552: 4550:Primary sources 4542: 4523: 4486: 4467: 4409: 4390: 4369: 4367:Further reading 4353: 4325: 4323: 4314: 4313: 4297: 4295: 4287: 4266: 4238: 4174: 4148: 4105: 4100: 4099: 4089: 4087: 4079: 4078: 4074: 4064: 4062: 4054: 4053: 4049: 4033: 4029: 4020: 4018: 4010: 4009: 4005: 3996: 3994: 3986: 3985: 3981: 3972: 3970: 3962: 3961: 3957: 3948: 3946: 3938: 3937: 3933: 3924: 3922: 3914: 3913: 3909: 3899: 3897: 3886: 3882: 3872: 3870: 3869:on May 22, 2012 3855: 3851: 3841: 3839: 3830: 3829: 3825: 3816: 3812: 3802: 3800: 3791: 3790: 3786: 3776: 3774: 3763: 3762: 3758: 3751: 3729: 3725: 3715: 3713: 3709: 3708: 3704: 3694: 3692: 3683: 3682: 3678: 3671: 3649: 3645: 3602: 3598: 3590: 3586: 3578: 3574: 3565: 3561: 3553: 3549: 3541: 3537: 3529: 3520: 3510: 3508: 3507:. HarperCollins 3499: 3498: 3494: 3486: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3463: 3438: 3434: 3427: 3411: 3410: 3406: 3383:10.2307/2700106 3363: 3354: 3347: 3331: 3327: 3317: 3315: 3306: 3305: 3301: 3293: 3289: 3236: 3232: 3223: 3219: 3211: 3207: 3199: 3195: 3178: 3171: 3166:. The Diplomat. 3160: 3153: 3145: 3138: 3130: 3123: 3117: 3113: 3105: 3101: 3093: 3089: 3081: 3077: 3067: 3065: 3058: 3054: 3053: 3049: 3041: 3037: 3029: 3025: 3017: 3013: 3004: 3003: 2999: 2992: 2976: 2969: 2962: 2954:. p. 116. 2942: 2935: 2928: 2908: 2901: 2896: 2892: 2887: 2883: 2873: 2871: 2862: 2861: 2857: 2847: 2845: 2842: 2840:"IMTFE Charter" 2838: 2837: 2833: 2823: 2821: 2817: 2816: 2812: 2805: 2789: 2785: 2776: 2774: 2766: 2765: 2761: 2752: 2750: 2742: 2741: 2737: 2727: 2725: 2724:on 11 July 2018 2712: 2711: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2685: 2671:The Tokyo Trial 2607:Manila massacre 2562: 2549: 2538:, chief of the 2532:Yoshijirō Umezu 2393: 2384:Yōsuke Matsuoka 2329: 2313: 2222:Robert L. Oneto 2212:Hsiang Che-chun 2169: 2145:Harry S. Truman 2137: 2129:John P. Higgins 2096: 2085:Myron C. Cramer 2067:Chief Justice, 2063:John P. Higgins 2032: 1969: 1947: 1916:Justice of the 1902: 1898:Justice of the 1873: 1868: 1844: 1810:Arnold Brackman 1804:Yasukuni Shrine 1794: 1695: 1684: 1678: 1675: 1660: 1644: 1633: 1615: 1553:Mukden Incident 1543:Rikken Seiyukai 1517: 1506: 1500: 1497: 1482: 1466: 1455: 1450: 1441: 1421: 1400:, commander of 1395: 1354:Mitsumasa Yonai 1322:Mitsumasa Yonai 1280: 1249: 1136: 1131: 1063: 1047:Ichiro Hatoyama 1029:Yoshijirō Umezu 832:Yōsuke Matsuoka 823:One defendant, 812: 756: 723: 710:Tanaka Memorial 677: 503:forced laborers 480:Rape of Nanking 460: 436: 425: 419: 416: 401: 385: 374: 350: 298: 175:, conventional 169:Empire of Japan 167:leaders of the 57: 39: 34: 27: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9476: 9466: 9465: 9460: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9440: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9420: 9415: 9410: 9393: 9392: 9390: 9389: 9384: 9379: 9374: 9369: 9364: 9358: 9356: 9352: 9351: 9349: 9348: 9343: 9338: 9333: 9328: 9323: 9318: 9313: 9308: 9303: 9297: 9295: 9286: 9283: 9282: 9280: 9279: 9274: 9269: 9264: 9259: 9258: 9257: 9252: 9242: 9237: 9232: 9226: 9224: 9219:Crimes against 9217: 9214: 9213: 9211: 9210: 9205: 9200: 9195: 9190: 9185: 9180: 9175: 9170: 9165: 9159: 9157: 9151: 9150: 9143: 9142: 9135: 9128: 9120: 9111: 9110: 9108: 9107: 9102: 9097: 9092: 9087: 9082: 9077: 9072: 9067: 9062: 9057: 9052: 9047: 9041: 9039: 9035: 9034: 9031: 9030: 9028: 9027: 9026: 9025: 9014: 9012: 9008: 9007: 9005: 9004: 8999: 8994: 8989: 8984: 8979: 8974: 8969: 8964: 8958: 8956: 8950: 8949: 8947: 8946: 8941: 8939:State of Burma 8936: 8931: 8926: 8921: 8916: 8910: 8908: 8904: 8903: 8901: 8900: 8895: 8890: 8885: 8880: 8867: 8865: 8858: 8854: 8853: 8850: 8849: 8847: 8846: 8841: 8827: 8822: 8817: 8812: 8807: 8802: 8797: 8792: 8787: 8782: 8777: 8772: 8767: 8765:Musha Incident 8762: 8757: 8755:Jinan incident 8752: 8746: 8744: 8738: 8737: 8735: 8734: 8729: 8724: 8719: 8714: 8709: 8704: 8699: 8694: 8689: 8688: 8687: 8676: 8674: 8668: 8667: 8665: 8664: 8659: 8654: 8649: 8644: 8639: 8634: 8629: 8624: 8619: 8614: 8612:Beipu uprising 8609: 8603: 8601: 8596: 8590: 8586: 8585: 8582: 8581: 8579: 8578: 8576:Treaty Faction 8573: 8568: 8563: 8558: 8553: 8547: 8545: 8540: 8537: 8536: 8534: 8533: 8528: 8523: 8518: 8513: 8508: 8506:Imperial Guard 8503: 8498: 8493: 8487: 8485: 8480: 8477: 8476: 8474: 8473: 8468: 8463: 8458: 8453: 8448: 8447: 8446: 8431: 8430: 8429: 8424: 8413: 8411: 8406: 8400: 8396: 8395: 8392: 8391: 8389: 8388: 8387: 8386: 8381: 8371: 8366: 8361: 8355: 8353: 8346: 8343: 8342: 8340: 8339: 8334: 8329: 8324: 8319: 8314: 8309: 8304: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8273: 8271: 8266:Administration 8264: 8258: 8254: 8253: 8251: 8250: 8245: 8240: 8235: 8230: 8225: 8220: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8200: 8195: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8159: 8157: 8153: 8152: 8150: 8149: 8144: 8143: 8142: 8137: 8132: 8127: 8117: 8112: 8106: 8104: 8100: 8099: 8097: 8096: 8088: 8080: 8071: 8069: 8065: 8064: 8057: 8055: 8053: 8052: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8031: 8030: 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7964: 7962: 7958: 7957: 7950: 7949: 7942: 7935: 7927: 7918: 7917: 7915: 7914: 7907: 7900: 7883: 7880: 7879: 7876: 7875: 7873: 7872: 7871: 7870: 7863: 7856: 7842: 7841: 7840: 7826: 7823:South Sakhalin 7819: 7818: 7817: 7803: 7796: 7789: 7782: 7775: 7774: 7773: 7759: 7752: 7745: 7738: 7731: 7724: 7717: 7710: 7703: 7696: 7689: 7682: 7675: 7668: 7660: 7658: 7652: 7651: 7649: 7648: 7641: 7640: 7639: 7623: 7616: 7615: 7614: 7600: 7593: 7586: 7579: 7572: 7563: 7554: 7547: 7538: 7531: 7524: 7517: 7508: 7501: 7494: 7487: 7480: 7473: 7466: 7457: 7450: 7441: 7432: 7423: 7416: 7409: 7398: 7388: 7386: 7380: 7379: 7377: 7376: 7369: 7368: 7367: 7360: 7346: 7339: 7332: 7325: 7318: 7317: 7316: 7302: 7295: 7286: 7279: 7272: 7265: 7258: 7251: 7248:Battle of Attu 7244: 7237: 7229: 7227: 7221: 7220: 7218: 7217: 7210: 7201: 7194: 7187: 7178: 7171: 7164: 7157: 7148: 7147: 7146: 7139: 7125: 7118: 7111: 7104: 7097: 7090: 7083: 7076: 7069: 7062: 7054: 7052: 7046: 7045: 7043: 7042: 7035: 7028: 7021: 7014: 7007: 7000: 6997:Battle of Guam 6993: 6986: 6979: 6972: 6965: 6958: 6951: 6944: 6937: 6930: 6923: 6920:Battle of Kiev 6916: 6909: 6895: 6894: 6893: 6879: 6872: 6865: 6858: 6851: 6850: 6849: 6835: 6828: 6821: 6813: 6811: 6805: 6804: 6802: 6801: 6792: 6785: 6778: 6771: 6764: 6757: 6750: 6743: 6736: 6729: 6722: 6715: 6708: 6701: 6694: 6687: 6680: 6673: 6665: 6663: 6657: 6656: 6654: 6653: 6646: 6639: 6632: 6625: 6618: 6611: 6603: 6601: 6595: 6594: 6592: 6591: 6590: 6589: 6582: 6575: 6568: 6561: 6547: 6546: 6545: 6538: 6524: 6523: 6522: 6507: 6505: 6496: 6490: 6489: 6486: 6485: 6483: 6482: 6475: 6468: 6467: 6466: 6459: 6447: 6446: 6445: 6431: 6424: 6423: 6422: 6419:United Kingdom 6415: 6408: 6407: 6406: 6387: 6379: 6377: 6371: 6370: 6368: 6367: 6360: 6359: 6358: 6351: 6339: 6332: 6325: 6318: 6311: 6304: 6297: 6290: 6283: 6276: 6269: 6262: 6255: 6248: 6241: 6240: 6239: 6232: 6218: 6211: 6204: 6197: 6190: 6183: 6176: 6169: 6162: 6155: 6148: 6141: 6134: 6127: 6120: 6113: 6105: 6103: 6097: 6096: 6094: 6093: 6086: 6079: 6072: 6065: 6058: 6051: 6044: 6037: 6030: 6023: 6015: 6013: 6007: 6006: 6004: 6003: 5996: 5989: 5982: 5974: 5967: 5960: 5953: 5952: 5951: 5936: 5929: 5922: 5915: 5908: 5901: 5893: 5886: 5879: 5871: 5863: 5861: 5855: 5854: 5852: 5851: 5844: 5843: 5842: 5828: 5827: 5826: 5823:British Empire 5816:United Kingdom 5812: 5805: 5798: 5791: 5784: 5777: 5765: 5758: 5751: 5744: 5737: 5730: 5723: 5716: 5709: 5697: 5690: 5683: 5676: 5669: 5657: 5649: 5642: 5635: 5632:Czechoslovakia 5628: 5621: 5614: 5607: 5595: 5588: 5581: 5574: 5566: 5564: 5555: 5549: 5548: 5545: 5544: 5542: 5541: 5540: 5539: 5532: 5529:Rape of Manila 5525: 5518: 5511: 5500: 5485: 5478: 5466: 5459: 5458: 5457: 5450: 5436: 5435: 5434: 5427: 5420: 5406: 5399: 5398: 5397: 5390: 5389: 5388: 5381: 5367: 5360: 5346: 5345: 5344: 5337: 5330: 5315: 5313: 5307: 5306: 5304: 5303: 5300:United Nations 5296: 5289: 5282: 5281: 5280: 5273: 5266: 5259: 5245: 5236: 5227: 5220: 5213: 5206: 5197: 5190: 5183: 5176: 5169: 5162: 5159:Decolonization 5155: 5148: 5140: 5138: 5132: 5131: 5129: 5128: 5121: 5120: 5119: 5105: 5098: 5097: 5096: 5089: 5082: 5068: 5067: 5066: 5059: 5045: 5044: 5043: 5036: 5029: 5022: 5015: 5008: 4993: 4991: 4985: 4984: 4982: 4981: 4974: 4967: 4960: 4953: 4946: 4939: 4932: 4931: 4930: 4923: 4909: 4902: 4895: 4888: 4881: 4874: 4867: 4866: 4865: 4851: 4844: 4843: 4842: 4835: 4832:United Kingdom 4828: 4814: 4807: 4800: 4793: 4786: 4779: 4772: 4771: 4770: 4755: 4753: 4744: 4740: 4739: 4737: 4736: 4729: 4722: 4721: 4720: 4713: 4706: 4694: 4693: 4692: 4678: 4670: 4667: 4666: 4659: 4658: 4651: 4644: 4636: 4630: 4629: 4617: 4607: 4601: 4593: 4592:External links 4590: 4588: 4587: 4581: 4560: 4551: 4548: 4547: 4546: 4540: 4527: 4521: 4508: 4499: 4490: 4484: 4471: 4465: 4448: 4439: 4428: 4416: 4407: 4394: 4388: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4364: 4363: 4352: 4349: 4348: 4347: 4334: 4304: 4286: 4283: 4282: 4281: 4270: 4265:978-0231179225 4264: 4251: 4242: 4236: 4223: 4211: 4198: 4189: 4178: 4172: 4152: 4146: 4129: 4120: 4104: 4101: 4098: 4097: 4072: 4060:164.100.107.37 4047: 4027: 4003: 3979: 3955: 3931: 3907: 3880: 3849: 3823: 3810: 3784: 3756: 3749: 3723: 3702: 3676: 3669: 3643: 3596: 3594:, p. 562. 3584: 3582:, p. 584. 3572: 3559: 3557:, p. 585. 3547: 3545:, p. 583. 3535: 3518: 3492: 3480: 3468: 3462:978-0742523913 3461: 3432: 3425: 3417:Berghahn Books 3404: 3377:(3): 673–700. 3352: 3346:978-0199541928 3345: 3325: 3299: 3287: 3250:(2): 220–230. 3230: 3217: 3215:, p. 109. 3205: 3203:, p. 447. 3193: 3189:978-0231179225 3169: 3151: 3149:, p. 496. 3136: 3134:, p. 478. 3121: 3111: 3109:, p. 120. 3099: 3087: 3085:, p. 118. 3075: 3047: 3035: 3023: 3011: 2997: 2990: 2967: 2960: 2933: 2926: 2899: 2890: 2881: 2855: 2831: 2810: 2803: 2783: 2759: 2735: 2704: 2703: 2701: 2698: 2696: 2693: 2692: 2691: 2684: 2683: 2675: 2667: 2661: 2656: 2651: 2646: 2641: 2627: 2619: 2614: 2609: 2604: 2599: 2594: 2589: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2563: 2561: 2558: 2557: 2556: 2548: 2545: 2544: 2543: 2528: 2525:Teiichi Suzuki 2521: 2510: 2503: 2500:Hiroshi Ōshima 2496: 2489: 2480:Fleet Admiral 2478: 2471: 2464: 2457: 2450: 2447:Heitarō Kimura 2443: 2436: 2431:Field Marshal 2429: 2419: 2412: 2405: 2392: 2389: 2388: 2387: 2381: 2375: 2369: 2366:Shigenori Tōgō 2363: 2357: 2348: 2342: 2336: 2328: 2325: 2319:The defendants 2312: 2309: 2306: 2305: 2299: 2289: 2288: 2285: 2279: 2278: 2275: 2269: 2268: 2258: 2251: 2250: 2247: 2241: 2240: 2237: 2231: 2230: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2214: 2208: 2207: 2201: 2192: 2191: 2182: 2180:Alan Mansfield 2175: 2174: 2164: 2158: 2157: 2154: 2136: 2133: 2123:Legal scholar 2119: 2118: 2116: 2112:Member of the 2110: 2108:I. M. Zaryanov 2101: 2100: 2098: 2087: 2078: 2077: 2075: 2072:Superior Court 2065: 2059: 2058: 2056: 2050: 2045:The Honourable 2041: 2040: 2037: 2027: 2018: 2017: 2015: 2004: 1998: 1997: 1994: 1985: 1978: 1977: 1974: 1962: 1960:Radhabinod Pal 1956: 1955: 1952: 1944: 1938: 1937: 1935: 1929: 1923: 1922: 1920: 1914: 1908: 1907: 1904: 1896: 1889: 1888: 1885: 1882: 1872: 1869: 1867: 1864: 1843: 1840: 1793: 1790: 1781:Suzuki Teiichi 1773:Ôshima Hiroshi 1697: 1696: 1647: 1645: 1638: 1632: 1629: 1614: 1611: 1607: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1590: 1580: 1574: 1568: 1562: 1559:Toshizō Nishio 1556: 1546: 1532: 1529:Nobusuke Kishi 1519: 1518: 1469: 1467: 1460: 1454: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1440: 1437: 1425:Nobusuke Kishi 1420: 1417: 1406:John W. Powell 1394: 1391: 1370:Nobusuke Kishi 1338:Bonner Fellers 1279: 1276: 1258:Radhabinod Pal 1248: 1245: 1201:aerial warfare 1135: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1087:United Kingdom 1062: 1059: 1051: 1050: 1039: 1036:Shigenori Tōgō 1032: 1025: 1022:Teiichi Suzuki 1018: 1012: 1005: 998: 995:Hiroshi Ōshima 991: 984: 977: 970: 960: 954: 948: 941: 940:, war minister 936:Field Marshal 934: 924: 923:, war minister 897: 896: 885: 884: 877: 870: 867:Heitarō Kimura 863: 862:, war minister 856: 850: 811: 808: 800:Radhabinod Pal 755: 752: 748:Shigenori Tōgō 722: 719: 676: 673: 670: 669: 666: 662: 661: 658: 654: 653: 650: 646: 645: 642: 638: 637: 634: 630: 629: 626: 622: 621: 618: 614: 613: 610: 606: 605: 602: 598: 597: 594: 511: 510: 491: 472: 459: 456: 438: 437: 388: 386: 379: 373: 370: 349: 346: 297: 294: 260:United Kingdom 161:military trial 139: 138: 133: 129: 128: 124: 123: 118: 117:Related action 114: 113: 109: 108: 103: 99: 98: 95: 91: 90: 89:April 29, 1946 87: 83: 82: 65: 59: 58: 51: 43: 42: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9475: 9464: 9461: 9459: 9456: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9426: 9424: 9421: 9419: 9416: 9414: 9411: 9409: 9406: 9405: 9403: 9388: 9385: 9383: 9380: 9378: 9375: 9373: 9370: 9368: 9365: 9363: 9360: 9359: 9357: 9353: 9347: 9344: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9334: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9312: 9309: 9307: 9304: 9302: 9299: 9298: 9296: 9289: 9284: 9278: 9275: 9273: 9270: 9268: 9267:Slave trading 9265: 9263: 9260: 9256: 9253: 9251: 9248: 9247: 9246: 9243: 9241: 9238: 9236: 9233: 9231: 9228: 9227: 9225: 9222: 9215: 9209: 9206: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9194: 9191: 9189: 9186: 9184: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9171: 9169: 9166: 9164: 9161: 9160: 9158: 9156: 9152: 9148: 9141: 9136: 9134: 9129: 9127: 9122: 9121: 9118: 9106: 9103: 9101: 9098: 9096: 9093: 9091: 9088: 9086: 9083: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9073: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9056: 9053: 9051: 9050:Fukoku kyōhei 9048: 9046: 9043: 9042: 9040: 9036: 9024: 9021: 9020: 9019: 9016: 9015: 9013: 9009: 9003: 9000: 8998: 8995: 8993: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8983: 8980: 8978: 8975: 8973: 8970: 8968: 8965: 8963: 8960: 8959: 8957: 8955: 8951: 8945: 8942: 8940: 8937: 8935: 8932: 8930: 8927: 8925: 8922: 8920: 8917: 8915: 8912: 8911: 8909: 8907:Puppet states 8905: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8878: 8877: 8872: 8869: 8868: 8866: 8862: 8859: 8855: 8845: 8842: 8839: 8835: 8831: 8828: 8826: 8823: 8821: 8818: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8788: 8786: 8783: 8781: 8778: 8776: 8773: 8771: 8768: 8766: 8763: 8761: 8758: 8756: 8753: 8751: 8748: 8747: 8745: 8743: 8739: 8733: 8730: 8728: 8725: 8723: 8720: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8710: 8708: 8705: 8703: 8700: 8698: 8695: 8693: 8690: 8686: 8683: 8682: 8681: 8678: 8677: 8675: 8673: 8669: 8663: 8660: 8658: 8655: 8653: 8650: 8648: 8645: 8643: 8640: 8638: 8635: 8633: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8620: 8618: 8615: 8613: 8610: 8608: 8605: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8594: 8591: 8587: 8577: 8574: 8572: 8571:Fleet Faction 8569: 8567: 8564: 8562: 8559: 8557: 8554: 8552: 8551:General Staff 8549: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8538: 8532: 8529: 8527: 8524: 8522: 8519: 8517: 8514: 8512: 8509: 8507: 8504: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8492: 8491:General Staff 8489: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8478: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8462: 8459: 8457: 8454: 8452: 8449: 8445: 8444:military code 8443: 8439: 8438: 8437: 8436: 8432: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8419: 8418: 8415: 8414: 8412: 8409: 8404: 8401: 8397: 8385: 8382: 8380: 8377: 8376: 8375: 8374:Imperial Diet 8372: 8370: 8367: 8365: 8364:Privy Council 8362: 8360: 8357: 8356: 8354: 8351: 8344: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8282:Home Ministry 8280: 8278: 8275: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8262: 8259: 8255: 8249: 8246: 8244: 8241: 8239: 8236: 8234: 8231: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8160: 8158: 8154: 8148: 8145: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8128: 8126: 8125:Imperial Seal 8123: 8122: 8121: 8118: 8116: 8113: 8111: 8110:Flag of Japan 8108: 8107: 8105: 8101: 8095: 8089: 8087: 8081: 8079: 8073: 8072: 8070: 8066: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8029: 8026: 8025: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7965: 7963: 7959: 7955: 7948: 7943: 7941: 7936: 7934: 7929: 7928: 7925: 7912: 7908: 7905: 7901: 7898: 7897: 7892: 7885: 7884: 7881: 7868: 7864: 7861: 7857: 7854: 7850: 7849: 7847: 7843: 7838: 7834: 7833: 7831: 7830:Kuril Islands 7827: 7824: 7820: 7815: 7811: 7810: 7808: 7804: 7801: 7797: 7794: 7790: 7787: 7783: 7780: 7776: 7771: 7767: 7766: 7764: 7760: 7757: 7753: 7750: 7746: 7743: 7739: 7736: 7732: 7729: 7725: 7722: 7718: 7715: 7711: 7708: 7704: 7701: 7697: 7694: 7690: 7687: 7683: 7680: 7676: 7673: 7669: 7666: 7662: 7661: 7659: 7657: 7653: 7646: 7642: 7637: 7636: 7631: 7630: 7628: 7624: 7621: 7617: 7612: 7608: 7607: 7605: 7601: 7598: 7597:Syrmian Front 7594: 7591: 7587: 7584: 7580: 7577: 7573: 7570: 7569: 7564: 7561: 7560: 7555: 7552: 7548: 7545: 7544: 7543:Market Garden 7539: 7536: 7532: 7529: 7525: 7522: 7518: 7515: 7514: 7509: 7506: 7502: 7499: 7495: 7492: 7488: 7485: 7481: 7478: 7474: 7471: 7467: 7464: 7463: 7458: 7455: 7451: 7448: 7447: 7442: 7439: 7438: 7433: 7430: 7429: 7424: 7421: 7417: 7414: 7410: 7407: 7403: 7402:Monte Cassino 7399: 7396: 7395: 7390: 7389: 7387: 7385: 7381: 7374: 7370: 7365: 7361: 7358: 7354: 7353: 7351: 7347: 7344: 7340: 7337: 7333: 7330: 7326: 7323: 7319: 7314: 7310: 7309: 7307: 7303: 7300: 7296: 7293: 7292: 7287: 7284: 7280: 7277: 7273: 7270: 7266: 7263: 7259: 7256: 7252: 7249: 7245: 7242: 7238: 7235: 7231: 7230: 7228: 7226: 7222: 7215: 7211: 7208: 7207: 7202: 7199: 7195: 7192: 7188: 7185: 7184: 7179: 7176: 7172: 7169: 7165: 7162: 7158: 7155: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7140: 7137: 7133: 7132: 7130: 7126: 7123: 7119: 7116: 7112: 7109: 7105: 7102: 7098: 7095: 7091: 7088: 7084: 7081: 7077: 7074: 7070: 7067: 7063: 7060: 7056: 7055: 7053: 7051: 7047: 7040: 7036: 7033: 7029: 7026: 7022: 7019: 7015: 7012: 7008: 7005: 7001: 6998: 6994: 6991: 6987: 6984: 6980: 6977: 6973: 6970: 6966: 6963: 6959: 6956: 6952: 6949: 6945: 6942: 6938: 6935: 6931: 6928: 6924: 6921: 6917: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6905: 6900: 6896: 6891: 6887: 6886: 6884: 6880: 6877: 6873: 6870: 6866: 6863: 6859: 6856: 6852: 6847: 6843: 6842: 6840: 6836: 6833: 6829: 6826: 6822: 6819: 6815: 6814: 6812: 6810: 6806: 6799: 6798: 6793: 6790: 6786: 6783: 6779: 6776: 6772: 6769: 6768:Baltic states 6765: 6762: 6758: 6755: 6751: 6748: 6744: 6741: 6737: 6734: 6730: 6727: 6723: 6720: 6716: 6713: 6709: 6706: 6702: 6699: 6695: 6692: 6688: 6685: 6681: 6678: 6674: 6671: 6667: 6666: 6664: 6662: 6658: 6651: 6647: 6644: 6640: 6637: 6633: 6630: 6626: 6623: 6619: 6616: 6612: 6609: 6605: 6604: 6602: 6600: 6596: 6587: 6583: 6580: 6576: 6573: 6569: 6566: 6562: 6559: 6555: 6554: 6552: 6548: 6543: 6539: 6536: 6532: 6531: 6529: 6525: 6520: 6516: 6515: 6513: 6509: 6508: 6506: 6504: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6491: 6480: 6476: 6473: 6469: 6464: 6460: 6457: 6453: 6452: 6448: 6443: 6439: 6438: 6436: 6432: 6429: 6425: 6420: 6416: 6413: 6412:United States 6409: 6404: 6400: 6399: 6397: 6393: 6392: 6388: 6385: 6381: 6380: 6378: 6376: 6372: 6365: 6361: 6356: 6352: 6349: 6348:Quốc dân Đảng 6345: 6344: 6340: 6337: 6333: 6330: 6326: 6323: 6319: 6316: 6312: 6309: 6305: 6302: 6298: 6295: 6291: 6288: 6284: 6281: 6277: 6274: 6270: 6267: 6263: 6260: 6256: 6253: 6249: 6246: 6242: 6237: 6233: 6230: 6226: 6225: 6223: 6219: 6216: 6212: 6209: 6205: 6202: 6198: 6195: 6191: 6188: 6184: 6181: 6177: 6174: 6170: 6167: 6163: 6160: 6156: 6153: 6149: 6146: 6142: 6139: 6135: 6132: 6128: 6125: 6121: 6118: 6114: 6111: 6107: 6106: 6104: 6102: 6098: 6091: 6087: 6084: 6080: 6077: 6073: 6070: 6066: 6063: 6059: 6056: 6052: 6049: 6048:Liechtenstein 6045: 6042: 6038: 6035: 6031: 6028: 6024: 6021: 6017: 6016: 6014: 6012: 6008: 6001: 5997: 5994: 5990: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5972: 5968: 5965: 5961: 5958: 5954: 5949: 5945: 5944: 5941: 5937: 5934: 5930: 5927: 5923: 5920: 5916: 5913: 5909: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5891: 5887: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5869: 5865: 5864: 5862: 5860: 5856: 5849: 5845: 5840: 5836: 5835: 5833: 5832:United States 5829: 5824: 5820: 5819: 5817: 5813: 5810: 5806: 5803: 5799: 5796: 5792: 5789: 5785: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5763: 5759: 5756: 5752: 5749: 5745: 5742: 5738: 5735: 5731: 5728: 5724: 5721: 5717: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5695: 5691: 5688: 5684: 5681: 5677: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5647: 5643: 5640: 5636: 5633: 5629: 5626: 5622: 5619: 5615: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5593: 5589: 5586: 5582: 5579: 5575: 5572: 5568: 5567: 5565: 5563: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5550: 5537: 5533: 5530: 5526: 5523: 5522:Comfort women 5519: 5516: 5512: 5509: 5506: / 5505: 5501: 5498: 5495: / 5494: 5491: / 5490: 5486: 5483: 5482:Camp brothels 5479: 5476: 5472: 5471: 5467: 5464: 5460: 5455: 5451: 5448: 5444: 5443: 5441: 5437: 5432: 5428: 5425: 5421: 5418: 5414: 5413: 5411: 5407: 5404: 5400: 5395: 5391: 5386: 5382: 5379: 5375: 5374: 5372: 5371:The Holocaust 5368: 5365: 5361: 5358: 5357:forced labour 5354: 5353: 5351: 5347: 5342: 5338: 5335: 5331: 5328: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5317: 5316: 5314: 5312: 5308: 5301: 5297: 5294: 5290: 5287: 5283: 5278: 5274: 5271: 5267: 5264: 5260: 5257: 5253: 5252: 5250: 5246: 5243: 5242: 5237: 5234: 5233: 5228: 5225: 5221: 5218: 5214: 5211: 5210:Marshall Plan 5207: 5204: 5203: 5198: 5195: 5191: 5188: 5184: 5181: 5177: 5174: 5170: 5167: 5163: 5160: 5156: 5153: 5149: 5146: 5142: 5141: 5139: 5137: 5133: 5126: 5122: 5117: 5113: 5112: 5110: 5106: 5103: 5099: 5094: 5090: 5087: 5083: 5080: 5076: 5075: 5073: 5069: 5064: 5063:Eastern Front 5060: 5057: 5056:Western Front 5053: 5052: 5050: 5046: 5041: 5037: 5034: 5030: 5027: 5023: 5020: 5016: 5013: 5009: 5006: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4995: 4994: 4992: 4990: 4986: 4979: 4975: 4972: 4968: 4965: 4961: 4958: 4954: 4951: 4950:Puppet states 4947: 4944: 4940: 4937: 4933: 4928: 4924: 4921: 4917: 4916: 4914: 4910: 4907: 4903: 4900: 4896: 4893: 4892:Naval history 4889: 4886: 4882: 4879: 4875: 4872: 4868: 4863: 4859: 4858: 4856: 4852: 4849: 4845: 4840: 4839:United States 4836: 4833: 4829: 4826: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4815: 4812: 4808: 4805: 4801: 4798: 4794: 4791: 4787: 4784: 4780: 4777: 4773: 4768: 4764: 4763: 4761: 4757: 4756: 4754: 4752: 4748: 4745: 4741: 4734: 4730: 4727: 4723: 4718: 4714: 4711: 4707: 4704: 4700: 4699: 4695: 4690: 4686: 4685: 4683: 4679: 4676: 4672: 4671: 4668: 4664: 4657: 4652: 4650: 4645: 4643: 4638: 4637: 4634: 4627: 4622: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4608: 4606: 4602: 4600: 4596: 4595: 4584: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4561: 4558: 4554: 4553: 4543: 4537: 4533: 4528: 4524: 4518: 4514: 4509: 4505: 4500: 4496: 4491: 4487: 4481: 4477: 4472: 4468: 4466:9780842022026 4462: 4457: 4456: 4449: 4445: 4440: 4436: 4435: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4415: 4410: 4408:9781101947104 4404: 4400: 4395: 4391: 4389:9780691049229 4385: 4380: 4379: 4372: 4371: 4362: 4358: 4357:Judging Japan 4355: 4354: 4344: 4340: 4335: 4331: 4318: 4310: 4305: 4294: 4289: 4288: 4278: 4277: 4271: 4267: 4261: 4257: 4252: 4248: 4243: 4239: 4233: 4229: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4190: 4186: 4185: 4179: 4175: 4173:0-394-75172-8 4169: 4164: 4163: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4147:9780688047832 4143: 4138: 4137: 4130: 4126: 4121: 4117: 4116: 4111: 4107: 4106: 4086: 4082: 4076: 4061: 4057: 4051: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4031: 4017: 4013: 4007: 3993: 3989: 3983: 3969: 3965: 3959: 3945: 3941: 3935: 3921: 3917: 3911: 3895: 3891: 3884: 3868: 3864: 3863:rjkoehler.com 3860: 3853: 3837: 3833: 3827: 3820: 3814: 3798: 3794: 3788: 3772: 3771: 3766: 3760: 3752: 3746: 3742: 3737: 3736: 3727: 3712: 3706: 3690: 3686: 3680: 3672: 3670:9780060186258 3666: 3662: 3657: 3656: 3647: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3600: 3593: 3588: 3581: 3576: 3569: 3563: 3556: 3551: 3544: 3539: 3532: 3527: 3525: 3523: 3506: 3504: 3496: 3489: 3484: 3477: 3472: 3464: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3441:Falk, Richard 3436: 3428: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3408: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3348: 3342: 3338: 3337: 3329: 3313: 3309: 3303: 3296: 3295:Horowitz 1950 3291: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3234: 3227: 3221: 3214: 3209: 3202: 3197: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3176: 3174: 3165: 3158: 3156: 3148: 3143: 3141: 3133: 3128: 3126: 3115: 3108: 3103: 3097:, p. 22. 3096: 3091: 3084: 3079: 3064: 3057: 3051: 3045:, p. 60. 3044: 3043:Brackman 1987 3039: 3032: 3027: 3020: 3015: 3007: 3001: 2993: 2987: 2983: 2982: 2974: 2972: 2963: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2948: 2940: 2938: 2929: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2914: 2906: 2904: 2894: 2885: 2869: 2865: 2859: 2841: 2835: 2820: 2814: 2806: 2800: 2796: 2795: 2787: 2773: 2769: 2763: 2749: 2745: 2739: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2709: 2705: 2690: 2687: 2686: 2681: 2680: 2676: 2673: 2672: 2668: 2665: 2662: 2660: 2657: 2655: 2652: 2650: 2649:Sugamo Prison 2647: 2645: 2642: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2628: 2625: 2624: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2608: 2605: 2603: 2600: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2583: 2582:Comfort women 2580: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2570: 2568: 2565: 2564: 2554: 2551: 2550: 2541: 2537: 2536:Kwantung Army 2533: 2529: 2526: 2522: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2508: 2504: 2501: 2497: 2494: 2491:Vice Admiral 2490: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2476: 2472: 2469: 2465: 2462: 2458: 2455: 2454:Kuniaki Koiso 2451: 2448: 2444: 2441: 2437: 2434: 2433:Shunroku Hata 2430: 2428: 2425:, founder of 2424: 2420: 2417: 2416:Kenji Doihara 2413: 2410: 2406: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2394: 2385: 2382: 2379: 2376: 2373: 2370: 2367: 2364: 2361: 2358: 2356: 2352: 2349: 2346: 2345:Naoki Hoshino 2343: 2340: 2337: 2334: 2331: 2330: 2324: 2317: 2304: 2300: 2298: 2294: 2291: 2290: 2286: 2284: 2281: 2280: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2270: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2257: 2253: 2252: 2248: 2246: 2243: 2242: 2238: 2236: 2233: 2232: 2229: 2225: 2223: 2220: 2219: 2215: 2213: 2210: 2209: 2206: 2205:Canadian Army 2202: 2200: 2197: 2194: 2193: 2190: 2186: 2183: 2181: 2177: 2176: 2173: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2159: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2142: 2132: 2130: 2126: 2117: 2115: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2105:Major-General 2103: 2102: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2088: 2086: 2083: 2082:Major General 2080: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2070: 2069:Massachusetts 2066: 2064: 2061: 2060: 2057: 2055: 2051: 2049: 2046: 2043: 2042: 2038: 2036: 2031: 2028: 2026: 2023: 2020: 2019: 2016: 2013: 2009: 2008:Supreme Court 2006:Judge of the 2005: 2003: 2000: 1999: 1995: 1993: 1989: 1986: 1984: 1980: 1979: 1975: 1973: 1970:Judge of the 1967: 1963: 1961: 1958: 1957: 1953: 1951: 1945: 1943: 1942:Henri Bernard 1940: 1939: 1936: 1934: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1924: 1921: 1919: 1915: 1913: 1910: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1895: 1891: 1890: 1879: 1876: 1863: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1849: 1839: 1835: 1832: 1831: 1825: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1800: 1796:In 1978, the 1789: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 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