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events like the accidents at Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and
Fukushima. The latest standards include extended requirements related to severe accident prevention and mitigation. The range of postulated initiating events taken into account in the design of the plant has been expanded to include, in a systematic way, multiple equipment failures and other very unlikely events, resulting in a very high level of prevention of accidents leading to melting of the fuel. Despite the high level of prevention of core melt accidents, the design must be such as to ensure the capability to mitigate the consequences of severe degradation of the reactor core. For this, it is necessary to postulate a representative set of core melt accident sequences that will be used to design mitigating features to be implemented in theplant design to ensure the protection of the containment function and avoid large or early radioactive releases into the environment. According to WENRA , the objective is to ensure that even in the worst case, the impact of any radioactive releases to the environment would be limited to within a few km of the site boundary. These latest requirements are reflected in the very low fatality rate for the Generation III European Pressurised-water Reactor (EPR) given in figure 3.5-1. The fatality rate associated with future nuclear energy are the lowest of all the technologies.
726:(USNRC) concluded that the liability limits placed on nuclear insurance were significant enough to constitute a subsidy, but did not attempt to quantify the value of such a subsidy at that time. Shortly after this in 1990, Dubin and Rothwell were the first to estimate the value to the U.S. nuclear industry of the limitation on liability for nuclear power plants under the Price Anderson Act. Their underlying method was to extrapolate the premiums operators currently pay versus the full liability they would have to pay for full insurance in the absence of the PAA limits. The size of the estimated subsidy per reactor per year was $ 60 million prior to the 1982 amendments, and up to $ 22 million following the 1988 amendments. In a separate article in 2003, Anthony Heyes updates the 1988 estimate of $ 22 million per year to $ 33 million (2001 dollars).
427:. Droughts and extended periods of high temperature can "cripple nuclear power generation, and it is often during these times when electricity demand is highest because of air-conditioning and refrigeration loads and diminished hydroelectric capacity". In such very hot weather a power reactor may have to operate at a reduced power level or even shut down. In 2009 in Germany, eight nuclear reactors had to be shut down simultaneously on hot summer days for reasons relating to the overheating of equipment or of rivers. Overheated discharge water has resulted in significant killing of fish in the past, harming livelihood and raising public concern. This issue applies equally to all thermal power plants including fossil-gas, coal,
1442:. It estimated an average of 1.8 million lives saved worldwide by the use of nuclear power instead of fossil fuels between 1971 and 2009. The paper examined mortality levels per unit of electrical energy produced from fossil fuels (coal and natural gas) as well as nuclear power. Kharecha and Hansen assert that their results are probably conservative, as they analyze only deaths and do not include a range of serious but non-fatal respiratory illnesses, cancers, hereditary effects and heart problems, nor do they include the fact that fossil fuel combustion in developing countries tends to have a higher carbon and air pollution footprint than in developed countries. The authors also conclude that the emission of some 64
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various types (PWR, RBMK and BWR) and the circumstances leading to these events were also very different. Severe accidents are events with extremely low probability but with potentially serious consequences and they cannot be ruled out with 100% certainty. After the
Chernobyl accident, international and national efforts focused on developing Gen III nuclear power plants designed according to enhanced requirements related to severe accident prevention and mitigation. The deployment of various Gen III plant designs started in the last 15 years worldwide and now practically only Gen III reactors are constructed and commissioned. These latest technology 10-10 fatalities/GWh, see Figure 3.5-1 (of Part A).
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effective management, operation and regulatory oversight" with the biggest potential bottleneck being human resourcesâ"coming up with enough trained personnel to build and operate all of these new plants, as well as regulate the industry". The challenge for the government and nuclear companies is to "keep an eye on a growing army of contractors and subcontractors who may be tempted to cut corners". China is advised to maintain nuclear safeguards in a business culture where quality and safety are sometimes sacrificed in favor of cost-cutting, profits, and corruption. China has asked for international assistance in training more nuclear power plant inspectors.
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enough level to be entrusted for other uses. After a cooling-off period that may last as long as a century, reactors must be dismantled and cut into small pieces to be packed in containers for final disposal. The process is very expensive, time-consuming, potentially hazardous to the natural environment, and presents new opportunities for human error, accidents or sabotage. However, despite these risks, according to the World
Nuclear Association, "In over 50 years of civil nuclear power experience, the management and disposal of civil nuclear waste has not caused any serious health or environmental problems, nor posed any real risk to the general public."
274:
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predicted by LNT, but was "statistically compatible". A case-control study looking at nuclear workers in
Belgium, France and UK exposed to alpha-emitters found strong evidence for associations between low doses of alpha radiation and lung cancer risk. Expressed as risk per equivalent dose in sieverts (Sv), the result of this study were found to be consistent with those for atomic bomb survivors, and hence provide support to existing accepted risk estimates associated with internal alpha-emitters and the radiation protection systems based on them.
712:(PAA). The Price-Anderson Act, introduced in 1957, was "an implicit admission that nuclear power provided risks that producers were unwilling to assume without federal backing". The Price-Anderson Act "shields nuclear utilities, vendors and suppliers against liability claims in the event of a catastrophic accident by imposing an upper limit on private sector liability". Without such protection, private companies were unwilling to be involved. No other technology in the history of American industry has enjoyed such continuing blanket protection.
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678:'s Minister for Public Works, called international bodies to start (or restart) funding for nuclear projects in Africa, following the example of US Development Finance Corporation. Moore accused high-income countries like Germany and Australia of "hypocrisy" and "pulling up the ladder behind them", as they have built their strong economy over decades of cheap fossil or nuclear power, and now are effectively preventing African countries from using the only low-carbon and non-intermittent alternative, the nuclear power.
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2253:(COMARE) of the incidence of childhood leukemia around British nuclear power plants. It found that the control sample of population used for comparison in the German study may have been incorrectly selected and other possible contributory factors, such as socio-economic ranking, were not taken into consideration. The committee concluded that there is no significant evidence of an association between risk of childhood leukemia (in under 5-year olds) and living in proximity to a nuclear power plant.
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nuclear companies, or through ineffectiveness or corruption on the part of nuclear regulatory authorities. Once lost, says Ramana, trust is extremely difficult to regain. Faced with public antipathy, the nuclear industry has "tried a variety of strategies to persuade the public to accept nuclear power", including the publication of numerous "fact sheets" that discuss issues of public concern. Ramana says that none of these strategies have been very successful.
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anti-nuclear power sentiment was heightened after the Three Mile Island's partial meltdown and the
Chernobyl Disaster, turning public sentiment even more against nuclear-power. Pro-nuclear power groups, however, have increasingly pointed towards the potential of Nuclear energy to reduce carbon emissions, it being a safer alternative to means of production such as coal, and the overall danger associated with nuclear power to be exaggerated through the media.
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reports mentioned above and based primarily on very large potential of nuclear power to decarbonize electricity production. For nuclear power, the
Taxonomy covers research and development of new Generation IV reactors, new nuclear power plants built with Generation III reactors and life-time extension of existing nuclear power plants. All projects must satisfy requirements as to the safety, thermal pollution and waste management.
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2678:, stated: "It is wrong to shut down the atomic power plants, because this is a cheap source of energy, and wind and solar power are by no means able to provide a replacement. They are much more expensive, and the energy that comes out is of inferior quality. Energy-intensive industries will move out, and the competitiveness of the German manufacturing sector will be reduced or wages will be depressed."
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largest contribution coming from the nuclear energy lifecycle in countries operating nuclear power plants. Presently, there is broad scientific and technical consensus that disposal of high-level, long-lived radioactive waste in deep geologic formations is, at the state of todayâs knowledge, considered as an appropriate and safe means of isolating it from the biosphere for very long time scales.
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Solar energy has significantly lower fatality rates. (...) Operating nuclear power plants are subject to continuous improvement. As a result of lessons learned from operating experience, the development of scientific knowledge, or as safety standards are updated, reasonably practicable safety improvements are implemented at existing nuclear power plants.
2736:, was launched in the United States. This project aims to provide a clear pathway to a sustainable, low cost, zero-carbon future. Collaborators in the OPEN100 project include Framatome, Studsvik, the UK's National Nuclear Laboratory, Siemens, Pillsbury, the Electric Power Research Institute, the US Department of Energy's Idaho National Laboratory, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
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841:(land surface area used per power output), nuclear power has median density of 240 W/m, which is 34x more than solar power (6.63 W/m) and 130x more than wind power (1.84 W/m) meaning than when the same power output is to be provided by nuclear or renewable sources, the latter are going to use tens to hundreds times more land surface for the same amount of power produced.
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7,000 hours is roughly representative of how long any given reactor will remain critical in a year, meaning that the scram rates translates into a sudden and unplanned shutdown about 0.6 times per year for any given reactor in the world. The unplanned capacity loss factor represents amount of power not produced due to unplanned scrams and postponed restarts.
2249:(76%) in children aged less than 5 within 5 km (3.1 mi) of 15 German nuclear power plant sites. It red a 2.2-fold increase in leukemias and a 1.6-fold increase in solid (mainly embryonal) cancers among children living within 5 km of all German nuclear power stations." In 2011 a new study of the KiKK data was incorporated into an assessment by the
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while even much higher numbers of casualties but evenly spread over time are not perceived as equally important. In comparison, in the EU over 400'000 premature deaths per year are attributed to air pollution, and 480'000 premature deaths per year for smokers and 40'000 of non-smokers per year as result of tobacco in the US.
1547:) reactors, and estimated two metricsâfatality rate per GWh (reflecting casualties related to normal operations), and a maximum credible number of casualties in a single hypothetical accident, reflecting general risk aversion. In respect to the fatality rate per GWh in Generation II reactors it made the following conclusion:
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repositories which are well-managed, guarded, and monitored, would be a vast improvement. There is an international consensus on the advisability of storing nuclear waste in deep underground repositories, but no country in the world has yet opened such a site as of 2009. There are dedicated waste storage sites at the
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calling to increase share of nuclear power as the most effective way of reducing EU's reliance on fossil fuels. The letter also condemned "multi-facetted misrepresentation" and "rigged information about nuclear, with opinion driven by fear" which results in shutting down of stable, low-carbon nuclear power plants.
92:, reduces a dependence on imported fuels and exposure to price risks associated with resource speculation and foreign policy. Nuclear power produces virtually no air pollution, providing significant environmental benefits compared to the sizeable amount of pollution and carbon emission generated from burning
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says that the basic problem is that there is "distrust of the social institutions that manage nuclear energy", and a 2001 survey by the
European Commission found that "only 10.1 percent of Europeans trusted the nuclear industry". This public distrust is periodically reinforced by safety violations by
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A German study on childhood cancer in the vicinity of nuclear power plants called "the KiKK study" was published in
December 2007. According to Ian Fairlie, it "resulted in a public outcry and media debate in Germany which has received little attention elsewhere". It has been established "partly as a
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A major concern in the nuclear debate is what the long-term effects of living near or working in a nuclear power station are. These concerns typically center on the potential for increased risks of cancer. However, studies conducted by non-profit, neutral agencies have found no compelling evidence of
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The JRC report notes that "such a number of fatalities, even if based on very pessimistic assumptions, has an impact on public perception due to disaster (or risk) aversion", explaining that general public attributes higher apparent importance to low-frequency events with higher number of casualties,
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Generation III nuclear power plants are designed fully in accordance with the latest international safety standards that have been continually updated to take account of advancement in knowledge and of the lessons learned from operating experience, including major
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About 95% of nuclear waste by volume is classified as very low-level waste (VLLW) or low-level waste (LLW), with 4% being intermediate-level waste (ILW) and less than 1% being high-level waste (HLW). From 1954 (the start of nuclear energy production) until the end of 2016, about 390,000 tons of spent
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Much as leading climate scientists have recently advocated the development of safe, next-generation nuclear energy systems to combat climate change, we entreat the conservation and environmental community to weigh up the pros and cons of different energy sources using objective evidence and pragmatic
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In July 2020 Good Energy
Collective, the first women-only pressure group advocating nuclear power as part of the climate change mitigation solutions was formed in the US. In March 2021, 46 environmental organizations from European Union wrote an open letter to the President of the European Commission
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emissions from nuclear power that are unsupported by the scientific data. Their influence has been attributed to "shocking" results of 2020 poll in France, where 69% of the respondents believed that nuclear power contributes to climate change. Greenpeace
Australia for example claimed that "thereâs no
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declared that nuclear power was a "step on the long road to peace," and that by using "science and technology to achieve significant breakthroughs" that we could "conserve the resources" to leave the world in better shape. Yet he also acknowledged that the Atomic Age was a "dreadful age" and "when we
9207:
Cardis, E; Vrijheid, M; Blettner, M; Gilbert, E; Hakama, M; Hill, C; Howe, G; Kaldor, J; Muirhead, CR; Schubauer-Berigan, M; Yoshimura, T; Bermann, F; Cowper, G; Fix, J; Hacker, C; Heinmiller, B; Marshall, M; Thierry-Chef, I; Utterback, D; Ahn, YO; Amoros, E; Ashmore, P; Auvinen, A; Bae, JM; Solano,
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The average annual exposure to a member of the public, due to effects attributable to nuclear energy-based electricity production is about 0.2 microsievert, which is ten thousand times less than the average annual dose due to the natural background radiation. According to the LCIA (Life Cycle Impact
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does not require operator actions or electronic feedback in order to shut down safely in the event of a particular type of emergency (usually overheating resulting from a loss of coolant or loss of coolant flow). This is in contrast to older-yet-common reactor designs, where the natural tendency for
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a number of countries explicitly listed nuclear power as part of their commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In June 2019, an open letter to "the leadership and people of Germany", written by almost 100 Polish environmentalists and scientist, urged Germany to "reconsider the decision on the
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In May 2023, the Washington Post wrote, "Had Germany kept its nuclear plants running from 2010, it could have slashed its use of coal for electricity to 13 percent by now. Todayâs figure is 31 percent... Already more lives might have been lost just in Germany because of air pollution from coal power
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is mined in countries willing to export, including Australia and Canada. Periods of low prices of fossil fuels and renewable energy typically reduced political interest towards nuclear power, while periods of expensive fossil fuels and underachieving renewable energy increased it. Increased interest
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Multiple studies since then suggest that Germany did more harm than good. In the latest of these studies, a working paper recently published by the National Bureau of Economic Research, three economists modeled Germany's electrical system to see what would have happened if it had kept those nuclear
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Most experts on nuclear energy agree that nuclear power has no negative health consequences during normal operation, and that even the rare incidents have only caused a limited number of casualties. All experts also concur that nuclear power emits little greenhouse gases and most agree that nuclear
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units. The first two EPR projects, in Finland and France, were meant to lead a nuclear renaissance but both are facing costly construction delays. Construction commenced on two Chinese EPR units in 2009 and 2010. The Chinese units were to start operation in 2014 and 2015, but the Chinese government
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Management of radioactive waste and its safe and secure disposal is a necessary step in the lifecycle of all applications of nuclear science and technology (nuclear energy, research, industry, education, medical, and other). Radioactive waste is therefore generated in practically every country, the
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Governments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options, usually involving deep-geologic placement, although there has been limited progress toward implementing long-term waste management solutions. This is partly because the timeframes in question when dealing
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of carbon dioxide and a catastrophic 4 °C (7.2 °F) average rise in temperature. Public perception is that renewable energies such as wind, solar, biomass and geothermal are significantly affecting global warming. All of these sources combined only supplied 1.3% of global energy in 2013 as
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Renewables like wind and solar and biomass will certainly play roles in a future energy economy, but those energy sources cannot scale up fast enough to deliver cheap and reliable power at the scale the global economy requires. While it may be theoretically possible to stabilize the climate without
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announced selecting two U.S.-based teams to receive $ 160 million in initial funding under the new Advanced Reactor Demonstration Program (ARDP). TerraPower LLC (Bellevue, WA) and X-energy (Rockville, MD) were each awarded $ 80 million to build two advanced nuclear reactors that can be operational
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radiation background, using a cohort of 385,103 residents, concludes that "showed no excess cancer risk from exposure to terrestrial gamma radiation" and that "Although the statistical power of the study might not be adequate due to the low dose, our cancer incidence study suggests it is unlikely
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released to the environment have been adopted. As such, deaths caused by these accidents are minimal, to the point at which the Fukushima evacuation efforts caused an estimated 32 times the number of deaths caused by the accident itself, with 1,000 to 1,600 deaths from the evacuation, and 40 to 50
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globally (including Canada and Germany) already exist and store highly toxic waste such as arsenic, mercury and cyanide, which, unlike nuclear waste, does not lose toxicity over time. Numerous media reports about alleged "radioactive leaks" from nuclear storage sites in Germany also confused waste
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Nuclear waste disposal is one of the most controversial facets of the nuclear power debate. Presently, waste is mainly stored at individual reactor sites and there are over 430 locations around the world where radioactive material continues to accumulate. Experts agree that centralized underground
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described shutting down of operational nuclear power plants as depriving Europe of low-carbon energy capacity. Organizations such as Climate Bonds Initiative, Stand Up for Nuclear, Nuklearia and Mothers for Nuclear Germany-Austria-Switzerland are organizing periodic events in defense of the plants
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The SCHEER is of the opinion that the findings and recommendations of the report with respect of the non-radiological impacts are in the main comprehensive. (...) The SCHEER broadly agrees with these statements, however, the SCHEER is of the view that dependence on an operational regulatory
640:
A 2010 report by Global Subsidies Initiative compared relative subsidies of most common energy sources. It found that nuclear energy receives 1.7 US cents per kilowatt hour (kWh) of energy it produces, compared to fossil fuels receiving 0.8 US cents per kWh, renewable energy receiving 5.0 US cents
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The total energy required for decommissioning can be as much as 50% more than the energy needed for the original construction. In most cases, the decommissioning process costs between US$ 300 million to US$ 5.6 billion. Decommissioning at nuclear sites which have experienced a serious accident are
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China's fast-expanding nuclear sector is opting for cheap technology that "will be 100 years old by the time dozens of its reactors reach the end of their lifespans", according to diplomatic cables from the US embassy in Beijing. The rush to build new nuclear power plants may "create problems for
2162:
Scientists learned about exposure to high level radiation from studies of the effects of bombing populations at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. However, it is difficult to trace the relationship of low level radiation exposure to resulting cancers and mutations. This is because the latency period between
1716:
Severe accidents with core melt did happen in nuclear power plants and the public is well aware of the consequences of the three major accidents, namely Three Mile Island (1979, US), Chernobyl (1986, Soviet Union) and Fukushima (2011, Japan). The NPPs involved in these accidents were of
1497:
In comparison to other sources of power, nuclear power is (along with solar and wind energy) among the safest, accounting for all the risks from mining to production to storage, including the risks of spectacular nuclear accidents. Sources of health effects from nuclear power include occupational
997:
In February 2022 European Commission published the Complementary Climate Delegated Act to the taxonomy, that set specific criteria under which nuclear power may be included in sustainable energy funding schemes. Inclusion of nuclear power and fossil gas in the taxonomy was justified by scientific
729:
In case of a nuclear accident, should claims exceed this primary liability, the PAA requires all licensees to additionally provide a maximum of $ 95.8 million into the accident poolâtotaling roughly $ 10 billion if all reactors were required to pay the maximum. This is still not sufficient in the
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has said "if reactors were safe, nuclear industries would not demand government-guaranteed, accident-liability protection, as a condition for their generating electricity". No private insurance company or even consortium of insurance companies "would shoulder the fearsome liabilities arising from
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New nuclear power plants require significant upfront investment which was so far mostly caused by highly customized designs of large plants but can be driven down by standardized, reusable designs (as did South Korea). While new nuclear power plants are more expensive than new renewable energy in
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Global Warming of 1.5 °C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and
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The maximum credible number of fatalities from a hypothetical nuclear accident at a Generation III NPP calculated by Hirschberg et al is comparable with the corresponding number for hydroelectricity generation, which is in the region of 10,000 fatalities due to hypothetical dam failure. In this
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With regard to the first metric, fatality rates, the results indicate that current Generation II nuclear power plants have a very low fatality rate compared to all forms of fossil fuel energies and comparable with hydropower in OECD countries and wind power. Only
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The price of energy inputs and the environmental costs of every nuclear power plant continue long after the facility has finished generating its last useful electricity. Both nuclear reactors and uranium enrichment facilities must be decommissioned, returning the facility and its parts to a safe
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used to fuel nuclear fission plants is a non-renewable resource, enough exists to provide a supply for hundreds to thousands of years. However, uranium resources that can be accessed in an economically feasible manner, at the present state, are limited and uranium production could hardly keep up
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was prevented by local protestors and anti-nuclear groups. The successful use of civil disobedience to prevent the building of this plant was a key moment in the anti-nuclear power movement as it sparked the creation of other groups not only in Germany, but also around the globe. The increase in
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Perrow concluded that the failure at Three Mile Island was a consequence of the system's immense complexity. Such modern high-risk systems, he realized, were prone to failures however well they were managed. It was inevitable that they would eventually suffer what he termed a 'normal accident'.
2237:(FEMA), and the local governments. Plans call for different zones, defined by distance from the plant and prevailing weather conditions and protective actions. In the reference cited, the plans detail different categories of emergencies and the protective actions including possible evacuation.
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study in 2021 compared actual and potential fatality rates for different energy generation technologies based on The Energy-Related Severe Accident Database (ENSAD). Due to the fact that actual nuclear accidents were very few as compared to technologies such as coal or fossil gas, there was an
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typically have high capital costs for building the plant, but low direct fuel costs (with much of the costs of fuel extraction, processing, use and long-term storage externalized). Therefore, comparison with other power generation methods is strongly dependent on assumptions about construction
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per 7,000 hours critical was 0.6, and the unplanned capacity loss factor was 1.6%. Capacity factor is the net power produced divided by the maximum amount possible running at 100% all the time, thus this includes all scheduled maintenance/refueling outages as well as unplanned losses. The
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found that carcinogenic effects of radiation does increase with dose. The largest study on nuclear industry workers in history involved nearly a half-million individuals and concluded that a 1â2% of cancer deaths were likely due to occupational dose. This was on the high range of what theory
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reactors, which would generate small amounts of waste and no risk of explosions. Although fusion power has taken steps forward in the lab, the multi-decade timescale needed to bring it to commercialization and then scale means it will not contribute to a 2050 net zero goal for climate change
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In 2020 a group of European scientists published an open letter to the European Commission calling for inclusion of nuclear power as "element of stability in carbon-free Europe". Also in 2020 a coalition of 30 European nuclear industry companies and research bodies published an open letter
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In recent years there has been a slowdown of electricity demand growth and financing has become more difficult, which impairs large projects such as nuclear reactors, with very large upfront costs and long project cycles which carry a large variety of risks. In Eastern Europe, a number of
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for a full year. The output has since continued to grow from newly connected reactors, returning to pre-Fukushima levels in 2019, when IEA described nuclear power as "historically one of the largest contributors of carbon-free electricity" with 452 reactors that in total produced 2'789
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No military operations were targeted against live nuclear reactors and no operations resulted in nuclear incidents. No terrorist attacks targeted live reactors, with the only recorded quasi-terrorist attacks on a nuclear power plant construction sites by anti-nuclear activists:
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long-established projects are struggling to find finance, notably Belene in Bulgaria and the additional reactors at Cernavoda in Romania, and some potential backers have pulled out. The reliable availability of cheap gas poses a major economic disincentive for nuclear projects.
9475:
Nair, Raghu Ram K.; Rajan, Balakrishnan; Akiba, Suminori; Jayalekshmi, P; Nair, M Krishnan; Gangadharan, P; Koga, Taeko; Morishima, Hiroshige; Nakamura, Seiichi; Sugahara, Tsutomu (2009). "Background Radiation and Cancer Incidence in Kerala, IndiaâKaranagappally Cohort Study".
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For instance, over a timeframe of thousands of years, after the most active short half-life radioisotopes decayed, burying U.S. nuclear waste would increase the radioactivity in the top 2,000 feet (610 m) of rock and soil in the United States (100 million km or
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While nuclear power does not directly emit greenhouse gases, emissions occur, as with every source of energy, over a facility's life cycle: mining and fabrication of construction materials, plant construction, operation, uranium mining and milling, and plant decommissioning.
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Article 31 expert group on radiation protection and SCHEER (Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks). Both groups published their reports in July 2021, largely confirming JRC conclusions, with a number of topics that require further investigation.
1878:, sparking a stock market collapse and panic-buying in supermarkets. The UK, France and some other countries advised their nationals to consider leaving Tokyo, in response to fears of spreading nuclear contamination. The accidents drew attention to ongoing concerns over
2701:) pulled out of the race on 4 February 2013 by letting go its 20% option on four new nuclear plants. Cumbria county council (a local authority) turned down an application for a final waste repository on 30 January 2013 â there is currently no alternative site on offer.
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SCHEER also pointed out that JRC conclusion that nuclear power "does less harm" as the other (e.g. renewable) technologies against which it was compared is not entirely equivalent to the "do no significant harm" criterion postulated by the taxonomy. The JRC analysis of
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in Japan on 11 March 2011, a nuclear emergency was declared. This was the first time a nuclear emergency had been declared in Japan, and 140,000 residents within 20 km (12 mi) of the plant were evacuated. Explosions and a fire resulted in increased levels of
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of electricity produced from 1970 to 1992 are quoted as 885 for hydropower, 342 for coal, 85 for natural gas, and 8 for nuclear. Nuclear power plant accidents rank first in terms of their economic cost, accounting for 41 percent of all property damage attributed to
6491:"Opinion of the Group of Experts referred to in Article 31 of the Euratom Treaty on the Joint Research Centre's Report Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the 'do no significant harm' criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 ('Taxonomy Regulation')"
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indicated that nuclear and wind power have the best benefit-to-cost ratios and called environmental movements to reconsider their position on nuclear power and evidence-based policy making. In 2013 an open-letter with the same message signed by climate scientists
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where these risks, and the risk of cheaper competitors emerging before capital costs are recovered, are borne by plant suppliers and operators rather than consumers, which leads to a significantly different evaluation of the economics of new nuclear power plants.
2510:, such as the flooding of the reactor core without active intervention by reactor operators. But these safety measures have generally been developed and studied with respect to accidents, not to the deliberate reactor attack by a terrorist group. However, the US
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Therefore, he suggested, we might do better to contemplate a radical redesign, or if that was not possible, to abandon such technology entirely. These concerns have been addressed by modern passive safety systems, which require no human intervention to function.
612:, taking the form of research and development, financing support for building new reactors and decommissioning old reactors and waste, and that these subsidies are often overlooked when comparing the economics of nuclear against other forms of power generation.
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The analyses did not reveal any science-based evidence that nuclear energy does more harm to human health or to the environment than other electricity production technologies already included in the Taxonomy as activities supporting climate change
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case of a serious accident, as the cost of damages could exceed $ 10 billion. According to the PAA, should the costs of accident damages exceed the $ 10 billion pool, the process for covering the remainder of the costs would be defined by Congress. In 1982, a
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declared her support for nuclear energy as critical part of the energy mix along with renewable energy sources and called fellow environmentalists to accept that nuclear power is part of the "scientifically assessed solutions for addressing climate change".
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successfully led to recycling 500 tonnes of Russian warhead-grade high-enriched uranium (equivalent to 20,008 nuclear warheads) to low-enriched uranium used as fuel for civilian power plants and was the most successful non-proliferation program in history.
1798:, Russia) and total radioactive emissions in Chelyabinsk accidents of 1949, 1957 and 1967 together were significantly higher than in Chernobyl. However, the region near Chelyabinsk was and is much more sparsely populated than the region around Chernobyl.
1969:
The health effects of the Three Mile Island nuclear accident are widely, but not universally, agreed to be very low level. However, there was an evacuation of 140,000 pregnant women and pre-school age children from the area. The accident crystallized
2649:
has reported that "the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world". In 2011,
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Opinion of the Group of Experts referred to in Article 31 of the Euratom Treaty on the Joint Research Centreâs Report Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the âdo no significant harmâ criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 (âTaxonomy
2618:. The reason given is: A chaotic mix of totally outdated information such as Mycle Schneider rants from 2011, some companies declaring this or that. This whole section could be probably completely removed and replaced by IEA, UNECE, IPCC pathways..
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There are additional concerns that the transportation of nuclear waste along roadways or railways opens it up for potential theft. The United Nations has since called upon world leaders to improve security in order to prevent radioactive material
1854:
leaked into the air, soil and sea. Whereas the radiation level never was an immediate life hazard outside the plant, the displacement was the direct cause of over 1500 deaths. Radiation checks led to bans on some shipments of vegetables and fish.
920:. Low carbon intensity of nuclear power was not disputed, but opponents raised nuclear waste and thermal pollution as not sustainable element that should exclude it from the sustainable taxonomy. Detailed technical analysis was delegated to the
2267:
Analysis) studies analysed in Chapter 3.4 of Part A, the total impact on human health of both the radiological and non-radiological emissions from the nuclear energy chain are comparable with the human health impact from offshore wind energy.
7091:
1214:"Net Zero by 2050" pathways published in 2021 assume growth of nuclear power capacity by 104% accompanied by 714% growth of renewable energy sources, mostly solar power. In June 2021 over 100 organisations published a position paper for the
824:(IPCC) recognizes nuclear as one of the lowest lifecycle emissions energy sources available, lower than solar, and only bested by wind. The US National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL) also cites nuclear as a very low lifecycle emissions source.
2000:
in Japan did not anticipate that a tsunami generated by an earthquake would disable the backup systems that were supposed to stabilize the reactor after the earthquake. New reactors with passive nuclear safety eliminate this failure mode.
1312:". About 80% of the byproducts can be reprocessed and recycled back into nuclear fuel, negating this effect. The remaining high-level radioactive waste requires sophisticated treatment and management to successfully isolate it from the
1061:
a median value of 12 g (0.42 oz) equivalent lifecycle carbon dioxide emissions per kilowatt hour (kWh) for nuclear power, being one of the lowest among all energy sources and comparable only with wind power. Data from the
2491:, "The human, environmental, and economic costs from a successful attack on a nuclear power plant that results in the release of substantial quantities of radioactive material to the environment could be great." The United States
6497:
6462:
1974:
safety concerns among activists and the general public, resulted in new regulations for the nuclear industry, and has been cited as a contributor to the decline of new reactor construction that was already underway in the 1970s.
4678:
3726:
2126:
to conduct a study of cancer mortality rates around nuclear plants and other facilities covering 1950 to 1984 focusing on the change after operation started of the respective facilities. They concluded in no link. In 2000 the
57:
peaked during the 1970s and 1980s, as more and more reactors were built and came online, and "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies" in some countries. In the 2010s, with growing public
1236:
Faced with increasing fossil gas prices and reopening of new coal and gas power plants, a number of European leaders questioned the anti-nuclear policies of Belgium and Germany. European Commissioner for the Internal Market
1098:
emissions of nuclear power will eventually increase once high-grade uranium ore is used up and lower-grade uranium needs to be mined and milled using fossil fuels, although there is controversy over when this might occur.
623:. Renewable energy sources receive proportionately large direct production subsidies and tax breaks in many nations, although in absolute terms they are often less than subsidies received by non-renewable energy sources.
1822:âmost of which were treated and curedâwere caused by the contamination. Many suspect that the radiation has caused or will cause other cancers, but the evidence is patchy. Amid reports of other health problemsâincluding
1678:
occurs, resulting from an unanticipated interaction of multiple failures in a complex system. TMI was an example of a normal accident because it was deemed "unexpected, incomprehensible, uncontrollable and unavoidable".
1886:. John Price, a former member of the Safety Policy Unit at the UK's National Nuclear Corporation, said that it "might be 100 years before melting fuel rods can be safely removed from Japan's Fukushima nuclear plant".
9892:
1688:
Most aspects of safety at nuclear plants have been improving since 1990. Newer reactor designs are safer than older ones, and older reactors still in operation have also improved due to improved safety procedures.
2727:
carried out on-site inspections and issued a permit to proceed with function tests in 2016. Taishan 1 is expected to start up in the first half of 2017 and Taishan 2 is scheduled to begin operating by the end of
1813:
deaths related to the accident would appear "among the 600 000 persons receiving more significant exposures (liquidators working in 1986â87, evacuees, and residents of the most contaminated areas)". According to
543:
upfront investment, the cost of the latter is expected to grow as the grid is saturated with intermittent sources and energy storage as well as land usage becomes a primary barrier to their expansion. A fleet of
108:
to produce fuels for the latest technology in newer reactors. The operational safety record of nuclear power is far better than the other major kinds of power plants and, by preventing pollution, it saves lives.
7970:
But now there is an initial, far more comprehensive cost-benefit analysis. The key finding: expressed in 2017 dollar values, the nuclear phase-out costs more than $ 12 billion a year. Most of it is due to human
1883:
1513:
nuclear power plant including uranium mining, reactor operation and waste disposal, the radiation dose is 136 person-rem/year, while the dose is 490 person-rem/year for an equivalent coal-fired power plant. The
2288:, who was involved with China's atomic bomb program, has said that plans to expand production of nuclear energy twentyfold by 2030 could be disastrous, as China was seriously underprepared on the safety front.
2074:. The reason given is: Totally outdated, sources from 2006 described as "Current". Best and relevant parts should be moved to the Environmental impact... article and this whole section replaced by an excerpt..
1663:
has said: "... in essence, a nuclear reactor is just a very sophisticated and dangerous way to boil waterâanalogous to cutting a pound of butter with a chain saw." The 1979 Three Mile Island accident inspired
7577:
7132:"Application of the United Nations Framework Classification for Resources and the United Nations Resource Management System: Use of Nuclear Fuel Resources for Sustainable Development â Entry Pathways | UNECE"
993:
to include nuclear power in the sustainable taxonomy following favourable scientific reports, and warned against anti-nuclear coalition that "ignore scientific conclusions and actively oppose nuclear power".
6676:"IPCC Working Group III â Mitigation of Climate Change, Annex III: Technology â specific cost and performance parameters â Table A.III.2 (Emissions of selected electricity supply technologies (gCO 2eq/kWh))"
4791:
2654:
reported that nuclear power "looks dangerous, unpopular, expensive and risky", and that "it is replaceable with relative ease and could be forgone with no huge structural shifts in the way the world works".
2156:
1271:
The world's nuclear fleet creates about 10,000 metric tons (22,000,000 pounds) of high-level spent nuclear fuel each year. High-level radioactive waste management concerns management and disposal of highly
8418:
Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A. (2011). "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part I: Technologies, energy resources, quantities and areas of infrastructure, and materials".
5286:
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550:
In 2020 International Energy Agency called for creation of a global nuclear power licensing framework as in the existing legal situation each plant design needs to be licensed separately in each country.
2105:
and other competing models continues, however, the predicted low rate of cancer with low dose means that large sample sizes are required in order to make meaningful conclusions. A study conducted by the
7118:"Joint letter from the Czech Republic, French Republic, Hungary, Republic of Poland, Romania, Slovak Republic and Republic of Slovenia on the role of nuclear power in the EU climate and energy policy"
2957:
1771:
into the atmosphere, which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe. It is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in history, and is one of only two classified as a level 7 event on the
1498:
exposure (mostly during mining), routine exposure from power generation, decommissioning, reprocessing, waste disposal, and accidents. The number of deaths caused by these effects is extremely small.
734:
study concluded that depending on the reactor size and 'unfavorable conditions' a serious nuclear accident could lead to property damages as high as $ 314 billion while fatalities could reach 50,000.
527:
where many of the risks associated with construction costs, operating performance, fuel price, and other factors were borne by consumers rather than suppliers. Many countries have now liberalized the
277:
Since 1985, the proportion of electricity generated from low-carbon sources has increased only slightly. Advances in deploying renewables have been mostly offset by declining shares of nuclear power.
10271:
1102:
As the nuclear power debate continues, greenhouse gas emissions are increasing. Predictions estimate that even with draconian emission reductions within the ten years, the world will still pass 650
10551:
1947:, United States in 1979. It was the most significant accident in the history of the US commercial nuclear power generating industry, resulting in the release of approximately 2.5 million
1475:
In 2020 the Vatican has praised "peaceful nuclear technologies" as significant factor to "alleviation of poverty and the ability of countries to meet their development goals in a sustainable way".
1457:) of carbon dioxide equivalent have been avoided by nuclear power between 1971 and 2009, and that between 2010 and 2050, nuclear power could additionally avoid up to 80â240 billion tonnes (8.8
9723:
6916:
14119:
8726:
4355:
615:
Nuclear power proponents argue that competing energy sources also receive subsidies. Fossil fuels receive large direct and indirect subsidies, such as tax benefits and not having to pay for the
13115:
3456:
Schneider, E.; Carlsen, B.; Tavrides, E.; van der Hoeven, C.; Phathanapirom, U. (November 2013). "A top-down assessment of energy, water and land use in uranium mining, milling, and refining".
2163:
exposure and effect can be 25 years or more for cancer and a generation or more for genetic damage. Since nuclear generating plants have a brief history, it is early to judge the effects.
481:
The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial subject, since there are diverging views on this topic, and multibillion-dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy source.
8745:
570:
the most expensive and time-consuming. In the U.S. there are 13 reactors that have permanently shut down and are in some phase of decommissioning, and none of them have completed the process.
2182:, people living within 50 miles (80 km) of a nuclear power plant receive an additional 0.01 mrem per year. Living within 50 miles of a coal plant adds 0.03 mrem per year.
1802:
974:
The conclusions of the JRC report are based on well-established results of scientific research, reviewed in detail by internationally recognised organisations and committees.
465:(seen here in 2010) will be delayed until 2018, due to "both structural and economic reasons," and the project's total cost has climbed to EUR 11 billion in 2012. Similarly, the cost of the
19:
This article is about the primary issues upon which people differ in their assessments as to the value, role and relative safety of nuclear power. For nuclear energy policies by nation, see
1565:
The second estimate, the maximum casualties in the worst-case scenario, is much higher, and likelihood of such accident is estimated at 10 per reactor year, or once in a ten billion years:
139:, although when compared to other sources of power, nuclear power is (along with solar and wind energy) among the safest. Critics do not believe that these risks can be reduced through new
4325:
131:
of nuclear plants, diversion and misuse of radioactive fuels or fuel waste, as well as naturally-occurring leakage from the unsolved and imperfect long-term storage process of radioactive
1700:(MIT) has estimated that given a three-fold increase in nuclear power from 2005 to 2055, and an unchanged accident frequency, four core damage accidents would be expected in that period.
758:
Nuclear generation does not directly produce sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, mercury or other pollutants associated with the combustion of fossil fuels. Nuclear power has also very high
6490:
6455:
596:, which was designed to promote US nuclear reactor construction, through incentives and subsidies, including cost-overrun support up to a total of $ 2 billion for six new nuclear plants.
4645:
2715:
441 operational reactors had a worldwide net capacity of 382,855 megawatts of electricity in 2015. However, some reactors are classified as operational, but are not producing any power.
2136:
11828:
4667:
3719:
1308:(half-life 24,000 years). However, many nuclear power by-products are usable as nuclear fuel themselves; extracting the usable energy producing contents from nuclear waste is called "
6513:
5334:
4893:
6456:"SCHEER review of the JRC report on Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the 'do no significant harm' criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 ('Taxonomy Regulation')"
6151:
927:(JRC) which looked at all potential issues of nuclear power from scientific, engineering and regulatory point of view and in March 2021 published a 387-page report which concluded:
539:, costs are likely to go up for currently operating and new nuclear power plants, due to increased requirements for on-site spent fuel management and elevated design basis threats.
5094:
2868:
1066:
showed a similar result, with nuclear energy having the lowest emissions of any energy source when accounting for both direct and indirect emissions from the entire energy chain.
957:
SCHEER review of the JRC report on Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the âdo no significant harmâ criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 (âTaxonomy Regulationâ)
8162:
6478:
5806:
2708:
Ten new reactors were connected to the grid, In 2015, the highest number since 1990, but expanding Asian nuclear programs are balanced by retirements of aging plants and nuclear
2541:
The spent fissile fuel is not radioactive enough to create any sort of effective nuclear weapon, in a traditional sense where the radioactive material is the means of explosion.
2225:
with a reported 175 mSv per year (or 17,500 mrem per year), and 90,000 nGy/h (79 rad/a) maximum value given in the UNSCEAR report (on the beaches). A study made on the
3839:
96:
like coal, oil and natural gas. Some proponents also believe that nuclear power is the only viable course for a country to achieve energy independence while also meeting their
12414:
2697:
announced they would be pulling out of developing new nuclear power plants in the UK, placing the future of nuclear power in the UK in doubt. More recently, Centrica (who own
2178:). The average person receives about 53 mrem (0.00053 Sv) from medical procedures and 10 mrem from consumer products per year, as of May 2011. According to the
1316:. This usually necessitates treatment, followed by a long-term management strategy involving permanent storage, disposal or transformation of the waste into a non-toxic form.
8051:
2392:
Development of covert and hostile nuclear installations was occasionally prevented by military operations in what is described as "radical counter-proliferation" activities.
1962:. Cleanup started in August 1979 and officially ended in December 1993, with a total cleanup cost of about $ 1 billion. The incident was rated a five on the seven-point
1703:
In 2020 a Parliamentary inquiry in Australia found nuclear power to be one of the safest and cleanest among 140 specific technologies analyzed based on data provided by MIT.
5887:
5540:
10525:
9882:
6270:
516:
Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must take into account who bears the risks of future uncertainties. To date all operating nuclear power plants were developed by
10250:
9697:
2250:
5672:
5646:
2681:
But with regard to the proposition that "Improved communication by industry might help to overcome current fears regarding nuclear power", Princeton University Physicist
1656:
deaths coming from the accident itself. Despite the use of such safety measures, "there have been many accidents with varying effects as well near misses and incidents".
13108:
9523:
8702:
5363:
708:(including one caused by a terrorist attack or a natural disaster) are great. The liability of owners of nuclear power plants in the U.S. is currently limited under the
13677:
10656:
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1122:
In 2015 an open letter from 65 leading biologists worldwide described nuclear power as one of the energy sources that are the most friendly to biodiversity due to its
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1996:
the reaction was to accelerate rapidly from increased temperatures. In such a case, cooling systems must be operative to prevent meltdown. Past design mistakes like
13211:
9860:
6075:
Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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2217:(meaning 15.8 mSv per year or 1580 mrem). They are also some other "hot spots", with some maximum values of 17,000 nGy/h (15 rad/a) in the hot springs of
10993:
6954:
5278:
3562:
10707:
7896:
3742:
3386:
10947:
Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change: Working Group III contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
10232:
8993:
8832:
2522:
There is a concern if the by-products of nuclear fission (the nuclear waste generated by the plant) were to be left unprotected it could be stolen and used as a
1809:
research on the effects of the Chernobyl accident. Apart from the 57 direct deaths in the accident itself, UNSCEAR predicted in 2005 that up to 4,000 additional
828:
362:
may have several advantages over current large reactors: It should be possible to build them faster and their modularization would allow for cost reductions via
2538:, and such fears have been used as justifications for centralized, permanent, and secure waste repositories and increased security along transportation routes.
1276:
materials created during production of nuclear power. This requires the use of "geological disposal", or burial, due to the extremely long periods of time that
13101:
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2013:
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found that if Germany had postponed the nuclear phase out and phased out coal first it could have saved 1,100 lives and $ 12 billion in social costs per year.
671:
an additional "do no harm" criterion was introduced specifically to exclude nuclear power which in their intention should exclude nuclear power from the list.
123:, processing and transport. They highlight the high cost and delays in the construction and maintenance of nuclear power plants, and the fears associated with
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2954:
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12016:
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under IAEA treaty controls, and attempted to develop a parallel nuclear weapons program in strict separation of the latter to avoid IAEA inspections. Modern
1058:
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Carbon taxation is a significant positive driver in the economy of both nuclear plants and renewable energy sources, all of which are low emissions in their
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1987:
reactors are now in late stage design and development to improve safety, sustainability, efficiency, and cost. Key to the latest designs is the concept of
1492:
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plants running. Their conclusion: It would have saved the lives of 1,100 people a year who succumb to air pollution released by coal burning power plants.
6900:
6565:
4034:
2159:
reviewed claims of increased cancer rates in counties with nuclear plants, however, using the same data as the claimants, they observed no abnormalities.
1779:). The battle to contain the contamination and avert a greater catastrophe ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion
13176:
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The statement was widely discussed in the scientific community, with voices both against and in favor. It has been also recognized that the life-cycle CO
952:
framework is not in itself sufficient to mitigate these impacts, e.g. in mining and milling where the burden of the impacts are felt outside Europe.
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6526:
5227:
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in such a volume, although the vicinity of the site would have a far higher concentration of artificial radioisotopes underground than such an average.
11838:
5877:"Testimony before the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works Subcommittee on Transportation, Infrastructure and Nuclear Safety"
5514:
5481:
5308:
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1539:(PSA) methodology to estimate and quantify the risk of hypothetical severe nuclear accidents in future. The analysis looked at Generation II reactors (
308:
during the expansion phase. Climate change mitigation pathways consistent with ambitious goals typically see an increase in power supply from nuclear.
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Nuclear power plants are a complex energy system and opponents of nuclear power have criticized the sophistication and complexity of the technology.
1218:
climate conference highlighting the fact that nuclear power is low-carbon dispatchable energy source that has been the most successful in reducing CO
288:
electricity. Nuclear power plants in over 30 countries generate about 10% of global electricity. As of 2019, nuclear generated over a quarter of all
135:. They also contend that reactors themselves are enormously complex machines where many things can and do go wrong, and there have been many serious
10853:
7092:"European Nuclear Industry Open Letter: EU nuclear industry is ready to play an important part in supporting national and EU clean economic revival"
2008:
has formally engaged in pre-application activities with four applicants who have Generation IV reactors. Of those four applicants' designs, two are
14184:
12719:
9257:
Grellier J, Atkinson W, BĂ©rard P, Bingham D, Birchall A, Blanchardon E, Bull R, Canu IG, Challeton-de Vathaire C, Cockerill R, et al. (2017).
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1826:âit still is not clear if any can be attributed to radiation". Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus have been burdened with the continuing and substantial
10581:
9120:
4076:
3720:"Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the 'do no significant harm' criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 ('Taxonomy Regulation')"
2155:
around nuclear plants and concluded no link to radiation noting that cancer clusters occur regularly due to unrelated reasons. Again in 2001, the
864:
emissions in scenarios involving nuclear power, and instead supported an alternative scenario involving fossil fuels, with much higher emissions.
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709:
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Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the 'do no significant harm' criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 ('Taxonomy Regulation')
2318:". However, many countries have civilian nuclear power programs, while not developing nuclear weapons, and all civilian reactors are covered by
937:
Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the âdo no significant harmâ criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 (âTaxonomy Regulationâ)
9366:
8208:
8140:
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2140:
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nuclear power, in the real world there is no credible path to climate stabilization that does not include a substantial role for nuclear power.
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7435:
5619:
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can be also significantly cheaper than an equivalent single conventional size reactor due to standardized design and much smaller complexity.
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1215:
1193:
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research program has more subsidies for nuclear power than for renewable and energy efficiency together; over 70% of this is directed at the
328:
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5903:
Wood, W.C. 1983. Nuclear Safety; Risks and Regulation. American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, Washington, D.C. pp. 40â48.
2503:
at a nuclear power plant, and/or sufficiently damage spent fuel pools, such an attack could lead to a widespread radioactive contamination.
2052:
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1936:
1909:
97:
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6708:"IPCC Working Group III â Mitigation of Climate Change, Annex II Metrics and Methodology â A.II.9.3 (Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions)"
5594:
4792:"Nuclear Power Plants Information: Last three years Energy Availability Factor (Includes only operational reactors from 2008 up to 2010)"
2860:
2005:
1997:
8610:
5252:
5087:
2530:". No actual terrorist attacks involving "dirty bomb" were ever recorded, although cases of illegal trade of fissile material happened.
1351:'s atoms decaying per unit of time is inversely proportional to its half-life, the relative radioactivity of a quantity of buried human
762:, which means much less space is used to produce the same amount of energy (thousands times less when compared to wind or solar power).
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4147:
3832:
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Diaz-Maurin, François; Kovacic, Zora (2015). "The unresolved controversy over nuclear power: A new approach from complexity theory".
2387:
1790:
Despite the fact the Chernobyl disaster became a nuclear power safety debate icon, there were other nuclear accidents in USSR at the
1360:
1055:
821:
342:
and timescales long. Various new forms of nuclear energy are in development, hoping to address the drawbacks of conventional plants.
13370:
12353:
8502:
3100:
Kitschelt, Herbert P. (2009). "Political Opportunity Structures and Political Protest: Anti-Nuclear Movements in Four Democracies".
175:
broke the atom apart, we changed the history of the world." A decade later in Germany, the construction of a nuclear power plant in
115:
say that nuclear power poses numerous threats to people and the environment and point to studies that question if it will ever be a
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5859:
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Hacquin, Anne-Sophie; Altay, Sacha; AarĂže, Lene; Mercier, Hugo (2022). "Disgust sensitivity and public opinion on nuclear energy".
1913:
387:
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provides a comparison of deaths from accidents in course of different forms of energy production. In their comparison, deaths per
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9689:
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Share of the public who oppose the nuclear energy as a means of electricity production in 2011, following the Fukushima disaster.
1296:(half-life 15.7 million years), which dominate spent nuclear fuel radioactivity after a few thousand years. The most troublesome
1251:
12484:
10825:
10800:
7295:
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has reported that worldwide there have been 99 accidents at nuclear power plants. Fifty-seven accidents have occurred since the
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of nuclear power plant are 12 gCO2eq/kWh. Both indicators are one of the most competitive of all available energy sources. The
743:
637:
project. In the US, public research money for nuclear fission declined from 2,179 to 35 million dollars between 1980 and 2000.
201:
electricity. In the same year, United States fleet of nuclear reactors produced 800 TWh low-carbon electricity with an average
10166:
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6377:
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3174:"Nuclear Power and the Environment â Energy Explained, Your Guide To Understanding Energy â Energy Information Administration"
2732:
In February 2020, the world's first open-source platform for the design, construction, and financing of nuclear power plants,
1719:
The fatality rates characterizing state-of-the art Gen III NPPs are the lowest of all the electricity generation technologies.
358:(rather than uranium) may be able to provide higher energy security for countries that do not have a large supply of uranium.
331:
and pollution-related deaths than fossil fuels, and the historic fatality rate of nuclear is comparable to renewable sources.
66:
plays in causing the heating of the Earth's atmosphere, there was a resurgence in the intensity of the nuclear power debate.
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5050:
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3151:
2366:, which is designing modular reactor assemblies that are proliferation resistant, is a privately owned US corporation, as is
1697:
1435:
773:. Nuclear industry, including all past nuclear weapon testing and nuclear accidents, contributes less than 1% of the overall
445:
10398:
9450:
9080:
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7782:
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Peterson, B. T.; Depaolo, D. J. (2007). "Mass and Composition of the Continental Crust Estimated Using the CRUST2.0 Model".
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at 100 gCO2eq/kWh or less which would include nuclear power which falls well under this threshold (12). Under lobbying from
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nuclear power plant ranges from 75 to 100 meaning total energy invested in the power plant is returned in 2 months. Median
303:
produced, compared to the major renewables. Additionally, Nuclear power does not create local air pollution. Although the
11202:
8585:
8077:
6740:
5399:
4225:
2314:, believes the growth of nuclear power has "historically increased the ability of nations to obtain or enrich uranium for
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13605:
13081:
12277:
11823:
11788:
10353:
3203:
Adamantiades, A.; Kessides, I. (2009). "Nuclear power for sustainable development: Current status and future prospects".
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2284:. Inside China, and outside the country, the speed of the nuclear construction program has raised safety concerns. Prof.
2234:
2097:
There has been considerable research done on the effect of low-level radiation on humans. Debate on the applicability of
2017:
877:
of solar power and 1/10 of wind power. Land surface usage is the main reason for opposition against on-shore wind farms.
449:
10985:
9336:
8824:
8335:
Perrow, C. (1982), 'The President's Commission and the Normal Accident', in Sils, D., Wolf, C. and Shelanski, V. (Eds),
6938:
5429:
1570:
case, the fatalities are all or mostly immediate fatalities and are calculated to have a higher frequency of occurrence.
14059:
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12559:
11026:
10959:
10919:
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10704:
10616:
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9001:
7892:
7330:
6764:"Response to comment on "Prevented mortality and greenhouse gas emissions from historical and projected nuclear power""
6349:
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2932:
2784:
2740:
2638:
2375:
1860:
1843:
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1590:
1063:
867:
Life-cycle land usage by nuclear power (including mining and waste storage, direct and indirect) is 100 m/GWh which is
723:
536:
193:
11248:
7075:"Assuring the Backbone of a Carbon-free Power System by 2050 -Call for a Timely and Just Assessment of Nuclear Energy"
4961:
The divergence between actual and estimated costs in large industrial and infrastructure projects: is nuclear special?
4174:
14093:
14054:
13772:
13487:
13456:
13316:
13245:
11639:
11518:
9883:"Obama Administration Announces Loan Guarantees to Construct New Nuclear Power Reactors in Georgia â The White House"
6271:"A message from a former Extinction Rebellion activist: Fellow environmentalists, join me in embracing nuclear power"
4526:
Muellner, Nikolaus; Arnold, Nikolaus; Gufler, Klaus; Kromp, Wolfgang; Renneberg, Wolfgang; Liebert, Wolfgang (2021).
3579:
Sovacool, Benjamin K. (2008). "The costs of failure: A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 1907â2007".
1963:
1772:
1146:
final decommissioning of fully functional nuclear power plants" for the benefit of the fight against global warming.
339:
10775:
10331:
6985:
6707:
6675:
6244:
5766:
Dubin, Jeffrey A.; Rothwell, Geoffrey S. (1990). "Subsidy to Nuclear Power Through Price-Anderson Liability Limit".
3946:
13767:
13752:
13652:
13348:
12869:
12734:
11269:
10252:
Global Citizen Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Plant Disaster (theme: environment / climate) Ipsos Global @dvisor
6167:
4936:
4395:
2557:
943:
332:
176:
11232:
9259:"Risk of lung cancer mortality in nuclear workers from internal exposure to alpha particle-emitting radionuclides"
8258:
7750:
7346:
7207:
6842:
3510:
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1320:
fuel were generated worldwide. About one-third of this had been reprocessed, with the remainder being in storage.
13822:
13802:
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13762:
13757:
13250:
12812:
12646:
12248:
12126:
11783:
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result of an earlier study by Körblein and Hoffmann which had found statistically significant increases in solid
1870:
1866:
1488:
462:
13832:
13717:
10973:
10854:"U.S. Department of Energy Announces $ 160 Million in First Awards under Advanced Reactor Demonstration Program"
4828:
396:
The United States fleet of nuclear reactors produced 800 TWh zero-emissions electricity in 2019 with an average
14269:
14214:
14179:
13817:
13598:
13548:
12802:
12651:
12109:
10683:
10230:""Dirty Bomb" Plot spurs Schumer to call for US Marshals to guard Nuclear waste that would go through New York"
10214:
9655:
8913:
8674:
8569:
8323:
7460:
7381:
5058:
4321:
4118:
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Current guidelines established by the NRC, require extensive emergency planning, between nuclear power plants,
2029:
1328:
range from 10,000 to millions of years, according to studies based on the effect of estimated radiation doses.
13386:
9316:
9045:
8010:
7250:
6390:
5064:
4252:
3358:"Nuclear power may have saved 1.8 million lives otherwise lost to fossil fuels, may save up to 7 million more"
2465:
1150:
highlighting that nuclear power remains the largest single source of zero-emissions energy in European Union.
469:
has escalated dramatically, and the project is well behind schedule. The initial low cost forecasts for these
13787:
13181:
12576:
12409:
11833:
11761:
5112:
5002:
4418:
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sector. Commenting on the German government's policy to close nuclear plants, Werner Sinn, president of the
2511:
2355:
2343:
2221:(that would be equivalent to 149 mSv per year pr 14,900 mrem per year). The highest background seem to be in
2115:
1760:
1536:
466:
6067:
5488:
4122:
1229:(UNECE) described nuclear power as important tool to mitigate climate change that has prevented 74 Gt of CO
804:
Resources usage in uranium mining is 840 m of water (up to 90% of the water is recycled) and 30 tonnes of CO
13697:
13342:
13156:
12919:
12656:
12365:
12119:
11616:
11018:
10933:
9960:"McNair Paper Number 41, Radical Responses to Radical Regimes: Evaluating Preemptive Counter-Proliferation"
9626:"Further consideration of the incidence of childhood leukemia around nuclear power plants in Great Britain"
8976:
8910:"A Matter of Degree: A revised International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES) extends its reach"
8183:
7693:
7131:
5300:
3491:
2107:
1940:
781:
731:
495:
10309:
8094:
Sovacool, Benjamin K. (2010). "A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia".
7503:"Public Health and Environmental Radiation Protection Standards for Yucca Mountain, Nevada; Proposed Rule"
3856:
2310:
Opposition to nuclear power is frequently linked to opposition to nuclear weapons. Anti-nuclear scientist
1879:
1233:
emissions over the last half century, that provides 20% of energy in Europe and 43% of low-carbon energy.
34:
13276:
13069:
12982:
12954:
12911:
12876:
12714:
12541:
12479:
12304:
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12094:
11562:
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8763:
7074:
5357:"Billions of Dollars in Subsidies for the Nuclear Power Industry Will Shift Financial Risks to Taxpayers"
5143:
4711:
2642:
2488:
2438:
1388:
1211:
809:
627:
355:
10135:
9790:"The IAEA's Safeguards System as the Non-Proliferation Treaty's Verification Mechanism | Analysis | NTI"
9124:
7719:
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13888:
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12903:
12762:
12441:
11959:
11916:
11768:
11127:
10951:
10573:
8286:
7028:
5756:
United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1983. The Price-Anderson Act: the Third Decade, NUREG-0957
5017:
4088:
3921:
2663:
2562:
2132:
2044:
1895:
1636:
1598:
1403:
1402:
Public debate on the subject frequently focuses of nuclear waste only, ignoring the fact that existing
1336:
1281:
916:
A comprehensive debate on the role of nuclear power continued since 2020 as part of regulatory work on
458:
383:
351:
7476:
3534:
Social protest and policy change: ecology, antinuclear, and peace movements in comparative perspective
3410:
Brugge, Doug; Buchner, Virginia (1 January 2011). "Health effects of uranium: new research findings".
2131:
found no link to heightened cancer deaths in people living within 5 miles of plant at the time of the
14241:
14134:
13572:
13508:
13417:
13151:
13057:
12739:
12348:
12131:
10367:
9625:
7117:
4488:
4351:
2545:
plants also acquire uranium from spent reactor fuel and take the remaining waste into their custody.
2448:
2363:
2123:
2098:
1928:
1768:
1540:
1515:
813:
697:
593:
327:
that can be used for weapons. For each unit of energy produced, nuclear energy has caused far fewer
266:
249:
241:
170:
At the 1963 ground-breaking for what would become the world's largest nuclear power plant, President
104:. They emphasize that the risks of storing waste are small and existing stockpiles can be reduced by
9362:
9015:
8204:
8132:
685:
declared its nuclear power will be used as low-emission source of energy to produce hydrogen, while
13692:
12987:
12829:
12729:
12641:
11850:
11736:
11696:
11508:
7427:
5738:
Reuters, 2001. "Cheney says push needed to boost nuclear power", Reuters News Service, 15 May 2001.
4871:
3757:
2814:
2799:
2139:
found no statistical abnormality of childhood cancers in counties with nuclear plants. In 2001 the
2128:
1944:
506:
486:
timescales and capital financing for nuclear plants. Cost estimates also need to take into account
428:
323:. Radioactive nuclear waste must be managed for thousands of years and nuclear power plants create
59:
9994:
9747:"Public opinion on nuclear energy and nuclear weapons: The attitudinal nexus in the United States"
9210:"Risk of cancer after low doses of ionising radiation: Retrospective cohort study in 15 countries"
4915:
1111:
10 lb) of coal was burned annually. This "too little, too late" effort may be a mass form of
14159:
14149:
14028:
13533:
13523:
12892:
12859:
12834:
12448:
12225:
12031:
11954:
11911:
11894:
11855:
11778:
10603:
10104:
6141:"Estudio técnico de viabilidad de escenarios de generación eléctrica en el medio plazo en España"
5699:
2839:
2819:
2514:
now also requires new reactor license applications to consider security during the design stage.
2332:
2179:
2171:
2148:
1265:
560:
487:
228:
148:
12817:
11161:
8794:
4960:
3173:
1407:
from nuclear plants with low-level medical waste (such as irradiated X-ray plates and devices).
847:
and some other environmental organizations have been criticized for distributing claims about CO
719:
said in 2001 that "nobody's going to invest in nuclear power plants" if the PAA is not renewed.
14274:
14154:
14099:
13933:
13528:
13329:
12724:
12011:
11555:
5697:(2008). "The costs of failure: A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 1907â2007".
5571:
3753:
2829:
2409:
2400:
2119:
1992:
1988:
1625:
1610:
655:
on creation of a "green finance taxonomy" list intended to create investment opportunities for
391:
359:
311:
There is controversy over whether nuclear power is sustainable, in part due to concerns around
14109:
13123:
10045:
9839:
7835:"Prevented Mortality and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Historical and Projected Nuclear Power"
6882:
338:
Reducing the time and the cost of building new nuclear plants have been goals for decades but
14164:
13973:
13722:
13647:
13621:
13018:
12754:
12709:
12171:
12099:
12026:
12021:
11986:
11773:
11741:
11528:
11455:
8618:
8227:"Nuclear Power: Economic, Safety, Health, and Environmental Issues of Near-Term Technologies"
7450:
4975:
3532:
3011:
2965:
2804:
2754:
2719:
2596:
2461:
2301:
2259:
1984:
1709:
1648:
1621:
1617:
1544:
1531:
1413:
1380:
1331:
1301:
1123:
1112:
1006:
924:
857:
838:
759:
749:
544:
316:
300:
188:
Nuclear power output globally saw slow but steady increase till 2006 when it peaked at 2'791
124:
112:
24:
20:
10611:. Reference Data Series. Vol. 2. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency. May 2016.
10027:
8847:
8447:
5857:
5739:
5565:
3001:
2339:
used in most civilian nuclear power plants cannot be used to produce weapons-grade uranium.
1440:
Prevented mortality and greenhouse gas emissions from historical and projected nuclear power
13908:
13380:
12929:
12704:
12689:
11964:
11800:
11706:
11634:
11096:
11049:
10432:
10287:
9967:
9147:
8362:
7846:
7603:
7275:
6775:
6527:"Europe / Members Of EU Parliament Call On Commission To Include Nuclear In Green Taxonomy"
5694:
4847:
4316:
3039:
2769:
2675:
2646:
2592:
2553:
Support for nuclear power varies between countries and has changed significantly over time.
2542:
2281:
2277:
2190:
2167:
2009:
1921:
1585:, and 57% (56 out of 99) of all nuclear-related accidents have occurred in the US. Serious
1578:
1297:
908:
than from all of the worldâs nuclear accidents to date, Fukushima and Chernobyl included."
885:
774:
664:
600:
347:
119:
energy source. There are health risks, accidents, and environmental damage associated with
69:
28:
9414:
9094:
8498:
8243:
8226:
6417:"Green Taxonomy / Two New Expert Reports Handed To European Commission On Role Of Nuclear"
1196:
described suggested pathways of building sustainable energy supply with increased role of
829:
Energy return on investment § EROEI and payback periods of some types of power plants
780:
A 2014 multi-criterion analysis of impact factors critical for biodiversity, economic and
295:
Nuclear power's lifecycle greenhouse gas emissionsâincluding the mining and processing of
8:
13963:
13503:
13028:
12839:
12624:
12218:
12086:
12064:
11889:
11746:
11513:
11475:
11308:
7715:
7688:
7402:"New IAEA Report Presents Global Overview of Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel Management"
2588:
2523:
2336:
2256:
1932:
1730:
1706:
1586:
1502:
1443:
1410:
1372:
1182:
990:
986:
921:
482:
424:
253:
13305:
11100:
11053:
11036:
Ferguson, Charles D.; Marburger, Lindsey E.; Farmer, J. Doyne; Makhijani, Arjun (2010).
10984:(2018). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.; et al. (eds.).
10944:(2014). Edenhofer, O.; Pichs-Madruga, R.; Sokona, Y.; Farahani, E.; et al. (eds.).
10436:
10213:
For an example of the former, see the quotes in Erin Neff, Cy Ryan, and Benjamin Grove,
9388:
8366:
7850:
7607:
7502:
6779:
5915:"Nature Energy and Society: A scientific study of the options facing civilisation today"
4761:
4730:
3043:
2620:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
2495:
has said that nuclear power plants were potential targets originally considered for the
2230:
that estimates of risk at low doses are substantially greater than currently believed."
2076:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
1185:
calling for recognition of important role of nuclear power as the only non-intermittent
14129:
13411:
13374:
13311:
13008:
12744:
12581:
12508:
12319:
11969:
11939:
11923:
11906:
11550:
11440:
11388:
11338:
11285:
11075:
10905:
10448:
9602:
9575:
9501:
9293:
9258:
9172:
8641:
8532:
8390:
8111:
7755:
7551:
6817:
6631:
5779:
4549:
3117:
2903:
2809:
2764:
2218:
2102:
2047:
in Oregon. The reactor dome is visible on the left, and the cooling tower on the right.
1651:. Some technical measures to reduce the risk of accidents or to minimize the amount of
1643:
The effect of nuclear accidents has been a topic of debate practically since the first
1594:
1582:
1103:
852:
significant savings on carbon output" in nuclear power, which directly contradicts the
528:
299:âare similar to the emissions from renewable energy sources. Nuclear power uses little
218:
144:
73:
10188:
9489:
9234:
9209:
6583:
4602:
3972:
3633:
3291:
14139:
14082:
14023:
13978:
13712:
13513:
13476:
12076:
11869:
11756:
11731:
11669:
11626:
11470:
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11460:
11303:
11112:
11067:
11022:
10965:
10955:
10925:
10915:
10891:
10622:
10612:
10548:"Ten New Nuclear Power Reactors Connected to Grid in 2015, Highest Number Since 1990"
10452:
9939:
9768:
9607:
9493:
9298:
9239:
9177:
8670:
8565:
8524:
8319:
8115:
7893:"Nuclear Power Prevents More Deaths Than It Causes â Chemical & Engineering News"
7874:
7456:
7377:
7326:
7299:
6946:
6908:
6821:
6809:
6801:
6635:
6626:
6609:
6545:
6435:
6200:
5970:
5962:
5914:
5188:
5054:
4607:
4553:
4468:
4390:
4283:
4001:
3978:
3678:
3538:
3473:
3435:
3427:
3379:"Nuclear Power Prevents More Deaths Than It Causes | Chemical & Engineering News"
3343:
3303:
3295:
3220:
3121:
3055:
2928:
2709:
2535:
2496:
2442:
2034:
1693:
1606:
1376:
1352:
1325:
1309:
1277:
1273:
964:
363:
136:
128:
105:
63:
9505:
8471:
7555:
4121:, Department of Electrical Engineering of the Faculty of Engineering. Archived from
3889:"1963: At Hanford, Kennedy promises to lead the world in nuclear power (with video)"
3086:
2662:
announced it will withdraw entirely from the nuclear industry, as a response to the
2280:
which plan to go nuclear have very poor industrial safety records and problems with
1838:
1131:
trade-offs, rather than simply relying on idealistic perceptions of what is 'green'.
192:, and then dropped with the lowest level of generation in 2012, mostly as result of
14008:
13898:
13682:
13399:
12924:
11979:
11944:
11701:
11691:
11579:
11567:
11408:
11403:
11393:
11383:
11378:
11104:
11079:
11057:
10440:
10158:
10074:
9919:
9758:
9597:
9587:
9485:
9288:
9278:
9270:
9229:
9221:
9167:
9159:
8428:
8370:
8238:
8103:
7924:
7864:
7854:
7634:
7543:
7347:"Nuclear fuel recycling could offer plentiful energy | Argonne National Laboratory"
6791:
6783:
6621:
6192:
5952:
5775:
5708:
5451:
5228:"Radioactive Waste Management | Nuclear Waste Disposal â World Nuclear Association"
4539:
4278:
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3793:
3670:
3588:
3465:
3419:
3333:
3287:
3212:
3109:
3082:
3047:
2895:
2667:
2645:
halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity to be built by 2035.
2451:(2007), by Israel, against a suspected Al Kibar nuclear construction site in Syria.
2311:
1924:
1900:
1756:
1675:
1670:
1524:
1205:
1197:
1186:
897:
705:
608:
Critics of nuclear power claim that it is the beneficiary of inappropriately large
524:
521:
324:
320:
289:
245:
81:
8724:
Evacuation-related deaths now more than quake/tsunami toll in Fukushima Prefecture
6984:. Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century. p. 27. Archived from
14195:
14018:
13893:
13878:
13868:
13863:
12822:
12782:
12236:
12050:
11974:
11949:
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11445:
11323:
11313:
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11131:
11123:
11012:
10731:
10727:
10711:
10275:
10236:
10221:
9561:
9443:
9323:
9274:
8749:
8730:
8557:
8290:
8190:
6838:
5863:
5828:
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4967:
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3812:
3764:
3557:
3517:
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3018:
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2983:
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2961:
2922:
2499:
attacks. If terrorist groups could sufficiently damage safety systems to cause a
2492:
2423:
2319:
2213:(meaning 3.24 mSv per year or 324 mrem), or 1,800 nGy/h (1.6 rad/a) in
2170:. Natural sources of radiation amount to an average annual radiation dose of 295
2094:
correlations between living near nuclear power installations and risk of cancer.
1827:
1806:
1660:
1644:
1396:
1142:
1011:
404:
397:
273:
224:
214:
202:
171:
101:
89:
46:
12314:
11188:
9840:"HEU-LEU Project: A Success Story of RussianâUS Nuclear Disarmament Cooperation"
9554:
9225:
8432:
6566:"EU taxonomy: Complementary Climate Delegated Act to accelerate decarbonisation"
6391:"EU experts to say nuclear power qualifies for green investment label: document"
5712:
4544:
4527:
3674:
3592:
3469:
3216:
2472:
1501:
Accidents in the nuclear industry have been less damaging than accidents in the
407:
was 80.1%. In 2005, the global average capacity factor was 86.8%, the number of
14169:
14003:
13958:
13883:
13873:
13538:
13405:
13364:
12777:
12772:
12767:
12517:
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12393:
12375:
11899:
11805:
11751:
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11343:
11328:
11318:
10345:
9887:
9856:
9763:
9746:
8073:
7638:
7224:
7182:
6350:"Nuclear power causes least damage to the environment, finds systematic survey"
6196:
5391:
4498:
4377:
3857:"Stewart Brand + Mark Z. Jacobson: Debate: Does the world need nuclear energy?"
3508:
Greenpeace International and European Renewable Energy Council (January 2007).
2996:
2949:
2507:
2315:
2152:
1819:
1784:
1735:
1665:
1484:
1238:
1162:
1035:
An average nuclear power plant prevents emission of 2,000,000 metric tons of CO
766:
686:
652:
616:
589:
574:
498:
120:
85:
12797:
9046:"Michael Levi on Nuclear Policy, in video "Tea with the Economist", 1:55â2:10"
8107:
7547:
7428:"Shoot it at the sun. Send it to Earth's core. What to do with nuclear waste?"
7225:"Global climate objectives fall short without nuclear power in the mix: UNECE"
7158:"Nuclear should be considered part of clean energy standard, White House says"
5113:"Why America abandoned nuclear power (and what we can learn from South Korea)"
3278:
Markandya, Anil; Wilkinson, Paul (2007). "Electricity generation and health".
3113:
2476:
14263:
14253:
13983:
13968:
13938:
13928:
13923:
13807:
12962:
12253:
11659:
11500:
11173:"Critical Hour: Three Mile Island, The Nuclear Legacy, And National Security"
10969:
10929:
10626:
10444:
9772:
9337:"Low-Level Radiation: How the Linear No-Threshold Model Keeps Canadians Safe"
8743:
Fukushima evacuation has killed more than earthquake and tsunami, survey says
8205:"Deadliest radiation accidents and other events causing radiation casualties"
6950:
6912:
6805:
6204:
6073:. In Edenhofer O, Pichs-Madruga R, Sokona Y, Farahani E, et al. (eds.).
5966:
5421:
5279:"Reviving nuclear power debates is a distraction. We need to use less energy"
5079:
4052:"What's the Lifespan for a Nuclear Reactor? Much Longer Than You Might Think"
3682:
3477:
3431:
3347:
3299:
3224:
2500:
1851:
1652:
1506:
1305:
1285:
1256:
1078:
790:
656:
491:
474:
312:
281:
198:
189:
163:
132:
77:
54:
7869:
7809:"Radioactive waste leaking at German storage site: report | DW | 16.04.2018"
6796:
6763:
4463:
3798:
3781:
1787:
of the nuclear power industry, slowing its expansion for a number of years.
14087:
13993:
13953:
13948:
13702:
13481:
13427:
13422:
12528:
11664:
11606:
11533:
11485:
11355:
11116:
11071:
9611:
9592:
9497:
9444:"Appendix B, page 121, Table 11 Areas of high natural radiation background"
9302:
9243:
9181:
8961:
8695:"Fukushima Retiree Leads Anti-Nuclear Shareholders at Tepco Annual Meeting"
7984:"Holy See calls for boosting peaceful use of nuclear energy â Vatican News"
7878:
6813:
5974:
5673:"The Fukushima tragedy demonstrates that nuclear energy doesn't make sense"
4640:
3439:
3423:
3307:
3059:
2994:
In July 2010 the nuclear power debate again played out on the pages of the
2682:
2416:, against construction site of Osirak nuclear complex construction site in
1971:
1948:
1905:
1823:
1469:
1431:
1348:
1261:
1204:
Infrastructure Plan called for 100% of US electricity being generated from
1116:
1074:
1070:
794:
786:
689:
began the process of approval of public loan to CEZ nuclear power station.
668:
634:
517:
470:
454:
369:
343:
223:
For many countries, nuclear power affords energy independenceâfor example,
159:
13125:
Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites
11213:
Representing the People and Organisations of the Global Nuclear Profession
9208:
JB; Biau, A; Combalot, E; Deboodt, P; Diez Sacristan, A; Eklof, M (2005).
8795:"Japan Declares Nuclear Emergency, As Cooling System Fails at Power Plant"
8681:
Reported thus far are 237 cases of acute radiation sickness and 31 deaths.
6323:"A request for nuclear energy's fair recognition in the European taxonomy"
5170:"IEA Report / Agency Calls For 'Forthright Recognition' Of Nuclear Energy"
1359:
of 120 trillion tons of thorium and 40 trillion tons of uranium which are
942:
The EU tasked two further expert commissions to validate JRC findingsâthe
14189:
14013:
13943:
13913:
13903:
13553:
12939:
12586:
12176:
11683:
11654:
11240:, online book by Bernard L. Cohen. Emphasis on risk estimates of nuclear.
11157:
Beyond Nuclear at Nuclear Policy Research Institute advocacy organization
10323:
9163:
8553:
2947:
In February 2010 the nuclear power debate played out on the pages of the
2834:
2698:
2194:
1952:
1795:
1356:
881:
716:
585:
416:
350:
and therefore can significantly reduce the amount of waste that requires
304:
116:
93:
50:
14120:
Advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons
13590:
9815:"Uranium Enrichment | Enrichment of uranium â World Nuclear Association"
8472:"Parliamentary inquiry concludes 'nuclear is the safest form of energy'"
7534:
Sevior, Martin (2006). "Considerations for nuclear power in Australia".
4385:
2718:
67 new nuclear reactors were under construction in 2015, including four
2464:
performed numerous attacks, including bombings and kidnappings, against
1355:
would diminish over time compared to natural radioisotopes (such as the
967:
doesn't fully take into account limited water mixing in shallow waters.
14174:
13988:
13657:
13543:
12292:
10734:, "China dialogue: World nuclear industry in decline", 3 February 2016.
9283:
7669:
6610:"Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Nuclear Electricity Generation"
5990:"Top climate change scientists issue open letter to policy influencers"
5957:
5940:
2907:
2759:
2694:
2527:
2371:
2367:
2202:
1959:
1783:, crippling the Soviet economy. The accident raised concerns about the
1293:
1082:
844:
798:
770:
620:
502:
420:
140:
11172:
11108:
11087:
Diaz-Maurin, François (2014). "Going beyond the Nuclear Controversy".
10945:
8552:
Kagarlitsky, Boris (1989). "Perestroika: The Dialectic of Change". In
8303:
Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy
7859:
7834:
6787:
6348:
NĂžl, Jonas Kristiansen; Science, Norwegian University of; Technology.
6298:"A women-led, progressive group takes a new approach to nuclear power"
6219:
6115:
5595:"Hungary calls to accept nuclear energy as a source of clean hydrogen"
4695:
Gill, Matthew; Livens, Francis; Peakman, Aiden. "Nuclear Fission". In
4636:"Why are nuclear plants so expensive? Safety's only part of the story"
4586:
Gill, Matthew; Livens, Francis; Peakman, Aiden. "Nuclear Fission". In
4511:
Gill, Matthew; Livens, Francis; Peakman, Aiden. "Nuclear Fission". In
3455:
3051:
3030:
Diaz-Maurin, François (2014). "Going beyond the Nuclear Controversy".
1803:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
1635:
A clean-up crew working to remove radioactive contamination after the
715:
The PAA was due to expire in 2002, and the former U.S. vice-president
143:. They further argue that when all the energy-intensive stages of the
13998:
13918:
13335:
12934:
12297:
12287:
11415:
11368:
11333:
11254:
11203:
The New York Times Finally Reports the Economic Disaster of New Nukes
11166:
11151:
10884:
Future Energy: Improved, Sustainable and Clean Options for our Planet
9520:"NRC: Backgrounder on Emergency Preparedness at Nuclear Power Plants"
8528:
8445:
6374:
Data on the German retreat from nuclear energy tell a cautionary tale
6016:"Environmental scientists tout nuclear power to avert climate change"
5085:
4381:
3159:
2285:
2222:
2210:
2118:(NRC) has a factsheet that outlines 6 different studies. In 1990 the
1955:
1875:
1505:
industry, and less damaging than the constant, incessant damage from
1313:
1289:
1201:
285:
72:
argue that nuclear power is the only consistently reliable clean and
12792:
11062:
11037:
10310:"News Analysis: Japan crisis puts global nuclear expansion in doubt"
9121:"No Excess Mortality Risk Found in Counties with Nuclear Facilities"
8937:"In Japan, workers struggling to hook up power to Fukushima reactor"
8375:
8350:
6180:
4959:
Mancini, Mauro and Locatelli, Giorgio and Sainati, Tristano (2015).
4886:"Sudden shutdown of Monticello nuclear power plant causes fish kill"
3338:
3321:
1983:
The nuclear power industry has moved to improve engineering design.
1865:
Following an earthquake, tsunami, and failure of cooling systems at
896:
A 2023 study calculated land surface usage of nuclear power at 0.15
354:, but have not yet been deployed on a large-scale commercial basis.
76:
source which provides large amounts of uninterrupted energy without
45:
is a long-running controversy about the risks and benefits of using
13206:
13023:
12666:
12661:
12601:
12270:
12198:
12181:
12166:
12141:
11884:
11373:
10887:
9049:
8646:
7956:
7920:"The cost of Germany turning off nuclear power: Thousands of lives"
6415:
Belgium, Central Office, NucNet a s b l, Brussels (22 April 2021).
6066:
Bruckner T, Bashmakov IA, Mulugetta Y, Chum H, et al. (2014).
5168:
Belgium, Central Office, NucNet a s b l, Brussels (30 April 2020).
5044:
3134:
2899:
2246:
1767:. A steam explosion and graphite fire released large quantities of
1556:
In respect to fatality rate per GWh Generation III (EPR) reactors:
1340:
1178:
1170:
918:
European Union Taxonomy of environmentally sustainable technologies
10043:
8764:"Japan anti-nuclear protesters rally after PM call to close plant"
8316:
Nuclear power is not the answer to global warming or anything else
6651:"The #1 Thing Preventing Nuclear Development Is Still Public Fear"
6525:
Belgium, Central Office, NucNet a s b l, Brussels (28 June 2021).
5541:"Paris, Berlin divided over nuclear's recognition as green energy"
2358:
are currently, as of 2011, being built in China and a further two
2035:
Health effects on population near nuclear power plants and workers
88:. They argue that use of nuclear power provides well-paying jobs,
14248:
12992:
12944:
12807:
12787:
12186:
12161:
11601:
11432:
11420:
11398:
11363:
11227:
10909:
7508:. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 22 August 2005.
5941:"Key role for nuclear energy in global biodiversity conservation"
5852:
Reuters, 2001. "Cheney says push needed to boost nuclear power",
5822:
Department of Energy Report to Congress on the Price-Anderson Act
4972:
Nuclear new build: insights into financing and project management
2733:
2690:
2659:
2175:
1764:
1748:
1740:
1280:
remain deadly to living organisms. Of particular concern are two
1208:
sources of which nuclear power would be a significant component.
1189:
energy source currently available at industrial scale in Europe.
1166:
1154:
682:
675:
609:
296:
236:
232:
11212:
11156:
11035:
10468:"Nuclear disaster casts shadow over future of UK's energy plans"
10269:
Ipsos MORI: Poll: Strong global opposition towards nuclear power
9317:
Backgrounder on Radiation Protection and the "Tooth Fairy" Issue
4410:
4200:"Germany to widely miss 2030 climate target â draft govt report"
1631:
856:. In 2018 Greenpeace Spain ignored conclusions from a report by
335:
often makes nuclear plants politically difficult to implement.
12596:
12591:
12571:
12551:
12536:
12419:
12156:
12136:
12104:
9629:
9555:
Childhood Cancer in the Vicinity of German Nuclear Power Plants
7323:
Nuclear Waste Stalemate: Political and Scientific Controversies
5515:"'Do no harm': Nuclear squeezed out of EU green finance scheme"
4438:"New study: Nuclear power is humanity's greenest energy option"
4084:
2574:
Global public support for energy sources, based on a survey by
2480:
2427:
2404:
2359:
2351:
2295:
2242:
2226:
2214:
1810:
1744:
1174:
1158:
10133:
6065:
4419:
Annex III: Technology-specific cost and performance parameters
4416:
4175:"How nuclear power plants could help solve the climate crisis"
2143:
confirmed that radiation emissions were negligibly low at the
659:
technologies. Initially the basic criterion for inclusion was
13013:
12970:
12633:
12489:
12282:
12146:
11243:
9256:
9206:
8692:
4417:
Schlömer, S.; Bruckner, T.; Fulton, L.; Hertwich, E. et al. "
3688:
power should be part of the solution to fight climate change.
2924:
Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective
2575:
2206:
1791:
1780:
1446:
765:
The primary environmental effects of nuclear power come from
408:
10239:, press release of Senator Charles E. Shumer (13 June 2002).
8283:
7296:"Environmental Surveillance, Education and Research Program"
6181:"Land use and electricity generation: A life-cycle analysis"
2251:
Committee on Medical Aspects of Radiation in the Environment
1805:(UNSCEAR) has conducted 20 years of detailed scientific and
1361:
at relatively trace concentrations of parts per million each
13392:
12494:
12383:
12193:
12151:
10981:
10941:
10540:
9904:
9690:"WikiLeaks cables reveal fears over China's nuclear safety"
8975:. Vol. 6, no. 2. pp. 116â124. Archived from
6220:"A Green 'Catch 22': When Clean Energy and Rewilding Clash"
4594:
3974:
The nuclear energy option : an alternative for the 90s
2431:
2417:
2413:
2198:
2193:
is very high. You can for example have some value like 370
2053:
Environmental impact of nuclear power § Risk of cancer
1602:
1519:
631:
13678:
International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War
10776:"Tech Guru's PlanâFight Climate Change with Nuclear Power"
10680:"EDF hopes French EPR will launch before Chinese reactors"
9576:"Commentary: Childhood cancer near nuclear power stations"
8934:
7003:"Nuclear power is the greenest option, say top scientists"
5487:. Global Studies Initiative. 19 April 2010. Archived from
3833:"Is nuclear energy a possible solution to global warming?"
2189:", the UNSCEAR also gives some values for areas where the
2039:
13663:
International Association of Lawyers against Nuclear Arms
12467:
12331:
9474:
8207:. Database of Radiological Incidents and Related Events.
7448:
7050:"Polish academics urge end to Germany's nuclear phaseout"
6901:"Too late? Why scientists say we should expect the worst"
6090:"Réchauffement : les Français accusent le nucléaire"
5819:
5644:
4868:"TVA reactor shut down; cooling water from river too hot"
4765:
4734:
4581:
4579:
4577:
4575:
4525:
4109:
3922:"Germany: The Birth of the Nuclear Dilemma | K=1 Project"
3916:
3914:
2704:
In terms of current nuclear status and future prospects:
1815:
1696:
are also conceivable. An interdisciplinary team from the
1510:
1454:
1260:
Spent nuclear fuel stored underwater and uncapped at the
901:
554:
100:(NDCs) to reduce carbon emissions in accordance with the
11217:
10159:"The Russian Uranium That is on Sale for the Terrorists"
7455:. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. p. 91.
3660:
3563:
In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age
2723:
halted construction because of safety concerns. China's
292:, making it the second largest source after hydropower.
284:
has been used since the 1950s as a low-carbon source of
151:, nuclear power is not a low-carbon electricity source.
11222:
10397:. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from
8960:
8935:
King, Laura; Kenji Hall; Mark Magnier (18 March 2011).
8259:"What was the death toll from Chernobyl and Fukushima?"
8163:"Titanic Was Found During Secret Cold War Navy Mission"
7623:"Perspectives on the High Level Waste Disposal Problem"
7376:. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. p. 315.
6762:
Kharecha, Pushker A.; Hansen, James E. (18 June 2013).
6042:"An Open Letter to Environmentalists on Nuclear Energy"
5620:"Czech to provide loan for CEZ's nuclear power station"
4937:
EDF raises French EPR reactor cost to over $ 11 billion
4560:
4312:"Why Nuclear Power Must Be Part of the Energy Solution"
1430:
In March 2013, climate scientists Pushker Kharecha and
1047:
in a year as compared to an average fossil fuel plant.
166:
at a 2010 debate, "Does the world need nuclear energy?"
11207:
10423:
Ramana, M. V. (2011). "Nuclear power and the public".
10228:(15 February 2002). For an example of the latter, see
10134:
Amelia Gentleman & Ewen MacAskill (25 July 2001).
9920:"Bill Gates on energy: Innovating to zero! â Video on"
8845:
7720:"Nuclear Fuel Recycling: More Trouble Than It's Worth"
7371:
7320:
4572:
3911:
14225:
8693:
Tomoko Yamazaki & Shunichi Ozasa (27 June 2011).
7321:
Vandenbosch, Robert; Vandenbosch, Susanne E. (2007).
6843:"Book review: Contesting the future of nuclear power"
6077:. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
5482:"Relative Subsidies to Energy Sources: GSI estimates"
4603:"What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy?"
4370:
4226:"Are We At The Dawn Of A Nuclear Energy Renaissance?"
3511:
Energy Revolution: A Sustainable World Energy Outlook
2517:
1031:
Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources
1001:
833:
Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources
692:
641:
per kWh and biofuels receiving 5.1 US cents per kWh.
14125:
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
11139:: World Nuclear Industry Status as of 1 January 2016
11010:
8954:
8617:. International Atomic Energy Agency. Archived from
6869:
6668:
3202:
2795:
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
2381:
2322:, including international inspections at the plants.
2166:
Most human exposure to radiation comes from natural
1493:
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
1085:
have released an open letter stating, in part, that
754:
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
10801:"More organisations participate in OPEN100 project"
10657:"In Finland, Nuclear Renaissance Runs Into Trouble"
10280:
9745:Baron, Jonathon; Herzog, Stephen (1 October 2020).
8658:
8337:
Accident at Three Mile Island: The Human Dimensions
6179:Fthenakis, Vasilis; Kim, Hyung Chul (August 2009).
5331:"Nuclear Power: Still Not Viable without Subsidies"
1647:were constructed. It has also been a key factor in
1509:
from fossil fuels. For instance, by running a 1000-
12017:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
10518:"Cumbria rejects underground nuclear storage dump"
10046:"The Future of Nuclear Power in the United States"
10044:Charles D. Ferguson & Frank A. Settle (2012).
9564:, Medicine & Global Survival 1999, 6(1):18â23.
6939:"Nine out of 10 people want more renewable energy"
6741:"Climate change warriors: It's time to go nuclear"
6245:"An ill wind blows for the onshore power industry"
5647:"Cheaper, safer alternatives than nuclear fission"
5624:Power Technology | Energy News and Market Analysis
4528:"Nuclear energy - The solution to climate change?"
3574:
3572:
3277:
3072:
2927:. University of California Press. pp. 10â11.
2666:in Japan. The company is to boost its work in the
2327:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
231:. Nuclear power has been relatively unaffected by
183:
13668:International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons
11152:The World Nuclear Industry Status Reports website
10487:"Centrica withdraws from new UK nuclear projects"
10072:
9716:"Nuclear Power Expansion in China Stirs Concerns"
8048:"Coal Ash Is More Radioactive than Nuclear Waste"
7917:
5018:"Nuclear: New dawn now seems limited to the East"
4709:
4694:
4585:
4510:
2920:
2403:, against heavy water factory in German-occupied
2271:
1830:and health care costs of the Chernobyl disaster.
14261:
14185:Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
9709:
9707:
8879:"14-Year Cleanup at Three Mile Island Concludes"
8417:
8202:
8020:. Vol. 26, no. 3 & 4. p. 18.
6347:
4731:"Nuclear fusion is 'a question of when, not if'"
3947:"Public opposition to nuclear energy production"
3758:Nuclear Weapons and 'Fourth Generation' Reactors
3451:
3449:
3273:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3261:
1391:in New Mexico and two in German salt mines, the
10677:
9544:Kinderkrebs in der Umgebung von KernKraftwerken
9097:. United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
8642:"Chernobyl disaster: 'I didn't know the truth'"
8603:
8562:The New Detente: Rethinking East-West Relations
7833:Kharecha, Pushker A.; Hansen, James E. (2013).
7783:"Underground disposal â K+S Aktiengesellschaft"
7593:
7479:. The American Physical Society. January 2006.
7399:
7374:An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation
7283:: A Critical Global Assessment of Atomic Energy
7208:"Net Zero Needs Nuclear â COP26 Position Paper"
6837:
5939:Brook, Barry W.; Bradshaw, Corey J. A. (2015).
5667:
5215:: A Critical Global Assessment of Atomic Energy
4916:"Heat wave challenges power supply | en:former"
4855:: A Critical Global Assessment of Atomic Energy
4148:"The catch with Germany's green transformation"
3830:
3604:
3602:
3569:
2306:List of crimes involving radioactive substances
1850:in 25 years, displaced 50,000 households after
1818:, "It is conclusive that around 5,000 cases of
1245:
23:. For public protests about nuclear power, see
13371:Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll
10848:
10846:
10418:
10416:
10150:
9857:"China Nuclear Power â Chinese Nuclear Energy"
9713:
9687:
9070:
8907:
8446:Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2003).
8011:"Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger?"
7952:"Das sind die wahren Kosten des Atomausstiegs"
7949:
7832:
7806:
7536:International Journal of Environmental Studies
6761:
5086:Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2011).
4253:"Is it time for a nuclear energy renaissance?"
3821:, University of New South Wales Press, p. 252.
3656:
3654:
2861:"Sunday Dialogue: Nuclear Energy, Pro and Con"
2582:
2354:reactors, which were designed by the American
2141:Connecticut Academy of Science and Engineering
1014:the mean value from nuclear power ranged from
494:storage costs. On the other hand, measures to
62:and the critical role that carbon dioxide and
13606:
13172:Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll
13167:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents
13109:
12720:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
11270:
10156:
9704:
9683:
9681:
8848:"Crews 'facing 100-year battle' at Fukushima"
8786:
8413:
8411:
8196:
8184:Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources
6872:"The "Self-Limiting" Future of Nuclear Power"
5938:
5765:
4762:"Major breakthrough on nuclear fusion energy"
3628:
3626:
3530:
3446:
3409:
3258:
3139:Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power
1889:
1227:United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
970:The Article 31 group confirmed JRC findings:
415:Since nuclear power plants are fundamentally
27:. For public support for nuclear energy, see
11014:Nuclear energy: balancing benefits and risks
10654:
10465:
10388:
10105:"Information on Nuclear Smuggling Incidents"
9000:. 28 March 1989. p. A01. Archived from
8871:
8545:
8133:"The Worst Nuclear Disasters â Photo Essays"
8127:
8125:
8008:
7452:Technical Bases for Yucca Mountain Standards
7395:
7393:
7251:"Climate change worries fuel nuclear dreams"
6550:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
6440:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
6178:
5645:Kristin Shrader-Frechette (19 August 2011).
5386:
5384:
5276:
5253:"Nuclear decommissioning costs exceed ÂŁ73bn"
5193:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4461:
4376:
3977:. Internet Archive. New York: Plenum Press.
3818:Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy
3599:
3492:"Nuclear Energy is not a New Clear Resource"
3196:
2780:History of France's military nuclear program
2712:. Seven reactors were permanently shut down.
2658:In September 2011, German engineering giant
2471:18 January 1982 when environmental activist
2296:Nuclear proliferation and terrorism concerns
2157:Florida Bureau of Environmental Epidemiology
1937:Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station
1724:
1200:nuclear power. In April 2021 US President's
509:, may favor the economics of nuclear power.
368:Several countries are attempting to develop
13294:1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident
13177:Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country
11086:
10843:
10413:
10181:
9944:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
9744:
9618:
9438:
9436:
9415:"Sources and effects of ionizing radiation"
9123:. National Cancer Institute. Archived from
8966:"Evacuation behavior and Three Mile Island"
8862:
8551:
7425:
7298:. Idaho National Laboratory. Archived from
6833:
6831:
6608:Warner, Ethan S.; Heath, Garvin A. (2012).
6607:
5009:
4992:
4988:
4986:
4984:
4827:. World Nuclear Association. Archived from
3651:
3029:
2006:United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission
985:Also in July 2021 a group of 87 members of
252:resulted in what was described as another "
13613:
13599:
13116:
13102:
11277:
11263:
11167:World Information Service on Energy (WISE)
10515:
10484:
9678:
8994:"A Decade Later, TMI's Legacy Is Mistrust"
8792:
8761:
8664:
8408:
8342:
8231:Annual Review of Environment and Resources
8089:
8087:
7714:
7571:"Thorium Resources in Rare Earth Elements"
6531:The Independent Global Nuclear News Agency
6421:The Independent Global Nuclear News Agency
5174:The Independent Global Nuclear News Agency
3623:
3537:. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 44â.
3494:. Theworldreporter.com. 2 September 2010.
3403:
3314:
2825:Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy
1871:issues concerning other nuclear facilities
13620:
13462:Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack
13439:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
13359:Three Mile Island accident health effects
11061:
10368:"Siemens to Exit Nuclear Energy Business"
10316:
10097:
10066:
10039:
10037:
9762:
9656:"Safety issues cloud nuclear renaissance"
9601:
9591:
9292:
9282:
9233:
9171:
8846:David Mark; Mark Willacy (1 April 2011).
8542:Relevant video locations: 31:00, 1:10:00.
8490:
8374:
8242:
8122:
7868:
7858:
7645:
7390:
6795:
6738:
6625:
6588:European Commission â European Commission
6013:
5956:
5795:"Determining the Price of Price-Anderson"
5725:John Byrne and Steven M. Hoffman (1996).
5381:
5015:
4675:European Commission Joint Research Centre
4543:
3797:
3782:"Nuclear energy: Assessing the emissions"
3355:
3337:
3237:
3099:
2881:
2775:History of France's civil nuclear program
2388:Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack
2187:Sources and effects of ionizing radiation
1880:Japanese nuclear seismic design standards
1739:Map showing caesium-137 contamination in
1056:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
860:report it procured, showing the lowest CO
822:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
604:U.S. 2014 Electricity Generation By Type.
573:Current UK plants are expected to exceed
16:Controversy over the use of nuclear power
13688:Nuclear Information and Resource Service
13457:International Nuclear Event Scale (INES)
13300:Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident
12632:
11137:The World Nuclear Industry Status Report
10911:Sustainable energy â without the hot air
10826:"Advanced Reactor Demonstration Program"
10745:"First Taishan EPR completes cold tests"
10127:
9964:Institute for National-Strategic Studies
9433:
8825:"Blasts escalate Japan's nuclear crisis"
8639:
8093:
7325:. University of Utah Press. p. 21.
6828:
6185:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
5874:
5727:Governing the Atom: The Politics of Risk
5693:
5538:
5206:
5204:
5141:
5037:
4981:
3634:"What are the safest sources of energy?"
3578:
2569:
2561:
2038:
1899:
1837:
1734:
1630:
1330:
1255:
1005:
737:
651:In 2019 a heated debate happened in the
599:
584:
453:
388:Energy security and renewable technology
272:
158:
53:for civilian purposes. The debate about
33:
13673:International Day against Nuclear Tests
13499:International Day against Nuclear Tests
13147:Crimes involving radioactive substances
11218:SCK.CEN Belgian Nuclear Research Centre
10881:
10773:
10378:from the original on 21 September 2011.
9700:from the original on 30 September 2013.
9573:
8348:
8220:
8218:
8084:
8045:
6859:from the original on 27 September 2013.
6648:
6524:
6414:
6295:
5912:
5167:
4843:
4841:
4728:
4715:
4710:Locatelli, Giorgio; Mignacca, Benito. "
4696:
4600:
4587:
4512:
4250:
3779:
3524:
3141:, Oxford University Press, pp. 323â340.
2487:According to a 2004 report by the U.S.
1649:public concern about nuclear facilities
1478:
1252:High-level radioactive waste management
147:are considered, from uranium mining to
14262:
14105:France and weapons of mass destruction
13289:Instituto OncolĂłgico Nacional#Accident
12647:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
11284:
11089:Environmental Science & Technology
10999:from the original on 20 November 2020.
10904:
10584:from the original on 27 September 2013
10516:Wainwright, Martin (30 January 2013).
10485:Carrington, Damian (4 February 2013).
10422:
10324:"Nuclear power: When the steam clears"
10034:
9989:
9987:
9985:
9863:from the original on 26 September 2013
9784:
9782:
9666:from the original on 21 September 2008
9339:. Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission.
9016:"People & Events: Dick Thornburgh"
8733:, Japan Daily Press, 18 December 2013.
8224:
8203:Johnston, Robert (23 September 2007).
7839:Environmental Science & Technology
7751:"Is the Nuclear Renaissance Fizzling?"
7748:
7663:
7661:
7655:, University of Chicago Press, p. 137.
7568:
7533:
7477:"The Status of Nuclear Waste Disposal"
7281:Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power
7029:"Nuclear Powerand the Paris Agreement"
6879:Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power
6768:Environmental Science & Technology
6388:
5875:Bradford, Peter A. (23 January 2002).
5432:from the original on 25 September 2011
5213:Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power
5142:Yglesias, Matthew (28 February 2020).
5110:
5088:"The Future of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle"
4853:Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power
4633:
4494:
4435:
4309:
4069:
4037:from the original on 13 February 2014.
3865:(published June 2010). February 2010.
3845:from the original on 12 February 2014.
3502:
3032:Environmental Science & Technology
2882:MacKenzie, James J. (December 1977). "
2725:National Nuclear Safety Administration
2437:Iraqi air force attacks on unfinished
2262:report of 2021 (see above) concluded:
2145:Connecticut Yankee Nuclear Power Plant
1978:
1958:, and approximately 15 curies of
1792:Mayak nuclear weapons production plant
1759:that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the
1712:report of 2021 (see above) concluded:
1436:Environmental Science & Technology
1425:
1416:report of 2021 (see above) concluded:
769:, radioactive effluent emissions, and
744:Environmental effects of nuclear power
555:Cost of decommissioning nuclear plants
13594:
13097:
12889:
12652:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
12061:
12048:
11258:
10976:from the original on 26 January 2017.
10774:Proctor, Darrell (25 February 2020).
10755:from the original on 22 December 2017
10574:"Japan approves two reactor restarts"
10497:from the original on 14 December 2013
10356:from the original on 4 February 2016.
10248:
9456:from the original on 7 September 2013
9343:from the original on 15 November 2010
9269:(5). Wolters Kluwer Health: 675â684.
9145:
9095:"Advanced Reactors (non-LWR designs)"
8496:
8460:from the original on 21 October 2012.
8276:
8244:10.1146/annurev.environ.033108.092057
8211:from the original on 23 October 2007.
8080:from the original on 4 February 2007.
7763:from the original on 16 February 2018
7730:from the original on 19 November 2008
7620:
7583:from the original on 3 December 2013.
7155:
6978:Renewables 2015: Global Status Report
6751:from the original on 4 November 2013.
6688:from the original on 14 December 2018
6649:Delbert, Caroline (27 January 2020).
6157:from the original on 29 November 2020
6087:
6039:
5893:from the original on 3 December 2013.
5792:
5592:
5539:BarbiĂšre, CĂ©cile (27 November 2019).
5512:
5462:from the original on 7 September 2011
5392:"Energy Subsidies and External Costs"
5201:
5137:
5135:
5133:
5051:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
4615:from the original on 29 November 2020
4276:
4112:"Is it reliable to depend on import?"
4077:"Nuclear renaissance faces realities"
4046:
4044:
4019:
3996:
3994:
3970:
3824:
3714:
3712:
3710:
3708:
3706:
3704:
3702:
3700:
3698:
3696:
3066:
3023:
2914:
2871:from the original on 6 December 2016.
2506:New reactor designs have features of
1920:The Three Mile Island accident was a
1833:
1698:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
704:The potential costs resulting from a
577:73 billion in decommissioning costs.
467:EPR being built at Olkiluoto, Finland
446:Economics of new nuclear power plants
439:
14115:History of the anti-nuclear movement
13708:Physicians for Social Responsibility
13494:History of the anti-nuclear movement
13076:
12049:
10980:
10940:
10936:from the original on 28 August 2021.
10528:from the original on 22 October 2013
10391:"The Great German Energy Experiment"
10298:from the original on 31 August 2012.
10215:"Bush OKs Yucca Mountain waste site"
10189:"Action Call Over Dirty Bomb Threat"
10115:from the original on 18 October 2006
9895:from the original on 21 January 2017
9751:Energy Research & Social Science
9395:from the original on 12 October 2009
9188:from the original on 19 January 2009
9101:from the original on 2 November 2017
9026:from the original on 24 October 2016
8986:
8215:
8177:
8143:from the original on 3 December 2017
8066:
8027:from the original on 31 January 2017
8018:Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review
7918:Nathanael Johnson (8 January 2020).
6898:
5402:from the original on 4 February 2007
5369:from the original on 10 January 2012
5337:from the original on 4 February 2012
5144:"An expert's case for nuclear power"
4838:
4759:
4741:from the original on 25 January 2021
4601:Ritchie, Hannah (10 February 2020).
4566:
4462:Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (2020).
4422:
4251:Kaufman, Alex C. (1 December 2021).
4103:
4002:"Nuclear â Fuels & Technologies"
3899:from the original on 7 November 2017
3869:from the original on 20 October 2013
3356:Jogalekar, Ashutosh (2 April 2013).
3246:from the original on 4 February 2010
3102:British Journal of Political Science
2600:
2536:falling into the hands of terrorists
2468:constructions site and its personnel
2362:reactors are to be built in the US.
2056:
1966:: Accident With Wider Consequences.
1755:The Chernobyl steam explosion was a
1371:39 million sq mi) by
904:, the lowest of all energy sources.
674:In July 2020 W. Gyude Moore, former
227:was the main driver behind France's
14065:Songs about nuclear war and weapons
13152:Criticality accidents and incidents
12657:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
11189:"Natural Resources Defense Council"
10605:Nuclear Power Reactors on the World
10334:from the original on 29 April 2011.
10085:from the original on 3 October 2006
9982:
9917:
9779:
9714:Keith Bradsher (15 December 2009).
9526:from the original on 2 October 2006
9363:"Average Annual Radiation Exposure"
8564:. United Nations University Press.
8505:from the original on 16 August 2011
7658:
7438:from the original on 21 March 2017.
7400:Nicholas Watson (21 January 2022).
6957:from the original on 9 January 2017
6739:Patterson, Thom (3 November 2013).
6014:Patterson, Thom (3 November 2013).
5687:
5566:"Nuclear Energy is Climate Justice"
5513:Simon, Frédéric (6 December 2019).
5398:. World Nuclear Association. 2005.
4896:from the original on 9 January 2018
4684:from the original on 26 April 2021.
4110:L. Meeus; K. Purchala; R. Belmans.
3663:Journal of Environmental Psychology
3376:
3184:from the original on 17 August 2017
2672:Ifo Institute for Economic Research
2376:Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
2370:which has the financial backing of
2235:Federal Emergency Management Agency
2018:High temperature gas-cooled reactor
1535:additional modelling applied using
818:life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions
801:and then co-signed by many others.
646:life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions
450:Nuclear power in the European Union
333:Public opposition to nuclear energy
98:Nationally Determined Contributions
13:
14060:Nuclear weapons in popular culture
13256:Nuclear power accidents by country
12466:
11617:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
11004:
10705:Symbolic milestone for Finnish EPR
10346:"Siemens to quit nuclear industry"
10195:from the original on 16 March 2006
10169:from the original on 22 April 2006
9421:from the original on 4 August 2012
8889:from the original on 17 March 2011
8835:from the original on 7 April 2011.
8805:from the original on 11 March 2011
8284:Nuclear power â the energy balance
8169:. 21 November 2017. Archived from
8074:"Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors"
7449:National Research Council (1995).
7406:International Atomic Energy Agency
6881:. World Scientific. Archived from
6720:from the original on 23 April 2021
6217:
5987:
5820:U.S. Department of Energy (1999).
5780:10.1111/j.1465-7287.1990.tb00645.x
5289:from the original on 3 March 2016.
5130:
4760:Amos, Jonathan (9 February 2022).
4648:from the original on 28 April 2021
4348:"Nuclear Power in the World Today"
4328:from the original on 9 August 2021
4041:
3991:
3732:from the original on 25 April 2021
3693:
3498:from the original on 4 March 2013.
2966:Revisiting Nuclear Power: A Debate
2785:List of books about nuclear issues
2639:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
2518:Use of waste byproduct as a weapon
2430:, against the same Osirak site in
2043:Fishermen near the now-dismantled
1884:re-evaluate their nuclear programs
1861:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
1844:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
1777:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
1591:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
1304:(half-life two million years) and
1222:emissions from the energy sector.
1064:International Atomic Energy Agency
1002:Effect on greenhouse gas emissions
724:U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
693:Indirect nuclear insurance subsidy
537:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
423:disposal becomes an issue at high
267:Sustainable energy § Nuclear power
208:
14:
14291:
14094:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
13488:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
11640:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
11539:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
11145:
10425:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
10389:David Talbot (JulyâAugust 2012).
10075:"Neutron Weapon from Underground"
10062:from the original on 25 May 2017.
10053:Federation of American Scientists
9726:from the original on 19 July 2016
9688:Jonathan Watts (25 August 2011).
9490:10.1097/01.HP.0000327646.54923.11
9152:Environmental Health Perspectives
9148:"Nuclear Power and Public Health"
9077:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
8858:from the original on 5 June 2011.
8793:Weisenthal, Joe (11 March 2011).
8705:from the original on 30 June 2011
8499:"Fukushima: As Bad as Chernobyl?"
8351:"In retrospect: Normal Accidents"
8339:, Westview, Boulder, pp. 173â184.
8054:from the original on 12 June 2013
7950:Olaf Gersemann (6 January 2020).
7899:from the original on 1 March 2014
7627:Interdisciplinary Science Reviews
7515:from the original on 26 June 2008
7372:Ojovan, M. I.; Lee, W.E. (2005).
6919:from the original on 10 June 2016
6376:, Washington Post, May 10, 2023,
6040:Brook, Barry (14 December 2014).
5884:Renewal of the Price Anderson Act
5729:, Transaction Publishers, p. 136.
5677:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
5651:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
5362:. Union of Concerned Scientists.
5333:. Union of Concerned Scientists.
5111:Plumer, Brad (29 February 2016).
5100:from the original on 1 June 2011.
4999:Nuclear Engineering International
4772:from the original on 1 March 2022
4729:McGrath, Matt (6 November 2019).
4634:Timmer, John (21 November 2020).
4476:from the original on 20 July 2021
4358:from the original on 16 July 2021
4291:from the original on 21 July 2021
3617:Healthcare Journal of New Orleans
3389:from the original on 1 March 2014
3012:Nuclear Energy: The Safety Issues
2955:A Reasonable Bet on Nuclear Power
2548:
2382:Vulnerability of plants to attack
2320:IAEA non-proliferation safeguards
2137:Illinois Public Health Department
1964:International Nuclear Event Scale
1773:International Nuclear Event Scale
1692:Catastrophic scenarios involving
1624:reactor accident (1968), and the
1126:and low environmental footprint:
259:
14247:
14235:
14210:
14209:
13731:
13653:Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
13577:
13576:
13566:
13349:Kramatorsk radiological accident
13075:
13064:
13063:
13051:
12740:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
10882:Letcher, Trevor M., ed. (2020).
10818:
10793:
10767:
10737:
10721:
10698:
10678:Geert De Clercq (31 July 2014).
10671:
10648:
10636:from the original on 4 June 2016
10596:
10566:
10554:from the original on 20 May 2016
10509:
10478:
10459:
10382:
10360:
10338:
10302:
10242:
10207:
10012:
9952:
9926:from the original on 4 June 2013
9911:
9875:
9849:
9832:
9807:
9738:
9648:
9636:from the original on 11 May 2011
9567:
9547:
9538:
9512:
9468:
9407:
9381:
9369:from the original on 2 June 2013
9355:
9329:
9309:
9250:
9200:
9146:Clapp, Richard (November 2005).
9139:
9113:
9087:
9071:Hugh Gusterson (16 March 2011).
9064:
9038:
9008:
8928:
8901:
8839:
8817:
8755:
8736:
8717:
8686:
8654:from the original on 7 May 2019.
8633:
8578:
8517:
8497:Black, Richard (12 April 2011).
8464:
8439:
8383:
8329:
8308:
8295:
8251:
8155:
8039:
8002:
7976:
7943:
7911:
7885:
7826:
7800:
7775:
7742:
7708:
7676:
7614:
7587:
7562:
7527:
7495:
7483:from the original on 16 May 2008
7469:
7442:
7419:
7365:
7339:
7314:
7288:
7269:
7243:
7217:
7200:
7175:
7149:
7124:
7110:
7084:
7067:
7042:
7021:
6995:
6969:
6931:
6892:
6863:
6755:
6732:
6700:
6642:
6627:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00472.x
6601:
6576:
6558:
6518:
6503:from the original on 2 July 2021
6483:
6468:from the original on 2 July 2021
6448:
6408:
6382:
6367:
6341:
6315:
6289:
6263:
6237:
6211:
6172:
6133:
6108:
6081:
6059:
6033:
6007:
5981:
5932:
5906:
5897:
5868:
5846:
5813:
5809:from the original on 2 May 2015.
5786:
5759:
5750:
5732:
5311:from the original on 1 June 2017
5277:John Quiggin (8 November 2013).
5217:, World Scientific, pp. 118â119.
5067:from the original on 18 May 2017
4398:from the original on 2 July 2021
4310:Rhodes, Richard (19 July 2018).
4172:
3362:Scientific American Blog Network
2605:
2558:Public opinion on nuclear issues
2061:
1882:and caused other governments to
265:This section is an excerpt from
13698:Nuclear Weapons Freeze Campaign
13251:List of orphan source incidents
11829:Historical stockpiles and tests
9315:Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
8774:from the original on 7 May 2011
8282:Storm van Leeuwen, Jan (2008).
7692:. 28 April 2008. Archived from
6899:Adam, David (9 December 2008).
6296:Roberts, David (21 July 2020).
5719:
5661:
5638:
5612:
5586:
5558:
5532:
5506:
5474:
5444:
5414:
5349:
5323:
5293:
5270:
5245:
5220:
5161:
5104:
5016:Ed Crooks (12 September 2010).
4993:Kidd, Steve (21 January 2011).
4953:
4930:
4908:
4878:
4860:
4814:
4784:
4753:
4722:
4703:
4688:
4660:
4627:
4519:
4504:
4455:
4429:
4340:
4303:
4277:Roser, Max (10 December 2020).
4270:
4244:
4218:
4192:
4166:
4140:
3971:Cohen, Bernard Leonard (1990).
3964:
3939:
3881:
3849:
3806:
3773:
3747:
3551:
3484:
3412:Reviews on Environmental Health
3231:
3166:
3144:
3087:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.01.014
2888:The Quarterly Review of Biology
1867:Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant
1537:Probabilistic Safety Assessment
1489:Nuclear and radiation accidents
403:In 2010, the worldwide average
194:Japanese reactors being offline
184:Electricity and energy supplied
127:, nuclear power opponents fear
12730:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
11612:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
11223:Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI)
11208:American Nuclear Society (ANS)
10466:David Maddox (30 March 2012).
10136:"Weapons-grade Uranium Seized"
8752:, NBC News, 10 septembre 2013.
8665:Hallenbeck, William H (1994).
8640:Saunders, Emmma (6 May 2019).
8318:, Melbourne University Press,
7807:Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche.
7684:"A Nuclear Power Renaissance?"
7156:Chant, Tim De (2 April 2021).
6389:Abnett, Kate (27 March 2021).
6088:Revol, Michel (26 June 2019).
5913:Allison, Wade (2 March 2020).
5593:SzĆke, Evelin (23 July 2020).
4712:Small Modular Nuclear Reactors
4436:Bailey, Ronald (10 May 2023).
4322:Yale School of the Environment
4119:Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
3128:
3093:
2988:
2941:
2875:
2853:
2790:List of nuclear whistleblowers
2272:Safety culture in host nations
2030:List of nuclear whistleblowers
1379:over the cumulative amount of
1115:, or an idealistic pursuit of
1069:Climate and energy scientists
989:signed an open letter calling
911:
461:has said its third-generation
377:
356:Nuclear power based on thorium
60:awareness about climate change
1:
13573:Nuclear technology portal
13058:Nuclear technology portal
11249:Should we use nuclear energy?
11011:Ferguson, Charles D. (2007).
10111:. Nuclear Threat Initiative.
10081:. Nuclear Threat Initiative.
10020:"Congressional Budget Office"
8586:"Russia Environmental Issues"
8448:"The Future of Nuclear Power"
7749:Kanter, James (29 May 2009).
7651:Montgomery, Scott L. (2010).
7569:Ragheb, M. (7 October 2013).
7426:Brown, Paul (14 April 2004).
7183:"Net Zero by 2050 â Analysis"
6870:Benjamin K. Sovacool (2011).
6614:Journal of Industrial Ecology
5210:Benjamin K. Sovacool (2011).
3831:Mark Diesendorf (July 2007).
3786:Nature Reports Climate Change
3292:10.1016/s0140-6736(07)61253-7
2977:A Comeback for Nuclear Power?
2884:The Nuclear Power Controversy
2512:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
2479:reactor construction site in
2356:Westinghouse Electric Company
2344:Megatons to Megawatts Program
2116:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
1761:Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
1620:reactor accident (1961), the
1337:nuclear waste disposal centre
1136:Brave New Climate open letter
1010:According to a 2012 study by
619:they emit, such as through a
125:nuclear weapons proliferation
13343:Andreev Bay nuclear accident
13330:Chazhma Bay nuclear accident
12920:Field-reversed configuration
12530:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
11019:Council on Foreign Relations
10987:efforts to eradicate poverty
10655:James Kanter (28 May 2009).
10138:. London: Guardian Unlimited
9275:10.1097/EDE.0000000000000684
8908:Spiegelberg-Planer, Rejane.
8096:Journal of Contemporary Asia
6681:. IPCC. 2014. p. 1335.
6120:Greenpeace Australia Pacific
5768:Contemporary Economic Policy
5396:Information and Issue Briefs
4995:"New reactorsâmore or less?"
4279:"The world's energy problem"
4027:"Nuclear power down in 2012"
2846:
2108:National Academy of Sciences
1941:Dauphin County, Pennsylvania
1246:High-level radioactive waste
808:per tonne of uranium mined.
782:environmental sustainability
732:Sandia National Laboratories
580:
434:
317:nuclear weapon proliferation
225:fossil fuel crisis in 1970's
70:Proponents of nuclear energy
7:
14280:Environmental controversies
13277:Nyonoksa radiation accident
12877:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
12062:
11824:States with nuclear weapons
11251:â Wikidebate on Wikiversity
11244:Fairewinds Energy Education
11162:Greenpeace Nuclear Campaign
10191:. BBC News. 11 March 2003.
9226:10.1136/bmj.38499.599861.E0
8433:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.040
7285:, World Scientific, p. 141.
5713:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.01.040
5046:The Future of Nuclear Power
4857:, World Scientific, p. 146.
4545:10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112363
3675:10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101749
3593:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.01.040
3470:10.1016/j.eneco.2013.08.006
3322:"Nuclear power saves lives"
3240:"The Nuclear Energy Option"
3217:10.1016/j.enpol.2009.07.052
3075:Global Environmental Change
2747:
2643:International Energy Agency
2583:Trends and future prospects
2526:, colloquially known as a "
2489:Congressional Budget Office
2466:LemĂłniz Nuclear Power Plant
1389:Waste Isolation Pilot Plant
1282:long-lived fission products
1181:, signed an open letter to
1153:In 2021 prime ministers of
1043:and 2,200 metric tons of NO
1022:emissions with a median of
810:Energy return on investment
701:severe nuclear accidents".
10:
14296:
14180:RussellâEinstein Manifesto
14050:Films about nuclear issues
14045:Books about nuclear issues
13638:Anti-nuclear organizations
13549:RussellâEinstein Manifesto
13472:Films about nuclear issues
13467:Books about nuclear issues
13355:Three Mile Island accident
13283:Fukushima nuclear accident
13162:Military nuclear accidents
13157:Nuclear meltdown accidents
12890:
12715:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
11839:Tests in the United States
10952:Cambridge University Press
10875:
10163:Global Challenges Research
10073:Vadim Nesvizhskiy (1999).
9966:. May 1995. Archived from
9764:10.1016/j.erss.2020.101567
9553:Körblein A, Hoffmann W: .
9073:"The lessons of Fukushima"
8912:. IAEA.org. Archived from
8478:(in undetermined language)
7673:, Bloomsbury, pp. 165â166.
7639:10.1179/030801898789764480
7621:Cohen, Bernard L. (1998).
7596:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts
6197:10.1016/j.rser.2008.09.017
4257:Canada's National Observer
2921:Walker, J. Samuel (2006).
2664:Fukushima nuclear disaster
2586:
2555:
2385:
2324:
2299:
2133:Three Mile Island accident
2050:
2045:Trojan Nuclear Power Plant
2027:
1896:Three Mile Island accident
1893:
1890:Three Mile Island accident
1858:
1728:
1637:Three Mile Island accident
1599:Three Mile Island accident
1482:
1404:deep geologic repositories
1335:Anti-nuclear protest near
1249:
1107:8 billion tonnes (1.8
1028:
826:
747:
741:
558:
443:
384:Intermittent power sources
381:
264:
212:
154:
18:
14205:
14135:Nuclear-Free Future Award
14073:
14055:Nuclear holocaust fiction
14037:
13856:
13740:
13729:
13643:Anti-nuclear power groups
13628:
13562:
13509:Nuclear-Free Future Award
13447:
13418:Totskoye nuclear exercise
13264:
13246:Sunken nuclear submarines
13131:
13045:
13001:
12953:
12910:
12900:
12852:
12840:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
12753:
12735:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
12700:
12683:
12623:
12550:
12542:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
12516:
12507:
12459:
12439:
12392:
12374:
12330:
12235:
12217:
12085:
12072:
12057:
12044:
11999:
11932:
11877:
11868:
11816:
11724:
11715:
11682:
11625:
11587:
11578:
11499:
11431:
11354:
11296:
11292:
11238:The Nuclear Energy Option
10682:. Reuters. Archived from
9389:"National Safety Council"
8762:Mari Saito (7 May 2011).
8669:. CRC Press. p. 15.
8108:10.1080/00472331003798350
7548:10.1080/00207230601047255
4352:World Nuclear Association
3770:, August 2009, pp. 18â21.
3619:. SeptemberâOctober 2017.
3114:10.1017/S000712340000380X
2741:U.S. Department of Energy
2614:This section needs to be
2449:Operation Outside the Box
2364:Hyperion Power Generation
2124:National Cancer Institute
2099:Linear no-threshold model
2070:This section needs to be
2023:
1929:pressurized water reactor
1769:radioactive contamination
1725:Chernobyl steam explosion
1628:reactor accident (1985).
1607:Nuclear-powered submarine
1516:World Nuclear Association
1039:, 5,200 metric tons of SO
698:Kristin Shrader-Frechette
594:Energy Policy Act of 2005
463:EPR Flamanville 3 project
242:climate change mitigation
13693:Nevada Desert Experience
12745:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
12361:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
11697:Electron-beam processing
10445:10.1177/0096340211413358
10312:. Platts. 21 March 2011.
10235:30 November 2008 at the
10220:11 December 2007 at the
8314:Helen Caldicott (2006).
6150:. 2018. pp. 23â25.
5827:(Report). Archived from
5301:"EIA â Electricity Data"
4966:27 December 2015 at the
3610:"The Cost of the Charge"
3017:24 December 2016 at the
3007:24 December 2016 at the
2982:26 February 2010 at the
2815:Nuclear Liabilities Fund
2800:Loss-of-coolant accident
2129:University of Pittsburgh
1914:Middletown, Pennsylvania
1347:Since the fraction of a
854:IPCC life-cycle analysis
507:carbon emissions trading
346:reactors are capable of
78:polluting the atmosphere
14150:Nuclear power phase-out
14029:Christopher Weeramantry
13524:Nuclear power phase-out
12860:Organic nuclear reactor
12032:Nuclear power phase-out
11955:Nuclear decommissioning
11895:Reactor-grade plutonium
11645:Targeted alpha-particle
11524:Accidents and incidents
10710:27 October 2013 at the
9999:www.armscontrolwonk.com
9365:. Lbl.gov. 4 May 2011.
8748:12 October 2014 at the
8729:11 October 2014 at the
8538:The Battle of Chernobyl
8301:Wolfgang Rudig (1990).
8289:1 November 2006 at the
8167:The National Geographic
8050:. Scientific American.
5793:Heyes, Anthony (2003).
3799:10.1038/climate.2008.99
3763:5 February 2013 at the
2960:1 February 2017 at the
2840:Renewable energy debate
2820:Nuclear power phase-out
2180:National Safety Council
2149:American Cancer Society
2016:, and one is a Modular
886:Extinction Rebellion UK
837:In terms of life-cycle
561:Nuclear decommissioning
348:recycling nuclear waste
301:land per unit of energy
256:" in the early 2020's.
149:nuclear decommissioning
14155:Nuclear weapons debate
14100:Defence Secretariat 19
13529:Nuclear weapons debate
11134:, Doug Koplow (2016).
11038:"A US nuclear future?"
10288:"Gauging the pressure"
10249:Ipsos (23 June 2011),
10157:Pavel Simonov (2005).
9593:10.1186/1476-069X-8-43
8964:; Kent Barnes (1982).
8391:"Passive Heat Removal"
8349:Pidgeon, Nick (2011).
8305:, Longman, pp. 53, 61.
6713:. pp. 1306â1308.
5988:By (3 November 2013).
5862:1 January 2011 at the
5744:1 January 2011 at the
5572:Breakthrough Institute
5452:"FP7 Euratom spending"
5422:"FP7 budget breakdown"
4942:19 August 2017 at the
4822:"15 years of progress"
3926:k1project.columbia.edu
3780:Kleiner, Kurt (2008).
3531:Giugni, Marco (2004).
3424:10.1515/reveh.2011.032
2886:by Arthur W. Murphy".
2830:Passive nuclear safety
2579:
2567:
2410:Operation Scorch Sword
2269:
2147:. Also that year, the
2120:United States Congress
2048:
1993:Passive nuclear safety
1989:passive nuclear safety
1917:
1856:
1752:
1722:
1686:
1640:
1589:accidents include the
1572:
1563:
1554:
1543:) and Generation III (
1423:
1344:
1268:
1139:
1092:
1026:
1018:of total life cycle CO
983:
960:
940:
858:University of Comillas
605:
597:
545:Small Modular Reactors
478:
360:Small modular reactors
278:
167:
129:sabotage by terrorists
38:
14270:Anti-nuclear movement
14165:Otto Hahn Peace Medal
13974:Hermann Joseph Muller
13723:World Uranium Hearing
13703:Peace Action and SANE
13648:Anti-nuclear protests
13622:Anti-nuclear movement
13387:K-19 nuclear accident
13182:Nuclear weapons tests
12022:Anti-nuclear movement
10374:. 19 September 2011.
10352:. 18 September 2011.
9859:. World-nuclear.org.
9819:www.world-nuclear.org
9574:Fairlie, Ian (2009).
8523:From interviews with
8225:Ramana, M.V. (2009).
8189:26 March 2009 at the
8009:Alex Gabbard (1993).
6327:Les voix du nucléaire
5695:Sovacool, Benjamin K.
4976:Nuclear Energy Agency
3566:, Black Inc., p. 280.
3516:6 August 2009 at the
2805:Nuclear contamination
2755:Anti-nuclear movement
2739:In October 2020, the
2597:Anti-nuclear movement
2573:
2565:
2475:fired RPG rockets at
2439:Bushehr nuclear plant
2333:nuclear power program
2331:Iran has developed a
2302:Nuclear proliferation
2264:
2260:Joint Research Centre
2185:In its 2000 report, "
2135:. The same year, the
2042:
1903:
1841:
1775:(the other being the
1738:
1714:
1710:Joint Research Centre
1681:
1634:
1616:accident (1963), the
1567:
1558:
1549:
1434:published a paper in
1418:
1414:Joint Research Centre
1381:natural radioisotopes
1334:
1259:
1128:
1113:climate change denial
1087:
1009:
972:
949:
929:
925:Joint Research Centre
839:surface power density
760:surface power density
750:Uranium mining debate
738:Environmental effects
603:
588:
488:plant decommissioning
457:
392:100% renewable energy
276:
162:
37:
25:Anti-nuclear movement
21:Nuclear energy policy
14145:Nuclear power debate
13519:Nuclear power debate
13381:Cuban Missile Crisis
13232:in the United States
12930:Reversed field pinch
12725:Traveling-wave (TWR)
12209:Supercritical (SCWR)
11707:Gemstone irradiation
10274:3 April 2016 at the
9891:. 16 February 2010.
9580:Environmental Health
9322:20 July 2017 at the
9164:10.1289/ehp.113-a720
8829:World News Australia
8667:Radiation Protection
8540:. Discovery Channel.
7716:von Hippel, Frank N.
7276:Benjamin K. Sovacool
6570:finance.ec.europa.eu
5945:Conservation Biology
5854:Reuters News Service
5005:on 12 December 2011.
4848:Benjamin K. Sovacool
4677:. 2021. p. 53.
4317:Yale Environment 360
4091:on 27 September 2007
3152:"Bloomberg Politics"
2971:9 April 2017 at the
2867:. 25 February 2012.
2770:Extinction Rebellion
2744:within seven years.
2676:University of Munich
2593:Pro-nuclear movement
2543:Nuclear reprocessing
2397:Operation Gunnerside
2337:light water reactors
2282:political corruption
2278:developing countries
2191:radiation background
2168:background radiation
2014:compact fast reactor
2010:molten salt reactors
1933:Babcock & Wilcox
1852:radioactive material
1609:mishaps include the
1579:Benjamin K. Sovacool
1479:Accidents and safety
1393:Morsleben Repository
1298:transuranic elements
1141:In response to 2016
775:background radiation
661:life-cycle emissions
657:zero-emission energy
483:Nuclear power plants
250:global energy crisis
43:nuclear power debate
29:Pro-nuclear movement
14110:Göttingen Manifesto
13964:Freda Meissner-Blau
13718:Sortir du nucléaire
13504:Nuclear close calls
12095:Aqueous homogeneous
11890:Reprocessed uranium
11563:Safety and security
11233:Freedom for Fission
11101:2014EnST...48...25D
11054:2010Natur.467..391F
10906:MacKay, David J. C.
10437:2011BuAtS..67d..43R
10265:on 24 December 2014
9970:on 16 February 2018
9662:. 20 January 2008.
8998:The Washington Post
8621:on 17 December 2007
8615:In Focus: Chernobyl
8367:2011Natur.477..404P
8046:Hvistendahl, Mara.
7990:. 17 September 2019
7851:2013EnST...47.4889K
7724:Scientific American
7689:Scientific American
7608:2007AGUFM.V33A1161P
7302:on 21 November 2008
6780:2013EnST...47.6718K
5683:on 21 January 2012.
5657:on 21 January 2012.
4718:, pp. 151â169.
4699:, pp. 146â147.
4590:, pp. 147â149.
4128:on 29 November 2007
3332:(7451): 539. 2013.
3044:2014EnST...48...25D
2589:Nuclear renaissance
2524:radiological weapon
2483:, causing no damage
2257:European Commission
1979:New reactor designs
1731:Chernobyl explosion
1707:European Commission
1587:nuclear power plant
1503:hydroelectric power
1426:Prevented mortality
1411:European Commission
1343:in northern Germany
1292:220,000 years) and
1183:European Commission
1124:high energy density
991:European Commission
987:European Parliament
922:European Commission
535:Following the 2011
425:ambient temperature
352:geological disposal
254:nuclear renaissance
14242:Nuclear technology
14130:Mainau Declaration
13412:Operation Plumbbob
13375:Operation Fishbowl
13312:Chernobyl disaster
13009:Dense plasma focus
11924:Actinide chemistry
11389:Isotope separation
11286:Nuclear technology
10886:(Third ed.).
10805:World Nuclear News
10749:World Nuclear News
10718:, 24 October 2013.
10716:World Nuclear News
10686:on 28 October 2014
10401:on 23 October 2012
10267:. Survey website:
9720:The New York Times
9560:2011-09-27 at the
9127:on 6 February 2009
8885:. 15 August 1993.
8883:The New York Times
8533:Vassili Nesterenko
8476:Sky News Australia
8395:large.stanford.edu
8173:on 26 August 2019.
7756:The New York Times
7653:The Powers That Be
7257:. 2 September 2021
7054:World Nuclear News
6191:(6â7): 1465â1474.
5958:10.1111/cobi.12433
4950:, 3 December 2012.
4874:on 22 August 2007.
4232:. 29 November 2021
4173:Boom, Daniel Van.
4154:. 25 November 2021
4031:World Nuclear News
2865:The New York Times
2810:Nuclear fuel cycle
2765:Energy development
2710:reactor phase-outs
2580:
2568:
2103:Radiation hormesis
2049:
1927:in Unit 2 (a
1918:
1857:
1834:Fukushima disaster
1753:
1641:
1595:Chernobyl disaster
1583:Chernobyl disaster
1363:over the crust's 3
1345:
1300:in spent fuel are
1269:
1242:due to be closed.
1027:
884:, spokesperson of
710:Price-Anderson Act
681:Also in July 2020
610:economic subsidies
606:
598:
529:electricity market
525:utility monopolies
479:
440:New nuclear plants
279:
219:Sustainable energy
168:
145:nuclear fuel chain
74:sustainable energy
39:
14223:
14222:
14140:Nuclear-free zone
14083:Anti-war movement
14024:Albert Schweitzer
13713:Pembina Institute
13588:
13587:
13514:Nuclear-free zone
13477:Anti-war movement
13433:Rocky Flats Plant
13091:
13090:
13041:
13040:
13037:
13036:
12988:Magnetized-target
12885:
12884:
12848:
12847:
12679:
12678:
12675:
12674:
12619:
12618:
12503:
12502:
12435:
12434:
12040:
12039:
11995:
11994:
11864:
11863:
11851:Weapon-free zones
11678:
11677:
11670:Radiopharmacology
11109:10.1021/es405282z
11048:(7314): 391â393.
10914:. UIT Cambridge.
10667:on 15 April 2016.
10395:Technology Review
10330:. 24 March 2011.
10294:. 28 April 2011.
10030:on 15 March 2008.
9995:"Nuclear Warfare"
9905:National Archives
9628:(Press release).
9004:on 11 March 2017.
8941:Los Angeles Times
8916:on 5 January 2011
8868:Rogovin, pp. 153.
8831:. 16 March 2011.
8556:; Gerald Holden;
8525:Mikhail Gorbachev
8263:Our World in Data
7860:10.1021/es3051197
7009:. 14 January 2015
6945:. 23 April 2012.
6788:10.1021/es402211m
6774:(12): 6718â6719.
6655:Popular Mechanics
6218:Watson, David J.
6046:Brave New Climate
5232:world-nuclear.org
4834:on 18 March 2009.
4608:Our World in Data
4469:Our World in Data
4391:Our World in Data
4284:Our World in Data
4204:Clean Energy Wire
3951:Our World in Data
3638:Our World in Data
3286:(9591): 979â990.
3211:(12): 5149â5166.
3052:10.1021/es405282z
2635:
2634:
2497:11 September 2001
2091:
2090:
1910:Three Mile Island
1694:terrorist attacks
1605:accident (1961).
1377:parts per million
1353:radioactive waste
1326:radioactive waste
1310:nuclear recycling
1278:radioactive waste
965:thermal pollution
364:learning-by-doing
340:costs remain high
290:low-carbon energy
246:low-carbon energy
137:nuclear accidents
64:methane emissions
14287:
14252:
14251:
14240:
14239:
14238:
14231:
14213:
14212:
14009:Bertrand Russell
13899:Randall Forsberg
13735:
13734:
13683:Mayors for Peace
13615:
13608:
13601:
13592:
13591:
13580:
13579:
13571:
13570:
13569:
13400:Kyshtym disaster
13395:nuclear meltdown
13322:Related articles
13306:GoiĂąnia accident
13118:
13111:
13104:
13095:
13094:
13079:
13078:
13067:
13066:
13056:
13055:
13054:
12966:
12925:Levitated dipole
12895:
12887:
12886:
12835:Helium gas (GFR)
12698:
12697:
12693:
12630:
12629:
12514:
12513:
12464:
12463:
12457:
12456:
12452:
12451:
12233:
12232:
12229:
12228:
12067:
12059:
12058:
12051:Nuclear reactors
12046:
12045:
11945:High-level (HLW)
11875:
11874:
11722:
11721:
11702:Food irradiation
11692:Atomic gardening
11585:
11584:
11568:Nuclear meltdown
11394:Nuclear material
11384:Fissile material
11379:Fertile material
11294:
11293:
11279:
11272:
11265:
11256:
11255:
11199:
11195:
11193:
11183:
11179:
11177:
11124:Schneider, Mycle
11120:
11083:
11065:
11032:
11000:
10998:
10991:
10977:
10937:
10901:
10869:
10868:
10866:
10864:
10850:
10841:
10840:
10838:
10836:
10822:
10816:
10815:
10813:
10811:
10797:
10791:
10790:
10788:
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10760:
10741:
10735:
10725:
10719:
10702:
10696:
10695:
10693:
10691:
10675:
10669:
10668:
10663:. Archived from
10652:
10646:
10645:
10643:
10641:
10635:
10610:
10600:
10594:
10593:
10591:
10589:
10570:
10564:
10563:
10561:
10559:
10544:
10538:
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10535:
10533:
10513:
10507:
10506:
10504:
10502:
10482:
10476:
10475:
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10456:
10420:
10411:
10410:
10408:
10406:
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10380:
10379:
10364:
10358:
10357:
10342:
10336:
10335:
10320:
10314:
10313:
10306:
10300:
10299:
10284:
10278:
10266:
10264:
10258:, archived from
10257:
10246:
10240:
10211:
10205:
10204:
10202:
10200:
10185:
10179:
10178:
10176:
10174:
10154:
10148:
10147:
10145:
10143:
10131:
10125:
10124:
10122:
10120:
10101:
10095:
10094:
10092:
10090:
10079:Research Library
10070:
10064:
10063:
10061:
10050:
10041:
10032:
10031:
10026:. Archived from
10016:
10010:
10009:
10007:
10005:
9991:
9980:
9979:
9977:
9975:
9956:
9950:
9949:
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9830:
9829:
9827:
9825:
9811:
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9551:
9545:
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9466:
9465:
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9428:
9426:
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9404:
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9359:
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9352:
9350:
9348:
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9313:
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9286:
9254:
9248:
9247:
9237:
9204:
9198:
9197:
9195:
9193:
9175:
9158:(11): A720â721.
9143:
9137:
9136:
9134:
9132:
9117:
9111:
9110:
9108:
9106:
9091:
9085:
9084:
9079:. Archived from
9068:
9062:
9061:
9059:
9057:
9048:. Archived from
9042:
9036:
9035:
9033:
9031:
9012:
9006:
9005:
8990:
8984:
8983:
8982:on 18 July 2011.
8981:
8970:
8958:
8952:
8951:
8949:
8947:
8932:
8926:
8925:
8923:
8921:
8905:
8899:
8898:
8896:
8894:
8875:
8869:
8866:
8860:
8859:
8843:
8837:
8836:
8821:
8815:
8814:
8812:
8810:
8799:Business Insider
8790:
8784:
8783:
8781:
8779:
8759:
8753:
8740:
8734:
8721:
8715:
8714:
8712:
8710:
8690:
8684:
8683:
8662:
8656:
8655:
8637:
8631:
8630:
8628:
8626:
8607:
8601:
8600:
8598:
8596:
8582:
8576:
8575:
8549:
8543:
8541:
8521:
8515:
8514:
8512:
8510:
8494:
8488:
8487:
8485:
8483:
8468:
8462:
8461:
8459:
8452:
8443:
8437:
8436:
8415:
8406:
8405:
8403:
8401:
8387:
8381:
8380:
8378:
8346:
8340:
8333:
8327:
8312:
8306:
8299:
8293:
8280:
8274:
8273:
8271:
8269:
8255:
8249:
8248:
8246:
8222:
8213:
8212:
8200:
8194:
8181:
8175:
8174:
8159:
8153:
8152:
8150:
8148:
8129:
8120:
8119:
8091:
8082:
8081:
8070:
8064:
8063:
8061:
8059:
8043:
8037:
8036:
8034:
8032:
8026:
8015:
8006:
8000:
7999:
7997:
7995:
7980:
7974:
7973:
7967:
7965:
7947:
7941:
7940:
7934:
7932:
7915:
7909:
7908:
7906:
7904:
7889:
7883:
7882:
7872:
7870:2060/20140017100
7862:
7830:
7824:
7823:
7821:
7819:
7804:
7798:
7797:
7795:
7793:
7779:
7773:
7772:
7770:
7768:
7746:
7740:
7739:
7737:
7735:
7712:
7706:
7705:
7703:
7701:
7680:
7674:
7667:Al Gore (2009).
7665:
7656:
7649:
7643:
7642:
7618:
7612:
7611:
7591:
7585:
7584:
7582:
7575:
7566:
7560:
7559:
7531:
7525:
7524:
7522:
7520:
7514:
7507:
7499:
7493:
7492:
7490:
7488:
7473:
7467:
7466:
7446:
7440:
7439:
7423:
7417:
7416:
7414:
7412:
7397:
7388:
7387:
7369:
7363:
7362:
7360:
7358:
7343:
7337:
7336:
7318:
7312:
7311:
7309:
7307:
7292:
7286:
7273:
7267:
7266:
7264:
7262:
7247:
7241:
7240:
7238:
7236:
7231:. 11 August 2021
7221:
7215:
7214:
7212:
7204:
7198:
7197:
7195:
7193:
7179:
7173:
7172:
7170:
7168:
7153:
7147:
7146:
7144:
7142:
7128:
7122:
7121:
7120:. 19 March 2021.
7114:
7108:
7107:
7105:
7103:
7088:
7082:
7081:
7079:
7071:
7065:
7064:
7062:
7060:
7046:
7040:
7039:
7033:
7025:
7019:
7018:
7016:
7014:
6999:
6993:
6992:
6991:on 19 June 2015.
6990:
6983:
6973:
6967:
6966:
6964:
6962:
6935:
6929:
6928:
6926:
6924:
6896:
6890:
6889:
6887:
6876:
6867:
6861:
6860:
6858:
6847:
6835:
6826:
6825:
6799:
6797:2060/20140017702
6759:
6753:
6752:
6736:
6730:
6729:
6727:
6725:
6719:
6712:
6704:
6698:
6697:
6695:
6693:
6687:
6680:
6672:
6666:
6665:
6663:
6661:
6646:
6640:
6639:
6629:
6605:
6599:
6598:
6596:
6594:
6580:
6574:
6573:
6562:
6556:
6555:
6549:
6541:
6539:
6537:
6522:
6516:
6512:
6510:
6508:
6502:
6495:
6487:
6481:
6477:
6475:
6473:
6467:
6460:
6452:
6446:
6445:
6439:
6431:
6429:
6427:
6412:
6406:
6405:
6403:
6401:
6386:
6380:
6371:
6365:
6364:
6362:
6360:
6345:
6339:
6338:
6336:
6334:
6319:
6313:
6312:
6310:
6308:
6293:
6287:
6286:
6284:
6282:
6267:
6261:
6260:
6258:
6256:
6251:. 20 August 2019
6241:
6235:
6234:
6232:
6230:
6224:davidjwatson.com
6215:
6209:
6208:
6176:
6170:
6166:
6164:
6162:
6156:
6148:Greenpeace Spain
6145:
6137:
6131:
6130:
6128:
6126:
6112:
6106:
6105:
6103:
6101:
6085:
6079:
6078:
6072:
6068:"Energy Systems"
6063:
6057:
6056:
6054:
6052:
6037:
6031:
6030:
6028:
6026:
6011:
6005:
6004:
6002:
6000:
5985:
5979:
5978:
5960:
5936:
5930:
5929:
5927:
5925:
5910:
5904:
5901:
5895:
5894:
5892:
5881:
5872:
5866:
5850:
5844:
5843:
5841:
5839:
5833:
5826:
5817:
5811:
5810:
5790:
5784:
5783:
5763:
5757:
5754:
5748:
5736:
5730:
5723:
5717:
5716:
5691:
5685:
5684:
5679:. Archived from
5671:(21 July 2011).
5665:
5659:
5658:
5653:. Archived from
5642:
5636:
5635:
5633:
5631:
5616:
5610:
5609:
5607:
5605:
5590:
5584:
5583:
5581:
5579:
5562:
5556:
5555:
5553:
5551:
5536:
5530:
5529:
5527:
5525:
5510:
5504:
5503:
5501:
5499:
5493:
5486:
5478:
5472:
5471:
5469:
5467:
5448:
5442:
5441:
5439:
5437:
5418:
5412:
5411:
5409:
5407:
5388:
5379:
5378:
5376:
5374:
5368:
5361:
5353:
5347:
5346:
5344:
5342:
5327:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5316:
5297:
5291:
5290:
5274:
5268:
5267:
5265:
5263:
5249:
5243:
5242:
5240:
5238:
5224:
5218:
5208:
5199:
5198:
5192:
5184:
5182:
5180:
5165:
5159:
5158:
5156:
5154:
5139:
5128:
5127:
5125:
5123:
5108:
5102:
5101:
5099:
5092:
5083:
5077:
5076:
5074:
5072:
5041:
5035:
5034:
5032:
5030:
5013:
5007:
5006:
5001:. Archived from
4990:
4979:
4957:
4951:
4934:
4928:
4927:
4925:
4923:
4912:
4906:
4905:
4903:
4901:
4882:
4876:
4875:
4870:. Archived from
4864:
4858:
4845:
4836:
4835:
4833:
4826:
4818:
4812:
4811:
4809:
4807:
4798:. Archived from
4788:
4782:
4781:
4779:
4777:
4757:
4751:
4750:
4748:
4746:
4726:
4720:
4719:
4707:
4701:
4700:
4692:
4686:
4685:
4683:
4672:
4664:
4658:
4657:
4655:
4653:
4631:
4625:
4624:
4622:
4620:
4598:
4592:
4591:
4583:
4570:
4564:
4558:
4557:
4547:
4523:
4517:
4516:
4508:
4502:
4492:
4486:
4485:
4483:
4481:
4464:"Nuclear Energy"
4459:
4453:
4452:
4450:
4448:
4433:
4427:
4426:
4414:
4408:
4407:
4405:
4403:
4374:
4368:
4367:
4365:
4363:
4344:
4338:
4337:
4335:
4333:
4307:
4301:
4300:
4298:
4296:
4274:
4268:
4267:
4265:
4263:
4248:
4242:
4241:
4239:
4237:
4222:
4216:
4215:
4213:
4211:
4206:. 20 August 2021
4196:
4190:
4189:
4187:
4185:
4170:
4164:
4163:
4161:
4159:
4144:
4138:
4137:
4135:
4133:
4127:
4116:
4107:
4101:
4100:
4098:
4096:
4087:. Archived from
4081:Insight magazine
4073:
4067:
4066:
4064:
4062:
4048:
4039:
4038:
4033:. 20 June 2013.
4023:
4017:
4016:
4014:
4012:
3998:
3989:
3988:
3968:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3957:
3943:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3932:
3918:
3909:
3908:
3906:
3904:
3885:
3879:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3853:
3847:
3846:
3844:
3837:
3828:
3822:
3810:
3804:
3803:
3801:
3777:
3771:
3751:
3745:
3741:
3739:
3737:
3731:
3724:
3716:
3691:
3690:
3658:
3649:
3648:
3646:
3644:
3630:
3621:
3620:
3614:
3606:
3597:
3596:
3576:
3567:
3555:
3549:
3548:
3528:
3522:
3506:
3500:
3499:
3488:
3482:
3481:
3458:Energy Economics
3453:
3444:
3443:
3407:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3394:
3372:
3370:
3368:
3351:
3341:
3318:
3312:
3311:
3275:
3256:
3255:
3253:
3251:
3235:
3229:
3228:
3200:
3194:
3193:
3191:
3189:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3162:on 26 June 2009.
3158:. Archived from
3148:
3142:
3132:
3126:
3125:
3097:
3091:
3090:
3070:
3064:
3063:
3027:
3021:
2992:
2986:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2918:
2912:
2911:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2857:
2668:renewable energy
2630:
2627:
2621:
2609:
2608:
2601:
2312:Mark Z. Jacobson
2211:Yangjiang, China
2209:) on average in
2086:
2083:
2077:
2065:
2064:
2057:
1931:manufactured by
1848:nuclear incident
1757:nuclear accident
1676:nuclear accident
1671:Normal Accidents
1645:nuclear reactors
1601:(1979), and the
1525:energy accidents
1468:A 2020 study on
1464:
1460:
1452:
1366:
1137:
1110:
1025:
1017:
1016:11â25 g/kWh
981:
958:
938:
876:
875:
871:
706:nuclear accident
617:greenhouse gases
325:fissile material
106:using this waste
82:carbon emissions
80:or emitting the
47:nuclear reactors
14295:
14294:
14290:
14289:
14288:
14286:
14285:
14284:
14260:
14259:
14258:
14246:
14236:
14234:
14226:
14224:
14219:
14201:
14160:Peace activists
14075:
14069:
14033:
14019:Jonathan Schell
13894:Albert Einstein
13879:Helen Caldicott
13869:Daniel Berrigan
13864:Tadatoshi Akiba
13852:
13736:
13732:
13727:
13630:
13624:
13619:
13589:
13584:
13567:
13565:
13558:
13534:Peace activists
13449:
13443:
13268:
13266:
13260:
13138:
13136:
13134:
13127:
13122:
13092:
13087:
13052:
13050:
13033:
12997:
12964:
12949:
12906:
12896:
12891:
12881:
12844:
12749:
12694:
12687:
12686:
12671:
12615:
12546:
12521:
12499:
12471:
12453:
12446:
12445:
12444:
12431:
12397:
12388:
12370:
12335:
12326:
12240:
12223:
12222:
12221:
12213:
12127:Natural fission
12081:
12080:
12068:
12063:
12053:
12036:
12012:Nuclear weapons
11991:
11950:Low-level (LLW)
11928:
11860:
11812:
11711:
11674:
11621:
11574:
11495:
11427:
11350:
11288:
11283:
11228:Atomic Insights
11197:
11191:
11187:
11181:
11175:
11171:
11148:
11132:Antony Froggatt
11063:10.1038/467391a
11029:
11007:
11005:Further reading
10996:
10989:
10962:
10922:
10898:
10878:
10873:
10872:
10862:
10860:
10852:
10851:
10844:
10834:
10832:
10824:
10823:
10819:
10809:
10807:
10799:
10798:
10794:
10784:
10782:
10772:
10768:
10758:
10756:
10743:
10742:
10738:
10732:Antony Froggatt
10728:Mycle Schneider
10726:
10722:
10712:Wayback Machine
10703:
10699:
10689:
10687:
10676:
10672:
10653:
10649:
10639:
10637:
10633:
10619:
10608:
10602:
10601:
10597:
10587:
10585:
10580:. 7 June 2013.
10572:
10571:
10567:
10557:
10555:
10550:. 19 May 2016.
10546:
10545:
10541:
10531:
10529:
10514:
10510:
10500:
10498:
10483:
10479:
10464:
10460:
10421:
10414:
10404:
10402:
10387:
10383:
10366:
10365:
10361:
10344:
10343:
10339:
10322:
10321:
10317:
10308:
10307:
10303:
10286:
10285:
10281:
10276:Wayback Machine
10262:
10255:
10247:
10243:
10237:Wayback Machine
10222:Wayback Machine
10212:
10208:
10198:
10196:
10187:
10186:
10182:
10172:
10170:
10155:
10151:
10141:
10139:
10132:
10128:
10118:
10116:
10109:Nuclear Almanac
10103:
10102:
10098:
10088:
10086:
10071:
10067:
10059:
10048:
10042:
10035:
10018:
10017:
10013:
10003:
10001:
9993:
9992:
9983:
9973:
9971:
9958:
9957:
9953:
9937:
9936:
9929:
9927:
9916:
9912:
9898:
9896:
9881:
9880:
9876:
9866:
9864:
9855:
9854:
9850:
9842:
9838:
9837:
9833:
9823:
9821:
9813:
9812:
9808:
9798:
9796:
9788:
9787:
9780:
9743:
9739:
9729:
9727:
9712:
9705:
9686:
9679:
9669:
9667:
9654:
9653:
9649:
9639:
9637:
9624:
9623:
9619:
9572:
9568:
9562:Wayback Machine
9552:
9548:
9543:
9539:
9529:
9527:
9518:
9517:
9513:
9473:
9469:
9459:
9457:
9453:
9446:
9442:
9441:
9434:
9424:
9422:
9413:
9412:
9408:
9398:
9396:
9387:
9386:
9382:
9372:
9370:
9361:
9360:
9356:
9346:
9344:
9335:
9334:
9330:
9326:. December 2004
9324:Wayback Machine
9314:
9310:
9255:
9251:
9205:
9201:
9191:
9189:
9144:
9140:
9130:
9128:
9119:
9118:
9114:
9104:
9102:
9093:
9092:
9088:
9083:on 6 June 2013.
9069:
9065:
9055:
9053:
9052:on 8 April 2011
9044:
9043:
9039:
9029:
9027:
9014:
9013:
9009:
8992:
8991:
8987:
8979:
8968:
8959:
8955:
8945:
8943:
8933:
8929:
8919:
8917:
8906:
8902:
8892:
8890:
8877:
8876:
8872:
8867:
8863:
8844:
8840:
8823:
8822:
8818:
8808:
8806:
8791:
8787:
8777:
8775:
8760:
8756:
8750:Wayback Machine
8741:
8737:
8731:Wayback Machine
8722:
8718:
8708:
8706:
8691:
8687:
8677:
8663:
8659:
8638:
8634:
8624:
8622:
8609:
8608:
8604:
8594:
8592:
8590:Countries Quest
8584:
8583:
8579:
8572:
8558:Richard A. Falk
8550:
8546:
8536:
8522:
8518:
8508:
8506:
8495:
8491:
8481:
8479:
8470:
8469:
8465:
8457:
8450:
8444:
8440:
8416:
8409:
8399:
8397:
8389:
8388:
8384:
8376:10.1038/477404a
8347:
8343:
8334:
8330:
8313:
8309:
8300:
8296:
8291:Wayback Machine
8281:
8277:
8267:
8265:
8257:
8256:
8252:
8223:
8216:
8201:
8197:
8191:Wayback Machine
8182:
8178:
8161:
8160:
8156:
8146:
8144:
8131:
8130:
8123:
8092:
8085:
8072:
8071:
8067:
8057:
8055:
8044:
8040:
8030:
8028:
8024:
8013:
8007:
8003:
7993:
7991:
7982:
7981:
7977:
7963:
7961:
7948:
7944:
7930:
7928:
7916:
7912:
7902:
7900:
7895:. Cen.acs.org.
7891:
7890:
7886:
7831:
7827:
7817:
7815:
7805:
7801:
7791:
7789:
7781:
7780:
7776:
7766:
7764:
7747:
7743:
7733:
7731:
7713:
7709:
7699:
7697:
7682:
7681:
7677:
7666:
7659:
7650:
7646:
7619:
7615:
7592:
7588:
7580:
7573:
7567:
7563:
7532:
7528:
7518:
7516:
7512:
7505:
7501:
7500:
7496:
7486:
7484:
7475:
7474:
7470:
7463:
7447:
7443:
7424:
7420:
7410:
7408:
7398:
7391:
7384:
7370:
7366:
7356:
7354:
7345:
7344:
7340:
7333:
7319:
7315:
7305:
7303:
7294:
7293:
7289:
7274:
7270:
7260:
7258:
7249:
7248:
7244:
7234:
7232:
7223:
7222:
7218:
7210:
7206:
7205:
7201:
7191:
7189:
7181:
7180:
7176:
7166:
7164:
7154:
7150:
7140:
7138:
7130:
7129:
7125:
7116:
7115:
7111:
7101:
7099:
7090:
7089:
7085:
7077:
7073:
7072:
7068:
7058:
7056:
7048:
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7043:
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7022:
7012:
7010:
7007:The Independent
7001:
7000:
6996:
6988:
6981:
6975:
6974:
6970:
6960:
6958:
6937:
6936:
6932:
6922:
6920:
6897:
6893:
6888:on 15 May 2011.
6885:
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6856:
6845:
6839:Mark Diesendorf
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6329:. 30 March 2021
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5834:on 26 July 2011
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5669:Arjun Makhijani
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5028:
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5023:Financial Times
5014:
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4991:
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4968:Wayback Machine
4958:
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4944:Wayback Machine
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4890:startribune.com
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4460:
4456:
4446:
4444:
4434:
4430:
4425:, p. 1335.
4415:
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4399:
4378:Ritchie, Hannah
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3835:
3829:
3825:
3813:Mark Diesendorf
3811:
3807:
3778:
3774:
3765:Wayback Machine
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3600:
3577:
3570:
3558:Stephanie Cooke
3556:
3552:
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3529:
3525:
3518:Wayback Machine
3507:
3503:
3490:
3489:
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3454:
3447:
3408:
3404:
3392:
3390:
3377:Schrope, Mark.
3366:
3364:
3339:10.1038/497539e
3320:
3319:
3315:
3276:
3259:
3249:
3247:
3238:Bernard Cohen.
3236:
3232:
3201:
3197:
3187:
3185:
3172:
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3133:
3129:
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3067:
3028:
3024:
3019:Wayback Machine
3009:Wayback Machine
3002:We're Not Ready
2993:
2989:
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2973:Wayback Machine
2962:Wayback Machine
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2942:
2935:
2919:
2915:
2880:
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2859:
2858:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2750:
2689:In March 2012,
2631:
2625:
2622:
2619:
2610:
2606:
2599:
2585:
2560:
2551:
2520:
2493:9/11 Commission
2441:in Iran during
2424:Operation Opera
2390:
2384:
2329:
2316:nuclear weapons
2308:
2298:
2274:
2153:cancer clusters
2087:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2066:
2062:
2055:
2037:
2032:
2026:
1981:
1916:, 1 April 1979.
1898:
1892:
1863:
1836:
1828:decontamination
1807:epidemiological
1733:
1727:
1661:Helen Caldicott
1495:
1481:
1462:
1458:
1450:
1428:
1397:Schacht Asse II
1364:
1254:
1248:
1232:
1225:In August 2021
1221:
1171:Slovak Republic
1143:Paris Agreement
1138:
1135:
1108:
1097:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1023:
1021:
1015:
1012:Yale University
1004:
982:
978:
959:
956:
939:
936:
914:
873:
869:
868:
863:
850:
835:
807:
756:
746:
740:
695:
665:European Greens
626:In Europe, the
583:
563:
557:
452:
444:Main articles:
442:
437:
405:capacity factor
398:capacity factor
394:
380:
375:
374:
270:
262:
221:
215:Energy security
211:
209:Energy security
203:capacity factor
186:
172:John F. Kennedy
157:
102:Paris Agreement
90:energy security
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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14170:Peace movement
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14004:Joseph Rotblat
14001:
13996:
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13959:Caroline Lucas
13956:
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13889:Gordon Edwards
13886:
13884:Norman Cousins
13881:
13876:
13874:Albert Bigelow
13871:
13866:
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13858:
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13843:United Kingdom
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13539:Peace movement
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13406:Windscale fire
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13365:Lucens reactor
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13019:Muon-catalyzed
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12710:Integral (IFR)
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12029:
12027:Uranium mining
12024:
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11902:
11900:Minor actinide
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11597:Autoradiograph
11593:
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11319:Atomic nucleus
11316:
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11185:
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11159:
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11147:
11146:External links
11144:
11143:
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11121:
11084:
11033:
11028:978-0876094006
11027:
11006:
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11002:
11001:
10978:
10961:978-1107058217
10960:
10938:
10921:978-0954452933
10920:
10902:
10897:978-0081028865
10896:
10877:
10874:
10871:
10870:
10842:
10817:
10792:
10780:Power Magazine
10766:
10736:
10720:
10697:
10670:
10661:New York Times
10647:
10618:978-9201037169
10617:
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10539:
10508:
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10381:
10372:Spiegel Online
10359:
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9910:
9888:whitehouse.gov
9874:
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9703:
9677:
9647:
9632:. 6 May 2011.
9617:
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9511:
9478:Health Physics
9467:
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8453:. p. 48.
8438:
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8083:
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8001:
7988:vaticannews.va
7975:
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7845:(9): 4889â95.
7825:
7799:
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7741:
7718:(April 2008).
7707:
7696:on 25 May 2017
7675:
7657:
7644:
7633:(3): 193â203.
7613:
7586:
7561:
7526:
7494:
7468:
7461:
7441:
7418:
7389:
7382:
7364:
7353:. 22 June 2012
7338:
7332:978-0874809039
7331:
7313:
7287:
7268:
7242:
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7174:
7148:
7123:
7109:
7083:
7066:
7041:
7020:
6994:
6968:
6930:
6891:
6862:
6827:
6754:
6731:
6699:
6667:
6641:
6600:
6584:"Press corner"
6575:
6557:
6517:
6482:
6447:
6407:
6381:
6366:
6354:techxplore.com
6340:
6314:
6288:
6277:. 25 June 2020
6262:
6236:
6210:
6171:
6132:
6107:
6080:
6058:
6032:
6006:
5980:
5951:(3): 702â712.
5947:(in Spanish).
5931:
5905:
5896:
5867:
5856:, 15 May 2001.
5845:
5812:
5785:
5758:
5749:
5731:
5718:
5686:
5660:
5637:
5626:. 21 July 2020
5611:
5585:
5557:
5531:
5505:
5494:on 13 May 2013
5473:
5443:
5413:
5380:
5348:
5322:
5292:
5269:
5244:
5219:
5200:
5160:
5129:
5103:
5093:. p. xv.
5078:
5059:
5036:
5008:
4980:
4978:, pp. 177â188.
4952:
4929:
4907:
4877:
4859:
4837:
4813:
4802:on 5 July 2011
4783:
4752:
4721:
4716:Letcher (2020)
4702:
4697:Letcher (2020)
4687:
4659:
4626:
4593:
4588:Letcher (2020)
4571:
4559:
4518:
4515:, p. 135.
4513:Letcher (2020)
4503:
4487:
4454:
4428:
4409:
4369:
4339:
4302:
4269:
4243:
4217:
4191:
4165:
4139:
4102:
4068:
4040:
4018:
3990:
3984:978-0306435676
3983:
3963:
3938:
3910:
3893:tri-cityherald
3880:
3848:
3823:
3805:
3772:
3768:Chain Reaction
3746:
3725:. March 2021.
3692:
3650:
3622:
3598:
3568:
3550:
3544:978-0742518278
3543:
3523:
3501:
3483:
3445:
3402:
3400:
3399:
3373:
3354:Discussed in:
3313:
3257:
3230:
3195:
3165:
3143:
3127:
3092:
3081:(C): 207â216.
3065:
3022:
2997:New York Times
2987:
2950:New York Times
2940:
2934:978-0520246836
2933:
2913:
2900:10.1086/410301
2874:
2851:
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2746:
2730:
2729:
2716:
2713:
2637:Following the
2633:
2632:
2613:
2611:
2604:
2584:
2581:
2556:Main article:
2550:
2549:Public opinion
2547:
2519:
2516:
2508:passive safety
2485:
2484:
2469:
2453:
2452:
2446:
2435:
2421:
2407:
2383:
2380:
2325:Main article:
2297:
2294:
2273:
2270:
2245:(54%), and in
2122:requested the
2089:
2088:
2069:
2067:
2060:
2036:
2033:
2025:
2022:
1980:
1977:
1894:Main article:
1891:
1888:
1859:Main article:
1835:
1832:
1820:thyroid cancer
1729:Main article:
1726:
1723:
1666:Charles Perrow
1507:air pollutants
1485:Nuclear safety
1480:
1477:
1427:
1424:
1367:10 ton mass).
1250:Main article:
1247:
1244:
1239:Thierry Breton
1230:
1219:
1163:Czech Republic
1133:
1095:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1029:Main article:
1019:
1003:
1000:
976:
954:
934:
913:
910:
861:
848:
812:(EROEI) for a
805:
767:uranium mining
742:Main article:
739:
736:
694:
691:
653:European Union
590:George W. Bush
582:
579:
559:Main article:
556:
553:
499:global warming
441:
438:
436:
433:
379:
376:
370:nuclear fusion
271:
263:
261:
260:Sustainability
258:
210:
207:
185:
182:
156:
153:
121:uranium mining
86:global warming
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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14281:
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14275:Nuclear power
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12755:Generation IV
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12705:Breeder (FBR)
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12007:Nuclear power
12005:
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11998:
11988:
11987:Transmutation
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11794:
11790:
11787:
11785:
11784:high-altitude
11782:
11781:
11780:
11777:
11775:
11774:Proliferation
11772:
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11660:Brachytherapy
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11456:Cross section
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10519:
10512:
10496:
10492:
10488:
10481:
10473:
10469:
10462:
10454:
10450:
10446:
10442:
10438:
10434:
10430:
10426:
10419:
10417:
10400:
10396:
10392:
10385:
10377:
10373:
10369:
10363:
10355:
10351:
10347:
10341:
10333:
10329:
10328:The Economist
10325:
10319:
10311:
10305:
10297:
10293:
10292:The Economist
10289:
10283:
10277:
10273:
10270:
10261:
10254:
10253:
10245:
10238:
10234:
10231:
10227:
10226:Las Vegas Sun
10223:
10219:
10216:
10210:
10194:
10190:
10184:
10168:
10164:
10160:
10153:
10137:
10130:
10114:
10110:
10106:
10100:
10084:
10080:
10076:
10069:
10058:
10054:
10047:
10040:
10038:
10029:
10025:
10021:
10015:
10000:
9996:
9990:
9988:
9986:
9969:
9965:
9961:
9955:
9947:
9941:
9925:
9921:
9914:
9906:
9894:
9890:
9889:
9884:
9878:
9862:
9858:
9852:
9841:
9835:
9820:
9816:
9810:
9795:
9791:
9785:
9783:
9774:
9770:
9765:
9760:
9756:
9752:
9748:
9741:
9725:
9721:
9717:
9710:
9708:
9699:
9695:
9691:
9684:
9682:
9665:
9661:
9657:
9651:
9635:
9631:
9627:
9621:
9613:
9609:
9604:
9599:
9594:
9589:
9585:
9581:
9577:
9570:
9563:
9559:
9556:
9550:
9541:
9525:
9521:
9515:
9507:
9503:
9499:
9495:
9491:
9487:
9483:
9479:
9471:
9452:
9445:
9439:
9437:
9420:
9416:
9410:
9394:
9390:
9384:
9368:
9364:
9358:
9342:
9338:
9332:
9325:
9321:
9318:
9312:
9304:
9300:
9295:
9290:
9285:
9280:
9276:
9272:
9268:
9264:
9260:
9253:
9245:
9241:
9236:
9231:
9227:
9223:
9219:
9215:
9211:
9203:
9187:
9183:
9179:
9174:
9169:
9165:
9161:
9157:
9153:
9149:
9142:
9126:
9122:
9116:
9100:
9096:
9090:
9082:
9078:
9074:
9067:
9051:
9047:
9041:
9025:
9021:
9017:
9011:
9003:
8999:
8995:
8989:
8978:
8974:
8967:
8963:
8957:
8942:
8938:
8931:
8915:
8911:
8904:
8888:
8884:
8880:
8874:
8865:
8857:
8853:
8849:
8842:
8834:
8830:
8826:
8820:
8804:
8800:
8796:
8789:
8773:
8769:
8765:
8758:
8751:
8747:
8744:
8739:
8732:
8728:
8725:
8720:
8704:
8700:
8696:
8689:
8682:
8678:
8672:
8668:
8661:
8653:
8649:
8648:
8643:
8636:
8620:
8616:
8612:
8611:"IAEA Report"
8606:
8591:
8587:
8581:
8573:
8567:
8563:
8559:
8555:
8548:
8539:
8534:
8530:
8526:
8520:
8504:
8501:. Bbc.co.uk.
8500:
8493:
8477:
8473:
8467:
8456:
8449:
8442:
8434:
8430:
8426:
8422:
8421:Energy Policy
8414:
8412:
8396:
8392:
8386:
8377:
8372:
8368:
8364:
8361:(7365): 404.
8360:
8356:
8352:
8345:
8338:
8332:
8325:
8321:
8317:
8311:
8304:
8298:
8292:
8288:
8285:
8279:
8264:
8260:
8254:
8245:
8240:
8236:
8232:
8228:
8221:
8219:
8210:
8206:
8199:
8192:
8188:
8185:
8180:
8172:
8168:
8164:
8158:
8142:
8138:
8134:
8128:
8126:
8117:
8113:
8109:
8105:
8101:
8097:
8090:
8088:
8079:
8075:
8069:
8053:
8049:
8042:
8023:
8019:
8012:
8005:
7989:
7985:
7979:
7972:
7959:
7958:
7953:
7946:
7939:
7927:
7926:
7921:
7914:
7898:
7894:
7888:
7880:
7876:
7871:
7866:
7861:
7856:
7852:
7848:
7844:
7840:
7836:
7829:
7814:
7810:
7803:
7788:
7784:
7778:
7762:
7758:
7757:
7752:
7745:
7729:
7725:
7721:
7717:
7711:
7695:
7691:
7690:
7685:
7679:
7672:
7671:
7664:
7662:
7654:
7648:
7640:
7636:
7632:
7628:
7624:
7617:
7609:
7605:
7601:
7597:
7590:
7579:
7572:
7565:
7557:
7553:
7549:
7545:
7541:
7537:
7530:
7511:
7504:
7498:
7482:
7478:
7472:
7464:
7458:
7454:
7453:
7445:
7437:
7433:
7429:
7422:
7407:
7403:
7396:
7394:
7385:
7379:
7375:
7368:
7352:
7348:
7342:
7334:
7328:
7324:
7317:
7301:
7297:
7291:
7284:
7282:
7277:
7272:
7256:
7252:
7246:
7230:
7226:
7220:
7209:
7203:
7188:
7184:
7178:
7163:
7159:
7152:
7137:
7133:
7127:
7119:
7113:
7098:. 3 June 2020
7097:
7093:
7087:
7076:
7070:
7055:
7051:
7045:
7037:
7030:
7024:
7008:
7004:
6998:
6987:
6980:
6979:
6972:
6956:
6952:
6948:
6944:
6940:
6934:
6918:
6914:
6910:
6906:
6902:
6895:
6884:
6880:
6873:
6866:
6855:
6851:
6850:Energy Policy
6844:
6840:
6834:
6832:
6823:
6819:
6815:
6811:
6807:
6803:
6798:
6793:
6789:
6785:
6781:
6777:
6773:
6769:
6765:
6758:
6750:
6746:
6742:
6735:
6716:
6709:
6703:
6684:
6677:
6671:
6656:
6652:
6645:
6637:
6633:
6628:
6623:
6619:
6615:
6611:
6604:
6589:
6585:
6579:
6571:
6567:
6561:
6553:
6547:
6532:
6528:
6521:
6515:
6499:
6496:. July 2021.
6492:
6486:
6480:
6464:
6457:
6451:
6443:
6437:
6422:
6418:
6411:
6396:
6392:
6385:
6379:
6375:
6370:
6355:
6351:
6344:
6328:
6324:
6318:
6303:
6299:
6292:
6276:
6272:
6266:
6250:
6246:
6240:
6225:
6221:
6214:
6206:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6190:
6186:
6182:
6175:
6169:
6153:
6149:
6142:
6136:
6121:
6117:
6111:
6095:
6091:
6084:
6076:
6069:
6062:
6047:
6043:
6036:
6021:
6017:
6010:
5995:
5991:
5984:
5976:
5972:
5968:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5950:
5946:
5942:
5935:
5920:
5916:
5909:
5900:
5889:
5885:
5878:
5871:
5865:
5861:
5858:
5855:
5849:
5830:
5823:
5816:
5808:
5805:(4): 105â10.
5804:
5800:
5796:
5789:
5781:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5762:
5753:
5747:
5743:
5740:
5735:
5728:
5722:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5701:
5700:Energy Policy
5696:
5690:
5682:
5678:
5674:
5670:
5664:
5656:
5652:
5648:
5641:
5625:
5621:
5615:
5600:
5596:
5589:
5574:
5573:
5567:
5561:
5546:
5542:
5535:
5520:
5516:
5509:
5490:
5483:
5477:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5447:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5417:
5401:
5397:
5393:
5387:
5385:
5365:
5358:
5352:
5336:
5332:
5326:
5310:
5306:
5302:
5296:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5273:
5258:
5254:
5248:
5233:
5229:
5223:
5216:
5214:
5207:
5205:
5196:
5190:
5175:
5171:
5164:
5149:
5145:
5138:
5136:
5134:
5118:
5114:
5107:
5096:
5089:
5082:
5066:
5062:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5047:
5040:
5025:
5024:
5019:
5012:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4989:
4987:
4985:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4962:
4956:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4938:
4933:
4917:
4911:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4881:
4873:
4869:
4863:
4856:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4842:
4830:
4823:
4817:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4787:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4756:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4725:
4717:
4713:
4706:
4698:
4691:
4680:
4676:
4669:
4663:
4647:
4643:
4642:
4637:
4630:
4614:
4610:
4609:
4604:
4597:
4589:
4582:
4580:
4578:
4576:
4568:
4563:
4555:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4532:Energy Policy
4529:
4522:
4514:
4507:
4500:
4496:
4491:
4475:
4471:
4470:
4465:
4458:
4443:
4439:
4432:
4424:
4420:
4413:
4397:
4393:
4392:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4373:
4357:
4354:. June 2021.
4353:
4349:
4343:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4318:
4313:
4306:
4290:
4286:
4285:
4280:
4273:
4258:
4254:
4247:
4231:
4227:
4221:
4205:
4201:
4195:
4180:
4176:
4169:
4153:
4149:
4143:
4124:
4120:
4113:
4106:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4072:
4057:
4053:
4047:
4045:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4022:
4007:
4003:
3997:
3995:
3986:
3980:
3976:
3975:
3967:
3952:
3948:
3942:
3927:
3923:
3917:
3915:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3884:
3868:
3864:
3863:
3858:
3852:
3841:
3834:
3827:
3820:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3800:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3776:
3769:
3766:
3762:
3759:
3755:
3750:
3744:
3728:
3721:
3715:
3713:
3711:
3709:
3707:
3705:
3703:
3701:
3699:
3697:
3689:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3657:
3655:
3639:
3635:
3629:
3627:
3618:
3611:
3605:
3603:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3581:Energy Policy
3575:
3573:
3565:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3546:
3540:
3536:
3535:
3527:
3520:
3519:
3515:
3512:
3505:
3497:
3493:
3487:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3452:
3450:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3406:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3374:
3363:
3359:
3353:
3352:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3317:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3274:
3272:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3262:
3245:
3241:
3234:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3205:Energy Policy
3199:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3169:
3161:
3157:
3156:Bloomberg.com
3153:
3147:
3140:
3136:
3131:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3096:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3069:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3026:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3010:
3006:
3003:
2999:
2998:
2991:
2985:
2981:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2956:
2952:
2951:
2944:
2936:
2930:
2926:
2925:
2917:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2878:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2856:
2852:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2752:
2745:
2742:
2737:
2735:
2726:
2721:
2717:
2714:
2711:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2684:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2653:
2652:The Economist
2648:
2644:
2640:
2629:
2626:December 2021
2617:
2612:
2603:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2577:
2572:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2546:
2544:
2539:
2537:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2515:
2513:
2509:
2504:
2502:
2501:core meltdown
2498:
2494:
2490:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2450:
2447:
2445:(1986, 1987).
2444:
2443:Iraq-Iran war
2440:
2436:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2348:
2345:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2328:
2323:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2303:
2293:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2268:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2238:
2236:
2231:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2215:Kerala, India
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2164:
2160:
2158:
2154:
2151:investigated
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2085:
2082:December 2021
2073:
2068:
2059:
2058:
2054:
2046:
2041:
2031:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2002:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1985:Generation IV
1976:
1973:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1887:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1862:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1840:
1831:
1829:
1825:
1824:birth defects
1821:
1817:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1799:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1721:
1720:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1677:
1673:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1654:
1653:radioactivity
1650:
1646:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1614:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1526:
1521:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1466:
1456:
1448:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1422:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1408:
1405:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1373:approximately
1368:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1329:
1327:
1321:
1317:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1306:plutonium-239
1303:
1302:neptunium-237
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1286:technetium-99
1283:
1279:
1275:
1267:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1243:
1240:
1234:
1228:
1223:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1207:
1203:
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1080:
1079:Kerry Emanuel
1076:
1072:
1067:
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1060:
1057:
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1032:
1024:12 g/kWh
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999:
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988:
975:
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953:
948:
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903:
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890:
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880:In June 2020
878:
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834:
830:
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800:
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791:Kerry Emanuel
788:
783:
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772:
768:
763:
761:
755:
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733:
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654:
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629:
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613:
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602:
595:
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587:
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571:
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562:
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548:
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540:
538:
533:
530:
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523:
519:
514:
510:
508:
504:
500:
497:
493:
492:nuclear waste
489:
484:
476:
475:optimism bias
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
451:
447:
432:
431:and nuclear.
430:
426:
422:
418:
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410:
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399:
393:
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365:
361:
357:
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330:
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314:
313:nuclear waste
309:
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291:
287:
283:
282:Nuclear power
275:
268:
257:
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243:
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230:
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220:
216:
206:
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200:
195:
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181:
178:
173:
165:
164:Stewart Brand
161:
152:
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134:
133:nuclear waste
130:
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122:
118:
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110:
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103:
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95:
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55:nuclear power
52:
48:
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14144:
14092:
14088:Bikini Atoll
13994:C. F. Powell
13979:KenzaburĆ Će
13954:Bernard Lown
13949:Amory Lovins
13808:South Africa
13564:
13518:
13486:
13482:Bikini Atoll
13428:Hanford Site
13423:Bikini Atoll
13227:in Australia
13217:Soviet Union
13212:South Africa
13080:
13068:
13049:
13029:Pyroelectric
12983:Laser-driven
12763:Sodium (SFR)
12690:fast-neutron
12529:
12075:
12006:
11965:Reprocessing
11846:WMD treaties
11665:Radiosurgery
11635:Fast-neutron
11607:Scintigraphy
11135:
11128:Steve Thomas
11095:(1): 25â26.
11092:
11088:
11045:
11041:
11013:
10946:
10910:
10883:
10861:. Retrieved
10857:
10833:. Retrieved
10829:
10820:
10808:. Retrieved
10804:
10795:
10783:. Retrieved
10779:
10769:
10757:. Retrieved
10748:
10739:
10723:
10715:
10700:
10688:. Retrieved
10684:the original
10673:
10665:the original
10660:
10650:
10638:. Retrieved
10604:
10598:
10586:. Retrieved
10578:Taipei Times
10577:
10568:
10556:. Retrieved
10542:
10530:. Retrieved
10522:The Guardian
10521:
10511:
10499:. Retrieved
10491:The Guardian
10490:
10480:
10472:The Scotsman
10471:
10461:
10428:
10424:
10403:. Retrieved
10399:the original
10394:
10384:
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10362:
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10340:
10327:
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10282:
10260:the original
10251:
10244:
10225:
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10197:. Retrieved
10183:
10171:. Retrieved
10162:
10152:
10140:. Retrieved
10129:
10117:. Retrieved
10108:
10099:
10087:. Retrieved
10078:
10068:
10052:
10028:the original
10023:
10014:
10002:. Retrieved
9998:
9972:. Retrieved
9968:the original
9963:
9954:
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9913:
9903:– via
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9818:
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9740:
9728:. Retrieved
9719:
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9668:. Retrieved
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9650:
9638:. Retrieved
9620:
9583:
9579:
9569:
9549:
9540:
9528:. Retrieved
9514:
9484:(1): 55â66.
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9477:
9470:
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9423:. Retrieved
9409:
9397:. Retrieved
9383:
9371:. Retrieved
9357:
9345:. Retrieved
9331:
9311:
9266:
9263:Epidemiology
9262:
9252:
9220:(7508): 77.
9217:
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9202:
9190:. Retrieved
9155:
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9129:. Retrieved
9125:the original
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9103:. Retrieved
9089:
9081:the original
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9066:
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9050:the original
9040:
9028:. Retrieved
9019:
9010:
9002:the original
8997:
8988:
8977:the original
8972:
8962:Susan Cutter
8956:
8944:. Retrieved
8940:
8930:
8918:. Retrieved
8914:the original
8903:
8891:. Retrieved
8882:
8873:
8864:
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8619:the original
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8589:
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8475:
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7431:
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7411:15 September
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7162:Ars Technica
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7096:euractiv.com
7095:
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6986:the original
6977:
6971:
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6943:The Guardian
6942:
6933:
6921:. Retrieved
6905:The Guardian
6904:
6894:
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6878:
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5919:ResearchGate
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5829:the original
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5623:
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5599:CEENERGYNEWS
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5545:euractiv.com
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5519:euractiv.com
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5116:
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5069:. Retrieved
5045:
5039:
5029:12 September
5027:. Retrieved
5021:
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4898:. Retrieved
4889:
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4804:. Retrieved
4800:the original
4796:www.iaea.org
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4786:
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4743:. Retrieved
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4641:Ars Technica
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4478:. Retrieved
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4389:
4386:"Energy mix"
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4360:. Retrieved
4342:
4330:. Retrieved
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4272:
4260:. Retrieved
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4089:the original
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4071:
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4055:
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4021:
4009:. Retrieved
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3954:. Retrieved
3950:
3941:
3929:. Retrieved
3925:
3901:. Retrieved
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3883:
3871:. Retrieved
3860:
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3826:
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3792:(810): 130.
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3734:. Retrieved
3686:
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3641:. Retrieved
3637:
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3457:
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3391:. Retrieved
3382:
3367:15 September
3365:. Retrieved
3361:
3329:
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3283:
3279:
3248:. Retrieved
3233:
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3177:
3168:
3160:the original
3155:
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3074:
3068:
3038:(1): 25â26.
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2894:(4): 467â8.
2891:
2887:
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2738:
2731:
2703:
2688:
2683:M. V. Ramana
2680:
2657:
2651:
2636:
2623:
2615:
2552:
2540:
2532:
2521:
2505:
2486:
2473:ChaĂŻm Nissim
2454:
2391:
2349:
2342:A 1993â2013
2341:
2330:
2309:
2290:
2275:
2265:
2255:
2239:
2232:
2219:Ramsar, Iran
2186:
2184:
2165:
2161:
2113:
2096:
2092:
2079:
2071:
2003:
1982:
1972:anti-nuclear
1968:
1919:
1906:Jimmy Carter
1864:
1846:, the worst
1800:
1789:
1754:
1718:
1715:
1705:
1702:
1691:
1687:
1682:
1669:
1658:
1642:
1612:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1555:
1550:
1529:
1527:as of 2008.
1500:
1496:
1474:
1470:Energiewende
1467:
1439:
1432:James Hansen
1429:
1419:
1409:
1401:
1385:
1369:
1349:radioisotope
1346:
1322:
1318:
1270:
1262:Hanford site
1235:
1224:
1210:
1191:
1152:
1148:
1140:
1129:
1121:
1117:green energy
1101:
1093:
1088:
1075:Ken Caldeira
1071:James Hansen
1068:
1053:
1049:
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980:Regulationâ)
973:
969:
961:
950:
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930:
915:
906:
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879:
866:
843:
836:
803:
795:James Hansen
787:Ken Caldeira
779:
764:
757:
728:
721:
714:
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696:
680:
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650:
643:
639:
625:
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607:
592:signing the
572:
568:
564:
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541:
534:
515:
511:
501:, such as a
480:
471:megaprojects
417:heat engines
414:
402:
395:
344:Fast breeder
337:
310:
294:
280:
229:Messmer plan
222:
187:
169:
111:
94:fossil fuels
68:
49:to generate
42:
40:
14190:Smiling Sun
14014:Jens Scheer
13944:David Lange
13934:Kate Hudson
13914:Paul Gunter
13904:John Gofman
13828:Switzerland
13813:South Korea
13793:Philippines
13788:New Zealand
13554:Smiling Sun
13265:Individual
13202:North Korea
12940:Stellarator
12904:confinement
12798:Superphénix
12625:Molten-salt
12577:VHTR (HTGR)
12354:HW BLWR 250
12320:R4 Marviken
12249:Pressurized
12219:Heavy water
12203:many others
12132:Pressurized
12087:Light water
11789:underground
11747:Disarmament
11655:Tomotherapy
11650:Proton-beam
11514:Power plant
11476:Temperature
11309:Engineering
11184:Online book
10863:23 November
10835:23 November
10810:23 November
10532:13 February
10501:13 February
10199:10 November
10173:10 November
10142:10 November
10119:10 November
10089:10 November
10024:www.cbo.gov
9922:. Ted.com.
9794:www.nti.org
9522:. Nrc.gov.
9449:. UNSCEAR.
9417:. UNSCEAR.
9391:. Nsc.org.
9284:2445/114907
8595:15 November
8554:Mary Kaldor
8427:(3): 1154.
8031:25 February
7960:(in German)
7261:7 September
7235:2 September
6724:14 December
6692:14 December
6620:: S73âS92.
6096:(in French)
5707:(5): 1808.
5406:10 November
5071:10 November
4918:(in German)
4776:10 February
4745:13 February
4495:MacKay 2008
4423:IPCC (2014)
4262:15 December
4236:15 December
4230:HuffPost UK
4210:15 December
4184:15 December
4158:15 December
4011:15 December
3587:(5): 1802.
3464:: 911â926.
3383:cen.acs.org
2835:Radiophobia
2699:British Gas
2477:Superphénix
2426:(1981), by
2412:(1980), by
2399:(1943), by
2201:(0.32
2012:, one is a
1956:noble gases
1953:radioactive
1796:Chelyabinsk
1751:as of 1996.
1438:, entitled
1357:decay chain
1274:radioactive
932:mitigation.
912:EU Taxonomy
882:Zion Lights
717:Dick Cheney
518:state-owned
473:exhibited "
378:Reliability
373:mitigation.
305:uranium ore
117:sustainable
84:that cause
51:electricity
14264:Categories
14175:Peace camp
13989:Mike Pentz
13783:Kazakhstan
13741:By country
13658:Greenpeace
13631:and groups
13544:Peace camp
13334:1985â1987
13267:accidents
13135:disasters
12965:(acoustic)
12582:PBR (PBMR)
11970:Spent fuel
11960:Repository
11940:Fuel cycle
11907:Activation
11684:Processing
11551:Propulsion
11509:by country
11441:Activation
10992:(Report).
10858:Energy.gov
10830:Energy.gov
10785:18 October
10690:9 December
9757:: 101567.
9730:21 January
9696:. London.
9660:sfgate.com
9460:8 November
9425:8 November
9192:28 January
9131:6 February
9105:13 October
8676:0873719964
8571:0860919625
8400:16 January
8324:0522852513
8268:16 January
8102:(3): 369.
7971:suffering.
7787:kpluss.com
7670:Our Choice
7542:(6): 859.
7462:0309052890
7434:. London.
7383:0080444628
7357:16 January
6593:4 February
5799:Regulation
5373:4 February
5341:4 February
5262:2 December
5237:16 January
5060:0615124208
4806:11 January
4673:(Report).
4569:, 2.4.2.1.
4538:. 112363.
4497:, p.
4442:Reason.com
4382:Roser, Max
4056:Energy.gov
3873:21 October
3669:: 101749.
3375:Also see:
3280:The Lancet
3250:9 December
2760:Atomic Age
2695:RWE npower
2587:See also:
2528:dirty bomb
2460:1977â1982
2386:See also:
2372:Bill Gates
2368:Terrapower
2300:See also:
2051:See also:
2028:See also:
1960:iodine-131
1945:Harrisburg
1904:President
1674:, where a
1483:See also:
1465:10 tons).
1294:iodine-129
1266:Washington
1206:low-carbon
1198:low-carbon
1187:low-carbon
1083:Tom Wigley
845:Greenpeace
827:See also:
799:Tom Wigley
777:globally.
771:waste heat
748:See also:
621:carbon tax
503:carbon tax
421:waste heat
382:See also:
329:accidental
213:See also:
141:technology
13999:Adi Roche
13919:Otto Hahn
13909:Jim Green
13748:Australia
13629:Protests
13336:Therac-25
13269:and sites
13139:incidents
13133:Lists of
12935:Spheromak
12634:Fluorides
12298:IPHWR-700
12293:IPHWR-540
12288:IPHWR-220
12077:Moderator
11757:Explosion
11732:Arms race
11519:Economics
11471:Reflector
11466:Radiation
11461:Generator
11416:Plutonium
11369:Deuterium
11334:Radiation
11304:Chemistry
10970:892580682
10930:262888377
10627:1011-2642
10453:144321178
10431:(4): 43.
9918:TED2010.
9773:2214-6296
8973:Disasters
8699:Bloomberg
8529:Hans Blix
8509:20 August
8326:, p. xvii
8116:154882872
7964:8 January
7931:8 January
7306:5 January
7136:unece.org
6961:7 October
6951:0261-3077
6923:7 October
6913:0261-3077
6822:206971716
6806:1520-5851
6636:153286497
6205:1364-0321
6125:11 August
6100:11 August
5967:1523-1739
5774:(3): 73.
5456:europa.eu
5426:europa.eu
4567:IPCC 2018
4554:236254316
3754:Jim Green
3683:0272-4944
3478:0140-9883
3432:2191-0308
3348:0028-0836
3300:0140-6736
3225:0301-4215
3122:154479502
2847:Footnotes
2286:He Zuoxiu
2223:Guarapari
2195:nanograys
2174:(0.00295
2172:millirems
1998:Fukushima
1935:) of the
1876:radiation
1842:The 2011
1611:USS
1314:biosphere
1290:half-life
1202:Joe Biden
722:In 1983,
581:Subsidies
522:regulated
435:Economics
321:accidents
233:embargoes
113:Opponents
14215:Category
14196:The Bomb
14074:Related
13582:Category
13448:Related
13338:accident
13207:Pakistan
13070:Category
13024:Polywell
12955:Inertial
12912:Magnetic
12667:TMSR-LF1
12662:TMSR-500
12642:Fuji MSR
12602:THTR-300
12442:Graphite
12305:PHWR KWU
12271:ACR-1000
12199:IPWR-900
12182:ACPR1000
12177:HPR-1000
12167:CPR-1000
12142:APR-1400
11933:Disposal
11885:Actinide
11878:Products
11737:Delivery
11580:Medicine
11409:depleted
11404:enriched
11374:Helium-3
11339:ionizing
11117:24364822
11072:20864972
10994:Archived
10974:Archived
10934:Archived
10908:(2008).
10888:Elsevier
10753:Archived
10708:Archived
10631:Archived
10582:Archived
10552:Archived
10526:Archived
10495:Archived
10376:Archived
10354:Archived
10350:BBC News
10332:Archived
10296:Archived
10272:Archived
10233:Archived
10218:Archived
10193:Archived
10167:Archived
10165:. Axis.
10113:Archived
10083:Archived
10057:Archived
9940:cite web
9924:Archived
9893:Archived
9861:Archived
9724:Archived
9698:Archived
9664:Archived
9634:Archived
9612:19775438
9558:Archived
9524:Archived
9506:24657628
9498:19066487
9451:Archived
9419:Archived
9393:Archived
9367:Archived
9341:Archived
9320:Archived
9303:28520643
9244:15987704
9186:Archived
9182:16263488
9099:Archived
9024:Archived
8946:19 March
8920:19 March
8893:28 March
8887:Archived
8856:Archived
8852:ABC News
8833:Archived
8809:11 March
8803:Archived
8772:Archived
8746:Archived
8727:Archived
8709:10 March
8703:Archived
8652:Archived
8647:BBC News
8625:29 March
8560:(eds.).
8503:Archived
8455:Archived
8287:Archived
8209:Archived
8187:Archived
8141:Archived
8137:TIME.com
8078:Archived
8052:Archived
8022:Archived
7957:Die Welt
7897:Archived
7879:23495839
7818:14 March
7792:14 March
7761:Archived
7728:Archived
7602:: 1161.
7578:Archived
7556:96845138
7510:Archived
7481:Archived
7436:Archived
7278:(2011).
7255:Politico
7141:25 March
7013:25 March
6955:Archived
6917:Archived
6854:Archived
6841:(2013).
6814:23697846
6749:Archived
6715:Archived
6683:Archived
6546:cite web
6498:Archived
6463:Archived
6436:cite web
6400:19 April
6359:13 April
6333:31 March
6249:Politico
6152:Archived
6094:Le Point
5975:25490854
5888:Archived
5860:Archived
5838:27 March
5807:Archived
5742:Archived
5630:5 August
5604:5 August
5460:Archived
5430:Archived
5400:Archived
5364:Archived
5335:Archived
5309:Archived
5287:Archived
5257:edie.net
5189:cite web
5095:Archived
5065:Archived
5053:. 2003.
4964:Archived
4940:Archived
4894:Archived
4850:(2011).
4770:Archived
4739:Archived
4679:Archived
4652:17 March
4646:Archived
4619:14 March
4613:Archived
4474:Archived
4396:Archived
4384:(2020).
4356:Archived
4326:Archived
4289:Archived
4152:Politico
4035:Archived
3956:22 April
3931:22 April
3897:Archived
3867:Archived
3840:Archived
3815:(2007).
3761:Archived
3736:28 March
3727:Archived
3560:(2009).
3514:Archived
3496:Archived
3440:22435323
3387:Archived
3308:17876910
3244:Archived
3182:Archived
3137:(1982).
3135:Jim Falk
3060:24364822
3015:Archived
3005:Archived
2980:Archived
2969:Archived
2958:Archived
2869:Archived
2748:See also
2374:and his
2247:leukemia
2176:sieverts
1925:meltdown
1908:leaving
1794:(nearby
1668:'s book
1613:Thresher
1597:(1986),
1593:(2011),
1395:and the
1341:Gorleben
1192:In 2021
1179:Slovenia
1134:â
977:â
955:â
935:â
496:mitigate
400:of 92%.
286:baseload
205:of 92%.
14228:Portals
13768:Germany
13753:Austria
13317:Effects
13082:Commons
12993:Z-pinch
12963:Bubble
12945:Tokamak
12808:FBR-600
12788:CFR-600
12783:BN-1200
12449:coolant
12376:Organic
12261:CANDU 9
12258:CANDU 6
12226:coolant
12187:ACP1000
12162:CAP1400
12100:Boiling
12065:Fission
11912:Fission
11856:Weapons
11796:Warfare
11779:Testing
11769:History
11762:effects
11717:Weapons
11627:Therapy
11602:RadBall
11589:Imaging
11481:Thermal
11446:Capture
11433:Neutron
11421:Thorium
11399:Uranium
11364:Tritium
11344:braking
11324:Fission
11314:Physics
11297:Science
11097:Bibcode
11080:4427192
11050:Bibcode
10876:Sources
10588:14 June
10433:Bibcode
10405:25 July
9930:18 June
9899:18 June
9867:18 June
9845:. 2013.
9603:2757021
9530:18 June
9399:18 June
9373:18 June
9347:27 June
9294:5540354
9173:1310934
9056:6 April
9020:pbs.org
8768:Reuters
8363:Bibcode
8237:: 127.
8058:18 June
7994:20 June
7903:18 June
7847:Bibcode
7604:Bibcode
7351:anl.gov
7229:UN News
7213:. 2021.
7167:7 April
7059:27 June
7038:. 2016.
6776:Bibcode
6514:Alt URL
6479:Alt URL
6395:Reuters
6378:Archive
6307:22 July
6281:25 June
6168:Alt URL
6161:6 April
6051:20 July
6025:20 July
5999:20 July
5924:22 July
5578:20 July
5550:18 June
5524:18 June
5305:eia.gov
5179:12 June
4948:Reuters
4922:18 June
4480:19 July
4362:19 July
4332:24 July
4295:21 July
4132:13 July
4095:13 July
3903:17 July
3743:Alt URL
3521:, p. 7.
3393:17 July
3188:17 July
3178:eia.gov
3040:Bibcode
2908:2823429
2734:OPEN100
2691:E.ON UK
2674:at the
2660:Siemens
2616:updated
2578:(2011).
2243:cancers
2101:versus
2072:updated
1765:Ukraine
1749:Ukraine
1741:Belarus
1461:10â2.65
1444:billion
1167:Romania
1155:Hungary
944:Euratom
872:⁄
687:Czechia
683:Hungary
676:Liberia
669:Germany
297:uranium
237:uranium
155:History
14254:Energy
14076:topics
13857:People
13838:Turkey
13833:Taiwan
13823:Sweden
13803:Russia
13798:Poland
13763:France
13758:Canada
13450:topics
13373:under
13192:France
12893:Fusion
12853:Others
12793:Phénix
12778:BN-800
12773:BN-600
12768:BN-350
12597:HTR-PM
12592:HTR-10
12572:UHTREX
12537:Magnox
12532:(UNGG)
12425:Lucens
12420:KS 150
12157:ATMEA1
12137:AP1000
12120:Kerena
12000:Debate
11752:Ethics
11742:Design
11725:Topics
11556:rocket
11534:Fusion
11529:Policy
11491:Fusion
11451:Poison
11329:Fusion
11196:
11180:
11115:
11078:
11070:
11042:Nature
11025:
10968:
10958:
10928:
10918:
10894:
10640:22 May
10625:
10615:
10558:22 May
10451:
10004:6 July
9974:6 July
9824:6 July
9799:6 July
9771:
9630:COMARE
9610:
9600:
9586:: 43.
9504:
9496:
9301:
9291:
9242:
9235:558612
9232:
9180:
9170:
8778:1 July
8673:
8568:
8482:3 June
8355:Nature
8322:
8193:p. 14.
8114:
7877:
7813:DW.COM
7734:15 May
7700:15 May
7554:
7519:6 June
7487:6 June
7459:
7380:
7329:
7192:18 May
7102:3 June
6949:
6911:
6820:
6812:
6804:
6660:3 June
6634:
6536:9 July
6507:9 July
6472:9 July
6426:9 July
6275:CityAM
6255:3 June
6229:3 June
6203:
6116:"FAQs"
5973:
5965:
5498:4 July
5153:6 June
5122:6 June
5057:
4714:". In
4552:
4447:22 May
4421:". In
4402:9 July
4085:Platts
4061:9 June
3981:
3681:
3643:27 May
3541:
3476:
3438:
3430:
3346:
3326:Nature
3306:
3298:
3223:
3120:
3108:: 57.
3058:
3000:, see
2953:, see
2931:
2906:
2647:Platts
2641:, the
2595:, and
2481:France
2428:Israel
2405:Norway
2401:Allies
2360:AP1000
2352:AP1000
2227:Kerala
2024:Health
1949:curies
1811:cancer
1785:safety
1781:rubles
1747:, and
1745:Russia
1491:, and
1447:tonnes
1175:Poland
1159:France
831:, and
635:fusion
409:SCRAMs
390:, and
319:, and
235:, and
14038:Media
13818:Spain
13778:Japan
13773:India
13437:1945
13416:1954
13410:1957
13404:1957
13398:1957
13391:1961
13385:1961
13379:1962
13369:1962
13363:1969
13353:1979
13347:1980
13341:1982
13328:1985
13310:1986
13304:1987
13298:1990
13287:2001
13281:2011
13275:2019
13197:India
13187:China
13014:Migma
13002:Other
12971:Fusor
12870:Piqua
12865:Arbus
12823:PRISM
12565:MHR-T
12560:GTMHR
12490:EGP-6
12485:AMB-X
12460:Water
12405:HWGCR
12344:HWLWR
12283:IPHWR
12254:CANDU
12115:ESBWR
11870:Waste
11834:Tests
11817:Lists
11801:Yield
11544:MMRTG
11501:Power
11192:(PDF)
11176:(PDF)
11076:S2CID
10997:(PDF)
10990:(PDF)
10759:7 May
10634:(PDF)
10609:(PDF)
10449:S2CID
10263:(PDF)
10256:(PDF)
10060:(PDF)
10049:(PDF)
9843:(PDF)
9670:7 May
9640:7 May
9502:S2CID
9454:(PDF)
9447:(PDF)
9030:7 May
8980:(PDF)
8969:(PDF)
8458:(PDF)
8451:(PDF)
8147:7 May
8112:S2CID
8025:(PDF)
8014:(PDF)
7925:Grist
7767:7 May
7581:(PDF)
7574:(PDF)
7552:S2CID
7513:(PDF)
7506:(PDF)
7211:(PDF)
7078:(PDF)
7032:(PDF)
6989:(PDF)
6982:(PDF)
6886:(PDF)
6875:(PDF)
6857:(PDF)
6846:(PDF)
6818:S2CID
6718:(PDF)
6711:(PDF)
6686:(PDF)
6679:(PDF)
6632:S2CID
6501:(PDF)
6494:(PDF)
6466:(PDF)
6459:(PDF)
6155:(PDF)
6144:(PDF)
6071:(PDF)
5891:(PDF)
5880:(PDF)
5832:(PDF)
5825:(PDF)
5492:(PDF)
5485:(PDF)
5466:7 May
5436:7 May
5367:(PDF)
5360:(PDF)
5315:7 May
5098:(PDF)
5091:(PDF)
4900:7 May
4832:(PDF)
4825:(PDF)
4682:(PDF)
4671:(PDF)
4550:S2CID
4126:(PDF)
4115:(PDF)
3843:(PDF)
3836:(PDF)
3730:(PDF)
3723:(PDF)
3613:(PDF)
3418:(4).
3118:S2CID
2904:JSTOR
2728:2017.
2576:Ipsos
2350:Four
2276:Some
1943:near
1626:K-431
1520:TW-yr
1324:with
1216:COP26
1194:UNECE
1059:found
13393:SL-1
13357:and
13137:and
12830:Lead
12813:CEFR
12803:PFBR
12685:None
12495:RBMK
12480:AM-1
12410:EL-4
12384:WR-1
12366:AHWR
12310:MZFR
12278:CVTR
12267:AFCR
12194:VVER
12152:APWR
12147:APR+
12110:ABWR
11980:cask
11975:pool
11917:LLFP
11806:TNTe
11486:Fast
11356:Fuel
11113:PMID
11068:PMID
11023:ISBN
10982:IPCC
10966:OCLC
10956:ISBN
10942:IPCC
10926:OCLC
10916:ISBN
10892:ISBN
10865:2020
10837:2020
10812:2020
10787:2021
10761:2018
10692:2014
10642:2016
10623:ISSN
10613:ISBN
10590:2013
10560:2016
10534:2013
10503:2013
10407:2012
10201:2006
10175:2006
10144:2006
10121:2006
10091:2006
10006:2021
9976:2021
9946:link
9932:2013
9901:2013
9869:2013
9826:2021
9801:2021
9769:ISSN
9732:2010
9672:2018
9642:2011
9608:PMID
9532:2013
9494:PMID
9462:2013
9427:2013
9401:2013
9375:2013
9349:2010
9299:PMID
9240:PMID
9194:2009
9178:PMID
9133:2009
9107:2017
9058:2011
9032:2018
8948:2011
8922:2011
8895:2011
8811:2011
8780:2017
8711:2017
8671:ISBN
8627:2006
8597:2018
8566:ISBN
8531:and
8511:2011
8484:2020
8402:2020
8320:ISBN
8270:2020
8149:2018
8060:2013
8033:2017
7996:2020
7966:2020
7933:2020
7905:2013
7875:PMID
7820:2021
7794:2021
7769:2018
7736:2008
7702:2008
7521:2008
7489:2008
7457:ISBN
7413:2023
7378:ISBN
7359:2020
7327:ISBN
7308:2009
7263:2021
7237:2021
7194:2021
7169:2021
7143:2021
7104:2020
7061:2019
7036:IAEA
7015:2021
6963:2016
6947:ISSN
6925:2016
6909:ISSN
6810:PMID
6802:ISSN
6726:2018
6694:2018
6662:2020
6595:2022
6552:link
6538:2021
6509:2021
6474:2021
6442:link
6428:2021
6402:2021
6361:2023
6335:2021
6309:2020
6283:2020
6257:2020
6231:2020
6201:ISSN
6163:2021
6127:2020
6102:2020
6053:2020
6027:2020
6001:2020
5971:PMID
5963:ISSN
5926:2020
5840:2011
5632:2020
5606:2020
5580:2020
5570:The
5552:2020
5526:2020
5500:2012
5468:2018
5438:2018
5408:2006
5375:2012
5343:2012
5317:2018
5264:2018
5239:2020
5195:link
5181:2020
5155:2020
5124:2020
5073:2006
5055:ISBN
5031:2010
4970:In:
4924:2020
4902:2018
4808:2022
4778:2022
4747:2021
4654:2021
4621:2021
4482:2021
4449:2023
4404:2021
4364:2021
4334:2021
4297:2021
4264:2021
4238:2021
4212:2021
4186:2021
4179:CNET
4160:2021
4134:2007
4097:2007
4063:2020
4013:2021
3979:ISBN
3958:2022
3933:2022
3905:2017
3875:2013
3738:2021
3679:ISSN
3645:2020
3539:ISBN
3474:ISSN
3436:PMID
3428:ISSN
3395:2017
3369:2023
3344:ISSN
3304:PMID
3296:ISSN
3252:2009
3221:ISSN
3190:2017
3056:PMID
2975:and
2964:and
2929:ISBN
2693:and
2432:Iraq
2418:Iraq
2414:Iran
2304:and
2199:hour
2197:per
2114:The
2004:The
1922:core
1912:for
1869:and
1801:The
1622:K-27
1618:K-19
1603:SL-1
1455:tons
1449:(7.1
1375:0.1
1177:and
1081:and
1054:The
752:and
667:and
632:ITER
490:and
448:and
248:and
217:and
177:Wyhl
41:The
12902:by
12818:PFR
12609:PMR
12587:AVR
12509:Gas
12447:by
12415:KKN
12349:ATR
12264:EC6
12224:by
12172:EPR
12105:BWR
11105:doi
11058:doi
11046:467
10441:doi
9759:doi
9598:PMC
9588:doi
9486:doi
9289:PMC
9279:hdl
9271:doi
9230:PMC
9222:doi
9218:331
9214:BMJ
9168:PMC
9160:doi
9156:113
8429:doi
8371:doi
8359:477
8239:doi
8104:doi
7865:hdl
7855:doi
7635:doi
7544:doi
7187:IEA
6792:hdl
6784:doi
6745:CNN
6622:doi
6302:Vox
6193:doi
6020:CNN
5994:CNN
5953:doi
5776:doi
5709:doi
5148:Vox
5117:Vox
4766:BBC
4735:BBC
4540:doi
4536:155
4499:162
4006:IEA
3862:TED
3794:doi
3671:doi
3589:doi
3466:doi
3420:doi
3334:doi
3330:497
3288:doi
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3213:doi
3110:doi
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3048:doi
2896:doi
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2462:ETA
2203:rad
1951:of
1939:in
1816:BBC
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