Belgian Congo in World War II

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causing the colonial administration to subsidise their activities to make up for budget deficits. The war did not adversely impact their evangelising, and the number of reported baptisms conducted increased from 1,824,000 in 1939 to a cumulative total of 2,214,000 in 1942. Healthcare was provided by a mix of government and corporate physicians, private practitioners, and missionaries. At the outbreak of the war there were 302 doctors working in the Congo. Some medical personnel accompanied the Force Publique on its foreign deployments, but the vast majority remained in the colony for the conflict's duration. Unlike the neighboring French possessions, the war did not adversely affect the resources of healthcare providers in the Congo. Medical research continued and a new journal was created so that findings could be published while the territory was separated from Belgium.

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living in the Congo. Nevertheless, the war highlighted the precarious nature of the colonial administration, leading Governor Ryckmans to remark that "the days of colonialism are over" in 1946. A feeling by the Belgian government prevailed that it had incurred a "war debt" to the Congo, and thus more attention was given to the concerns of the indigenous population. In the years after the war, the colonial government underwent extensive reform. Black people were granted significantly more rights and freedoms, leading to the growth of a so-called

535:, the director of Forminière, was widely suspected of maintaining German sympathies. The German government conducted secret negotiations with leaders of Forminière and the Société Générale, and reached deals that allowed them to purchase large quantities of diamonds until 1944. In 1943 Germany paid the Société Générale $ 10.5 million for diamonds. American and British agents ultimately uncovered a wide smuggling network that brought diamonds out of the Congo and to German-occupied Europe by air and sea. According to one American report, Belgian 557: 611: 786: 124: 257:

representatives of various Belgo-Congolese companies in Bordeaux informed the ministers of rumours that should Belgium surrender, the United Kingdom would seize control of the Congo. Meanwhile, some circles in occupied Belgium feared that if the Congo aligned itself with the Allies it would be permanently lost as a colony to Belgium. In Brussels, the Germans established a "Kolonial Politisches Büro" that attempted to forge connections with what remained of the Ministry of Colonies.

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to secure British possessions in the continent, because the Belgian royal family had dynastic links with the Italian royal family. This attitude changed after it became known that Italian aircraft based in occupied Belgium were attacking Britain and when an Italian submarine sank a Belgian cargo ship. A Belgian declaration of war was eventually delivered against Italy on 23 November 1940. Two days later, Ryckmans proclaimed that a state of war existed between Italy and the Congo.

404:(UMHK) rose from 25,000 to 49,000 to cope with the increased demand. The colonial administration enacted ultimately successful policies aimed at increasing the size of the Congo's labour force; the number of wage labourers in the colony grew from 480,000 in 1938 to 800,000 in 1945. In order to increase production for the war effort, the colonial authorities increased the hours and the speed at which workers, both European and African, were expected to work. This led to increasing 412:, which had been banned in the 1930s, was reintroduced to keep up with demand; by 1944, the maximum number of days of forced labour per year was raised to 120 for rural Congolese. Discontent among the white population was also increased by the raising of heavy war taxes, which sometimes reached as high as 40 percent. High taxes and price controls were enforced from 1941, limiting the amount of profit that could be made and curbing 850:

negotiations at the town's stadium, where they were offered various concessions, including a 30% pay rise. When the workers refused, the Governor of Katanga, Amour Maron, shot Mpoyi, killing him. The Governor then ordered his soldiers to fire on the other strikers in the stadium. Between 60 and 70 strikers were killed during the protest, although the official estimate was around 30. The miners returned to work on 10 December.

950:("evolved") class. Despite this, the Belgian policy of conscripted labour of 60 days a year from each native Congolese remained in effect until Congolese independence, whereas similar labour levies were abolished in British and French possessions after the war. Several black members of the Force Publique who were veterans of the war served in prominent roles in the army after Congolese independence, including 377:. Business leaders in the colony were disgruntled as well, and boosted production of goods not mentioned in the agreement to sell to the neutral United States at their standard market value. In 1942, after the United States joined the Allies, the Belgian government negotiated a new economic agreement with the United States and United Kingdom. Belgian officials never signed it, but it was 272:, granting de Vleeschauwer the title and conferring on him full legislative and executive power to manage the Congo. The decree also stipulated that in the event the administrator-general was unable to exercise his duties, the responsibility would be passed on to the governor-general. Though granted his own emergency powers in the Congo's colonial charter, Ryckmans interpreted the 741:. The urbanised Congolese generally experienced more financial gain during the war than their rural counterparts, though several workers who had collected large amounts of rubber earned even more money. During the war the Belgian government in exile directed propaganda at the Allied states that created a positive image of its colony in an attempt to legitimise its rule. In 527:

minus the amount exported to Germany before the war. Believing that a large volume of diamonds were being smuggled out of the colony, American intelligence officials convinced British agents to inspect the security of the mines. The officer tasked with overseeing the inspection teams concluded that proper security measures were lacking and that Forminière and

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Belgian sovereignty over the Congo would be respected. Pierlot suggested that de Vleeschauwer should be granted the new title of Administrator-general of the Congo, allowing him to pursue this cause even if the government later collapsed and his ministerial mandate became void. The government agreed to the idea, and on 18 June it passed a

319:"The Belgian Congo has entered the service of the Allies. Its economic doctrine and practices have been rapidly adapted to the new conditions and, whilst everything is being done to maintain the potentiality of the Congo wealth, there is no hesitation whatsoever when it comes to sacrificing any riches in favor of the war effort." 240: 97:

comparative prosperity during the conflict led to a wave of post-war immigration from Belgium, bringing the white population to 100,000 by 1950, as well as a period of industrialisation that continued throughout the 1950s. The role played by Congolese uranium during the hostilities caused the country to be of interest to the

572:, numbering over 40,000 men at its peak in 1943. Like other colonial armies of the time, the Force Publique was racially segregated; it was led by 280 white officers and NCOs, but otherwise comprised indigenous black Africans. The Force Publique had never received the more modern equipment supplied to the 606:

While willing to mobilise the Congo's economic resources for the Allied war effort, the Belgian government in exile was initially much more hesitant to deploy Congolese troops in combat. The government also refused to declare war on Germany's ally, Italy, which had colonies in Africa and was fighting

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De Vleeschauwer departed for London, arriving on 4 July. He spoke with members of the British government and assured them that he would place all of the Congo's raw materials at the disposal of the United Kingdom's war effort. Over the following months Pierlot and two other ministers managed to reach

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Official postwar Belgian rhetoric portrayed the Congo's attitude towards the mother country as one of "unfailing solidarity." As a result of the Congo's comparative prosperity during the conflict, the post-war period saw a wave of immigration to the country from Belgium. By 1950, 100,000 whites were

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for the first time during the war, and their demands for better pay and working conditions were often emulated by black workers. A lack of European skilled labor forced the colonial government to train and give native Congolese skilled labor positions for the first time, but they were paid less than

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to Shinkolobwe in 1942 to restore the mine and improve its transport links by renovating the local aerodromes and port facilities. In September 1944 the Belgian government reached an agreement with the United Kingdom and the United States, whereby it would sell only those two countries the Congolese

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On 10 May 1940 Belgian officials formally requested that the United Kingdom and France declare their respect for the Congo's neutrality and support for its territorial integrity in a future peace settlement. The British government refused, wanting to ensure that the Congo would not fall under German

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Food remained unrationed during the war, with only the sales of tires and automobiles restricted by the government. Nevertheless, the war did lead to a shortage of consumer goods. The devaluation of the Congolese franc also made foreign imports more expensive. One of the consequences of the Congo's

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maintained a large presence in the colony and closely monitored the foreign population. The colonial administration tried to conceal the war from the African population by censoring the media, but the Congolese noticed the internal tensions among the white population and the detention of German and

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De Vleeschauwer authorised the creation of an air service for the Force Publique, and the Belgian government secured an agreement with South Africa in March 1941 to provide training. The first recruits were drawn in by an appeal over Radio Léopoldville by Captain Frans Burniaux, a Belgian pilot who

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to fund themselves, unlike most other states in exile, which operated through subsidies and donations from sympathetic governments. It also meant that the Belgian gold reserves, which had been moved to London in 1940, were not needed to fund the war effort, and therefore were still available at the

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The mutineers broke into the base's armoury on the morning of 20 February and pillaged the white quarter of the town. The town's inhabitants fled, and a Belgian officer and two white civilians were killed. The mutineers attacked visible signs of the colonial authorities and proclaimed their desire

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which the Congo could produce in abundance. On 20 June the British Foreign Secretary told the Belgian ambassador in London that the United Kingdom would not accept German dominance over the colony. Meanwhile, the Belgo-Congolese businessmen proposed that de Vleeschauwer go to London to ensure that

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Following the industrial unrest, trade unions for black workers were instituted in 1946, though they lacked power and influence. Workers at the UMHK continued to demand higher wages, and strikes were common in the colony for the next decade. Nevertheless, both wages and living conditions improved

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attitude towards the indigenous Congolese. Education was overwhelmingly controlled by Protestant and Catholic missions, which were also responsible for providing limited welfare support to the rural Congolese. The occupation of Belgium severed Belgian missionaries from their parent organisations,

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applied for the rest of the war, and Congolese trade remained directed at the two countries. The Congo's economic output became an even more valuable asset to the Allies after Japan occupied large swathes of South East Asia in 1942, halting those areas' exports of key tropical commodities such as

96:

The increasing demands placed on the Congolese population by the colonial authorities during the war, however, provoked strikes, riots and other forms of resistance, particularly from the indigenous Congolese. These were repressed, often violently, by the Belgian colonial authorities. The Congo's

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At the start of the war, the population of the Congo numbered approximately 12 million black people and 30,000 whites. The colonial government segregated the population along racial lines and there was very little mixing between the colours. The white population was highly urbanised and, in

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Diamond Syndicate. In 1940, the Syndicate reported that the Congo annually produced 10.9 million carats of diamonds. Immediately after the outbreak of war reported production sharply declined, and by 1942 production had officially fallen to 5 million carats–roughly the original production number

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600,000 in early 1940 to $ 2,700,000 by 1942. Despite the Allied cooperation, many officials of the colonial administration treated American and British diplomats with suspicion, fearing the potential economic rivalry posed by their countries to Belgian enterprises. The United Kingdom and United

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released numerous publications which asserted that the Belgians had rescued the Congolese from "terrible conditions" and improved life in the territory. Wider Allied propaganda also downplayed internal political tensions within the Congo and in its relations with the Belgian government so as to

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and other tropical diseases, but successfully defeated the Italians in a number of engagements. Gilliaert subsequently accepted the surrender of Gazzera and 7,000 Italian troops. Over the course of the campaign in Ethiopia, the Force Publique received the surrender of nine Italian generals, 370

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Soon after the establishment of the Belgian government in exile in London, negotiations began between the Belgians and the British about the role which the Congo would play in the Allied war effort. The two parties came to an arrangement on 21 January 1941, in which all the British demands were

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From the start, the colonial authorities attempted to persuade the strikers to disperse and go back to work. When they refused, they were fired on. In Jadotville, 15 strikers were shot dead by the military. In Élisabethville, the strikers, including their leader Léonard Mpoyi, were invited to

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The Congo had become increasingly centralised economically during the Great Depression of the 1930s, as the Belgian government encouraged the production there of cotton, which had value on the international market. The greatest economic demands on the Congo during the war were related to raw

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believed that it lacked the resources to continue to fight and thus it would be better to negotiate a peace with Germany instead of going into exile in the United Kingdom. Most of the ministers agreed, though de Vleeschauwer dissented. While the government prepared to negotiate with Germany,

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to be difficult. According to the Belgian government, by 1942 the colony's entire output of industrial diamonds was being shipped to the United Kingdom. In reality, many industrial diamonds were smuggled to Nazi Germany for use in the German war effort. Most Congolese diamonds were mined by

373:) were pleased at the entry into the sterling area, which guaranteed an export market for the territory, they strongly disliked the fixed prices the agreement entailed which were favourable to the United Kingdom and worried that only trading with sterling could negatively impact the Congo's 299:

The Germans were upset by the Congo's support for the Allies, and threatened to apply sanctions to Belgian colonial enterprises. Leopold III expressed his discontent with Ryckman's decisions, believing that the colony should remain neutral. Royalist politicians sent messages to the Belgian

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The 1941 Élisabethville massacre is a recurrent theme in Congolese art and folklore, and was later incorporated into the popular Congolese anti-colonial narrative. Historiographic discussion of the Congo's role in World War II is generally limited to mentions of the uranium extracted from

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Italian nationals. To better counter external influences in the colony, the administration established a Bureau of Information and Propaganda. About 3,000 Greek refugees were settled in the Congo during the war. Some European Jews, particularly those of Italian nationality, also

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to 2 francs to compensate for rising living costs. The strike started on 3 December, and by the next day 1,400 workers had downed tools. All UMHK sites were affected by 9 December. The strike was also fueled by other grievances against the colonial order and segregation.

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before and during the war to avoid anti-Semitic discrimination and find economic opportunities, though the Italian Jews in Katanga Province were interned by order of the governor in 1940. Some Jewish merchants in Élisabethville had swastikas graffitied on their stores.

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to warn him of the possibility of a German atomic bomb program, he advised him that the Congo was a main source of the mineral. Uranium extracted from the disused Shinkolobwe mine ultimately proved instrumental in the development of an atomic bomb during the Allied

159:. The Belgian colonial military numbered 18,000 soldiers, making it one of the largest standing colonial armies in Africa at the time. The Congo underwent an economic boom in the 1920s and mines, plantations, and transportation networks were greatly developed. The 212:

proposed sending troops to occupy strategic locations in the Congo, but this was quickly ruled unfeasible due to other military commitments. The British government then resolved that if the Belgian government collapsed, it would support an "independent" Congo.

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in the central Congolese province of Kasaï in February 1944; the trigger for this was a plan to vaccinate troops who had served at the front, though the soldiers were also unhappy about the demands placed on them and their treatment by their white officers.

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for independence. The mutineers then dispersed to their home villages, pillaging on the way; they failed to spread the insurrection to neighbouring garrisons. Two mutineers, including Mukalabushi, were executed for their part in the insurrection.

260:

The British were determined that the Congo should not fall into Axis hands, and planned to invade and occupy the colony if the Belgians did not come to an arrangement. This was particularly because the Allies were desperate for raw materials like

365:. With the official agreement and the Congolese declaration of support for the Allies, the economy of the Congo—in particular its production of important raw materials—was placed at the disposal of the Allies. Though Ryckmans and leaders of the 732:

The demands of the colonial administration fell hardest on rural residents, which were conscripted for road construction projects and rubber harvesting. Conditions were harsh for the labourers, and in some cases were conflated in the Congolese

990:, Belgian Congo to commemorate the actions of the Congolese in Ethiopia. Each face of the pyramid was inscribed with the name of each major location of fighting: Asosa, Gambela, and Saïo. Many locations throughout the country—presently the 543:, whose Diamond Committee was dominated by members of the De Beers Diamond Syndicate. After the end of the war the Belgian government demanded that Germany pay $ 25 million owed to the Société Générale for 576,676 carats of diamonds. 251:

On 17 June France declared an armistice with Germany. Though Ryckmans had declared that he would continue to support the Allied cause, the Belgian government in Bordeaux was deeply disheartened by the French surrender. Prime Minister

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uranium at a fixed price. That year the Americans acquired a further 1,720 long tons (1,750 t) of Uranium ore from the newly reopened mine. The mine was mostly staffed by Congolese, who laboured in unhealthy conditions.

807:"Why should a white man be paid more than a black, when all the white man does is stand there, giving orders, his arms behind his back and with his pipe in his mouth? We should take our rights, or we won't work tomorrow." 508:

During the war there were frequent rumors that some Belgian industrialists involved in colonial enterprises were covertly aiding Germany. American officials found working with Belgo-Congolese mining companies to secure

163:

led to a collapse of commodity prices, undermining the colony's export-based economy and leading to a large reduction in income and employment. The only industry that expanded during the time period was centered around

629:

alongside British forces to fight the Italians. The Belgian 1st Colonial Brigade operated in the Galla-Sidamo area in the South-West sector. In May 1941, around 8,000 men of the Force Publique, under Major-General

766:. Just 9% of the indigenous population lived in cities in 1938; by 1950, the figure stood at close to 20%. The colonial government also greatly improved transport and production facilities during the war. 873:

The colonial government in the Congo depended on its military to maintain civil order and, above all, it depended on the loyalty of the native troops who made up the bulk of the Force Publique. Black

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Within the Congo itself, opinion was divided on whether or not to continue to support the war. Belgian corporate officials hoped that the colony would take a neutral stance, and the staff of the

690:. The unit (which had a small body of Force Publique troops for local defense of the station) included 350 black and 20 white personnel, and continued to serve with the British until 1945. 65:

were smuggled to Nazi Germany with the complicity of Belgian business executives. The Congo also financially supported the Belgian government in exile. Militarily, Congolese troops of the

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authorities in London, attempting to dissuade them from allowing the Congo to support the British war effort. In October 1940 Leopold III requested permission from Nazi German leader

292:

who sought to be more conciliatory with regard to Allied influence in the colony. Well established and secure in the United Kingdom, the Belgian government replaced the 18 June 1940

208:, the Congolese capital. On the day of the Belgian Army's surrender, the British government, uncertain about what would happen to the territory, held a crisis meeting in London. The 4926: 3925: 3635: 3796: 3153: 288:

and played little role thereafter in the government. There was also conflict between de Vleeschauwer, who wanted to assure his own authority over the Congo, and Foreign Minister

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as meaning he could take measures in areas not already affected by de Vleeschauwer's orders, and he proceeded to govern the colony through a series of legislative ordinances.

419:

The vast majority of the Congolese-produced raw resources were exported to other Allied countries. According to the Belgian government, by 1942 the entire colony's output of

857:, provoked by the conscription of workers for the mines and deteriorating working conditions. That year the Belgians conducted a few "police operations" in the province of 187:, who had surrendered to the Germans, was kept a prisoner for the rest of the war. Just before the fall of Belgium, its government, including the Minister of the Colonies, 3661: 746: 280:

London while the rest declared their intention to remain in France and resign. In October Pierlot, de Vleeschauwer, and the two other ministers officially established the

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The demands made by the colonial government on Congolese workers during the war provoked strikes and riots from the workforce. Whites in the colony were allowed to form

717: 4805: 4005: 3935: 3816: 3791: 2917: 4373: 4071: 3985: 3862: 3806: 1039: 332: 978:. The war also led to a re-orientation of the Congo's trade away from Belgium and towards the United States, the United Kingdom, and the United Kingdom's colonies. 658:

After the Allied victory in Ethiopia, the Force Publique moved to the British colony of Nigeria, which was being used as a staging ground for a planned invasion of

4029: 3484: 4558: 4144: 4000: 3891: 4583: 4931: 3942: 3801: 3776: 2117: 3867: 3852: 3786: 3628: 416:. While the price controls aided exports to the Allies, it adversely affected Congolese peasants, who earned less despite their increased amount of labour. 4368: 4322: 4081: 4056: 3918: 3896: 3879: 3847: 3842: 738: 4880: 3975: 3884: 2819: 568:(or "Public Force") was the combined police and military force of both the Congo and Ruanda-Urundi. During World War II, it constituted the bulk of the 4134: 4046: 4041: 3908: 3874: 3513: 427:

were being exported to the United Kingdom, while almost all the colony's lumber was sent to South Africa. Exports to the United States also rose from

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Sengier himself moved to New York, from where he directed the UMHK's operations for the rest of the war. The U.S. government sent soldiers from the

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significantly in the years after the war. The war began a second wave of industrialisation that lasted right up to Congolese independence in 1960.

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Numerous smaller strikes occurred in the Congo later in the war, though not on the same scale as in 1941. In 1944 strikes broke out in Katanga and

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high-ranking officers and 15,000 Italian colonial troops before the end of 1941. The Congolese forces in Ethiopia suffered about 500 fatalities.

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production—and for colouring ceramics. Scientists in Europe later discovered that enriched uranium could be used in the production of a supposed

236:(now Kisangani in the eastern Congo) among the white population panicking about the future of the colony and the threat of an Italian invasion. 4890: 4696: 4666: 4649: 4114: 4066: 3990: 1187: 955: 4691: 4139: 4096: 4051: 3730: 4624: 4489: 4124: 3064:

Geenen, Kristien (2019). "Categorizing colonial patients: Segregated medical care, space and decolonization in a Congolese city, 1931–62".

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to ensure disgruntled labourers would collect rubber. In 1945, riots and strikes occurred among the black dockworkers in the port city of

228:. Ryckmans refused to take this advice, and declared on the day of the Belgian Army's surrender that the colony would remain loyal to the 4706: 539:

were sometimes used for transporting the gemstones. Proposals by the Americans to stifle the illicit trade were dissuaded by the British

304:

to dispatch an emissary to Léopoldville to persuade the colonial administration to assume neutrality, but the trip was never authorised.

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Forgotten Allies: the Military Contribution of the Colonies, Exiled Governments, and Lesser Powers to the Allied Victory in World War II

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A Small Nation in the Turmoil of the Second World War: Money, Finance and Occupation (Belgium, Its Enemies, Its Friends, 1939-1945)

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Economically, the Congo provided much-needed raw materials such as copper and rubber to the United Kingdom and the United States.

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began with the German invasion of Belgium in May 1940. Despite Belgium's surrender, the Congo remained in the conflict on the

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Rewriting Congo's Colonial Past: History, Memory, and Colonial Built Heritage in Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo

2101: 1525: 1109: 496: 4210: 618: 601: 284:, recognised by the United Kingdom. Despite his presence, de Vleeschauwer was politically marginalised by Finance Minister 70: 4916: 4499: 3035:

Fernández Soriano, Victor (2018). "'Travail et progrès': Obligatory 'Educational' Labour in the Belgian Congo, 1933–60".

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Transcription of the proceedings of the Council of Ministers of the government in exile, 18 December 1941, reproduced in

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As per a deal reached on 21 March 1941, loans from the Banque du Congo Belge enabled the Belgian government in exile and

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A Working Class in the Making: Belgian Colonial Labor Policy, Private Enterprise, and the African Mineworker, 1907–1951

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A Working Class in the Making: Belgian Colonial Labor Policy, Private Enterprise, and the African Mineworker, 1907–1951

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their white colleagues, generating discontent. In October 1941, white workers in the colony unsuccessfully attempted a

225: 128: 86: 3464:"The 'Settler Moment' in Belgian Africa: Europeans in the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi during the Second World War" 4875: 4800: 4746: 4726: 4494: 4436: 4403: 4327: 4260: 3398: 3332: 3292: 3227: 3187: 3025: 2967: 2888: 2848: 2545: 2418: 2064: 1958: 1860: 3239:"Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field" 2125: 912: 4921: 4832: 4568: 4516: 4506: 3752: 3644: 991: 712: 35: 4766: 2608: 400: 4521: 4203: 3666: 1133: 924: 247:(pictured) argued for continued Belgian participation in the war and pledged the Congo's resources to the Allies. 4701: 2977:

Martin, Phyllis M. (1985). "Reviewed Work: Le Congo Belge durant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale: Recueil d'Etudes".

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McCrummen, Stephanie (9 August 2009). "In Congo, men forced to fight in World War II are neglected, forgotten".

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which did not occur, was also garrisoned by 13,000 Congolese troops. Then a part of the Force Publique went to

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after marching over 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from their bases in western Congo. The troops suffered from

4543: 4528: 4451: 4421: 4398: 220:, the colonial army, recommended a declaration of neutrality or even independence under the authority of the 858: 4870: 4751: 4741: 4731: 4619: 4467: 4441: 4431: 4317: 3109:. Greenwood histories of the modern nations (illustrated, annotated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. 845:, a Congolese artist, depicting the church and colonial state (personified at the right) as the instigators 540: 903: 631: 4761: 4721: 4716: 4446: 4378: 1928: 281: 268: 47: 3560:"De buitenlandse betrekkingen an Belgisch Congo aan de vooravond van de Tweede Wereldoorlog (1939–1940)" 4837: 4795: 4783: 4756: 4711: 4644: 4388: 4363: 4290: 4275: 4270: 3155:

Haut-Katanga : Lorsque richesses économiques et pouvoirs politiques forcent une identité régionale

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had fled from the Belgian Flying School in North Africa. Many of the pilots ultimately served with the

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Banjikila, Bakajika (April 1983). "Les Ouvriers du Haut-Katanga Pendant la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale".

3133: 1979:"Les Belges de L'Aviation Sud-Africaine les Forces Alliees dans la Mire Des Nazis en Afrique Australe" 998:, Belgium, to the military successes of Belgian colonial forces, including those during World War II. 4773: 4538: 4358: 4312: 3980: 3443: 874: 679: 459:

before the war by the UMHK for export to Belgium. It was originally used by the medical industry—for

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control, and France followed suit. The French government briefly considered sending troops to occupy

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Colonial Exploitation and Economic Development: The Belgian Congo and the Dutch East Indies Compared

4788: 4573: 4548: 4477: 4348: 724: 2487:. Dakar: Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA). p. 14. 4815: 4736: 4686: 4681: 4671: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4614: 4604: 4305: 4285: 4226: 3346: 1847: 1023: 974:

to become interested in the territory; it was subsequently an area of Soviet interest during the

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The Belgian Campaign in Ethiopia: A Trek of 2,500 Miles through Jungle Swamps and Desert Wastes

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economic mobilisation during the war, particularly for the black population, was significant

472: 366: 43: 3613: 1668: 1666: 1664: 1662: 1660: 1658: 584:. During the war the force was expanded through recruitment and the calling up of reserves. 296:

on 29 April 1942, restoring all legislative and executive powers to the government in full.

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Apartheid, Colonialism, and the Cold War: the United States and Southern Africa, 1945–1952

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of the city separated from the black majority. All blacks in the city had to adhere to a

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Byfield, Judith A.; Brown, Carolyn A.; Parsons, Timothy; Sikainga, Ahmad Alawad (2015).

1855:(Reprint ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. pp. 285–288. 1129: 344:

aircraft was funded by contributions from the Congo, and took its name, "Luvungi", from

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L'uranium, la Belgique et les puissances: marché de dupes ou chef d'œuvre diplomatique?

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Ermens, Paul (January 1947). "L'effort de guerre de la Force Publique du Congo belge".

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that had been taken over by Belgium in 1916 and was mandated to Belgium in 1922 by the

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Lisolo na Bisu, 1885–1960: "Our History" the Congolese Soldier of the "Force Publique"

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Le Congo-Kasaï (1865–1950): De l'exploration allemande à la consécration de Luluabourg

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materials. Between 1938 and 1944, the number of workers employed in the mines of the

209: 176: 156: 114: 2242: 2173: 1646: 1629: 1605: 1465: 18: 4255: 3725: 3710: 3676: 3502:

Lovens, Maurice (1975). "L'effort militaire de guerre du Congo belge (1940–1944)".

3250: 3161:. Provinces (in French). Vol. 1. Tervuren: Musée royal de l’Afrique centrale. 3073: 3044: 2986: 1145: 994:—are named for the battles. In 1970 the Belgian government dedicated a monument in 837: 818: 663: 485: 456: 413: 390: 289: 160: 144: 82: 2843:(2nd ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. pp. 59–60. 1171: 635: 592:

during the war, but their salaries were paid for by the Belgian Congo's treasury.

171:

The Belgian government followed a policy of neutrality during the interwar years.

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The Leopard, the Lion, and the Cock: Colonial Memories and Monuments in Belgium

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and was redesignated the 1st Belgian Congo Brigade Group during 1943 and 1944.

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States maintained large networks of spies throughout the Congo during the war.

262: 253: 217: 78: 66: 3077: 2990: 239: 4905: 3747: 3742: 3688: 3592:

Revue d'histoire de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale et des conflits contemporains

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with the earlier atrocities committed by the Congo Free State in relation to

577: 481: 409: 405: 362: 148: 140: 123: 31: 1696:"Congolese diamanten in Belgische diplomatieke valiezen naar Nazi-Duitsland" 1346: 1344: 515: 4661: 3705: 3356: 3208: 2540:(1st ed.). Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 189. 2413:(1st ed.). Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 188. 1150: 971: 970:

Shinkolobwe. The importance of Congolese uranium during the war caused the

951: 854: 763: 370: 301: 285: 172: 98: 39: 3417: 576:

before the war, and so had to use outdated weapons and equipment like the

1341: 946: 794: 754: 708: 464: 452: 448: 354: 58: 3603: 3134:"L'exercice du pouvoir législatif colonial pendant la période 1939-1945" 1237: 2195:. Voies de la recherche. Paris: Institut national d'histoire et d'art. 995: 881:

Ngoie Mukalabushi, a veteran of the East African Campaign, mutinied at

826: 560:

Congolese enlisting in the Force Publique following the outbreak of war

2998: 2672:

Mwamba Mputu, Baudouin (2011). "IV: Mutinerie de Luluabourg de 1944".

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Yapou, Eliezer (1998). "4: Belgium: Disintegration and Resurrection".

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Following World War I, Belgium possessed two colonies in Africa: the

1284: 750:

portray the coordination of its war effort in a harmonious fashion.

3390:

Spies in the Congo: The Race for the Ore that Built the Atomic Bomb

2287: 2009: 975: 523: 424: 205: 192: 132: 102: 23: 2190: 1474: 1329: 829:, went on strike, demanding that their pay be increased from 1.50 4225: 2348:"Activity of the Social Services in the Belgian Congo in the War" 987: 882: 651: 345: 54: 2761: 2318: 2316: 2314: 2275: 2148:"Burma: The 10th Belgian Congo Casualty Clearing Station, 1945" 1356: 862: 822: 704: 460: 420: 165: 2841:

Remembering the Present: Painting and Popular History in Zaire

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Planning Power: Social Control and Planning in Colonial Africa

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Lagae, Johan (2005). "The built fabric of a segregated city".

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232:. Despite this assurance, disruption broke out in the city of 3715: 3643: 2311: 1494: 1492: 1262: 1260: 1258: 1206: 531:

personnel fostered a "sinister atmosphere" during the tours.

3545:

Vanderwalle, F.A. (May 1947). "Mutineries au Congo Belge".

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Glitter & Greed: The Secret World of the Diamond Cartel

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Société Royale des Pionniers et Anciens de l'Aviation Belge

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List of massacres in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

817:

In December 1941, black mine workers at various sites in

711:

in the Congo and confiscated their property in 1940. The

4927:

Military history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

2021: 1898: 1896: 1728: 1587: 1585: 1563: 1553: 1551: 1416: 1368: 1308: 678:

A medical unit from the Congo, the 10th (Belgian Congo)

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Politics in the Congo: Decolonization and Independence

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Politics, Religion and Power in the Great Lakes Region

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Colonial officials, including the Governor-General,

3277: 2724: 2178:. New York: Belgian Information Center. p. 65. 2073: 2033: 1722: 1651:. New York: Belgian Information Center. p. 12. 1634:. New York: Belgian Information Center. p. 11. 1483: 1398: 1386: 1350: 1335: 1290: 1278: 484:, secretly dispatched half of its uranium stock to 179:, the Belgian Army surrendered and the country was 3365: 3102: 3066:The Journal of the International African Institute 2743:Zeilig, Leo; Renton, David; Seddon, David (2007). 2742: 2706:Zeilig, Leo; Renton, David; Seddon, David (2007). 2705: 2568:Zeilig, Leo, Renton, David; Seddon, David (2007). 2441:Zeilig, Leo, Renton, David; Seddon, David (2007). 2247:. New York: Belgian Information Center. p. 7. 1610:. New York: Belgian Information Center. p. 8. 1516:Zeilig, Leo, Renton, David; Seddon, David (2007). 1470:. New York: Belgian Information Center. p. 3. 625:Three brigades of the Force Publique were sent to 198: 81:. 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Crewe: Selbstverl. p. 45. 1841: 1644: 1627: 1603: 1463: 3013: 2955: 2782:"Héros méconnus de la seconde guerre mondiale" 2322: 1672: 986:In 1943, a three-sided pyramid was erected in 488:in 1940; in September 1942, he sold it to the 57:from the colony was used to produce the first 4932:1940s in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 4227:History of World War II by region and country 4211: 3629: 2920:. Trondheim: Kimpavita Press & Publishers 2814:. In Frankema, Ewout; Buelens, Frans (eds.). 2779: 2478: 2476: 2045: 1095: 1093: 1091: 1089: 841:A painting of the Élisabethville massacre by 503: 3571:Buch, Pierre; Vanderlinden, Jacques (1995). 2809:"The Industrialization of the Belgian Congo" 2671: 2592:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2465:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2404: 2402: 1540:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 693: 3544: 3301: 2878: 2701: 2699: 2697: 2695: 2567: 2563: 2561: 2559: 2557: 2440: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2015: 1829: 1515: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1498: 1446: 1434: 1362: 1302: 1238:"L'Histoire du Congo vue par les Coloniaux" 1224: 1212: 1200: 1059: 1057: 1055: 4218: 4204: 3636: 3622: 3525: 3320: 2686: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2653: 2473: 2027: 1777:"Answers to Questions About New York City" 1749:"Why They Called It the Manhattan Project" 1734: 1576: 1410: 1323: 1266: 1186:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1099: 1086: 3589: 3557: 3412:. 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Archived from 2650: 2506: 2504: 2482: 2334: 2269: 2003: 1914: 1902: 1774: 1591: 1016:Democratic Republic of the Congo portal 546: 361:and the entrance of the Congo into the 69:fought alongside British forces in the 4904: 3510: 3501: 3341: 3063: 3020:(revised ed.). Red Wheel Weiser. 2976: 2915: 2903: 2835: 2377: 2375: 2373: 2257: 2091: 2079: 2039: 1976: 1967: 1948: 1638: 1614: 1557: 1452: 175:invaded Belgium on 10 May 1940. After 4199: 3617: 3407: 3175: 3131: 2730: 2364: 2188: 2054: 1747:Broad, William J. (30 October 2007). 1746: 1693: 1678: 1422: 1374: 1169: 1158: 3152:Omasombo Tshonda, Jean, ed. (2018). 2773: 2606: 2501: 2234: 2220:. New York: Routledge. p. 217. 2215: 1977:Bailly, Michel (12 September 1999). 1230: 868: 707:. The colonial authorities arrested 602:East African Campaign (World War II) 522:, which was in turn a member of the 26:, capital of the Belgian Congo, 1943 3461: 2780:Mobé Fansiama, Anicet (June 2007). 2512:"The Story of Africa: World War II" 2370: 13: 3426: 3255:10.14321/frencolohist.15.2014.0087 1775:Pollack, Michael (25 March 2011). 1675:, Chapter 7 – Diamonds for Hitler. 673: 14: 4948: 3736:Transitional Government (2003–06) 3575:(in French). Brussels: De Boeck. 3530:(in French). Paris: L'Harmattan. 2916:Boneza, Raïs Neza (7 June 2014). 2747:. London: Zed Books. p. 71. 2745:The Congo: Plunder and Resistance 2710:. London: Zed Books. p. 70. 2708:The Congo: Plunder and Resistance 2572:. London: Zed Books. p. 69. 2570:The Congo: Plunder and Resistance 2445:. London: Zed Books. p. 68. 2443:The Congo: Plunder and Resistance 1951:Commonwealth Divisions: 1939–1945 1926: 1807:. Amherst College. Archived from 1520:. London: Zed Books. p. 66. 1518:The Congo: Plunder and Resistance 728:Congolese worker housing, c. 1943 582:Saint Chamond 70 mm howitzer 551: 353:accepted, including a 30 percent 312: 3645:Democratic Republic of the Congo 3321:Veranneman, Jean-Michel (2014). 3304:Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980 1802: 1008: 992:Democratic Republic of the Congo 981: 911: 902: 327:, Minister of the Colonies, 1942 36:Democratic Republic of the Congo 3324:Belgium in the Second World War 3037:Journal of Contemporary History 3014:Farrell-Robert, Janine (2007). 2909: 2872: 2857: 2829: 2800: 2627: 2607:Mobe, Anicet (18 August 2011). 2600: 2529: 2340: 2209: 2182: 2165: 2140: 2110: 1942: 1920: 1835: 1796: 1768: 1740: 1723:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009 1597: 1484:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009 1399:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009 1387:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009 1351:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009 1336:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009 1291:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009 1279:Van der Wee & Verbreyt 2009 1173:Governments in Exile, 1939–1945 929:and in the colonial war effort 686:and in the Far East during the 336:A Belgian pilot in the British 199:Entry of the Congo into the war 4937:Labour history of World War II 3672:Colonial governors (1885–1960) 3182:. Cambridge University Press. 2979:The Journal of African History 2962:. Cambridge University Press. 2948: 2124:. 16 June 2006. Archived from 2096:. London: Osprey. p. 17. 1138:Courrier Hebdomadaire du CRISP 1118: 1: 4912:Belgian Congo in World War II 3526:Brousmiche, Philippe (2011). 3364:Willame, Jean-Claude (1972). 1694:Barbé, Luc (25 August 2016). 1045: 401:Union Minière du Haut Katanga 243:Belgian Minister of Colonies 222:Governor-General of the Congo 108: 3753:M23 offensive (2022–present) 3726:Second Congo War (1998–2003) 3701:Congo-Léopoldville (1960–65) 3677:Congo Free State (1885–1908) 3564:Thesis (University of Ghent) 3528:Bortaï: Campagne d'Abyssinie 3281:; Verbreyt, Monique (2009). 3237:Stanard, Matthew G. (2014). 3101:Gondola, Ch. Didier (2002). 2879:Borstelmann, Thomas (1993). 812:Léonard Mpoyi, December 1941 739:its rubber collection system 541:Ministry of Economic Warfare 520:Société Générale de Belgique 7: 3868:Foreign policy under Mobutu 3393:. 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London: Sampson, Low. 3049:10.1177/0022009417697807 2536:Higginson, John (1989). 2409:Higginson, John (1989). 2244:The Belgian Congo at War 2241:Various authors (1942). 2175:The Belgian Congo at War 2172:Various authors (1942). 2018:, pp. 126, 128–129. 1849:The New World, 1939–1946 1648:The Belgian Congo at War 1645:Various authors (1942). 1631:The Belgian Congo at War 1628:Various authors (1942). 1607:The Belgian Congo at War 1604:Various authors (1942). 1467:The Belgian Congo at War 1464:Various authors (1942). 660:Vichy-controlled Dahomey 480:. The director of UMHK, 4922:Belgium in World War II 3748:M23 rebellion (2012–13) 3689:Belgian Congo (1908–60) 3445:Belgian Colonial Policy 3440:de Vleeschauwer, Albert 3243:French Colonial History 3197:Sampson, Henry (1957). 3176:Pepin, Jacques (2011). 2959:Africa and World War II 2388:International Socialism 1065:"Empire Colonial Belge" 1024:Belgium in World War II 699:Léopoldville, lived in 638:the retreat of General 590:South African Air Force 497:Army Corps of Engineers 30:The involvement of the 3706:Congo Crisis (1960–65) 3667:Colonization (1867–85) 3506:(in French) (6): 1–34. 2768:Fernández Soriano 2018 2216:Njoh, Ambe J. (2007). 2092:Thomas, Nigel (1991). 2055:Ready, J. Lee (1985). 1353:, pp. 73–74, 232. 1151:10.3917/cris.1077.0001 846: 843:Tshibumba Kanda-Matulu 809: 790: 729: 713:State Security Service 684:invasion of Madagascar 622: 561: 518:, a subsidiary of the 394: 349: 325:Albert de Vleeschauwer 321: 248: 245:Albert de Vleeschauwer 189:Albert de Vleeschauwer 136: 46:, administered by the 27: 22:A busy city square in 3141:Bulletins des Séances 2786:Le Monde diplomatique 2676:. Paris: L'Harmattan. 2294:Omasombo Tshonda 2018 2282:Omasombo Tshonda 2018 840: 805: 788: 727: 619:East African Campaign 613: 596:East African Campaign 559: 473:Franklin D. Roosevelt 471:wrote U.S. President 388: 367:Banque du Congo Belge 335: 317: 308:Economic contribution 242: 126: 71:East African Campaign 21: 3504:Les cahiers du CEDAF 3105:The History of Congo 1842:Anderson, Oscar E.; 1811:on 18 September 2006 1365:, pp. 123, 132. 1126:Gérard-Libois, Jules 879:First Sergeant-Major 776:Masisi-Lubutu revolt 718:settled in the Congo 574:Belgian Armed Forces 547:Military involvement 4676:Carpathian Ruthenia 3279:Van der Wee, Herman 3179:The Origins of AIDS 2906:, pp. 423–424. 2825:on 28 January 2015. 2383:"Congo (Editorial)" 2323:Byfield et al. 2015 2296:, pp. 175–176. 2152:Imperial War Museum 2118:"Epilogue Oriental" 1844:Hewlett, Richard G. 1725:, pp. 236–237. 1673:Farrell-Robert 2007 1449:, pp. 128–129. 1425:, pp. 282–283. 1401:, pp. 237–238. 1389:, pp. 232–233. 1377:, pp. 277–278. 1305:, pp. 124–125. 1281:, pp. 72, 231. 1215:, pp. 125–126. 1069:Online Encyclopedia 1029:Free Belgian forces 802:across the colony. 668:Mandatory Palestine 648:Ethiopian Highlands 627:Italian East Africa 570:Free Belgian Forces 511:industrial diamonds 437:Free Belgian Forces 408:across the colony. 177:18 days of fighting 63:industrial diamonds 4266:French West Africa 4246:British Somaliland 4006:Telecommunications 3853:Court of Cassation 3817:Former place names 3132:Heyse, T. (1946). 2128:on 9 February 2007 1803:Hunt, Margaret R. 1782:The New York Times 1754:The New York Times 847: 791: 730: 623: 562: 490:United States Army 395: 350: 346:the Congolese town 249: 183:by German forces. 153:German East Africa 137: 28: 4899: 4898: 4490:Dutch East Indies 4328:Southern Rhodesia 4261:French Somaliland 4193: 4192: 4153: 4152: 4072:Human trafficking 4024: 4023: 3958: 3957: 3926:Political parties 3919:National Assembly 3863:Foreign relations 3825: 3824: 3582:978-2-8041-1993-5 3537:978-2-296-13069-2 3494:978-2-87051-049-0 3462:Bud, Guy (2020). 3379:978-0-8047-0793-0 3313:978-0-521-19421-1 3168:978-9-4926-6907-0 3116:978-0-313-31696-8 2754:978-1-84277-485-4 2717:978-1-84277-485-4 2613:La Libre Belgique 2579:978-1-84277-485-4 2494:978-2-86978-492-5 2452:978-1-84277-485-4 2395:(2). 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When physicist 157:League of Nations 115:Battle of Belgium 4944: 4650:Military history 4404:Native Americans 4220: 4213: 4206: 4197: 4196: 4173: 4166: 4035: 4034: 3996:Franc (currency) 3969: 3968: 3836: 3835: 3770: 3769: 3638: 3631: 3624: 3615: 3614: 3607: 3586: 3567: 3554: 3541: 3522: 3507: 3498: 3475: 3455:Thematic studies 3449: 3421: 3404: 3383: 3371: 3360: 3338: 3317: 3298: 3274: 3233: 3212: 3193: 3172: 3160: 3148: 3138: 3128: 3108: 3097: 3060: 3031: 3010: 2973: 2942: 2936: 2930: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2876: 2870: 2869: 2866:The Boston Globe 2861: 2855: 2854: 2837:Fabian, Johannes 2833: 2827: 2826: 2824: 2813: 2804: 2798: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2777: 2771: 2765: 2759: 2758: 2740: 2734: 2728: 2722: 2721: 2703: 2690: 2684: 2678: 2677: 2669: 2648: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2604: 2598: 2597: 2591: 2583: 2565: 2552: 2551: 2533: 2527: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2508: 2499: 2498: 2480: 2471: 2470: 2464: 2456: 2438: 2425: 2424: 2406: 2397: 2396: 2379: 2368: 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1372: 1366: 1363:Vanthemsche 2012 1360: 1354: 1348: 1339: 1333: 1327: 1321: 1306: 1303:Vanthemsche 2012 1300: 1294: 1288: 1282: 1276: 1270: 1264: 1253: 1252: 1250: 1248: 1242: 1234: 1228: 1225:Vanthemsche 2012 1222: 1216: 1213:Vanthemsche 2012 1210: 1204: 1201:Vanthemsche 2012 1198: 1192: 1191: 1185: 1177: 1167: 1156: 1155: 1153: 1122: 1116: 1115: 1097: 1084: 1083: 1081: 1079: 1061: 1018: 1013: 1012: 1011: 915: 906: 819:Katanga Province 813: 440:end of the war. 391:Katanga Province 328: 290:Paul-Henri Spaak 185:King Leopold III 161:Great Depression 145:Congo Free State 34:(the modern-day 4952: 4951: 4947: 4946: 4945: 4943: 4942: 4941: 4902: 4901: 4900: 4895: 4891:Pacific Islands 4886:Solomon Islands 4866:Gilbert Islands 4848: 4842: 4821:Channel Islands 4593: 4456: 4410: 4332: 4229: 4224: 4194: 4189: 4176: 4169: 4162: 4149: 4145:Public holidays 4101: 4020: 3954: 3892:Law enforcement 3821: 3759: 3716:Zaire (1965–97) 3648: 3642: 3610: 3598:(130): 91–108. 3583: 3538: 3495: 3452: 3432:Primary sources 3429: 3427:Further reading 3424: 3401: 3380: 3335: 3314: 3295: 3230: 3190: 3169: 3158: 3136: 3117: 3028: 2970: 2951: 2946: 2945: 2937: 2933: 2923: 2921: 2914: 2910: 2902: 2898: 2891: 2877: 2873: 2862: 2858: 2851: 2834: 2830: 2822: 2811: 2805: 2801: 2791: 2789: 2778: 2774: 2766: 2762: 2755: 2741: 2737: 2729: 2725: 2718: 2704: 2693: 2687:Veranneman 2014 2685: 2681: 2670: 2651: 2641: 2639: 2634: 2632: 2628: 2618: 2616: 2605: 2601: 2585: 2584: 2580: 2566: 2555: 2548: 2534: 2530: 2520: 2518: 2510: 2509: 2502: 2495: 2481: 2474: 2458: 2457: 2453: 2439: 2428: 2421: 2407: 2400: 2381: 2380: 2371: 2363: 2359: 2346: 2345: 2341: 2333: 2329: 2321: 2312: 2304: 2300: 2292: 2288: 2280: 2276: 2268: 2264: 2256: 2252: 2239: 2235: 2228: 2214: 2210: 2203: 2187: 2183: 2170: 2166: 2156: 2154: 2146: 2145: 2141: 2131: 2129: 2116: 2115: 2111: 2104: 2090: 2086: 2078: 2074: 2067: 2053: 2046: 2038: 2034: 2028:Veranneman 2014 2026: 2022: 2014: 2010: 2002: 1998: 1988: 1986: 1975: 1968: 1961: 1947: 1943: 1931: 1925: 1921: 1913: 1909: 1901: 1894: 1886: 1882: 1874: 1870: 1863: 1852: 1840: 1836: 1828: 1824: 1814: 1812: 1801: 1797: 1787: 1785: 1773: 1769: 1759: 1757: 1745: 1741: 1735:Veranneman 2014 1733: 1729: 1721: 1717: 1707: 1705: 1701:Mondiaal Nieuws 1692: 1679: 1671: 1656: 1643: 1639: 1626: 1615: 1602: 1598: 1590: 1583: 1577:Veranneman 2014 1575: 1564: 1556: 1549: 1533: 1532: 1528: 1514: 1505: 1497: 1490: 1482: 1475: 1462: 1453: 1445: 1441: 1433: 1429: 1421: 1417: 1411:Veranneman 2014 1409: 1405: 1397: 1393: 1385: 1381: 1373: 1369: 1361: 1357: 1349: 1342: 1334: 1330: 1324:Veranneman 2014 1322: 1309: 1301: 1297: 1289: 1285: 1277: 1273: 1267:Veranneman 2014 1265: 1256: 1246: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1235: 1231: 1223: 1219: 1211: 1207: 1199: 1195: 1179: 1178: 1168: 1159: 1123: 1119: 1112: 1098: 1087: 1077: 1075: 1063: 1062: 1053: 1048: 1014: 1009: 1007: 1004: 984: 941: 940: 939: 938: 918: 917: 916: 908: 907: 896: 871: 815: 811: 789:Katangese miner 783: 778: 772: 696: 676: 674:Medical support 642:'s Italians at 634:, successfully 604: 598: 554: 549: 537:diplomatic bags 533:Firmin van Bree 506: 469:Albert Einstein 446: 359:Congolese franc 338:Royal Air Force 330: 323: 315: 310: 226:Pierre Ryckmans 201: 129:Pierre Ryckmans 121: 113:Main articles: 111: 12: 11: 5: 4950: 4940: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4897: 4896: 4894: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4852: 4850: 4844: 4843: 4841: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4829: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4811:British Empire 4806:United Kingdom 4803: 4798: 4793: 4792: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4779:Basque Country 4771: 4770: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4658: 4657: 4655:Basque Country 4652: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4625:Czechoslovakia 4622: 4617: 4612: 4607: 4601: 4599: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4525: 4524: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4503: 4502: 4497: 4487: 4486: 4485: 4475: 4470: 4464: 4462: 4458: 4457: 4455: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4418: 4416: 4412: 4411: 4409: 4408: 4407: 4406: 4401: 4396: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4340: 4338: 4334: 4333: 4331: 4330: 4325: 4320: 4315: 4310: 4309: 4308: 4303: 4293: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4237: 4235: 4231: 4230: 4223: 4222: 4215: 4208: 4200: 4191: 4190: 4188: 4187: 4182: 4175: 4174: 4167: 4159: 4158: 4155: 4154: 4151: 4150: 4148: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4111: 4109: 4103: 4102: 4100: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4042:Child marriage 4038: 4032: 4026: 4025: 4022: 4021: 4019: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3972: 3966: 3960: 3959: 3956: 3955: 3953: 3952: 3951: 3950: 3943:Prime Minister 3940: 3939: 3938: 3928: 3923: 3922: 3921: 3916: 3906: 3905: 3904: 3902:Chief of Staff 3894: 3889: 3888: 3887: 3877: 3872: 3871: 3870: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3839: 3833: 3827: 3826: 3823: 3822: 3820: 3819: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3773: 3767: 3761: 3760: 3758: 3757: 3756: 3755: 3750: 3740: 3739: 3738: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3697: 3696: 3686: 3685: 3684: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3658: 3656: 3650: 3649: 3647: articles 3641: 3640: 3633: 3626: 3618: 3609: 3608: 3587: 3581: 3568: 3555: 3542: 3536: 3523: 3508: 3499: 3493: 3476: 3458: 3457: 3456: 3451: 3450: 3435: 3434: 3433: 3428: 3425: 3423: 3422: 3405: 3399: 3384: 3378: 3361: 3343:Weller, George 3339: 3333: 3318: 3312: 3299: 3293: 3275: 3234: 3228: 3213: 3194: 3188: 3173: 3167: 3149: 3129: 3115: 3098: 3072:(1): 100–124. 3061: 3043:(2): 292–314. 3032: 3026: 3011: 2985:(4): 422–424. 2974: 2968: 2952: 2950: 2947: 2944: 2943: 2941:, p. 112. 2931: 2908: 2896: 2889: 2871: 2856: 2849: 2828: 2799: 2772: 2770:, p. 293. 2760: 2753: 2735: 2723: 2716: 2691: 2689:, p. 133. 2679: 2649: 2626: 2599: 2578: 2553: 2546: 2528: 2500: 2493: 2472: 2451: 2426: 2419: 2398: 2369: 2367:, p. 145. 2357: 2339: 2327: 2325:, p. 176. 2310: 2298: 2286: 2284:, p. 173. 2274: 2272:, p. 102. 2262: 2260:, p. 114. 2250: 2233: 2226: 2208: 2201: 2181: 2164: 2139: 2109: 2102: 2084: 2072: 2065: 2044: 2032: 2020: 2008: 1996: 1966: 1959: 1941: 1919: 1907: 1892: 1880: 1868: 1861: 1834: 1832:, p. 134. 1822: 1795: 1767: 1739: 1727: 1715: 1677: 1654: 1637: 1613: 1596: 1581: 1562: 1560:, p. 423. 1547: 1526: 1503: 1501:, p. 130. 1488: 1486:, p. 235. 1473: 1451: 1439: 1437:, p. 128. 1427: 1415: 1413:, p. 131. 1403: 1391: 1379: 1367: 1355: 1340: 1338:, p. 231. 1328: 1307: 1295: 1283: 1271: 1254: 1229: 1227:, p. 127. 1217: 1205: 1203:, p. 122. 1193: 1157: 1117: 1110: 1085: 1050: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1043: 1042: 1037: 1031: 1026: 1020: 1019: 1003: 1000: 983: 980: 920: 919: 910: 909: 901: 900: 899: 898: 897: 895: 892: 870: 867: 827:Élisabethville 804: 800:general strike 782: 779: 771: 768: 695: 692: 688:Burma Campaign 675: 672: 640:Pietro Gazzera 615:Force Publique 600:Main article: 597: 594: 566:Force Publique 553: 552:Force Publique 550: 548: 545: 505: 502: 445: 442: 316: 314: 313:Allied support 311: 309: 306: 254:Hubert Pierlot 218:Force Publique 200: 197: 110: 107: 79:Burma Campaign 67:Force Publique 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4949: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4909: 4907: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4853: 4851: 4845: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4808: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4776: 4775: 4772: 4768: 4765: 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4754: 4753: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4702:Liechtenstein 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4677: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4647: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4602: 4600: 4596: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4523: 4520: 4519: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4492: 4491: 4488: 4484: 4481: 4480: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4465: 4463: 4459: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4437:Latin America 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4419: 4417: 4415:South America 4413: 4405: 4402: 4400: 4397: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4377: 4376: 4375: 4374:United States 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4337:North America 4335: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4319: 4316: 4314: 4311: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4298: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4241:Belgian Congo 4239: 4238: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4221: 4216: 4214: 4209: 4207: 4202: 4201: 4198: 4186: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4177: 4172: 4168: 4165: 4161: 4160: 4156: 4146: 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4104: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4092:Social issues 4090: 4088: 4085: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4039: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4027: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3973: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3961: 3949: 3946: 3945: 3944: 3941: 3937: 3934: 3933: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3912: 3911: 3910: 3907: 3903: 3900: 3899: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3886: 3883: 3882: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3869: 3866: 3865: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3840: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3828: 3818: 3815: 3813: 3810: 3808: 3805: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3787:Deforestation 3785: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3774: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3762: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3745: 3744: 3743:Kivu conflict 3741: 3737: 3734: 3733: 3732: 3729: 3727: 3724: 3722: 3719: 3717: 3714: 3712: 3709: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3695: 3692: 3691: 3690: 3687: 3683: 3680: 3679: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3662:Early history 3660: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3651: 3646: 3639: 3634: 3632: 3627: 3625: 3620: 3619: 3616: 3612: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3594:(in French). 3593: 3588: 3584: 3578: 3574: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3556: 3553:(2): 485–514. 3552: 3549:(in French). 3548: 3543: 3539: 3533: 3529: 3524: 3520: 3517:(in French). 3516: 3515: 3509: 3505: 3500: 3496: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3459: 3454: 3453: 3447: 3446: 3441: 3437: 3436: 3431: 3430: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3406: 3402: 3400:9781787380653 3396: 3392: 3391: 3385: 3381: 3375: 3370: 3369: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3349: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3334:9781783376070 3330: 3326: 3325: 3319: 3315: 3309: 3305: 3300: 3296: 3294:9789058677594 3290: 3286: 3285: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 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A8. 2867: 2860: 2852: 2850:0-520-20376-3 2846: 2842: 2838: 2832: 2821: 2817: 2810: 2803: 2787: 2783: 2776: 2769: 2764: 2756: 2750: 2746: 2739: 2733:, p. 77. 2732: 2727: 2719: 2713: 2709: 2702: 2700: 2698: 2696: 2688: 2683: 2675: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2654: 2637: 2630: 2615: 2614: 2610: 2603: 2595: 2589: 2581: 2575: 2571: 2564: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2549: 2547:0-299-12070-8 2543: 2539: 2532: 2517: 2513: 2507: 2505: 2496: 2490: 2486: 2479: 2477: 2468: 2462: 2454: 2448: 2444: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2431: 2422: 2420:0-299-12070-8 2416: 2412: 2405: 2403: 2394: 2390: 2389: 2384: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2366: 2361: 2353: 2349: 2343: 2337:, p. 98. 2336: 2331: 2324: 2319: 2317: 2315: 2308:, p. 32. 2307: 2306:Williams 2018 2302: 2295: 2290: 2283: 2278: 2271: 2266: 2259: 2254: 2246: 2245: 2237: 2229: 2223: 2219: 2212: 2204: 2198: 2194: 2193: 2185: 2177: 2176: 2168: 2153: 2149: 2143: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2113: 2105: 2099: 2095: 2088: 2081: 2076: 2068: 2066:0-7864-7168-9 2062: 2058: 2051: 2049: 2041: 2036: 2030:, p. 84. 2029: 2024: 2017: 2012: 2006:, p. 36. 2005: 2000: 1984: 1980: 1973: 1971: 1962: 1960:0-9529693-0-0 1956: 1952: 1945: 1937: 1930: 1927:Buzin, Jean. 1923: 1917:, p. 62. 1916: 1911: 1905:, p. 98. 1904: 1899: 1897: 1890:, p. 50. 1889: 1888:Williams 2018 1884: 1877: 1876:Williams 2018 1872: 1864: 1862:0-520-07186-7 1858: 1851: 1850: 1845: 1838: 1831: 1826: 1810: 1806: 1799: 1784: 1783: 1778: 1771: 1756: 1755: 1750: 1743: 1737:, p. 83. 1736: 1731: 1724: 1719: 1703: 1702: 1697: 1690: 1688: 1686: 1684: 1682: 1674: 1669: 1667: 1665: 1663: 1661: 1659: 1650: 1649: 1641: 1633: 1632: 1624: 1622: 1620: 1618: 1609: 1608: 1600: 1594:, p. 99. 1593: 1588: 1586: 1579:, p. 82. 1578: 1573: 1571: 1569: 1567: 1559: 1554: 1552: 1543: 1537: 1529: 1523: 1519: 1512: 1510: 1508: 1500: 1495: 1493: 1485: 1480: 1478: 1469: 1468: 1460: 1458: 1456: 1448: 1443: 1436: 1431: 1424: 1419: 1412: 1407: 1400: 1395: 1388: 1383: 1376: 1371: 1364: 1359: 1352: 1347: 1345: 1337: 1332: 1326:, p. 81. 1325: 1320: 1318: 1316: 1314: 1312: 1304: 1299: 1292: 1287: 1280: 1275: 1268: 1263: 1261: 1259: 1239: 1233: 1226: 1221: 1214: 1209: 1202: 1197: 1189: 1183: 1175: 1174: 1166: 1164: 1162: 1152: 1147: 1143: 1140:(in French). 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1121: 1113: 1107: 1103: 1096: 1094: 1092: 1090: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1060: 1058: 1056: 1051: 1041: 1038: 1035: 1032: 1030: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1021: 1017: 1006: 999: 997: 993: 989: 982:Commemoration 979: 977: 973: 967: 963: 961: 957: 953: 949: 948: 936: 934: 928: 926: 914: 905: 891: 887: 884: 880: 876: 866: 864: 860: 856: 851: 844: 839: 835: 832: 828: 824: 820: 814: 808: 803: 801: 796: 787: 777: 767: 765: 759: 756: 755:paternalistic 751: 748: 744: 743:New York City 740: 736: 726: 722: 719: 714: 710: 706: 702: 691: 689: 685: 681: 671: 669: 665: 661: 656: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 628: 620: 616: 612: 608: 603: 593: 591: 585: 583: 579: 578:Stokes mortar 575: 571: 567: 558: 544: 542: 538: 534: 530: 525: 521: 517: 512: 501: 498: 493: 491: 487: 483: 482:Edgar Sengier 479: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 441: 438: 433: 430: 426: 422: 417: 415: 411: 410:Forced labour 407: 406:labour unrest 403: 402: 392: 387: 383: 380: 376: 372: 369:(the Congo's 368: 364: 363:sterling area 360: 356: 348:of that name. 347: 343: 339: 334: 329: 326: 320: 305: 303: 297: 295: 291: 287: 283: 277: 275: 271: 270: 264: 258: 255: 246: 241: 237: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 214: 211: 207: 196: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 169: 167: 162: 158: 154: 150: 149:Ruanda-Urundi 147:in 1908, and 146: 142: 141:Belgian Congo 134: 130: 125: 120: 116: 106: 104: 100: 94: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 51: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 32:Belgian Congo 25: 20: 16: 4833:Vatican City 4752:Soviet Union 4500:West Sumatra 4369:Newfoundland 4323:South Africa 4318:Sierra Leone 4296:North Africa 4240: 4082:Prostitution 4057:Demographics 3981:Central Bank 3880:Human rights 3848:Constitution 3782:Conservation 3694:World War II 3693: 3611: 3595: 3591: 3572: 3563: 3550: 3546: 3527: 3518: 3512: 3503: 3483:. 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