Neutron bomb - Knowledge

865: 400:, as of 1999, the United States had never deployed a neutron weapon. The nature of this statement is not clear; it reads, "The stolen information also includes classified design information for an enhanced radiation weapon (commonly known as the "neutron bomb"), which neither the United States, nor any other nation, has ever deployed." However, the fact that neutron bombs had been produced by the US was well known at this time and part of the public record. Cohen suggests the report is playing with the definitions; while the US bombs were never deployed 595: 1090: 473: 749: 542: 3227:"Lord Gilbert obituary, by Andrew Roth, 3 June 2013. "Nobody lives up in the mountains on the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan except for a few goats and a handful of people herding them," he observed. "If you told them that some ... warheads were going to be dropped there and that it would be a very unpleasant place to go, they would not go there."" 290:. Both entered phase three testing in October 1965, but the W65 was cancelled in favor of the W66 in November 1968. Testing of the W66 was carried out in the late 1960s, and it entered production in June 1974, the first neutron bomb to do so. Approximately 120 were built, with about 70 of these being on active duty during 1975 and 1976 as part of the 1191:-fission bomb. The latter fission device has a higher kinetic energy-ratio per unit of reaction energy released, which is most notable in the comparison with the D-T fusion reaction. A larger percentage of the energy from a D-T fusion reaction is inherently put into uncharged neutron generation as opposed to charged particles, such as the 210:

weapon carefully, the neutron burst can be maximized while minimizing the blast itself. This makes the lethal radius of the neutron burst greater than that of the explosion itself. Since the neutrons are absorbed or decay rapidly, such a burst over an enemy column would kill the crews but leave the area able to be quickly reoccupied.

950:

missile, which delivered three warheads travelling on roughly the same trajectory, and thus with a short distance between them. A single ABM could conceivably destroy all three through neutron flux. Developing warheads that were less sensitive to these attacks was also a major area of research in the

581:

Rather than making extensive preparations for battlefield nuclear combat in Central Europe, the Soviet military leadership believed that conventional superiority provided the Warsaw Pact with the means to approximate the effects of nuclear weapons and achieve victory in Europe without resort to those

114:

reaction is intentionally allowed to escape the weapon, rather than being absorbed by its other components. The neutron burst, which is used as the primary destructive action of the warhead, is able to penetrate enemy armor more effectively than a conventional warhead, thus making it more lethal as a

430:

missile program. This ABM system contains at least 68 neutron warheads with a 10-kiloton yield each and it has been in service since 1995, with inert missile testing approximately every other year since then (2014). The system is designed to destroy incoming endoatmospheric nuclear warheads aimed at

407:

In addition to the two superpowers, France and China are known to have tested neutron or enhanced radiation bombs. France conducted an early test of the technology in 1967 and tested an actual neutron bomb in 1980. China conducted a successful test of neutron bomb principles in 1984 and a successful

1025:

explosions, this can be on the order of 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) in radius. In this sort of attack, it is the X-rays promptly delivering energy on the warhead surface that is the active mechanism; the rapid ablation (or "blowoff") of the surface creates shock waves that can break up the warhead.

501:

Neutron bombs are purposely designed with explosive yields lower than other nuclear weapons. Since neutrons are scattered and absorbed by air, neutron radiation effects drop off rapidly with distance in air. As such, there is a sharper distinction, relative to thermal effects, between areas of high

376:

Three types of enhanced radiation weapons (ERW) were deployed by the United States. The W66 warhead, for the anti-ICBM Sprint missile system, was deployed in 1975 and retired the next year, along with the missile system. The W70 Mod 3 warhead was developed for the short-range, tactical MGM-52 Lance

209:

In a neutron bomb, the casing material is selected either to be transparent to neutrons or to actively enhance their production. The burst of neutrons created in the thermonuclear reaction is then free to escape the bomb, outpacing the physical explosion. By designing the thermonuclear stage of the

1186:

would similarly be much higher than that of a pure-fission device: approximately twice the initial radiation output of current standard fission–fusion-based weapons. In common with all neutron bombs that must presently derive a small percentage of trigger energy from fission, in any given yield, a

933:

A problem faced by Sprint and similar ABMs was that the blast effects of their warheads change greatly as they climb and the atmosphere thins out. At higher altitudes, starting around 60,000 feet (18,000 m) and above, the blast effects begin to drop off rapidly as the air density becomes very

2929:

Paper Summary Submitted to Spectrum 2000, Sept 24-28, 2000, Chattanooga, TN. Ducrete: A Cost Effective Radiation Shielding Material. Quote- "The Ducrete/DUAGG replaces the conventional aggregate in concrete producing concrete with a density of 5.6 to 6.4 g/cm3 (compared to 2.3 g/cm3 for

1038:

suggested that multiple enhanced radiation reduced blast (ERRB) warheads could be detonated in the mountain region of the Afghanistan-Pakistan border to prevent infiltration. He proposed to warn the inhabitants to evacuate, then irradiate the area, making it unusable and impassable. Used in this

533:

Although neutron bombs are commonly believed to "leave the infrastructure intact", with current designs that have explosive yields in the low kiloton range, detonation in (or above) a built-up area would still cause a sizable degree of building destruction, through blast and heat effects out to a

3098:

Due to moderating ability and light weight, used to harden weapons against outside neutron fluxes (especially in combination with Li-6) ...The very high cross section of this reaction for thermalized neutrons, combined with the light weight of the Li-6 atom, make it useful in the form of lithium

421:

warheads that have about 10 kiloton and lower as one dial option, with a considerable fraction of that yield derived from fusion reactions, can be considered able to be neutron bombs in use, if not in name. The only country definitely known to deploy dedicated (that is, not dial-a-yield) neutron

230:

Technically speaking, every low-yield nuclear weapon is a radiation weapon, including non-enhanced variants. All nuclear weapons up to about 10 kilotons in yield have prompt neutron radiation as their furthest-reaching lethal component. For standard weapons above about 10 kilotons of yield, the

991:

for long periods. However, while such attacks might be useful against guidance systems, which used relatively advanced electronics, in the ABM role, these components have long ago separated from the warheads by the time they come within range of the interceptors. The electronics in the warheads

905:

embedded within the armor, products which emit, among other things, penetrating gamma rays. Although the neutrons emitted by the neutron bomb may not penetrate to the tank crew in lethal quantities, the fast fission of DU within the armor could still ensure a lethal environment for the crew and

970:

GAR-11/AIM-26 was primarily a weapon-killer. The bomber(s, if any) was collateral damage. The weapon was proximity-fused to ensure detonation close enough so an intense flood of neutrons would result in an instantaneous nuclear reaction (NOT full-scale) in the enemy weapon's pit; rendering it

937:

Neutron-based attacks offer one solution to this problem. The burst of neutrons released by an ER weapon can induce fission in the fissile materials of primary in the target warhead. The energy released by these reactions may be enough to melt the warhead, but even at lower fission rates, the

687:

m. The powerful winds produced by this overpressure, however, could throw bodies into objects or throw debris at high velocity, including window glass, both with potentially lethal results. Casualties would be highly variable depending on surroundings, including potential building collapses.

205:

that can cause fission reactions in the casing material. These can add considerable energy to the reaction; in a typical design, as much as 50% of the total energy comes from fission events in the casing. For this reason, these weapons are technically known as fission-fusion-fission designs.

133:(ABMs). In this role, the burst of neutrons would cause nearby warheads to undergo partial fission, preventing them from exploding properly. For this to work, the ABM would have to explode within approximately 100 metres (300 ft) of its target. The first example of such a system was the 408:

test of a neutron bomb in 1988. However, neither of those countries chose to deploy neutron bombs. Chinese nuclear scientists stated before the 1988 test that China had no need for neutron bombs, but it was developed to serve as a "technology reserve", in case the need arose in the future.

222:

and neutrons is approximately 5% of the entire energy released; in neutron bombs, it would be closer to 40%, with the percentage increase coming from the higher production of neutrons. Furthermore, the neutrons emitted by a neutron bomb have a much higher average energy level (close to 14

764:

isotopes found in nature (top curve is for 10 B and bottom curve for 11 B. As neutron energy increases to 14 MeV, the absorption effectiveness, in general, decreases. Thus, for boron-containing armor to be effective, fast neutrons must first be slowed by another element by

528:

the W-70 ... is not even remotely a "neutron bomb." Instead of being the type of weapon that, in the popular mind, "kills people and spares buildings" it is one that both kills and physically destroys on a massive scale. The W-70 is not a discriminate weapon, like the neutron bomb—which,

781:

magazine that tank armor protection was approaching the level where tank crews would be almost fully protected from radiation effects. Thus, for an ER weapon to incapacitate a modern tank crew through irradiation, the weapon must be detonated at such proximity to the tank that the

938:"burning up" of some of the fuel in the primary can cause it to fail to explode properly, or "fizzle". Thus, a small ER warhead can be effective across a wide altitude band, using blast effects at lower altitudes and the increasingly long-ranged neutrons as the engagement rises. 488:

to stop such a massive Warsaw Pact invasion. According to proponents, neutron bombs would blunt an invasion by Soviet tanks and armored vehicles without causing as much damage or civilian deaths as the older nuclear weapons would. Neutron bombs would have been used if the

561:

was likely to be to use this numerical advantage to rapidly sweep across continental Europe if the Cold War ever turned hot. Any weapon that could break up their intended mass tank formation deployments and force them to deploy their tanks in a thinner, more

945:

mentioning weapons with a "clean, enhanced neutron output" for use as "antimissile defensive warheads." Studying, improving and defending against such attacks was a major area of research during the 1950s and '60s. A particular example of this is the US

706:

24 inches (60 cm) thick, would receive a neutron radiation exposure reduced by a factor of 10. Even near ground zero, basement sheltering or buildings with similar radiation shielding characteristics would drastically reduce the radiation dose.

455:

exposé describing US government plans to equip US Armed Forces with neutron bombs. The article focused on the fact that it was the first weapon specifically intended to kill humans with radiation. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory director

1683:"Weapon designer Robert Christy discussing scaling laws, that is, how injuries from ionizing radiation do not linearly scale in lock step with the range of thermal flash injuries, especially as higher and higher yield nuclear weapons are used" 3188:

Nuclear weapon-generated X-rays are the chief threat to the survival of strategic missiles in-flight above the atmosphere and to satellites ... The Neutron and gamma ray effects dominate at lower altitudes where the air absorbs most of the

1149:

A militarily useful use of a neutron bomb with respect to area denial would be to encase it in a thick shell of material that could be neutron activated, and use a surface burst. In this manner, the neutron bomb would be turned into a

251:, who developed the concept in 1958. Initial development was carried out as part of projects Dove and Starling, and an early device was tested underground in early 1962. Designs for a "weaponized" version were developed in 1963. 2930:

conventional concrete). This shielding material has the unique feature of having both high Z and low Z elements in a single matrix. Consequently, it is very effective for the attenuation of gamma and neutron radiation ..."

585:

Neutron bombs, or more precisely, enhanced radiation weapons were also to find use as strategic anti-ballistic missile weapons, and in this role, they are believed to remain in active service within Russia's Gazelle missile.

844:

containing boron (BPE), and additional mass behind it to attenuate neutron capture gamma rays, is more effective than just 24 units of pure iron or BPE alone, due to the advantages of both iron and BPE in combination. During

3025: 164:

in 1981. This time, it led to protests as the growing anti-nuclear movement gained strength through this period. Opposition was so intense that European leaders refused to accept it on their territory. US President

2781: 934:

low. This can be countered by using a larger warhead, but then it becomes too powerful when used at lower altitudes. An ideal system would use a mechanism that was less sensitive to changes in air density.

872:

for neutrons of various energy has been revised over time and certain agencies have different weighting factors; however, despite the variation amongst the agencies, from the graph, for a given energy, a

849:, iron is effective in slowing down/scattering high-energy neutrons in the 14-MeV energy range and attenuating gamma rays, while the hydrogen in polyethylene is effective in slowing down these now slower 217:

with an identical explosive yield, a neutron bomb would emit about ten times the amount of neutron radiation. In a fission bomb, at sea level, the total radiation pulse energy which is composed of both

1953:"Report Of The Select Committee On U.S. National Security And Military/Commercial Concerns With The People's Republic Of China: Chapter 2 – PRC Theft Of U.S. Thermonuclear Warhead Design Information" 297:

Development of ER warheads for Lance continued, but in the early 1970s, attention had turned to using modified versions of the W70, the W70 Mod 3. Development was subsequently postponed by President

1921: 3505:

or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study of international nuclear history through archival documents, oral history interviews and other empirical sources.

906:

maintenance personnel by fission neutron and gamma ray exposure, largely depending on the exact thickness and elemental composition of the armor—information usually hard to attain. Despite this,

918:

neutrons and gamma rays due to it being a graded-Z material. Uranium, being about twice as dense as lead, is thus nearly twice as effective at shielding gamma ray radiation per unit thickness.

2460:"what is a neutron bomb "In strategic terms, the neutron bomb has a theoretical deterrent effect: discouraging an armoured ground assault by arousing the fear of neutron bomb counterattack"" 1082:

and shorter-lasting version of it in the area than if air bursts were used, as little to no fission products would be deposited on the direct immediate area, instead becoming diluted global

926:

As an anti-ballistic missile weapon, the first fielded ER warhead, the W66, was developed for the Sprint missile system as part of the Safeguard Program to protect United States cities and

3446: 699:) of 6 Gray would extend to between 1350 and 1400 meters for those unprotected and outdoors, where approximately half of those exposed would die of radiation sickness after several weeks. 691:

The pulse of neutron radiation would cause immediate and permanent incapacitation to unprotected outdoor humans in the open out to 900 meters, with death occurring in one or two days. The

1002:

of the warhead's electronic components as a countermeasure to high altitude neutron warheads somewhat reduces the range that a neutron warhead could successfully cause an unrecoverable

411:

In May 1998, Senior Pakistani Scientist, Dr. N. M. Butt, stated that "PAEC built a sufficient number of neutron bombs—a battlefield weapon that is essentially a low yield device".

270:. Both entered phase three testing in July 1964, and the W64 was cancelled in favor of the W63 in September 1964. The W63 was in turn cancelled in November 1965 in favor of the 2964: 3029: 2412: 193:, or steel. The case traps the energy from the fission bomb for a brief period, allowing it to heat and compress the main thermonuclear fuel. The case is normally made of 2774: 625:

psi (32 kPa) out to a radius of 600 meters, which would severely damage all non-reinforced concrete structures. At the conventional effective combat range against modern

3154: 2576: 2307: 2036: 743: 2720:"Monte Carlo Calculations Using MCNP4B for an Optimal Shielding Design of a 14-MeV Neutron Source, Submitted to the Journal of Radiation Protection Dosimetry 1998" 861:

tank, in response to the neutron bomb threat, is cited as having fitted a boronated polyethylene liner, which has had its neutron shielding properties simulated.

3487: 3205: 1900: 1789: 998:(Li6H) is cited as being used as a countermeasure to reduce the vulnerability and "harden" nuclear warheads from the effects of externally generated neutrons. 702:

A human residing within, or simply shielded by, at least one concrete building with walls and ceilings 30 cm (12 in) thick, or alternatively of damp

529:

incidentally, should be considered a weapon that "kills enemy personnel while sparing the physical fabric of the attacked populace, and even the populace too."

3479: 3119: 393:. The last W70 Mod 3 warhead was dismantled in 1996, and the last W79 Mod 0 was dismantled by 2003, when the dismantling of all W79 variants was completed. 1928: 235:

radius. Enhanced radiation weapons also fall into this same yield range and simply enhance the intensity and range of the neutron dose for a given yield.

2336: 524:

The inventor of the neutron bomb, Sam Cohen, criticized the description of the W70 as a neutron bomb since it could be configured to yield 100 kilotons:

2019: 321:, which surpassed neutron bomb production in ambition and vision and with that, neutron bombs quickly faded from the center of the public's attention. 169:

ordered the production of the W70-3, which remained in the US stockpile until they were retired in 1992. The last W70 was dismantled in February 1996.

2869:"For example, M-1 tank armor includes depleted uranium, which can undergo fast fission and can be made to be radioactive when bombarded with neutrons" 2246: 118:

The concept was originally developed by the United States in the late 1950s and early 1960s. It was seen as a "cleaner" bomb for use against massed

1137:

that is produced in this "scabbing" of a much larger mass of material free from the main body, as opposed to the shallower surface penetration and

2743: 2604: 773:

The questionable effectiveness of ER weapons against modern tanks is cited as one of the main reasons that these weapons are no longer fielded or

3455: 2726: 1765: 484:

in the event of a nuclear attack on Poland by NATO forces. Soviet analysts had correctly assumed that the NATO response would be to use regular

1717: 1636: 1121:(which manifests as blast and thermal effects), while the majority of the energy of the reaction (14.1 MeV) is carried away by the uncharged 1021:

on the order of meters. But as the air thins out, the X-rays can travel further, eventually outpacing the area of effect of the neutrons. In

975:

It has also been suggested that neutron flux's effects on the warhead electronics are another attack vector for ER warheads in the ABM role.

2868: 2386: 954:

Some sources claim that the neutron flux attack was also the main design goal of the various nuclear-tipped anti-aircraft weapons like the

3236: 652:

of radiation would require exploding large numbers of them to blanket the enemy forces, destroying all normal civilian buildings within c.

3179: 3136: 2625: 1502: 2924: 2362: 1353: 3285: 2947: 2893: 1406: 181:

is placed close to a larger mass of thermonuclear fuel, usually lithium deuteride. The two components are then placed within a thick

3093: 2968: 517:

and so are not classified as neutron bombs, thus limiting the yield of neutron bombs to a maximum of about 10 kilotons. The intense

1070:—with the difference that neutron bombs produce half, or less, of the quantity of fission products relative to the same-yield pure 110:

in the immediate vicinity of the blast while minimizing the physical power of the blast itself. The neutron release generated by a

1326: 777:. With the increase in average tank armor thickness since the first ER weapons were fielded, it was argued in the March 13, 1986, 598:

A wooden framed house photographed during a 1953 nuclear test, 5 pounds per square inch (34 kPa) overpressure, full collapse.

1350:"Chapter 2 Conventional and Nuclear Weapons - Energy Production and Atomic Physics Section I - General. Figure 2-IX, Table 2-III" 2513: 2420: 1661: 1370: 942: 248: 3158: 3075: 2569: 2543: 2441: 2099: 1874: 3432: 3318: 3265: 3005: 2229: 2202: 2175: 2142: 1616: 1442: 1251: 378: 363: 2854: 2492: 1993: 1956: 1013:

At very high altitudes, at the edge of the atmosphere and above it, another effect comes into play. At lower altitudes, the

513:, are able to radiate sufficient neutrons beyond their lethal blast range when detonated as a surface burst or low altitude 2824: 3497: 2640: 2051: 464:

both described neutron bombs as a "capitalist bomb", because it was designed to destroy people while preserving property.

457: 436: 146: 521:

of high-energy neutrons generated by a neutron bomb is the principal killing mechanism, not the fallout, heat or blast.

301:

in 1978 following protests against his administration's plans to deploy neutron warheads to ground forces in Europe. On

2798: 2459: 156:

The weapon was once again proposed for tactical use by the United States in the 1970s and 1980s, and production of the

3484: 3201: 1896: 1781: 2834: 2017: 1474: 869: 864: 814: 1810: 817:, the neutron protection factor of a "tank" can be as low as 2, without qualifying whether the statement implies a 790: 317:

campaign against the US's neutron bomb in 1981 following Reagan's announcement. In 1983, Reagan then announced the

2221:

Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller

645:

kt neutron bomb would destroy or damage to the point of nonusability almost all un-reinforced civilian buildings.

1849: 294:. When that program was shut down they were placed in storage, and eventually decommissioned in the early 1980s. 1260:

Mod 0 — 155-millimetre (6.1 in) enhanced radiation artillery shell developed by Livermore (cancelled)

1125:. Devices with a higher proportion of yield derived from this reaction would be more efficient in the stand-off 837: 606:

of a 1-kiloton neutron bomb would produce a large blast wave and a powerful pulse of both thermal radiation and

2254: 833: 549:

in a 1984 REFORGER staging area before transport. This dual capable system could fire nuclear artillery shells.

267: 3111: 2328: 477: 3155:"Transient Radiation Effects on Electronics (TREE) Handbook Formerly Design Handbook for TREE, Chapters 1-6" 534:

moderate radius, albeit considerably less destruction, than when compared to a standard nuclear bomb of the

274:(Mod 0), a conventional design. By this time, the same concepts were being used to develop warheads for the 3518: 881:, than a fission-generated thermal neutron or a fusion neutron slowed to that energy, c. 0.8 MeV. 318: 893:

tank, which incorporates steel-encased depleted uranium armor, a substance that will fast fission when it

813:, the actual average total tank area protection factor is rarely higher than 15.5 to 35. According to the 3348: 1177: 2485:"Candid Interviews with Former Soviet Officials Reveal U.S. Strategic Intelligence Failure Over Decades" 2297: 3425: 2750: 2600: 1270: 992:

themselves tend to be very simple, and hardening them was one of the many issues studied in the 1960s.

648:

Using neutron bombs to stop an enemy armored attack by rapidly incapacitating crews with a dose of 80+

567: 558: 2719: 1126: 630: 621:

to unprotected skin out to approximately 500 meters. The blast would create pressures of at least 4.6

302: 3057: 1707: 3533: 1632: 911: 722:. Thus, absorption might vary exponentially with humidity, making neutron bombs far more deadly in 554: 1254:— 8-inch (200 mm) enhanced radiation artillery shell developed by Livermore (1976–1992) 3523: 2014: 1349: 971:

incapable of functioning as designed ... ur first "neutron bombs" were the GAR-11 and MB-1 Genie.

485: 414:

In August 1999, the Indian government stated that India was capable of producing a neutron bomb.

201:

metal, because the thermonuclear reactions give off extraordinarily large numbers of high-energy

3226: 2872: 2390: 2134: 1762: 417:

Although no country is currently known to deploy them in an offensive manner, all thermonuclear

3044: 279: 130: 3251: 3183: 3140: 2995: 2705: 2668: 2282: 2219: 2192: 2167: 1432: 671:

Because liquid-filled objects like the human body are resistant to gross overpressure, the 4–5

2683: 2621: 1606: 1560: 1494: 1464: 1296: 1234: 1228: 1217: 1211: 753: 735: 287: 283: 263: 259: 134: 3390: 2358: 3281: 2940: 1572: 1528: 1067: 502:

lethality and areas with minimal radiation doses. No high yield (more than c. 10

358: 103: 2900: 1410: 1043:

casing materials used in the bomb, and depending on burst height, create radioactive soil

8: 3502: 2744:"Neutron Interactions – Part 2 George Starkschall, Ph.D. Department of Radiation Physics" 1164:

enrichment, would when neutron activated become zinc-65, which is a gamma emitter with a

1161: 999: 1576: 1532: 660:

from the explosions could make many building materials in the city radioactive, such as

2693: 2656: 2127: 1712: 1703: 1322: 1183: 1075: 1044: 1040: 810: 766: 711: 692: 657: 607: 594: 232: 1608:

Physics of societal issues: calculations on national security, environment, and energy

1187:

100% pure fusion bomb would likewise generate a smaller atmospheric blast wave than a

714:

spectrum of air is disputed by some authorities, and depends in part on absorption by

3428: 3352: 3314: 3261: 3001: 2918: 2830: 2517: 2302: 2270: 2225: 2198: 2171: 2160: 2138: 1835: 1657: 1612: 1470: 1438: 1281: 1196: 1182:

With considerable overlap between the two devices, the prompt radiation effects of a

1134: 1063: 846: 809:, increasing the protection factor, the author holds that in practice, combined with 802: 783: 774: 618: 386: 382: 291: 107: 3089: 3071: 2091: 1374: 3528: 3306: 2539: 2445: 1870: 1584: 1580: 1541: 1536: 1516: 1286: 1157: 898: 886: 854: 826: 661: 626: 563: 443: 275: 194: 138: 3282:"1.6 Cobalt Bombs and other Salted Bombs, Nuclear Weapons Archive, Carey Sublette" 2484: 1243:

Mod 3 — Lance enhanced radiation warhead developed by Livermore (1981–1992).

941:

The use of neutron-based attacks was discussed as early as the 1950s, with the US

877:(14.1 MeV) although more energetic, is less biologically harmful as rated in 449:

Considerable controversy arose in the US and Western Europe following a June 1977

3491: 3442: 3417: 3231: 2951: 2850: 2023: 1989: 1952: 1291: 995: 902: 894: 518: 461: 451: 244: 198: 33: 2941:"Cask size and weight reduction through the use of depleted uranium dioxide (DUO 3503:

The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project

2954:, Waste Management 2006 Conference, Tucson, Arizona, February 26–March 2, 2006. 2129:

Confronting the bomb: a short history of the world nuclear disarmament movement

1844: 1192: 1130: 1114: 1022: 1018: 988: 947: 910:—which has an elemental composition similar (but not identical) to the ceramic 874: 857:

and a low production yield of gamma rays when it absorbs a neutron. The Soviet

806: 805:

hydrogenous material (substances containing hydrogen atoms), such as explosive

794: 723: 566:, would aid ground forces in the task of hunting down solitary tanks and using 507: 111: 65: 3310: 3512: 1682: 1220:— Sprint enhanced radiation warhead developed by Los Alamos (1975–1976) 1118: 1059: 984: 959: 955: 850: 798: 546: 427: 368: 351: 310: 166: 2802: 2463: 1971: 1237:— Lance enhanced radiation warhead developed by Los Alamos (cancelled) 1214:— Sprint enhanced radiation warhead developed by Livermore (cancelled) 2090:

Journal, Jonathan Karp Staff Reporter of The Wall Street (17 August 1999).

1231:— Lance enhanced radiation warhead developed by Livermore (cancelled) 1195:

of the D-T reaction, the primary species, that is most responsible for the

1122: 1110: 1089: 1071: 1035: 927: 853:

in the few MeV range, and boron 10 has a high absorption cross section for

841: 786:'s blast would now be equally effective at incapacitating it and its crew. 748: 676: 614: 481: 418: 306: 298: 255: 224: 214: 178: 161: 123: 119: 3351:(Report). Sandia National Lab. (SNL-NM), Albuquerque, NM (United States). 2113:

The Nuclear Express: A Political History of the Bomb and Its Proliferation

1839: 472: 3099:

hydride for hardening of nuclear weapons against external neutron fluxes.

2194:

National security for a new era: globalization and geopolitics after Iraq

1814: 1276: 1152: 1051: 980: 890: 822: 757: 719: 649: 2037:"Red China's "Capitalist Bomb": Inside the Chinese Neutron Bomb Program" 1054:

effect resulting from fission product (the substances that make up most

3090:"Section 12.0 Useful Tables Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions" 1039:

manner, the neutron bomb(s), regardless of burst height, would release

976: 818: 739: 575: 571: 510: 397: 314: 122:

armored divisions. As these would be used over allied nations, notably

3356: 897:

a fast, fusion-generated neutron, and thus on fissioning will produce

744:

Signs and symptoms of radiation poisoning § "Walking Ghost phase"

3422:

The Truth About the Neutron Bomb: The Inventor of the Bomb Speaks Out

3300: 3257: 2622:"Applications of the Monte Carlo Adjoint Shielding Methodology - MIT" 1165: 1094: 603: 514: 219: 3026:"Secrets of the BOMARC: Re-examining Canada's Misunderstood Missile" 2013:

UK parliamentary question on whether condemnation was considered by

231:

lethal blast and thermal effects radius begins to exceed the lethal

1749:

Nuclear Weapons Databook: U.S. nuclear warhead production. Volume 2

1142: 1138: 1102: 715: 490: 390: 182: 3114:

Restricted Data Declassification Policy, 1946 to the Present RDD-1

1106: 1098: 1083: 1078:

would thus still produce fission fallout, albeit a comparatively

1055: 907: 878: 503: 202: 186: 3124:

The fact that Li6H is used in unspecified weapons for hardening

2075:

Raja Zulfikar (28 May 1998). "Pakistan builds a neutron bomb".

1434:

Physics for Future Presidents: The Science Behind the Headlines

1003: 987:

delivered over seconds to minutes will degrade the function of

541: 432: 423: 142: 126:, the reduced blast damage was seen as an important advantage. 2162:

Carter's conversion: the hardening of American defense policy

1840:"Bomb inventor says U.S. defenses suffer because of politics" 1171: 1014: 963: 914:

of the Abrams tank—is an effective radiation shield, to both

761: 435:

and other targets and is the lower-tier/last umbrella of the

840:, 24 units thick of which 16 units are iron and 8 units are 2508: 2506: 2504: 2502: 858: 703: 494: 227:) than those released during a fission reaction (1–2 MeV). 190: 150: 2851:"M1A1/2 Abrams Main Battle Tank, United States of America" 1927:. National Nuclear Security Administration. Archived from 2413:"1 (NL) Corps Artillery • 1 Legerkorpsartillerie (1 Lka)" 2387:"What Is a Neutron Bomb? By Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D" 1785: 1466:

Soviet Ballistic Missile Defense and the Western Alliance

1257: 1240: 801:

can be incorporated into conventional armor and strap-on

729: 506:) nuclear bombs, including the extreme example of the 50 346: 341: 313:

restarted production in 1981. The Soviet Union renewed a

271: 243:

The conception of neutron bombs is generally credited to

157: 2499: 1768:

2011-02-23 at Wikiwix", by Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph. D

1747:

Cochran, Thomas; Arkin, William; Hoenig, Milton (1987).

2442:"Accomplishments in the 1970s: LLNL's 50th Anniversary" 2298:"Senate Permits Study for New Tactical Nuclear Missile" 2115:, By Thomas C. Reed, Danny B. Stillman (2010), page 181 1776: 1774: 1074:. Radiological warfare with neutron bombs that rely on 1017:

generated by the bomb are absorbed by the air and have

679:

would cause very few direct casualties at a range of c.

385:

shells. The latter two types were retired by President

3249: 2381: 2379: 1062:

nuclear explosion, as considered in the Korean War by

426:, which inherited the USSR's neutron warhead equipped 1604: 789:

However, although the author did note that effective

555:

Warsaw Pact tank strength was over twice that of NATO

254:

Development of two production designs for the Army's

3480:

Strategic Implications of Enhanced Radiation Weapons

3448:

Shame: Confessions of the Father of the Neutron Bomb

2124: 2092:"India Discloses It Is Able To Build a Neutron Bomb" 1771: 1708:"Samuel T. Cohen, Neutron Bomb Inventor, Dies at 89" 1488: 1486: 1058:) contamination in an area following a conventional 422:

warheads for any length of time is the Soviet Union/

238: 2376: 1273:– similar strategic use, low-yield nuclear weapons. 578:missiles, of which NATO had hundreds of thousands. 3498:Creator of Neutron Bomb Leaves an Explosive Legacy 2997:British Nuclear Weapons and the Test Ban 1954–1973 2159: 2126: 1746: 1702: 1430: 1365: 1363: 145:system. It is believed the Soviet equivalent, the 1834: 1650: 1483: 1458: 1456: 1454: 1401: 1399: 1397: 1395: 1393: 1391: 921: 665: 309:detonated its first similar-type bomb. President 3510: 2570:"1) Effects of blast pressure on the human body" 1317: 1315: 1313: 1311: 3253:Fundamentals of nuclear science and engineering 2157: 1360: 1029: 3349:R&A for UUR_Weapon_History_Phases_20170206 2775:"22.55 "Principles of Radiation Interactions"" 2616: 2614: 1922:"NNSA Dismantles Last Nuclear Artillery Shell" 1863: 1554: 1552: 1451: 1388: 1323:"Sci/Tech Neutron bomb: Why 'clean' is deadly" 2826:Terror Reigns Again By Ronan Strobing. pg 418 2289: 2217: 2074: 1308: 1202: 1113:in the form of kinetic energy as the charged 2251:International Relations And Security Network 1558: 497:to the invasion was too slow or ineffective. 476:The 1979 Soviet/Warsaw Pact invasion plan, " 258:short-range missile began in July 1964, the 177:In a standard thermonuclear design, a small 3384: 3382: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3298: 2681: 2638: 2611: 1549: 1517:"U.S. Nuclear Weapons Stockpile, July 1996" 1093:The easiest to achieve fusion reaction, of 912:second-generation heavy metal Chobham armor 885:However, some tank armor material contains 446:, Israel was mass-producing neutron bombs. 129:ERWs were first operationally deployed for 3494:Definition and history of the neutron bomb 3388: 1437:. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 148. 1172:Hypothetical effects of a pure fusion bomb 1145:, that is produced by thermal/soft X-rays. 1008:transient radiation effects on electronics 617:) neutrons. The thermal pulse would cause 3346: 3019: 3017: 2682:Information, Reed Business (1986-06-12). 2639:Information, Reed Business (1986-03-13). 1540: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1338: 1336: 3369: 2822: 2166:. University of Missouri Press. p. 1088: 863: 747: 593: 540: 471: 3347:Josserand, Terry Michael (2017-03-01). 3243: 3023: 2244: 2089: 1852:from the original on September 22, 2010 1742: 1740: 1738: 1736: 1734: 1625: 1407:"Neutron bomb an explosive issue, 1981" 570:against them, such as the contemporary 325:Attempted warhead replacement programs 3511: 3342: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3250:Shultis, J.K. & Faw, R.E. (2002). 3072:"FAS Nuclear Weapon Radiation Effects" 3014: 2993: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2923:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2310:from the original on December 23, 2012 2247:"Poland reveals Warsaw Pact war plans" 2133:. Stanford University Press. pp. 1333: 1034:In November 2012, British Labour peer 730:Effectiveness in modern anti-tank role 538:same total energy release or "yield". 404:, they remained stockpiled in the US. 249:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 3441: 3416: 3302:Physics of Societal Issues - Springer 2295: 1990:"Neutron bomb: Why 'clean' is deadly" 1969: 1903:from the original on October 26, 2012 1894: 1720:from the original on January 17, 2012 1463:Yost, David Scott (2 February 1988). 3137:"The Nuclear Matters Handbook, F.13" 2329:"Check Your Facts: Cox Report Bombs" 2190: 1972:"Check Your Facts: Cox Report Bombs" 1811:"Nuclear Weapon News and Background" 1731: 1462: 282:(ABM), with Livermore designing the 3327: 3000:. Routledge. pp. 23, 323–325. 2982: 2410: 2034: 1751:. Ballinger Publishing. p. 23. 736:Centurion Tank § Nuclear tests 437:A-135 anti-ballistic missile system 13: 3410: 3391:"List of All U.S. Nuclear Weapons" 3239:from the original on 6 March 2014. 2642:New Scientist March 13, 1986 pg 45 2444:. 17 February 2005. Archived from 2359:"List of All U.S. Nuclear Weapons" 2296:Healy, Melissa (October 3, 1987). 1131:penetrative depth of fast-neutrons 656:600 meters of the immediate area. 389:in 1992, following the end of the 94:, officially defined as a type of 14: 3545: 3473: 3122:from the original on 2013-10-20. 3096:from the original on 2011-02-24. 2685:New Scientist June 12, 1986 pg 62 2339:from the original on 4 March 2016 1565:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 1559:Kistiakovsky, George (Sep 1978). 1521:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 815:Federation of American Scientists 239:History and deployment to present 3288:from the original on 2012-08-09. 3078:from the original on 2013-07-21. 2857:from the original on 2014-08-10. 2787:from the original on 2015-07-17. 2732:from the original on 2016-03-05. 2628:from the original on 2015-07-17. 2607:from the original on 2013-03-13. 2495:from the original on 2011-08-05. 2197:. Pearson Longman. p. 115. 2102:from the original on 2017-01-23. 1959:from the original on 2015-05-08. 1505:from the original on 2015-06-03. 1492: 1356:from the original on 2014-07-19. 1329:from the original on 2011-10-21. 1207:Anti-ballistic missile warheads 1050:In much the same fashion as the 836:, or alternatively, a laminated 172: 153:missile, uses a similar design. 3292: 3274: 3219: 3208:from the original on 2012-11-29 3194: 3172: 3147: 3129: 3104: 3082: 3064: 2957: 2933: 2886: 2861: 2843: 2816: 2791: 2767: 2736: 2712: 2675: 2632: 2593: 2582:from the original on 2013-01-27 2562: 2546:from the original on 2014-04-28 2540:"Effects of Nuclear Explosions" 2531: 2477: 2452: 2434: 2404: 2365:from the original on 2013-02-08 2351: 2321: 2238: 2211: 2184: 2151: 2118: 2106: 2083: 2068: 2028: 2007: 1996:from the original on 2009-04-07 1982: 1970:Cohen, Samuel (9 August 1999). 1963: 1945: 1914: 1888: 1877:from the original on 2012-08-09 1828: 1803: 1792:from the original on 2010-12-07 1755: 1696: 1675: 1664:from the original on 2016-01-08 1639:from the original on 2013-06-07 1598: 1561:"The folly of the neutron bomb" 930:from incoming Soviet warheads. 602:Upon detonation, a near-ground 28:Proportion of total energy (%) 3454:(4th ed.). Archived from 2965:"Half-Value Layer (Shielding)" 2939:M. J. Haire and S. Y. Lobach, 2035:Ray, Jonathan (January 2015). 1605:Hafemeister, David W. (2007). 1585:10.1080/00963402.1978.11458533 1542:10.1080/00963402.1996.11456646 1509: 1424: 922:Use against ballistic missiles 756:and absorption probability in 439:(NATO reporting name: ABM-3). 20:Energy distribution of weapon 16:Low-yield thermonuclear weapon 1: 2559:kt combined blast and thermal 2125:Wittner, Lawrence S. (2009). 1302: 1160:, produced as a byproduct of 1066:, it would thus be a form of 478:Seven Days to the River Rhine 460:and Soviet General Secretary 2823:Strobing, Ronan (Jul 2009). 2601:"Field manual 3-4 chapter 4" 2044:China Strategic Perspectives 1469:. Harvard University Press. 1030:Use as an area denial weapon 951:US and UK during the 1960s. 319:Strategic Defense Initiative 106:designed to maximize lethal 7: 3299:Hafemeister, David (2007). 3024:Maloney, Sean (Fall 2014). 1431:Muller, Richard A. (2009). 1264: 1224:Ballistic missile warheads 1178:Inertial confinement fusion 559:Soviet deep battle doctrine 10: 3552: 3180:"Nuclear Matters Handbook" 2514:"Fact-index, neutron bomb" 2224:. Macmillan. p. 332. 1871:"Types of Nuclear Weapons" 1658:"Range of weapons effects" 1271:Atomic demolition munition 1203:List of US neutron weapons 1175: 870:radiation weighting factor 733: 631:armored personnel carriers 589: 3311:10.1007/978-0-387-68909-8 1479:– via Google Books. 1133:and the resulting higher 1127:asteroid impact avoidance 1109:, and releasing only 3.5 889:(DU), common in the US's 610:in the form of fast (14.1 493:conventional response of 96:enhanced radiation weapon 27: 24: 3426:William Morrow & Co. 2799:"What is a neutron bomb" 2158:Auten, Brian J. (2008). 1992:. BBC News. 1999-07-15. 1763:About: Chemistry article 1660:. Johnstonsarchive.net. 1611:. Springer. p. 18. 1119:inherently generate heat 943:Atomic Energy Commission 486:tactical nuclear weapons 3052:Cite magazine requires 564:easily dividable manner 141:missile used in the US 131:anti-ballistic missiles 3395:Nuclear Weapon Archive 2218:Herken, Greff (2003). 1899:. Globalsecurity.org. 1782:"On this Day: 7 April" 1499:www.globalsecurity.org 1146: 973: 882: 770: 675:psi (28-34 kPa) blast 641:m), the blast from a 1 599: 550: 531: 498: 467: 442:By 1984, according to 280:anti-ballistic missile 2994:Walker, John (2016). 2191:Snow, Donald (2008). 1297:Nuclear weapon design 1092: 968: 867: 834:high-density concrete 754:neutron cross section 751: 597: 544: 526: 475: 262:at Livermore and the 3204:. 26 November 2012. 2945:)-concrete material" 2448:on 17 February 2005. 1706:(December 1, 2010). 1068:radiological warfare 726:than in humid ones. 185:, usually made from 104:thermonuclear weapon 3519:American inventions 2333:Insight on the News 2096:Wall Street Journal 2015:Thatcher government 1976:Insight on the News 1577:1978BuAtS..34g..25K 1533:1996BuAtS..52d..61. 1162:depleted zinc oxide 1045:activation products 1000:Radiation hardening 760:of the two natural 326: 286:and Los Alamos the 213:Compared to a pure 21: 3490:2006-06-14 at the 3445:(September 2015). 2950:2012-09-26 at the 2704:has generic name ( 2667:has generic name ( 2281:has generic name ( 2022:2009-07-15 at the 1713:The New York Times 1704:Robert D. McFadden 1685:. Webofstories.com 1527:(4): 61–63. 1996. 1371:"The Neutron Bomb" 1184:pure fusion weapon 1147: 883: 811:neutron scattering 803:neutron moderating 771: 767:neutron scattering 712:neutron absorption 693:median lethal dose 658:Neutron activation 619:third degree burns 608:ionizing radiation 600: 568:anti-tank missiles 551: 499: 381:was developed for 324: 233:ionizing radiation 102:), is a low-yield 78:Residual radiation 19: 3485:Nuclear Files.org 3434:978-0-688-01646-3 3320:978-0-387-95560-5 3267:978-0-8247-0834-4 3202:"Huffington Post" 3007:978-1-317-17170-6 2335:. 9 August 1999. 2303:Los Angeles Times 2257:on 8 October 2013 2231:978-0-8050-6589-3 2204:978-0-205-62225-2 2177:978-0-8262-1816-2 2144:978-0-8047-5632-7 1838:(June 15, 1997). 1836:Christopher Ruddy 1618:978-0-387-95560-5 1444:978-0-393-33711-2 1282:Neutron transport 1197:coulomb explosion 1135:momentum transfer 1129:role, due to the 1076:fission primaries 1064:Douglas MacArthur 1041:neutron activated 996:Lithium-6 hydride 847:neutron transport 791:neutron absorbers 784:nuclear explosion 710:Furthermore, the 627:main battle tanks 396:According to the 387:George H. W. Bush 383:nuclear artillery 377:missile, and the 374: 373: 305:, in a test, the 303:November 17, 1978 292:Safeguard Program 115:tactical weapon. 108:neutron radiation 88: 87: 73:45 to minimum 30 60:25 to minimum 20 49:40 to minimum 30 3541: 3469: 3467: 3466: 3460: 3453: 3438: 3405: 3404: 3402: 3401: 3389:Carey Sublette. 3386: 3367: 3366: 3364: 3363: 3344: 3325: 3324: 3296: 3290: 3289: 3278: 3272: 3271: 3247: 3241: 3240: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3214: 3213: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3182:. Archived from 3176: 3170: 3169: 3167: 3166: 3157:. Archived from 3151: 3145: 3144: 3139:. Archived from 3133: 3127: 3126: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3086: 3080: 3079: 3068: 3062: 3061: 3055: 3050: 3048: 3040: 3038: 3037: 3028:. Archived from 3021: 3012: 3011: 2991: 2980: 2979: 2977: 2976: 2967:. Archived from 2961: 2955: 2937: 2931: 2928: 2922: 2914: 2912: 2911: 2905: 2899:. Archived from 2898: 2890: 2884: 2883: 2881: 2880: 2871:. Archived from 2865: 2859: 2858: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2820: 2814: 2813: 2811: 2810: 2801:. Archived from 2795: 2789: 2788: 2786: 2779: 2771: 2765: 2764: 2762: 2761: 2755: 2749:. Archived from 2748: 2740: 2734: 2733: 2731: 2724: 2716: 2710: 2709: 2703: 2699: 2697: 2689: 2679: 2673: 2672: 2666: 2662: 2660: 2652: 2650: 2649: 2636: 2630: 2629: 2618: 2609: 2608: 2597: 2591: 2590: 2588: 2587: 2581: 2574: 2566: 2560: 2558: 2554: 2552: 2551: 2537:Calculated from 2535: 2529: 2528: 2526: 2525: 2516:. Archived from 2510: 2497: 2496: 2481: 2475: 2474: 2472: 2471: 2462:. Archived from 2456: 2450: 2449: 2438: 2432: 2431: 2429: 2428: 2419:. Archived from 2408: 2402: 2401: 2399: 2398: 2389:. Archived from 2383: 2374: 2373: 2371: 2370: 2355: 2349: 2348: 2346: 2344: 2325: 2319: 2318: 2316: 2315: 2293: 2287: 2286: 2280: 2276: 2274: 2266: 2264: 2262: 2253:. Archived from 2242: 2236: 2235: 2215: 2209: 2208: 2188: 2182: 2181: 2165: 2155: 2149: 2148: 2132: 2122: 2116: 2110: 2104: 2103: 2087: 2081: 2080: 2072: 2066: 2065: 2063: 2062: 2056: 2050:. Archived from 2041: 2032: 2026: 2011: 2005: 2004: 2002: 2001: 1986: 1980: 1979: 1967: 1961: 1960: 1949: 1943: 1942: 1940: 1939: 1933: 1926: 1918: 1912: 1911: 1909: 1908: 1897:"March 13, 1996" 1892: 1886: 1885: 1883: 1882: 1867: 1861: 1860: 1858: 1857: 1832: 1826: 1825: 1823: 1822: 1813:. Archived from 1807: 1801: 1800: 1798: 1797: 1778: 1769: 1759: 1753: 1752: 1744: 1729: 1728: 1726: 1725: 1700: 1694: 1693: 1691: 1690: 1679: 1673: 1672: 1670: 1669: 1654: 1648: 1647: 1645: 1644: 1635:. Remm.nlm.gov. 1629: 1623: 1622: 1602: 1596: 1595: 1593: 1591: 1556: 1547: 1546: 1544: 1513: 1507: 1506: 1490: 1481: 1480: 1460: 1449: 1448: 1428: 1422: 1421: 1419: 1418: 1409:. Archived from 1403: 1386: 1385: 1383: 1382: 1373:. Archived from 1367: 1358: 1357: 1346: 1331: 1330: 1319: 1287:Nuclear strategy 1010:(TREE) effects. 979:greater than 50 903:fission products 899:fission neutrons 887:depleted uranium 855:thermal neutrons 827:main battle tank 686: 682: 674: 662:galvanized steel 655: 644: 640: 636: 624: 613: 444:Mordechai Vanunu 327: 323: 195:depleted uranium 66:Prompt radiation 22: 18: 3551: 3550: 3544: 3543: 3542: 3540: 3539: 3538: 3534:Nuclear weapons 3509: 3508: 3492:Wayback Machine 3476: 3464: 3462: 3458: 3451: 3435: 3413: 3411:Further reading 3408: 3399: 3397: 3387: 3370: 3361: 3359: 3345: 3328: 3321: 3297: 3293: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3268: 3260:. p. 151. 3248: 3244: 3235:. 3 June 2013. 3232:TheGuardian.com 3225: 3224: 3220: 3211: 3209: 3200: 3199: 3195: 3186:on 2014-05-06. 3178: 3177: 3173: 3164: 3162: 3153: 3152: 3148: 3135: 3134: 3130: 3110: 3109: 3105: 3088: 3087: 3083: 3070: 3069: 3065: 3054:|magazine= 3053: 3051: 3042: 3041: 3035: 3033: 3022: 3015: 3008: 2992: 2983: 2974: 2972: 2963: 2962: 2958: 2952:Wayback Machine 2944: 2938: 2934: 2916: 2915: 2909: 2907: 2903: 2896: 2894:"Archived copy" 2892: 2891: 2887: 2878: 2876: 2867: 2866: 2862: 2849: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2829:. ShieldCrest. 2821: 2817: 2808: 2806: 2797: 2796: 2792: 2784: 2777: 2773: 2772: 2768: 2759: 2757: 2753: 2746: 2742: 2741: 2737: 2729: 2722: 2718: 2717: 2713: 2701: 2700: 2691: 2690: 2680: 2676: 2664: 2663: 2654: 2653: 2647: 2645: 2637: 2633: 2620: 2619: 2612: 2599: 2598: 2594: 2585: 2583: 2579: 2572: 2568: 2567: 2563: 2556: 2549: 2547: 2538: 2536: 2532: 2523: 2521: 2512: 2511: 2500: 2483: 2482: 2478: 2469: 2467: 2458: 2457: 2453: 2440: 2439: 2435: 2426: 2424: 2411:Boersma, Hans. 2409: 2405: 2396: 2394: 2385: 2384: 2377: 2368: 2366: 2357: 2356: 2352: 2342: 2340: 2327: 2326: 2322: 2313: 2311: 2294: 2290: 2278: 2277: 2268: 2267: 2260: 2258: 2243: 2239: 2232: 2216: 2212: 2205: 2189: 2185: 2178: 2156: 2152: 2145: 2123: 2119: 2111: 2107: 2088: 2084: 2073: 2069: 2060: 2058: 2054: 2039: 2033: 2029: 2024:Wayback Machine 2012: 2008: 1999: 1997: 1988: 1987: 1983: 1968: 1964: 1951: 1950: 1946: 1937: 1935: 1931: 1924: 1920: 1919: 1915: 1906: 1904: 1893: 1889: 1880: 1878: 1869: 1868: 1864: 1855: 1853: 1833: 1829: 1820: 1818: 1809: 1808: 1804: 1795: 1793: 1780: 1779: 1772: 1760: 1756: 1745: 1732: 1723: 1721: 1701: 1697: 1688: 1686: 1681: 1680: 1676: 1667: 1665: 1656: 1655: 1651: 1642: 1640: 1631: 1630: 1626: 1619: 1603: 1599: 1589: 1587: 1557: 1550: 1515: 1514: 1510: 1491: 1484: 1477: 1461: 1452: 1445: 1429: 1425: 1416: 1414: 1405: 1404: 1389: 1380: 1378: 1369: 1368: 1361: 1348: 1347: 1334: 1321: 1320: 1309: 1305: 1292:Nuclear warfare 1267: 1205: 1180: 1174: 1156:; for example, 1032: 1019:mean free paths 924: 838:graded-Z shield 795:neutron poisons 746: 732: 724:desert climates 698: 684: 680: 672: 666:area denial use 653: 642: 638: 634: 622: 611: 592: 470: 462:Leonid Brezhnev 452:Washington Post 245:Samuel T. Cohen 241: 199:natural uranium 175: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3549: 3548: 3537: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3524:Energy weapons 3521: 3507: 3506: 3500: 3495: 3482: 3475: 3474:External links 3472: 3471: 3470: 3439: 3433: 3412: 3409: 3407: 3406: 3368: 3326: 3319: 3291: 3273: 3266: 3242: 3218: 3193: 3171: 3146: 3143:on 2013-03-02. 3128: 3103: 3081: 3063: 3013: 3006: 2981: 2956: 2942: 2932: 2885: 2860: 2842: 2835: 2815: 2790: 2766: 2735: 2711: 2674: 2631: 2610: 2592: 2561: 2530: 2498: 2476: 2451: 2433: 2417:www.orbat85.nl 2403: 2375: 2361:. 2006-10-14. 2350: 2320: 2288: 2237: 2230: 2210: 2203: 2183: 2176: 2150: 2143: 2117: 2105: 2082: 2067: 2027: 2006: 1981: 1962: 1944: 1913: 1887: 1862: 1845:Tribune-Review 1827: 1802: 1788:. 1978-04-07. 1770: 1754: 1730: 1695: 1674: 1649: 1624: 1617: 1597: 1548: 1508: 1495:"53T6 Gazelle" 1482: 1475: 1450: 1443: 1423: 1387: 1359: 1332: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1300: 1299: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1266: 1263: 1262: 1261: 1255: 1245: 1244: 1238: 1232: 1222: 1221: 1215: 1204: 1201: 1193:alpha particle 1173: 1170: 1115:alpha particle 1101:(T") creating 1031: 1028: 1023:exoatmospheric 989:semiconductors 923: 920: 875:fusion neutron 807:reactive armor 731: 728: 696: 591: 588: 547:M110 howitzers 469: 466: 372: 371: 366: 361: 355: 354: 349: 344: 338: 337: 334: 331: 276:Sprint missile 240: 237: 183:radiation case 174: 171: 160:began for the 137:, used on the 112:nuclear fusion 86: 85: 82: 79: 75: 74: 71: 68: 62: 61: 58: 55: 54:Thermal energy 51: 50: 47: 44: 40: 39: 36: 30: 29: 26: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3547: 3546: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3516: 3514: 3504: 3501: 3499: 3496: 3493: 3489: 3486: 3483: 3481: 3478: 3477: 3461:on 2015-10-23 3457: 3450: 3449: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3430: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3414: 3396: 3392: 3385: 3383: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3375: 3373: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3343: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3333: 3331: 3322: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3303: 3295: 3287: 3283: 3277: 3269: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3254: 3246: 3238: 3234: 3233: 3228: 3222: 3207: 3203: 3197: 3190: 3185: 3181: 3175: 3161:on 2014-05-06 3160: 3156: 3150: 3142: 3138: 3132: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3115: 3107: 3100: 3095: 3091: 3085: 3077: 3073: 3067: 3059: 3046: 3045:cite magazine 3032:on 2018-08-10 3031: 3027: 3020: 3018: 3009: 3003: 2999: 2998: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2971:on 2014-08-11 2970: 2966: 2960: 2953: 2949: 2946: 2936: 2926: 2920: 2906:on 2011-10-19 2902: 2895: 2889: 2875:on 2011-01-05 2874: 2870: 2864: 2856: 2852: 2846: 2838: 2836:9780955855771 2832: 2828: 2827: 2819: 2805:on 2006-01-13 2804: 2800: 2794: 2783: 2776: 2770: 2756:on 2015-07-17 2752: 2745: 2739: 2728: 2721: 2715: 2707: 2702:|first1= 2695: 2687: 2686: 2678: 2670: 2665:|first1= 2658: 2644: 2643: 2635: 2627: 2623: 2617: 2615: 2606: 2602: 2596: 2578: 2571: 2565: 2545: 2541: 2534: 2520:on 2013-06-30 2519: 2515: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2480: 2466:on 2006-01-13 2465: 2461: 2455: 2447: 2443: 2437: 2423:on 2015-09-24 2422: 2418: 2414: 2407: 2393:on 2011-01-05 2392: 2388: 2382: 2380: 2364: 2360: 2354: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2324: 2309: 2305: 2304: 2299: 2292: 2284: 2279:|author= 2272: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2245:ISN Editors. 2241: 2233: 2227: 2223: 2222: 2214: 2206: 2200: 2196: 2195: 2187: 2179: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2163: 2154: 2146: 2140: 2136: 2131: 2130: 2121: 2114: 2109: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2086: 2078: 2071: 2057:on 2015-02-07 2053: 2049: 2045: 2038: 2031: 2025: 2021: 2018: 2016: 2010: 1995: 1991: 1985: 1977: 1973: 1966: 1958: 1954: 1948: 1934:on 2011-10-23 1930: 1923: 1917: 1902: 1898: 1891: 1876: 1872: 1866: 1851: 1847: 1846: 1841: 1837: 1831: 1817:on 2007-09-29 1816: 1812: 1806: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1777: 1775: 1767: 1764: 1758: 1750: 1743: 1741: 1739: 1737: 1735: 1719: 1715: 1714: 1709: 1705: 1699: 1684: 1678: 1663: 1659: 1653: 1638: 1634: 1628: 1620: 1614: 1610: 1609: 1601: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1555: 1553: 1543: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1512: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1489: 1487: 1478: 1476:9780674826106 1472: 1468: 1467: 1459: 1457: 1455: 1446: 1440: 1436: 1435: 1427: 1413:on 2015-02-28 1412: 1408: 1402: 1400: 1398: 1396: 1394: 1392: 1377:on 2018-01-03 1376: 1372: 1366: 1364: 1355: 1351: 1345: 1343: 1341: 1339: 1337: 1328: 1324: 1318: 1316: 1314: 1312: 1307: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1268: 1259: 1256: 1253: 1250: 1249: 1248: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1226: 1225: 1219: 1216: 1213: 1210: 1209: 1208: 1200: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1185: 1179: 1169: 1168:of 244 days. 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1154: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1087: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1060:surface-burst 1057: 1053: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1037: 1027: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1011: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 990: 986: 985:silicon chips 982: 978: 972: 967: 966:pilot noted: 965: 961: 960:CIM-10 Bomarc 957: 956:AIM-26 Falcon 952: 949: 944: 939: 935: 931: 929: 928:missile silos 919: 917: 913: 909: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 880: 876: 871: 866: 862: 860: 856: 852: 851:fast neutrons 848: 843: 839: 835: 830: 828: 824: 820: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 799:boron carbide 796: 792: 787: 785: 780: 779:New Scientist 776: 768: 763: 759: 755: 750: 745: 741: 737: 727: 725: 721: 717: 713: 708: 705: 700: 694: 689: 678: 669: 667: 663: 659: 651: 646: 632: 628: 620: 616: 609: 605: 596: 587: 583: 579: 577: 573: 569: 565: 560: 556: 548: 543: 539: 537: 530: 525: 522: 520: 516: 512: 509: 505: 496: 492: 487: 483: 479: 474: 465: 463: 459: 454: 453: 447: 445: 440: 438: 434: 429: 428:ABM-3 Gazelle 425: 420: 415: 412: 409: 405: 403: 399: 394: 392: 388: 384: 380: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 356: 353: 350: 348: 345: 343: 340: 339: 335: 332: 329: 328: 322: 320: 316: 312: 311:Ronald Reagan 308: 304: 300: 295: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 252: 250: 246: 236: 234: 228: 226: 221: 216: 211: 207: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 173:Basic concept 170: 168: 167:Ronald Reagan 163: 159: 154: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 127: 125: 121: 116: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 83: 80: 77: 76: 72: 69: 67: 64: 63: 59: 56: 53: 52: 48: 45: 42: 41: 37: 35: 32: 31: 23: 3463:. Retrieved 3456:the original 3447: 3421: 3398:. Retrieved 3394: 3360:. Retrieved 3301: 3294: 3276: 3252: 3245: 3230: 3221: 3210:. Retrieved 3196: 3187: 3184:the original 3174: 3163:. Retrieved 3159:the original 3149: 3141:the original 3131: 3123: 3113: 3106: 3097: 3084: 3066: 3034:. Retrieved 3030:the original 2996: 2973:. Retrieved 2969:the original 2959: 2935: 2908:. Retrieved 2901:the original 2888: 2877:. Retrieved 2873:the original 2863: 2845: 2825: 2818: 2807:. Retrieved 2803:the original 2793: 2769: 2758:. Retrieved 2751:the original 2738: 2714: 2684: 2677: 2646:. Retrieved 2641: 2634: 2595: 2584:. Retrieved 2564: 2555:assuming 0.5 2548:. Retrieved 2533: 2522:. Retrieved 2518:the original 2488: 2479: 2468:. Retrieved 2464:the original 2454: 2446:the original 2436: 2425:. Retrieved 2421:the original 2416: 2406: 2395:. Retrieved 2391:the original 2367:. Retrieved 2353: 2341:. Retrieved 2332: 2323: 2312:. Retrieved 2301: 2291: 2259:. Retrieved 2255:the original 2250: 2240: 2220: 2213: 2193: 2186: 2161: 2153: 2128: 2120: 2112: 2108: 2095: 2085: 2076: 2070: 2059:. Retrieved 2052:the original 2047: 2043: 2030: 2009: 1998:. Retrieved 1984: 1975: 1965: 1947: 1936:. Retrieved 1929:the original 1916: 1905:. Retrieved 1890: 1879:. Retrieved 1865: 1854:. Retrieved 1843: 1830: 1819:. Retrieved 1815:the original 1805: 1794:. Retrieved 1757: 1748: 1722:. Retrieved 1711: 1698: 1687:. Retrieved 1677: 1666:. Retrieved 1652: 1641:. Retrieved 1627: 1607: 1600: 1588:. Retrieved 1568: 1564: 1524: 1520: 1511: 1498: 1493:Pike, John. 1465: 1433: 1426: 1415:. Retrieved 1411:the original 1379:. Retrieved 1375:the original 1246: 1223: 1206: 1188: 1181: 1151: 1148: 1123:fast neutron 1105:, freeing a 1079: 1072:fission bomb 1049: 1036:Lord Gilbert 1033: 1012: 1007: 994: 974: 969: 953: 940: 936: 932: 925: 915: 884: 842:polyethylene 832:A composite 831: 788: 778: 772: 709: 701: 690: 677:overpressure 670: 647: 601: 584: 580: 552: 535: 532: 527: 523: 500: 482:West Germany 458:Harold Brown 450: 448: 441: 419:dial-a-yield 416: 413: 410: 406: 401: 395: 375: 336:Gun caliber 299:Jimmy Carter 296: 256:MGM-52 Lance 253: 242: 229: 215:fission bomb 212: 208: 179:fission bomb 176: 162:MGM-52 Lance 155: 128: 124:West Germany 117: 99: 95: 92:neutron bomb 91: 89: 25:Energy type 2489:www.gwu.edu 2261:23 December 1895:John Pike. 1590:11 February 1277:Cobalt bomb 1199:/fireball. 1153:salted bomb 1052:area denial 948:Polaris A-3 891:M1A1 Abrams 823:medium tank 720:water vapor 480:" to seize 3513:Categories 3465:2016-11-14 3443:Cohen, Sam 3418:Cohen, Sam 3400:2022-06-24 3362:2021-07-24 3212:2012-11-27 3165:2014-05-06 3036:2018-10-05 2975:2014-08-09 2910:2011-11-29 2879:2007-04-20 2809:2005-12-21 2760:2014-03-02 2648:2012-10-12 2586:2012-10-12 2550:2014-04-21 2524:2014-08-09 2470:2005-12-21 2427:2015-08-30 2397:2007-04-20 2369:2012-10-12 2314:2012-08-08 2061:2015-02-07 2000:2012-10-12 1938:2012-10-12 1907:2012-10-12 1881:2012-10-12 1856:2010-07-03 1821:2012-10-11 1796:2010-07-02 1724:2010-12-02 1689:2013-11-30 1668:2013-11-30 1643:2013-11-30 1417:2014-09-04 1381:2014-03-03 1303:References 1247:Artillery 1176:See also: 1117:that will 1097:("D) with 977:Ionization 819:light tank 775:stockpiled 740:Object 279 734:See also: 576:BGM-71 TOW 572:M47 Dragon 545:U.S. Army 511:Tsar Bomba 398:Cox Report 315:propaganda 268:Los Alamos 220:gamma rays 3258:CRC Press 2694:cite book 2657:cite book 1633:"Mock up" 1571:(7): 27. 1252:W79 Mod 0 1166:half-life 1095:deuterium 582:weapons. 515:air burst 402:to Europe 379:W79 Mod 0 38:Enhanced 3488:Archived 3420:(1983). 3286:Archived 3237:Archived 3206:Archived 3120:Archived 3094:Archived 3076:Archived 2948:Archived 2919:cite web 2855:Archived 2782:Archived 2727:Archived 2626:Archived 2605:Archived 2577:Archived 2544:Archived 2493:Archived 2363:Archived 2337:Archived 2308:Archived 2271:cite web 2100:Archived 2020:Archived 1994:Archived 1957:Archived 1901:Archived 1875:Archived 1850:Archived 1790:Archived 1766:Archived 1718:Archived 1662:Archived 1637:Archived 1503:Archived 1354:Archived 1327:Archived 1265:See also 1143:regolith 1139:ablation 1103:helium-4 895:captures 879:Sieverts 797:such as 716:hydrogen 668:below). 604:airburst 491:REFORGER 391:Cold War 333:Enhanced 203:neutrons 3529:Neutron 3357:1429158 3189:X-rays. 2077:nuclnet 1573:Bibcode 1529:Bibcode 1158:zinc-64 1107:neutron 1099:tritium 1084:fallout 1080:cleaner 1056:fallout 1006:by the 916:fission 908:Ducrete 637:690–900 590:Effects 508:megaton 504:kiloton 330:Initial 247:of the 187:uranium 34:Fission 3431: 3355: 3317: 3264: 3004: 2833: 2557: 2343:5 June 2228: 2201: 2174: 2141: 2137:–133. 1615: 1473: 1441: 1015:X-rays 1004:glitch 962:. One 742:, and 685: 681: 673: 654: 643: 639: 635: 623: 612: 557:, and 433:Moscow 424:Russia 352:155 mm 143:Nike-X 139:Sprint 120:Soviet 3459:(PDF) 3452:(PDF) 2904:(PDF) 2897:(PDF) 2785:(PDF) 2778:(PDF) 2754:(PDF) 2747:(PDF) 2730:(PDF) 2723:(PDF) 2580:(PDF) 2573:(PDF) 2055:(PDF) 2040:(PDF) 1932:(PDF) 1925:(PDF) 964:F-102 825:, or 762:boron 758:barns 718:from 664:(see 633:(< 536:exact 519:pulse 369:203mm 278:, an 147:A-135 43:Blast 3429:ISBN 3353:OSTI 3315:ISBN 3262:ISBN 3058:help 3002:ISBN 2925:link 2831:ISBN 2706:help 2669:help 2345:2015 2283:help 2263:2014 2226:ISBN 2199:ISBN 2172:ISBN 2139:ISBN 1613:ISBN 1592:2011 1471:ISBN 1439:ISBN 1189:pure 981:Gray 958:and 901:and 868:The 859:T-72 793:and 752:The 704:soil 629:and 574:and 553:The 495:NATO 307:USSR 191:lead 151:53T6 3307:doi 2168:134 2135:132 1786:BBC 1581:doi 1537:doi 1258:W82 1241:W70 1235:W64 1229:W63 1218:W66 1212:W65 1141:of 1111:MeV 983:in 695:(LD 683:600 615:MeV 468:Use 364:W79 359:W33 347:W82 342:W48 288:W66 284:W65 272:W70 266:at 264:W64 260:W63 197:or 158:W70 149:'s 135:W66 100:ERW 3515:: 3424:. 3393:. 3371:^ 3329:^ 3313:. 3305:. 3284:. 3256:. 3229:. 3118:. 3092:. 3074:. 3049:: 3047:}} 3043:{{ 3016:^ 2984:^ 2921:}} 2917:{{ 2853:. 2780:. 2725:. 2698:: 2696:}} 2692:{{ 2661:: 2659:}} 2655:{{ 2624:. 2613:^ 2603:. 2575:. 2542:. 2501:^ 2491:. 2487:. 2415:. 2378:^ 2331:. 2306:. 2300:. 2275:: 2273:}} 2269:{{ 2249:. 2170:. 2098:. 2094:. 2046:. 2042:. 1974:. 1955:. 1873:. 1848:. 1842:. 1784:. 1773:^ 1733:^ 1716:. 1710:. 1579:. 1569:34 1567:. 1563:. 1551:^ 1535:. 1525:52 1523:. 1519:. 1501:. 1497:. 1485:^ 1453:^ 1390:^ 1362:^ 1352:. 1335:^ 1325:. 1310:^ 1086:. 1047:. 829:. 821:, 738:, 697:50 650:Gy 225:eV 189:, 90:A 84:5 81:10 57:35 46:50 3468:. 3437:. 3403:. 3365:. 3323:. 3309:: 3270:. 3215:. 3168:. 3116:" 3112:" 3060:) 3056:( 3039:. 3010:. 2978:. 2943:2 2927:) 2913:. 2882:. 2839:. 2812:. 2763:. 2708:) 2688:. 2671:) 2651:. 2589:. 2553:. 2527:. 2473:. 2430:. 2400:. 2372:. 2347:. 2317:. 2285:) 2265:. 2234:. 2207:. 2180:. 2147:. 2079:. 2064:. 2048:8 2003:. 1978:. 1941:. 1910:. 1884:. 1859:. 1824:. 1799:. 1761:" 1727:. 1692:. 1671:. 1646:. 1621:. 1594:. 1583:: 1575:: 1545:. 1539:: 1531:: 1447:. 1420:. 1384:. 769:. 223:M 98:( 70:5

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index