Radioactive waste - Knowledge

2919:, most of which are relatively short-lived. This is a concern since if the waste is stored, perhaps in deep geological storage, over many years the fission products decay, decreasing the radioactivity of the waste and making the plutonium easier to access. The undesirable contaminant Pu-240 decays faster than the Pu-239, and thus the quality of the bomb material increases with time (although its quantity decreases during that time as well). Thus, some have argued, as time passes, these deep storage areas have the potential to become "plutonium mines", from which material for nuclear weapons can be acquired with relatively little difficulty. Critics of the latter idea have pointed out the difficulty of recovering useful material from sealed deep storage areas makes other methods preferable. Specifically, high radioactivity and heat (80 °C in surrounding rock) greatly increase the difficulty of mining a storage area, and the enrichment methods required have high capital costs. 3495: 11729: 3432:. Low-level wastes include paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters, and other materials which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity. Materials that originate from any region of an Active Area are commonly designated as LLW as a precautionary measure even if there is only a remote possibility of being contaminated with radioactive materials. Such LLW typically exhibits no higher radioactivity than one would expect from the same material disposed of in a non-active area, such as a normal office block. Example LLW includes wiping rags, mops, medical tubes, laboratory animal carcasses, and more. LLW makes up 94% of all radioactive waste volume in the UK. Most of it is disposed of in 4315:

confine the waste safely and permanently so that it should never pose a threat to the environment. The Earth's crust contains 120 trillion tons of thorium and 40 trillion tons of uranium (primarily at relatively trace concentrations of parts per million each adding up over the crust's 3 × 10 ton mass), among other natural radioisotopes. Since the fraction of nuclides decaying per unit of time is inversely proportional to an isotope's half-life, the relative radioactivity of the lesser amount of human-produced radioisotopes (thousands of tons instead of trillions of tons) would diminish once the isotopes with far shorter half-lives than the bulk of natural radioisotopes decayed.

3483: 4565:, which could spread radioactive material into the atmosphere and around the world. A high number of launches would be required because no individual rocket would be able to carry very much of the material relative to the total amount that needs to be disposed. This makes the proposal economically impractical and increases the risk of one or more launch failures. To further complicate matters, international agreements on the regulation of such a program would need to be established. Costs and inadequate reliability of modern rocket launch systems for space disposal has been one of the motives for interest in 4821: 4592: 4252: 3926: 2866:(MOX, no thorium). For RGPu and WGPu, the initial amount of U-233 and its decay for around a million years can be seen. This has an effect on the total activity curve of the three fuel types. The initial absence of U-233 and its daughter products in the MOX fuel results in a lower activity in region 3 of the figure at the bottom right, whereas for RGPu and WGPu the curve is maintained higher due to the presence of U-233 that has not fully decayed. Nuclear reprocessing can remove the actinides from the spent fuel so they can be used or destroyed (see 3776: 4260: 31: 4797:

secret for the inspectors of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Japan did start discussions with the IAEA about the large quantities of enriched uranium and plutonium that were discovered in nuclear waste cleared away by Japanese nuclear operators. At the press conference Fujimura said: "Based on investigations so far, most nuclear substances have been properly managed as waste, and from that perspective, there is no problem in safety management," but according to him, the matter was at that moment still being investigated.

3578: 9311: 3365: 1007: 4833: 4809: 3644: 11681: 11168: 9322: 3717:/kg), excluding high-level waste. Elements that have an atomic number greater than uranium are called transuranic ("beyond uranium"). Because of their long half-lives, TRUW is disposed of more cautiously than either low- or intermediate-level waste. In the United States, it arises mainly from nuclear weapons production, and consists of clothing, tools, rags, residues, debris, and other items contaminated with small amounts of radioactive elements (mainly 11717: 2815: 1019: 68: 5214:"The isotopic analyses disclosed a species of mass 248 in constant abundance in three samples analysed over a period of about 10 months. This was ascribed to an isomer of Bk with a half-life greater than 9 . No growth of Cf was detected, and a lower limit for the β half-life can be set at about 10 . No alpha activity attributable to the new isomer has been detected; the alpha half-life is probably greater than 300 ." 2783: 11705: 11671: 11156: 8739: 4329:. "For any host community, there will be a substantial community benefits package and worth hundreds of millions of pounds" said Ed Davey, Energy Secretary, but nonetheless, the local elected body voted 7–3 against research continuing, after hearing evidence from independent geologists that "the fractured strata of the county was impossible to entrust with such dangerous material and a hazard lasting millennia." 11180: 4758:, it was reported that, during a draining operation, liquid containing untreated uranium overflowed out of a faulty tank and about 75 kg of the radioactive material seeped into the ground and, from there, into two rivers nearby; in another case, over 100 staff were contaminated with low doses of radiation. There are ongoing concerns around the deterioration of the nuclear waste site on the 4351:

largest contribution coming from the nuclear energy lifecycle in countries operating nuclear power plants. Presently, there is broad scientific and technical consensus that disposal of high-level, long-lived radioactive waste in deep geologic formations is, at the state of today’s knowledge, considered as an appropriate and safe means of isolating it from the biosphere for very long time scales.

3802: 4308:, then replace it in inactive uranium mines. This approach has the merits of providing jobs for miners who would double as disposal staff, and of facilitating a cradle-to-grave cycle for radioactive materials, but would be inappropriate for spent reactor fuel in the absence of reprocessing, due to the presence of highly toxic radioactive elements such as plutonium within it. 3227:(mSv) to 13 mSv annually depending on location, average radiation exposure from natural radioisotopes is 2.0 mSv per person a year worldwide. This makes up the majority of typical total dosage (with mean annual exposure from other sources amounting to 0.6 mSv from medical tests averaged over the whole populace, 0.4 mSv from 3798:. This usually necessitates treatment, followed by a long-term management strategy involving storage, disposal or transformation of the waste into a non-toxic form. Governments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options, though there has been limited progress toward long-term waste management solutions. 3045:(ORNL), there were for example at least "167 known contaminant release sites" in one of the three subdivisions of the 37,000-acre (150 km) site. Some of the U.S. sites were smaller in nature, however, cleanup issues were simpler to address, and the DOE has successfully completed cleanup, or at least closure, of several sites. 4608:

Radiation Protection or proposed in the United States. European limits are often more stringent than the standard suggested in 1990 by the International Commission on Radiation Protection by a factor of 20, and more stringent by a factor of ten than the standard proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for the

3028:(DOE) states there are "millions of gallons of radioactive waste" as well as "thousands of tons of spent nuclear fuel and material" and also "huge quantities of contaminated soil and water." Despite copious quantities of waste, in 2007, the DOE stated a goal of cleaning all presently contaminated sites successfully by 2025. The 4336:

sealed. A series of tests of the technology were carried out in November 2018 and then again publicly in January 2019 by a U.S. based private company. The test demonstrated the emplacement of a test-canister in a horizontal drillhole and retrieval of the same canister. There was no actual high-level waste used in the test.

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demonstrates a versatile material that can withstand chemical, thermal, and radioactive degradation over time. The properties of phosphates, particularly ceramic phosphates, of stability over a wide pH range, low porosity, and minimization of secondary waste introduces possibilities for new waste immobilization techniques.

3200:(naturally occurring radioactive material). After human processing that exposes or concentrates this natural radioactivity (such as mining bringing coal to the surface or burning it to produce concentrated ash), it becomes technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive material (TENORM). Much of this waste is 4777:, which may have less regulation of dangerous substances (and sometimes less general education about radioactivity and its hazards) and a market for scavenged goods and scrap metal. The scavengers and those who buy the material are almost always unaware that the material is radioactive and it is selected for its 4416:

was a proposed nuclear reactor with a nuclear fuel cycle that produced no transuranic waste and, in fact, could consume transuranic waste. It proceeded as far as large-scale tests but was eventually canceled by the U.S. Government. Another approach, considered safer but requiring more development, is

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Because some radioactive species have half-lives longer than one million years, even very low container leakage and radionuclide migration rates must be taken into account. Moreover, it may require more than one half-life until some nuclear materials lose enough radioactivity to cease being lethal to

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The process of selecting appropriate deep final repositories for high-level waste and spent fuel is now underway in several countries with the first expected to be commissioned sometime after 2010. The basic concept is to locate a large, stable geologic formation and use mining technology to excavate

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issued a presidential order on September 13 banning all negotiations with foreign governments or international organizations on nuclear-waste storage plans in Mongolia. The Mongolian government has accused the newspaper of distributing false claims around the world. After the presidential order, the

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Management of radioactive waste and its safe and secure disposal is a necessary step in the lifecycle of all applications of nuclear science and technology (nuclear energy, research, industry, education, medical, and others). Radioactive waste is therefore generated in practically every country, the

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The radioactive waste from spent fuel rods consists primarily of cesium-137 and strontium-90, but it may also include plutonium, which can be considered transuranic waste. The half-lives of these radioactive elements can differ quite extremely. Some elements, such as cesium-137 and strontium-90 have

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can be exposed to doses having negative health effects. Due to the relatively high concentration of these elements in the brine, its disposal is also a technological challenge. Since the 1980s, in the United States, the brine is however exempt from the dangerous waste regulations and can be disposed

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site for example had "31 million pounds of uranium product", "2.5 billion pounds of waste", "2.75 million cubic yards of contaminated soil and debris", and a "223 acre portion of the underlying Great Miami Aquifer had uranium levels above drinking standards." The United States has at least 108 sites

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Radioactive waste comes from a number of sources. In countries with nuclear power plants, nuclear armament, or nuclear fuel treatment plants, the majority of waste originates from the nuclear fuel cycle and nuclear weapons reprocessing. Other sources include medical and industrial wastes, as well as

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as the destination, where the waste was buried after buying off local politicians. Former employees of Enea are suspected of paying the criminals to take waste off their hands in the 1980s and 1990s. Shipments to Somalia continued into the 1990s, while the 'Ndrangheta clan also blew up shiploads of

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An isotope that is found in nuclear waste and that represents a concern in terms of proliferation is Pu-239. The large stock of plutonium is a result of its production inside uranium-fueled reactors and of the reprocessing of weapons-grade plutonium during the weapons program. An option for getting

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describes proposals to drill over one km vertically, and two km horizontally in the earth's crust, for the purpose of disposing of high-level waste forms such as spent nuclear fuel, Caesium-137, or Strontium-90. After the emplacement and the retrievability period, drillholes would be backfilled and

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In many European countries (e.g., Britain, Finland, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland) the risk or dose limit for a member of the public exposed to radiation from a future high-level nuclear waste facility is considerably more stringent than that suggested by the International Commission on

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Transmutation was banned in the United States in April 1977 by U. S. President Carter due to the danger of plutonium proliferation, but President Reagan rescinded the ban in 1981. Due to economic losses and risks, the construction of reprocessing plants during this time did not resume. Due to high

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from England to France) to drill a shaft 500 to 1,000 metres (1,600 to 3,300 ft) below the surface where rooms or vaults can be excavated for disposal of high-level radioactive waste. The goal is to permanently isolate nuclear waste from the human environment. Many people remain uncomfortable

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The time frame in question when dealing with radioactive waste ranges from 10,000 to 1,000,000 years, according to studies based on the effect of estimated radiation doses. Researchers suggest that forecasts of health detriment for such periods should be examined critically. Practical studies only

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nuclear power plant produces about 27 tonnes of spent nuclear fuel (unreprocessed) every year. For comparison, the amount of ash produced by coal power plants in the United States is estimated at 130,000,000 t per year and fly ash is estimated to release 100 times more radiation than an equivalent

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for disposal. As a general rule, short-lived waste (mainly non-fuel materials from reactors) is buried in shallow repositories, while long-lived waste (from fuel and fuel reprocessing) is deposited in geological repository. Regulations in the United States do not define this category of waste; the

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in this context. These eventually build up to a level where they absorb so many neutrons that the chain reaction stops, even with the control rods completely removed from a reactor. At that point, the fuel has to be replaced in the reactor with fresh fuel, even though there is still a substantial

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On 15 December 2011, top government spokesman Osamu Fujimura of the Japanese government admitted that nuclear substances were found in the waste of Japanese nuclear facilities. Although Japan did commit itself in 1977 to inspections in the safeguard agreement with the IAEA, the reports were kept

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to remove radioactive metals from aqueous mixtures. After the radioisotopes are absorbed onto the ferric hydroxide, the resulting sludge can be placed in a metal drum before being mixed with cement to form solid waste. In order to get better long-term performance (mechanical stability) from such

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formation. The thermal flux of the waste materials fractures the formation and alters the chemical and/or physical properties of hydrocarbon material within the subterranean formation to allow removal of the altered material. A mixture of hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other formation fluids is

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in which transmutation is possible. Additionally, a new research program called ACTINET has been started in the EU to make transmutation possible on an industrial scale. According to U. S. President Bush's Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) of 2007, the United States is actively promoting

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is the concept of disposing of high-level radioactive waste from nuclear reactors in extremely deep boreholes. Deep borehole disposal seeks to place the waste as much as 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) beneath the surface of the Earth and relies primarily on the immense natural geological barrier to

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Of particular concern in nuclear waste management are two long-lived fission products, Tc-99 (half-life 220,000 years) and I-129 (half-life 15.7 million years), which dominate spent fuel radioactivity after a few thousand years. The most troublesome transuranic elements in spent fuel are Np-237

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is a major constraint on nuclear power global expansion. Most scientists agree that the main proposed long-term solution is deep geological burial, either in a mine or a deep borehole. As of 2019, no dedicated civilian high-level nuclear waste site is operational as small amounts of HLW did not

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or scrap value. Irresponsibility on the part of the radioactive material's owners, usually a hospital, university, or military, and the absence of regulation concerning radioactive waste, or a lack of enforcement of such regulations, have been significant factors in radiation exposures. For an

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from Pu-240 impurities plus some U-235 from decay of the Pu-239; due to the relatively long half-life of these Pu isotopes, these wastes from radioactive decay of bomb core material would be very small, and in any case, far less dangerous (even in terms of simple radioactivity) than the Pu-239

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Sweden and Finland are furthest along in committing to a particular disposal technology, while many others reprocess spent fuel or contract with France or Great Britain to do it, taking back the resulting plutonium and high-level waste. "An increasing backlog of plutonium from reprocessing is

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Vitrification is not the only way to stabilize the waste into a form that will not react or degrade for extended periods. Immobilization via direct incorporation into a phosphate-based crystalline ceramic host is also used. The diverse chemistry of phosphate ceramics under various conditions

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Long-lived radioactive waste from the back end of the fuel cycle is especially relevant when designing a complete waste management plan for SNF. When looking at long-term radioactive decay, the actinides in the SNF have a significant influence due to their characteristically long half-lives.

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present. In the United States, this used fuel is usually "stored", while in other countries such as Russia, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, and India, the fuel is reprocessed to remove the fission products, and the fuel can then be re-used. The fission products removed from the fuel are a

1950:, making it far more damaging to tissues per amount of energy deposited. Because of such differences, the rules determining biological injury differ widely according to the radioisotope, time of exposure, and sometimes also the nature of the chemical compound which contains the radioisotope. 3541:

High-level waste (HLW) is produced by nuclear reactors and the reprocessing of nuclear fuel. The exact definition of HLW differs internationally. After a nuclear fuel rod serves one fuel cycle and is removed from the core, it is considered HLW. Spent fuel rods contain mostly uranium with

4023:) tend to form metallic phases which separate from the glass. Bulk vitrification uses electrodes to melt soil and wastes, which are then buried underground. In Germany, a vitrification plant is treating the waste from a small demonstration reprocessing plant which has since been closed. 3273:

for coal power plants, 100 times as great as nuclear power plants (4.8 person-rem/year). The exposure from the complete nuclear fuel cycle from mining to waste disposal is 136 person-rem/year; the corresponding value for coal use from mining to waste disposal is "probably unknown".

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curve of the SNF for around a million years. A comparison of the activity associated to U-233 for three different SNF types can be seen in the figure on the top right. The burnt fuels are thorium with reactor-grade plutonium (RGPu), thorium with weapons-grade plutonium (WGPu), and

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per hour (2 mSv/h), whereas RH TRUW has a surface dose rate of 200 mrem/h (2 mSv/h) or greater. CH TRUW does not have the very high radioactivity of high-level waste, nor its high heat generation, but RH TRUW can be highly radioactive, with surface dose rates up to

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Pu-239 decays to U-235 which is suitable for weapons and which has a very long half-life (roughly 10 years). Thus plutonium may decay and leave uranium-235. However, modern reactors are only moderately enriched with U-235 relative to U-238, so the U-238 continues to serve as a

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The Nuclear Assisted Hydrocarbon Production Method, Canadian patent application 2,659,302, is a method for the temporary or permanent storage of nuclear waste materials comprising the placing of waste materials into one or more repositories or boreholes constructed into an

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of radioactive waste has been suggested by the finding that deep waters in the North Atlantic Ocean do not present an exchange with shallow waters for about 140 years based on oxygen content data recorded over a period of 25 years. They include burial beneath a stable

4623:) each annually to local individuals after 10,000 years, which would be up to several percent of the exposure currently received by some populations in the highest natural background regions on Earth, though the United States Department of Energy (DOE) predicted that 4289:

living things. A 1983 review of the Swedish radioactive waste disposal program by the National Academy of Sciences found that country's estimate of several hundred thousand years—perhaps up to one million years—being necessary for waste isolation "fully justified."

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if chemical separation processes cannot achieve a very high purity. Furthermore, elements may be present in both useful and troublesome isotopes, which would require costly and energy intensive isotope separation for their use – a currently uneconomic prospect.

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onto the cylinder head. The cylinder is then washed. After being inspected for external contamination, the steel cylinder is stored, usually in an underground repository. In this form, the waste products are expected to be immobilized for thousands of years.

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reported on them in May, Mongolia officially denied the existence of these negotiations. Alarmed by this news, Mongolian citizens protested against the plans and demanded the government withdraw the plans and disclose information. The Mongolian President

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after the lake had partly dried out. In Italy, several radioactive waste deposits let material flow into river water, thus contaminating water for domestic use. In France in the summer of 2008, numerous incidents happened: in one, at the Areva plant in

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zone accessed from land and therefore is not prohibited by international agreement. This method has been described as the most viable means of disposing of radioactive waste, and as the state-of-the-art as of 2001 in nuclear waste disposal technology.

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Under U.S. law, transuranic waste is further categorized into "contact-handled" (CH) and "remote-handled" (RH) on the basis of the radiation dose rate measured at the surface of the waste container. CH TRUW has a surface dose rate not greater than 200

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The time radioactive waste must be stored depends on the type of waste and radioactive isotopes it contains. Short-term approaches to radioactive waste storage have been segregation and storage on the surface or near-surface of the earth. Burial in a

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cylinder, which is placed in a concrete cylinder which acts as a radiation shield. It is a relatively inexpensive method which can be done at a central facility or adjacent to the source reactor. The waste can be easily retrieved for reprocessing.

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concentrated form of high-level waste as are the chemicals used in the process. While most countries reprocess the fuel carrying out single plutonium cycles, India is planning multiple plutonium recycling schemes and Russia pursues closed cycle.

4082:(synthetic rock) is a more sophisticated way to immobilize such waste, and this process may eventually come into commercial use for civil wastes (it is currently being developed for U.S. military wastes). Synroc was invented by Ted Ringwood, a 3453:

Some high-activity LLW requires shielding during handling and transport but most LLW is suitable for shallow land burial. To reduce its volume, it is often compacted or incinerated before disposal. Low-level waste is divided into four classes:

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From 1946 through 1993, thirteen countries used ocean disposal or ocean dumping as a method to dispose of nuclear/radioactive waste with an approximation of 200,000 tons sourcing mainly from the medical, research and nuclear industry.

2999:; the in-growth of americium is likely to be a greater problem than the decay of Pu-239 and Pu-240 as the americium is a gamma emitter (increasing external-exposure to workers) and is an alpha emitter which can cause the generation of 7373: 4380:, and burial beneath a remote natural or human-made island. While these approaches all have merit and would facilitate an international solution to the problem of disposal of radioactive waste, they would require an amendment of the 4744:

A few incidents have occurred when radioactive material was disposed of improperly, shielding during transport was defective, or when it was simply abandoned or even stolen from a waste store. In the Soviet Union, waste stored in

3853:– used by the USSR, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, the United States, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Japan, Sweden, Russia, Germany, Italy and South Korea (1954–1993). This is no longer permitted by international agreements. 5805: 4820: 3332:

Classification of radioactive waste varies by country. The IAEA, which publishes the Radioactive Waste Safety Standards (RADWASS), also plays a significant role. The proportion of various types of waste generated in the UK:

1104:(LLW), such as paper, rags, tools, clothing, which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity; intermediate-level waste (ILW), which contains higher amounts of radioactivity and requires some shielding; and 3174: 3957:

involves passing the waste through a heated, rotating tube. The purposes of calcination are to evaporate the water from the waste and de-nitrate the fission products to assist the stability of the glass produced.

3253:. The surrounding strata, if shale or mudstone, often contain slightly more than average and this may also be reflected in the ash content of 'dirty' coals. The more active ash minerals become concentrated in the 4627:. Over a timeframe of thousands of years, after the most active short half-life radioisotopes decayed, burying U.S. nuclear waste would increase the radioactivity in the top 2000 feet of rock and soil in the 5349: 4267:

leaked from a damaged storage drum due to the use of incorrect packing material. Analysis showed the lack of a "safety culture" at the plant since its successful operation for 15 years had bred complacency.

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Long-term storage of radioactive waste requires the stabilization of the waste into a form that will neither react nor degrade for extended periods. It is theorized that one way to do this might be through

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produced from the formation. The radioactivity of high-level radioactive waste affords proliferation resistance to plutonium placed in the periphery of the repository or the deepest portion of a borehole.

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Due to historic activities typically related to the radium industry, uranium mining, and military programs, numerous sites contain or are contaminated with radioactivity. In the United States alone, the

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with Japan and the United States to build nuclear-waste facilities in Mongolia, Mongolia stopped all negotiations in September 2011. These negotiations had started after U.S. Deputy Secretary of Energy

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Spent nuclear fuel contains abundant fertile uranium and traces of fissile materials. Methods such as the PUREX process can be used to remove useful actinides for the production of active nuclear fuel.

2954:. It is more likely to contain alpha-emitting actinides such as Pu-239 which is a fissile material used in nuclear bombs, plus some material with much higher specific activities, such as Pu-238 or Po. 1892:. The incidence of radiation-induced mutations in humans is small, as in most mammals, because of natural cellular-repair mechanisms, many just now coming to light. These mechanisms range from DNA, 3765:

published a position paper in 2014 on the progress on approaches to the management of separated plutonium, which summarises the conclusions of the work that the NDA shared with the UK government.

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contains a small amount of radioactive uranium, barium, thorium, and potassium, but, in the case of pure coal, this is significantly less than the average concentration of those elements in the

11218: 3609:. Canada plans a 680 m deep facility near Lake Huron in Ontario. The Republic of Korea plans to open a site around 2028. The site in Sweden enjoys 80% support from local residents as of 2020. 5310: 3073:

are used. Many of these can be disposed of by leaving it to decay for a short time before disposal as normal waste. Other isotopes used in medicine, with half-lives in parentheses, include:

2912:. These isotopes are extremely difficult to separate, and more cost-effective ways of obtaining fissile material exist (e.g., uranium enrichment or dedicated plutonium production reactors). 6292: 4397:""Sea" means all marine waters other than the internal waters of States, as well as the seabed and the subsoil thereof; it does not include sub-seabed repositories accessed only from land." 3037:

designated as areas that are contaminated and unusable, sometimes many thousands of acres. The DOE wishes to clean or mitigate many or all by 2025, using the recently developed method of

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Intermediate-level waste (ILW) contains higher amounts of radioactivity compared to low-level waste. It generally requires shielding, but not cooling. Intermediate-level wastes includes

1825:). Since radioactive decay follows the half-life rule, the rate of decay is inversely proportional to the duration of decay. In other words, the radiation from a long-lived isotope like 6090: 5794: 4393:

Article 1 (Definitions), 7., of the 1996 Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, (the London Dumping Convention) states:

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but it contributes to less than 1% of volume of all radioactive waste produced in the UK. Overall, the 60-year-long nuclear program in the UK up until 2019 produced 2150 m of HLW.

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It is likely that the fissile material of an old nuclear bomb, which is due for refitting, will contain decay products of the plutonium isotopes used in it. These are likely to include

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consider up to 100 years as far as effective planning and cost evaluations are concerned. Long term behavior of radioactive wastes remains a subject for ongoing research projects in

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or other means to concentrate the radioactivity into a small volume. The much less radioactive bulk (after treatment) is often then discharged. For instance, it is possible to use a

3794:(half-life two million years) and Pu-239 (half-life 24,000 years). Nuclear waste requires sophisticated treatment and management to successfully isolate it from interacting with the 3969:

cylindrical containers ("cylinders") in a batch process. When cooled, the fluid solidifies ("vitrifies") into the glass. After being formed, the glass is highly resistant to water.

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type extraction process would be one possible method of making the separation. Naturally occurring uranium is not fissile because it contains 99.3% of U-238 and only 0.7% of U-235.

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naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) that can be concentrated as a result of the processing or consumption of coal, oil, and gas, and some minerals, as discussed below.

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is stored. A Blue Ribbon Commission was appointed by U.S. President Obama to look into future options for this and future waste. A deep geological repository seems to be favored.

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In 2010, it was estimated that about 250,000 t of nuclear HLW were stored globally. This does not include amounts that have escaped into the environment from accidents or tests.

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National Policy Analysis #396: The Separations Technology and Transmutation Systems (STATS) Report: Implications for Nuclear Power Growth and Energy Sufficiency – February 2002

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rid of this plutonium is to use it as a fuel in a traditional light-water reactors (LWR). Several fuel types with differing plutonium destruction efficiencies are under study.

2834:(SNF) composition, with varying activity curves. The most abundant material being U-238 with other uranium isotopes, other actinides, fission products and activation products. 10517: 6161: 5986: 4615:

The U.S. EPA's proposed standard for greater than 10,000 years is 250 times more permissive than the European limit. The U.S. EPA proposed a legal limit of a maximum of 3.5

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with half lives in the hundreds of thousands to millions of years. The minor actinides meanwhile are heavy elements other than uranium and plutonium which are created by

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they are particularly radiotoxic. While there are proposed – and to a much lesser extent current – uses of all those elements, commercial scale reprocessing using the

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visited Mongolia in September 2010. Talks took place in Washington, D.C. between officials of Japan, the United States, and Mongolia in February 2011. After this the

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Space disposal is attractive because it removes nuclear waste from the planet. It has significant disadvantages, such as the potential for catastrophic failure of a

3266: 11314: 8127: 7458: 5357: 7073:"Biosorption of Strontium from Simulated Nuclear Wastewater by Scenedesmus spinosus under Culture Conditions: Adsorption and Bioaccumulation Processes and Models" 5891: 5965: 3965:. The resulting glass is a new substance in which the waste products are bonded into the glass matrix when it solidifies. As a melt, this product is poured into 1980: 6064: 11204: 5636: 4412:

There have been proposals for reactors that consume nuclear waste and transmute it to other, less-harmful or shorter-lived, nuclear waste. In particular, the

11274: 10119: 9225: 8223: 7130: 3605:, which is planned to open in 2025 at 400–450 m depth. France is in the planning phase for a 500 m deep Cigeo facility in Bure. Sweden is planning a site in 3238:

TENORM is not regulated as restrictively as nuclear reactor waste, though there are no significant differences in the radiological risks of these materials.

1504: 1215:, which is harmful to humans and the environment. Different isotopes emit different types and levels of radiation, which last for different periods of time. 6649: 3490:

are transported by railway in the United Kingdom. Each flask is constructed of 14 in (360 mm) thick solid steel and weighs in excess of 50 tonnes.

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often contain radium and its decay products. The sulfate scale from an oil well can be radium rich, while the water, oil, and gas from a well often contain

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have not shown selectivity between calcium and strontium, often becoming saturated with calcium, which is present in greater quantities in nuclear waste.

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A summary of the amounts of radioactive waste and management approaches for most developed countries are presented and reviewed periodically as part of a

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Transuranic waste (TRUW) as defined by U.S. regulations is, without regard to form or origin, waste that is contaminated with alpha-emitting transuranic

8244: 8017: 1179:

are favored solutions for reducing the HLW inventory. Boundaries to recycling of spent nuclear fuel are regulatory and economic as well as the issue of

9941: 7902: 6898: 6479: 8173: 5843: 3414:

Although mill tailings are not very radioactive, they have long half-lives. Mill tailings often contain radium, thorium and trace amounts of uranium.

3290:. The radon decays to form solid radioisotopes which form coatings on the inside of pipework. In an oil processing plant, the area of the plant where 2760:

of used fuel. Used fuel contains the highly radioactive products of fission (see high-level waste below). Many of these are neutron absorbers, called

1097:

reprocessing. The storage and disposal of radioactive waste is regulated by government agencies in order to protect human health and the environment.

11319: 5388: 5148:

Plus radium (element 88). While actually a sub-actinide, it immediately precedes actinium (89) and follows a three-element gap of instability after

3041:, however the task can be difficult and it acknowledges that some may never be completely remediated. In just one of these 108 larger designations, 10822: 6234: 4635:

in such a volume, but the vicinity of the site would have a far higher concentration of artificial radioisotopes underground than such an average.

4466: 7546:"Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the 'do no significant harm' criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 ('Taxonomy Regulation')" 4826:

2007 ISO radioactivity danger symbol intended for IAEA Category 1, 2 and 3 sources defined as dangerous sources capable of death or serious injury

10967: 6819: 6126: 4832: 4381: 3593:

has over 90,000 t of HLW. HLW have been shipped to other countries to be stored or reprocessed and, in some cases, shipped back as active fuel.

11759: 8354: 8304: 8088: 6933: 4727: 3654: 971: 8439: 8108: 6350: 6082: 5692: 5371: 3449: 1844:

emitted by a radioactive substance are also important factors in determining its threat to humans. The chemical properties of the radioactive

11269: 9626: 9146: 6847: 6716: 6551: 6187: 4789:

Transportation accidents involving spent nuclear fuel from power plants are unlikely to have serious consequences due to the strength of the

4739: 4094:

and cryptomelane type minerals. The original form of Synroc (Synroc C) was designed for the liquid high-level waste (PUREX raffinate) from a

2853:. Th-232 is a fertile material that can undergo a neutron capture reaction and two beta minus decays, resulting in the production of fissile 1852:

humans. This is further complicated by the fact that many radioisotopes do not decay immediately to a stable state but rather to radioactive

7702: 7481: 5560: 4624: 11334: 11324: 11304: 9948: 9379: 8375: 7000: 6964: 5779: 4698:

paid the clan to get rid of 600 drums of toxic and radioactive waste from Italy, Switzerland, France, Germany, and the United States, with

3265:

rocks, but is more of a concern because a small amount of the fly ash ends up in the atmosphere where it can be inhaled. According to U.S.

8475: 7071:

Liu, Mingxue; Dong, Faqin; Kang, Wu; Sun, Shiyong; Wei, Hongfu; Zhang, Wei; Nie, Xiaoqin; Guo, Yuting; Huang, Ting; Liu, Yuanyuan (2014).

4988: 4163: 3554:. Spent fuel is highly radioactive and often hot. HLW accounts for over 95% of the total radioactivity produced in the process of nuclear 11396: 11341: 7649: 5109: 1973: 1049: 737: 8261: 6529:

Laboratory-scale vitrification and leaching of Hanford high-level waste for the purpose of simulant and glass property models validation

4553:

can run on U-238 and transuranic elements, which comprise the majority of spent fuel radioactivity in the 1,000–100,000-year time span.

11684: 11358: 9714: 8993: 6104: 5296: 5187:

Milsted, J.; Friedman, A. M.; Stevens, C. M. (1965). "The alpha half-life of berkelium-247; a new long-lived isomer of berkelium-248".

3866: 5497: 11564: 11541: 11461: 10217: 8035: 7545: 5240:" nuclides with half-lives significantly in excess of Th; e.g., while Cd has a half-life of only fourteen years, that of Cd is eight 4677: 4209:

capacity for strontium of S. spinosus, suggesting that it may be appropriate for use of nuclear wastewater. A study of the pond alga

1497: 11473: 10456: 6165: 5990: 4604:

developing in many countries... It is doubtful that reprocessing makes economic sense in the present environment of cheap uranium."

3231:, 0.005 mSv from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing, 0.005 mSv occupational exposure, 0.002 mSv from the 2973:. For reasons of national security, details of the design of modern nuclear bombs are normally not released to the open literature. 11402: 8508: 6851: 3197: 2550: 34: 7930: 7415: 6449: 3730:

1,000,000 mrem/h (10,000 mSv/h). The United States currently disposes of TRUW generated from military facilities at the

3297:

Radioactive elements are an industrial problem in some oil wells where workers operating in direct contact with the crude oil and

11601: 11294: 11249: 10667: 10507: 10446: 9255: 7942: 7858: 6800: 6744: 6210: 5756: 4711:, former members of the 'Ndrangheta have said that they were paid to sink ships with radioactive material for the last 20 years. 4609: 4586: 3784: 3597: 3192:

in 1993 to cumulatively amount to 2.9 Mt over the 1937–2040 period, from the combustion of an estimated 637 Gt of coal worldwide.

2790:

for three fuel types. In the case of MOX, the U-233 increases for the first 650 thousand years as it is produced by the decay of

10587: 7903:

National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Disposition of High-Level Radioactive Waste Through Geological Isolation (2001).

7780: 5715: 4656:(UAE), which wanted to buy nuclear fuel from Mongolia, joined in the negotiations. The talks were kept secret and, although the 11299: 11289: 10412: 4535: 3788: 1966: 6037: 5919:"Leaching study of heavy and radioactive elements present in wastes discarded by a uranium extraction and processing facility" 5590: 11196: 9641: 9156: 9003: 7914: 7682: 7308: 7291: 6432: 6300: 5103: 5043: 4808: 3359: 2977: 956: 6688:

Bohre, Ashish (2017). "Vitreous and Crystalline Phosphate High Level Waste Matrices: Present Status and Future Challenges".

6250: 5531: 4530:

them. Already, caesium-137, strontium-90 and a few other isotopes are extracted for certain industrial applications such as

11596: 11391: 10463: 9270: 8493: 5614: 3602: 1490: 230: 8521: 7762: 7448: 6764: 5418: 11184: 10380: 9926: 9891: 8124: 4880: 4681: 3850: 357: 277: 9013: 3562:

half-lives of approximately 30 years. Meanwhile, plutonium has a half-life that can stretch to as long as 24,000 years.

11574: 11569: 11424: 11329: 11264: 11078: 10662: 9336: 9331: 8402: 7938: 7746: 7643: 7501: 6905: 5895: 3294:

is processed is often one of the more contaminated areas of the plant as radon has a similar boiling point to propane.

3025: 1192: 951: 865: 307: 6876: 6061: 3494: 11590: 11559: 11419: 11348: 9742: 9621: 8988: 8591: 7731: 7523: 6334: 5265: 5071: 4387: 3980:

The glass inside a cylinder is usually a black glossy substance. All this work (in the United Kingdom) is done using

3762: 3758:

in Russia are also able to consume MOX fuel that is manufactured from recycled spent fuel from traditional reactors.

3688: 1947: 807: 712: 8278: 6268: 5633: 4325:

rejected UK central government proposals to start work on an underground storage dump for nuclear waste near to the

3322: 11451: 10972: 10837: 9372: 9250: 8531: 7122: 5255: 5002: 4790: 2924: 1896:

and protein repair, to internal lysosomic digestion of defective proteins, and even induced cell suicide—apoptosis

11728: 5241: 4538:. While re-use does not eliminate the need to manage radioisotopes, it can reduce the quantity of waste produced. 2857:. The SNF of a cycle with thorium will contain U-233. Its radioactive decay will strongly influence the long-term 2818:

Total activity for three fuel types. In region 1, there is radiation from short-lived nuclides, in region 2, from

1868:

Exposure to radioactive waste may cause health impacts due to ionizing radiation exposure. In humans, a dose of 1

11353: 10915: 10749: 10351: 10229: 9886: 9747: 9053: 9043: 8958: 8808: 8558: 7878: 6785: 6638: 2867: 2603:

is usually alpha-emitting waste from the extraction of uranium. It often contains radium and its decay products.

1042: 752: 515: 97: 2900:, which is highly suitable for building nuclear weapons, it contains large amounts of undesirable contaminants: 11651: 10905: 10754: 10212: 9151: 9028: 8983: 4087: 11489: 8236: 8202: 7256: 1876:

even for low doses. Ionizing radiation can cause deletions in chromosomes. If a developing organism such as a

1131:, the latter of which are a mixture of stable and quickly decaying (most likely already having decayed in the 11284: 10679: 10512: 9936: 9864: 9048: 9008: 8973: 8013: 7126: 5733: 5676: 5652: 4895: 4860: 4755: 4332: 3812: 3189: 3042: 987: 437: 17: 6909: 6474: 3318:, mining operations also result in production of waste and mineral deposits that are slightly radioactive. 2938:, the separated plutonium and uranium are contaminated by actinides and cannot be used for nuclear weapons. 11445: 11259: 11022: 10759: 10468: 10222: 9719: 9346: 9341: 9136: 9073: 9063: 8169: 5835: 5444: 3606: 2184: 2145: 2112: 2085: 525: 377: 352: 147: 6997:

Spent Fuel and High Level Waste: Chemical Durability and Performance under Simulated Repository Conditions

6841:"Public Health and Environmental Radiation Protection Standards for Yucca Mountain, Nevada; Proposed Rule" 3004: 3003:. The plutonium could be separated from the americium by several different processes; these would include 11379: 11172: 11085: 11057: 11014: 10979: 10817: 10644: 10582: 10407: 10311: 10197: 9665: 9365: 9260: 9230: 9083: 8978: 8968: 8963: 8813: 8631: 5396: 4493: 4438:

research on transmutation technologies needed to markedly reduce the problem of nuclear waste treatment.

4326: 4264: 3731: 3498:

Cross-section of an intermediate-level waste canister, showing (simulated) waste encapsulated in concrete

2946:

Waste from nuclear weapons decommissioning is unlikely to contain much beta or gamma activity other than

1144: 636: 387: 8170:

Strengthening the safety of radiation sources & the security of radioactive materials: timely action

7906:

Disposition of high-level waste and spent nuclear fuel: the continuing societal and technical challenges

7818: 2699:, highly enriched uranium from weapons stockpiles which is now being redirected to become reactor fuel. 1417: 1389: 11749: 11695: 11457: 11385: 11006: 10865: 10544: 10062: 10019: 9871: 9114: 9088: 9078: 9068: 9038: 9018: 8848: 5152:(84) where no nuclides have half-lives of at least four years (the longest-lived nuclide in the gap is 3831: 3482: 3372:

Uranium tailings are waste by-product materials left over from the rough processing of uranium-bearing

3216:), typically 17 milligrams in the body at a time and 0.4 milligrams/day intake. Most rocks, especially 2809: 2476: 2445: 2422: 2400: 2369: 1484: 1172: 1164: 1035: 392: 242: 7574: 6811: 6720: 6137: 11709: 11675: 11611: 11520: 11254: 11160: 10842: 10451: 10234: 9131: 9058: 9023: 8998: 8014:

Public Health and Environmental Radiation Protection Standards for Yucca Mountain, Nevada; Final Rule

6815: 6424: 5448: 4905: 4855: 4770: 4505: 4390:

and these vessels reactors must also be counted in the amount of radioactive waste deposited at sea.

3891: 3381: 2980:

using Pu-238 to provide a long-lasting source of electrical power for the electronics in the device.

1873: 1180: 767: 732: 692: 345: 312: 162: 8350: 8299: 8084: 6940: 5689: 5486: 1108:(HLW), which is highly radioactive and hot due to decay heat, thus requiring cooling and shielding. 11090: 10932: 10832: 10744: 9953: 9839: 9799: 9611: 8451: 8104: 6399: 6347: 4875: 3890:

In the United States, waste management policy broke down with the ending of work on the incomplete

3670: 3173: 1848:

will determine how mobile the substance is and how likely it is to spread into the environment and

762: 382: 317: 254: 8321: 6639:"Waste Form Release Calculations for the 2005 Integrated Disposal Facility Performance Assessment" 6558: 5087: 3514:

cladding, as well as contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. It may be solidified in

11636: 11626: 10995: 10962: 10937: 10551: 10328: 10134: 10057: 10014: 9997: 9958: 9881: 9173: 7710: 6127:"Nuclear Energy to 2030 and its Implications for Safety, Security and Nonproliferation: Overview" 5572: 4910: 4890: 4485: 4150:

will be fixed in the hollandite. A Synroc waste treatment facility began construction in 2018 at

3617: 3527:

term is used in Europe and elsewhere. ILW makes up 6% of all radioactive waste volume in the UK.

3388: 3257:

precisely because they do not burn well. The radioactivity of fly ash is about the same as black

2893: 2883: 1906:(how the body processes it and how quickly), the threat due to exposure to a given activity of a 1238: 1159:-process disposes of them as waste together with the fission products. The waste is subsequently 1128: 1086: 792: 747: 367: 10920: 8371: 7961: 7801: 6995: 6971: 3601:

justify the investment in the past. Finland is in the advanced stage of the construction of the

2696: 11754: 11631: 11432: 10827: 10114: 9658: 8883: 4984: 4566: 4477:

presently operating in the United States fleet while simultaneously generating approximately 1

4311: 4285:

of this disposal system, suggesting perpetual management and monitoring would be more prudent.

3841: 3666: 3555: 930: 417: 11226: 7668: 7633: 7587: 3811:

is a planned deep geological repository for the final disposal of spent nuclear fuel near the

2892:

materials, there are proliferation concerns. Ordinarily (in spent nuclear fuel), plutonium is

11121: 10857: 10812: 10274: 10202: 10129: 10124: 10089: 9876: 9844: 9631: 9558: 8683: 8663: 8258: 4865: 4668:

Mongolian president fired the individual who was supposedly involved in these conversations.

4664: 4632: 4591: 4413: 4407: 4343: 4282: 4273: 3961:

The 'calcine' generated is fed continuously into an induction heated furnace with fragmented

3747: 3109: 2935: 2879: 2021: 1834: 1538: 1263: 1224: 1176: 900: 742: 608: 520: 217: 7904: 6552:"Corrosion of nuclear waste glasses in non-saturated conditions: Time-Temperature behaviour" 5292: 5160:). Radium's longest lived isotope, at 1,600 years, thus merits the element's inclusion here. 3220:, have a low level of radioactivity due to the potassium-40, thorium and uranium contained. 11621: 11483: 11032: 10807: 10792: 10109: 10067: 9903: 9809: 9737: 9285: 9033: 8878: 8783: 8047: 7339: 7166: 6610: 5494: 5372:"Russia's Nuclear Fuel Cycle | Russian Nuclear Fuel Cycle - World Nuclear Association" 5196: 4900: 4653: 4517: 4364: 3925: 3876: 3662: 3283: 2757: 2708: 2630: 1943: 1329: 1112: 1070: 442: 175: 8063: 7222:

Yates, Marshall (July 6, 1989). "DOE waste management criticized: On-site storage urged".

5690:

Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash: Abundance, Forms, and Environmental Significance

4769:

Scavenging of abandoned radioactive material has been the cause of several other cases of

2676:. Some is used in applications where its extremely high density makes it valuable such as 8: 11606: 11131: 10942: 10727: 10321: 10189: 10167: 9992: 9849: 9616: 9578: 9411: 9245: 8833: 8753: 8698: 8596: 8583: 8551: 8536: 4885: 4474: 4418: 4340: 4251: 4095: 3989: 3547: 777: 722: 687: 613: 540: 490: 485: 470: 127: 11408: 8505: 8051: 7343: 7170: 6840: 6614: 6372: 5200: 4783: 4782:

example of an accident involving radioactive scrap originating from a hospital, see the

4292:

The proposed land-based subductive waste disposal method disposes of nuclear waste in a

3399:. Vast mounds of uranium mill tailings are left at many old mining sites, especially in 11514: 11477: 11414: 11111: 10847: 10684: 10611: 10422: 10072: 10042: 10026: 10009: 9653: 9543: 9491: 9441: 9388: 9315: 9290: 9235: 9141: 8930: 8900: 8616: 8469: 7946: 7355: 7251: 7192: 7099: 7072: 7048: 7021: 5237: 5224: 4543: 4000: 3746:

A future way to reduce waste accumulation is to phase out current reactors in favor of

3429: 3315: 3232: 3008: 2831: 2799: 2600: 2583: 2579: 1841: 1781:

Has decay energy 380 keV, but its decay product Sb has decay energy 3.67 MeV.

1212: 1116: 1090: 1011: 772: 648: 410: 192: 132: 102: 49: 8532:

Worries can't be buried as nuclear waste piles up, Los Angeles Times, January 21, 2008

7635:

Physics of societal issues: calculations on national security, environment, and energy

6741: 5918: 4690:

mafia clan accused of trafficking and illegally dumping nuclear waste. According to a

3775: 2930:

One solution to this problem is to recycle the plutonium and use it as a fuel e.g. in

11616: 11579: 10179: 9859: 9834: 9772: 9729: 9573: 9568: 9563: 9406: 9194: 9124: 9119: 9104: 8895: 8863: 8858: 8838: 8778: 8398: 7910: 7776: 7678: 7639: 7599: 7184: 7104: 7053: 6899:"Issues relating to safety standards on the geological disposal of radioactive waste" 6532: 6330: 6228: 5712: 5329: 5261: 5208: 5099: 5088:"The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection" 5067: 5039: 4774: 4259: 3633: 3376:. They are not significantly radioactive. Mill tailings are sometimes referred to as 2858: 1903: 1230: 1208: 660: 583: 576: 530: 187: 182: 92: 8145: 7524:"The State of the Science and Technology in Deep Borehole Disposal of Nuclear Waste" 7401: 7359: 4631:(10 million km) by approximately 1 part in 10 million over the cumulative amount of 30: 11502: 11027: 10082: 10047: 9804: 9794: 9682: 9670: 9511: 9506: 9496: 9486: 9481: 9178: 9109: 8950: 8920: 8910: 8868: 8843: 8823: 8818: 8658: 8626: 8621: 8601: 8575: 8055: 7674: 7347: 7196: 7174: 7157: 7094: 7084: 7043: 7033: 6697: 6618: 5586: 5204: 5059: 4925: 4763: 4657: 4531: 4446: 4377: 4227: 3857: 3836: 3613: 3543: 3536: 3353: 3250: 3154: 3066: 2916: 2803: 2692: 2657: 2638: 2036: 1900: 1845: 1833:. The two tables show some of the major radioisotopes, their half-lives, and their 1575: 1281: 1105: 1078: 1074: 920: 817: 757: 643: 596: 545: 505: 480: 465: 447: 422: 362: 247: 197: 7316: 7274: 5350:"Continuous Plutonium Recycling In India: Improvements in Reprocessing Technology" 4526:

Another option is to find applications for the isotopes in nuclear waste so as to

4489: 1175:

is a favored solution for long-term storage of high-level waste, while re-use and

10925: 10885: 10339: 10153: 10077: 10052: 9898: 9691: 9593: 9583: 9548: 9426: 9416: 9280: 9204: 8940: 8935: 8905: 8803: 8788: 8693: 8688: 8648: 8525: 8512: 8358: 8308: 8265: 8210: 8177: 8131: 8112: 8092: 8021: 7865: 7750: 7282: 7004: 6768: 6748: 6483: 6436: 6354: 6254: 6247: 6068: 5865: 5719: 5696: 5640: 5618: 5523: 5501: 5490: 5223:

This is the heaviest nuclide with a half-life of at least four years before the "

5174: 5170: 5033: 4703:

waste, including radioactive hospital waste, sending them to the sea bed off the

4550: 4504:

target causing fusion events yielding fast neutrons, or accelerating protons for

4231: 4067: 4040:

It is common for medium active wastes in the nuclear industry to be treated with

4012: 3966: 3870: 3807: 3507: 3440:

metal containers that are stacked in concrete vaults. A new site in the north of

3423: 3385: 3270: 2889: 2839: 2750: 2718: 2606: 2537: 2054: 2013: 1268: 1148: 1132: 1124: 1101: 1066: 705: 665: 535: 500: 432: 372: 300: 237: 137: 38: 10417: 8463: 8413: 8279:"How the U.S. betrayed the Marshall Islands, kindling the next nuclear disaster" 7844: 7449:"Cumbria sticks it to the nuclear dump lobby – despite all the carrots on offer" 5611: 1821:. Eventually, all radioactive waste decays into non-radioactive elements (i.e., 11733: 11641: 11508: 11467: 10880: 10875: 10870: 10620: 10527: 10496: 10478: 10002: 9908: 9854: 9819: 9752: 9699: 9553: 9446: 9431: 9421: 9326: 9199: 8873: 8853: 8763: 8723: 8611: 8544: 8518: 7962:"Wastes on the Sun? – System of disposal nuclear and high toxic wastes. Design" 6701: 5422: 5009:. Berkeley, California: University of California. 28 March 2011. Archived from 4759: 4687: 4649: 4574: 4562: 4470: 4442: 4430: 4322: 4301: 4277: 4185: 4170: 3755: 3428:

Low-level waste (LLW) is generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the

3201: 3095: 3070: 2958: 2761: 2756:

It is important to distinguish the processing of uranium to make fuel from the

2726: 2557: 2045: 2028: 1889: 1822: 1795: 1094: 1023: 827: 727: 682: 675: 670: 427: 122: 10900: 8059: 7351: 6623: 6598: 6428: 6348:'Shoot it at the sun. Send it to Earth's core. What to do with nuclear waste?' 6012: 4465:

found that only 2 or 3 fusion reactors with parameters similar to that of the

3577: 3364: 3269:(NCRP) reports, population exposure from 1000-MWe power plants amounts to 490 11743: 11721: 11065: 10356: 9762: 9603: 9310: 9265: 8925: 8673: 7603: 6883:(Summer 2006). Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. Archived from 4961:"The Geological Society of London – Geological Disposal of Radioactive Waste" 4746: 4691: 4628: 4369: 4300:

Another approach termed Remix & Return would blend high-level waste with

4060: 3938: 3590: 3523: 3487: 3185: 3137: 3119: 3058: 3054: 3029: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2680: 2589: 1931: 1853: 1769: 1744: 1690: 1586: 1305: 1204: 1160: 1082: 1006: 842: 332: 327: 322: 80: 8476:

International Atomic Energy Agency – Internet Directory of Nuclear Resources

8085:

Mongolia abandons nuclear waste storage plans, and informs Japan of decision

7743: 7509: 7089: 4015:. The amount of fission products in the glass must be limited because some ( 3581:

The current locations across the United States where nuclear waste is stored

3161:

while neutron emitting sources are used in a range of applications, such as

1465: 1356: 11584: 11530: 11525: 10631: 9767: 9709: 9636: 9588: 9458: 9209: 8915: 8793: 8773: 8718: 8458:

Critical Hour: Three Mile Island, The Nuclear Legacy, And National Security

7688: 7653: 7453: 7420: 7188: 7108: 7057: 6884: 6761: 5137:

Molecular mechanisms of mammalian DNA repair and the DNA damage checkpoints

4915: 4838:

The dangerous goods transport classification sign for radioactive materials

4695: 4616: 4496:

to generate high-energy and low-duration laser pulses either to accelerate

4189: 4070:, instead of normal concrete (made with portland cement, gravel and sand). 4051: 4041: 4008: 3751: 3702: 3551: 3511: 3224: 3213: 2931: 2846: 2749:(half-life of 898 years for californium-251). These isotopes are formed in 1907: 1881: 1810: 1668: 1543: 1454: 1372: 1345: 1294: 1274: 1136: 875: 837: 822: 653: 618: 563: 282: 142: 11228:

Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites

8105:

From cocaine to plutonium: mafia clan accused of trafficking nuclear waste

7531: 5571:(3–4). Oak Ridge, Tennessee: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Archived from 4184:

has shown selectivity for strontium in studies, where most plants used in

2613:) concentrate from mining is a thousand or so times as radioactive as the 11656: 11042: 10689: 10279: 9786: 9757: 9240: 8890: 8728: 8643: 8606: 8012:

U.S. Federal Register. 40 CFR Part 197. Environmental Protection Agency.

7151:

Tracy, Cameron L.; Dustin, Megan K.; Ewing, Rodney C. (13 January 2016).

7038: 6404: 6400:"The ominous underbelly of Finland's pioneering nuclear-waste repository" 4920: 4719: 4708: 4570: 4434: 4304:

and mill tailings down to the level of the original radioactivity of the

4206: 4197: 4115: 3954: 3827:

Several methods of disposal of radioactive waste have been investigated:

3589:

is estimated to hold 17,000 t of HLW in storage in 2015. As of 2019, the

3158: 3131: 3105: 3087: 2854: 2787: 2766: 2746: 2730: 2661: 2642: 2017: 1997: 1935: 1919: 1857: 1849: 1765: 1646: 1627: 1403: 1152: 1140: 797: 495: 475: 112: 8499: 7732:

Review of the SONIC Proposal to Dump High-Level Nuclear Waste at Piketon

6742:

Removal of Silicon from High Level Waste Streams via Ferric Flocculation

5632:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation.

5271: 5066:. San Diego, California: Academic Press Incorporated. pp. 325–327. 5010: 11646: 10395: 9295: 8653: 8638: 7777:"Department of Nuclear Engineering: Reports to the President 2000–2001" 6799: 6211:"Sweden / 'More Than 80%' Approve Of SKB's Spent Fuel Repository Plans" 4778: 4750: 4433:(EU). This has resulted in a practical nuclear research reactor called 4373: 4293: 4211: 4127: 4099: 4091: 4083: 3942: 3930: 3895: 3735: 3404: 3228: 3150: 3038: 2842:

is fueled with, the actinide composition in the SNF will be different.

2782: 2618: 1915: 1911: 1830: 1826: 1712: 1550: 1321: 1287: 847: 603: 107: 8494:

Nuclear Regulatory Commission – Spent Fuel Heat Generation Calculation

8457: 7882: 6536: 6188:"Presidential Commission Seeks Volunteers to Store U.S. Nuclear Waste" 5260:. La Grange Park, Illinois: American Nuclear Society. pp. 52–57. 3310:

Due to natural occurrence of radioactive elements such as thorium and

11438: 11037: 10400: 10390: 9518: 9471: 9436: 9357: 9275: 8828: 8567: 6475:

Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future: Executive Summary

6209:

Belgium, Central Office, NucNet a s b l, Brussels (23 January 2018).

5153: 4497: 4454: 4305: 4235: 4192:

with a half life around 30 years, is classified as high-level waste.

4139: 4135: 4048: 4020: 4016: 3985: 3946: 3905: 3795: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3262: 3209: 3101: 3062: 2962: 2951: 2770: 2684: 2677: 2645:

content from 0.7% to about 4.4% (LEU). It is then turned into a hard

2002: 1814: 1791: 1752: 1561: 915: 870: 832: 782: 717: 623: 87: 57: 10895: 7502:"Disposal of High-Level Nuclear Waste in Deep Horizontal Drillholes" 7400:

American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2007, abstract #V33A-1161.

7330:

Sevior, M. (2006). "Considerations for nuclear power in Australia".

7179: 7152: 5830: 5828: 5826: 2830:

The use of different fuels in nuclear reactors results in different

2794:

which was created in the reactor by absorption of neutrons by U-235.

11309: 11126: 10769: 10764: 10704: 10373: 10301: 10284: 10269: 10244: 9987: 9476: 8798: 8758: 8678: 7553: 6970:. International Atomic Energy Agency. November 2002. Archived from 5149: 5139:. Washington, D.C.: National Institutes of Health PubMed.gov, 2004. 4715: 4704: 4644: 4620: 4596: 4478: 4255:

Diagram of an underground low-level radioactive waste disposal site

3981: 3816: 3570: 3515: 3445: 3441: 3400: 3162: 3081: 2966: 2863: 2722: 2714: 1993: 1748: 1520: 1432: 1247: 1120: 287: 8351:

Gov't admits nuclear substances found in waste, unreported to IAEA

6010: 5734:"The Syrian Job: Uncovering the Oil Industry's Radioactive Secret" 5656: 4960: 4508:, with either method intended for transmutation of nuclear waste. 3779:

Modern medium- to high-level transport container for nuclear waste

2664:

isotope, with a U-235 content of ~0.3%. It is stored, either as UF

1872:

carries a 5.5% risk of developing cancer, and regulatory agencies

1829:

will be much less intense than that of a short-lived isotope like

1809:

The radioactivity of all radioactive waste weakens with time. All

1203:

A quantity of radioactive waste typically consists of a number of

11716: 11095: 11047: 10910: 10890: 10289: 10264: 9704: 9535: 9523: 9501: 9466: 8768: 8487: 8446:

Euridice European Interest Group in charge of Hades URL operation

8237:"'It feels like a sci-fi film' – accidents tarnish nuclear dream" 7309:"Remix & Return: A Complete Low-Level Nuclear Waste Solution" 7077:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

5823: 5311:"Recycling spent nuclear fuel: the ultimate solution for the US?" 4850: 4723: 4699: 4501: 4458: 4450: 4319: 4147: 4056: 3973: 3901: 3820: 3519: 3433: 3396: 3291: 3254: 3217: 3205: 3182: 3178: 3115: 3091: 3077: 3065:

emitters. It can be divided into two main classes. In diagnostic

2947: 2850: 2814: 2646: 2614: 2544: 1927: 1923: 1869: 1818: 1605: 67: 8738: 6939:. International Atomic Energy Agency. 2000-03-28. Archived from 5452: 4215:

using non-radioactive strontium found that varying the ratio of

3624:

high-level radioactive waste storage site in the United States.

3384:

that defines them. Uranium mill tailings typically also contain

1151:. Their half lives range from years to millions of years and as 10699: 10694: 10674: 10654: 10639: 10522: 10259: 10239: 10207: 8713: 8668: 7486: 4930: 4527: 4216: 4205:) in simulated wastewater. The study claims a highly selective 4195:

Researchers have looked at the bioaccumulation of strontium by

4143: 4079: 4045: 3996: 3909: 3873:

to convert the unstable atoms to those with shorter half-lives.

3709:

greater than 20 years and concentrations greater than 100

3311: 3208:

and thorium. The main source of radiation in the human body is

3125: 2996: 2992: 2970: 2823: 2791: 2777: 1939: 1885: 1817:—the time it takes for half of the atoms to decay into another 925: 905: 812: 802: 510: 8470:

Grist.org – How to tell future generations about nuclear waste

6527:

Morrey, E. V.; Elliott, M. L.; Tingey, J. M. (February 1993),

4643:

After serious opposition about plans and negotiations between

4441:

There have also been theoretical studies involving the use of

3128:, used for brachytherapy and external radiotherapy (5.3 years) 2745:(432 years), and even sometimes some neutron emitters such as 1073:. Radioactive waste is a result of many activities, including 11116: 11073: 10736: 10592: 10385: 10249: 8708: 8571: 6514:

Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separation and Transmutation

6293:"Progress on approaches to management of separated plutonium" 5495:

Department of Energy Five Year Plan FY 2007-FY 2011 Volume II

5445:"A Perspective on the Proliferation Risks of Plutonium Mines" 5126:. San Francisco, California: Sierra Club Books, 1981, p. 787. 4595:

Anti-nuclear protest near a nuclear waste disposal centre at

4239: 4202: 4181: 4164:

Economics of nuclear power plants § Waste disposal costs

4151: 4004: 3962: 3950: 3880: 3653:

deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a

3586: 3566: 3503: 3437: 3298: 3287: 3258: 3134:, used for brachytherapy and external radiotherapy (30 years) 3012: 2984: 2819: 2560:(thermal neutron capture cross section greater than 3k barns) 1877: 1156: 935: 880: 272: 8372:"New Symbol Launched to Warn Public About Radiation Dangers" 6162:"Radioactive Waste Management | Nuclear Waste Disposal" 6062:

Where do you put 250,000 tonnes of nuclear waste? (Wired UK)

5293:"Global Defence News and Defence Headlines – IHS Jane's 360" 5035:

Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry

4718:

of illegally dumping nuclear waste in the southern parts of

4421:

to the transmutation of the left-over transuranic elements.

1884:

may be induced, but it is unlikely this defect will be in a

11495: 10597: 10486: 10296: 10254: 7819:"Nobel Prize Winner Could Have a Solution to Nuclear Waste" 5942:

Rogner, H. (2010). "Nuclear Power and Stable Development".

4063: 3886:

Disposal in outer space – not implemented as too expensive.

3801: 3726: 3408: 3392: 3246: 3168: 3033: 3000: 2688: 2007: 1934:, is rapidly excreted through urine. In a similar way, the 1893: 1257: 1100:

Radioactive waste is broadly classified into 3 categories:

910: 157: 152: 117: 8566: 8445: 8393:

Vandenbosch, Robert & Vandenbosch, Susanne E. (2007).

6581: 6269:"MOX Nuclear Fuel Loaded in Russian Reactor, More to Come" 6083:"Japan's 17,000 Tons of Nuclear Waste in Search of a Home" 5713:

Survey & Identification of NORM Contaminated Equipment

5587:"TENORM Sources | Radiation Protection | US EPA" 3894:. At present there are 70 nuclear power plant sites where 3565:

The amount of HLW worldwide is increasing by about 12,000

3302:

of regardless of radioactive or toxic substances content.

10570: 10434: 7763:

Global Nuclear Energy Partnership Statement of Principles

6511: 6377: 5483: 5416: 4462: 4376:

zone that would slowly carry the waste downward into the

3373: 3267:

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

3196:

Substances containing natural radioactivity are known as

8183: 7482:"Can We Drill a Hole Deep Enough for Our Nuclear Waste?" 7153:"Policy: Reassess New Mexico's nuclear-waste repository" 6965:"Decommissioning costs of WWER-440 nuclear power plants" 6875:

Peterson, Per; Kastenberg, William; Corradini, Michael.

3140:, product of the decay of Technetium-99m (221,000 years) 1837:

as a proportion of the yield of fission of uranium-235.

8452:

Ondraf/Niras, the waste management authority in Belgium

8036:"Perspectives on the High Level Waste Disposal Problem" 7845:"How Lasers Could Solve a Global Nuclear Waste Problem" 6874: 6011:

US Environmental Protection Agency, OLEM (2014-12-11).

5634:

Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, UNSCEAR 2008

5003:"What about Iodine-129 – Half-Life is 15 Million Years" 4445:

as so-called "actinide burners" where a fusion reactor

4429:

energy demand, work on the method has continued in the

3883:

process allows for reuse of some radioactive materials.

1207:, which are unstable isotopes of elements that undergo 7802:"Nobel Lecture: Extreme Light Physics and Application" 7123:"Fact Sheet on Dry Cask Storage of Spent Nuclear Fuel" 6677:. Cologne, Germany: Energiewirtschaftlichen Instituts. 6164:. World Nuclear Association. July 2015. Archived from 5989:. World Nuclear Association. July 2015. Archived from 5186: 4814:

The trefoil symbol used to indicate ionizing radiation

4694:, a manager of the Italy state energy research agency 4219:

to strontium in water improved strontium selectivity.

3323:

Rare-earth_element § Environmental_considerations

2826:, and on the far right, the decay of Np-237 and U-233. 1942:

are considered very harmful as they tend to have long

11693: 7965: 6934:"IAEA Waste Management Database: Report 3 – L/ILW-LL" 2713:

The back-end of the nuclear fuel cycle, mostly spent

7859:

Nuclear By-Products : A Resource for the Future

7588:"Ocean disposal of radioactive waste: Status report" 7022:"Hazardous waste: Pond algae sequester strontium-90" 6648:. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. July 2005. 6599:"Glassy Wasteforms for Nuclear Waste Immobilization" 5703:

FS-163-1997, October 1997. Retrieved September 2007.

5007:

Berkeley Radiological Air and Water Monitoring Forum

4871:

Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents

4134:). The zirconolite and perovskite are hosts for the 3988:

chemistry and to stop the formation of the volatile

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New York: Wiley-VCH. pp. 2–15, 468, 474. 4467:International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor 1874:assume the risk is linearly proportional to dose 8289: 7996: 7994: 7667:Shipman, J. T.; Wison, J. D.; Todd, A. (2007). 7652:from the original on 24 April 2016 – via 7250:Center for Public Policy & Administration, 6690:Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 6497:An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation 6327:An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation 6124: 5442: 5257:The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Analysis and Management 4263:On Feb. 14, 2014, radioactive materials at the 3750:, which output less waste per power generated. 3069:a number of short-lived gamma emitters such as 2915:High-level waste is full of highly radioactive 2522: 2517: 2510: 2489: 2482: 2470: 2461: 2341: 2336: 2322: 11474:Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll 8414:"The Plutonium Challenge-Environmental Issues" 8314: 7753:. Nationalcenter.org. 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Berlin, Germany: Springer. p. 187. 7446: 7413: 7374:"Thorium Resources In Rare Earth Elements" 6603:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 6507: 6505: 6215:The Independent Global Nuclear News Agency 5962:"Myths and Realities of Radioactive Waste" 5892:"Iron boxes for ILW transport and storage" 5795:"Geological Disposal of Radioactive Waste" 5754: 5628: 5626: 5513:American Scientist, January/February 2007. 5466: 5173:fission of uranium-235, e.g. in a typical 4612:for the first 10,000 years after closure. 4055:forms, they may be made from a mixture of 3945:, the high-level waste (PUREX first cycle 3204:-emitting matter from the decay chains of 2965:and a high activity alpha emitter such as 1981: 1967: 1505: 1491: 1198: 1050: 1036: 66: 11565:Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack 11542:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 11462:Three Mile Island accident health effects 8440:Alsos Digital Library – Radioactive Waste 7909:. National Academies Press. p. 122. 7881:. 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Archived from 7240: 7178: 7098: 7088: 7047: 7037: 7015: 7013: 6622: 6596: 5342: 4686:Authorities in Italy are investigating a 4469:(ITER) could transmute the entire annual 3689:Learn how and when to remove this message 2873: 2653:) for assembly as reactor fuel elements. 1423: 11560:International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) 11403:Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident 10735: 8322:"Transportation of Radioactive Material" 6115: 5417:World Nuclear Association (March 2009). 4590: 4258: 4250: 4222: 3924: 3800: 3774: 3576: 3493: 3481: 3363: 3172: 3169:Naturally occurring radioactive material 2845:An example of this effect is the use of 2813: 2781: 2721:that emit beta and gamma radiation, and 2551:naturally occurring radioactive material 2540:cross section in the range of 8–50 barns 1394: 1119:is recycled back into uranium-based and 35:Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology 29: 11602:International Day against Nuclear Tests 11250:Crimes involving radioactive substances 9256:High-level radioactive waste management 8143: 6801:United States National Research Council 6584:The Economics of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle 6502: 6208: 6071:. 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The 4026: 3856:Disposal in ice sheets – rejected in 3598:high-level radioactive waste disposal 3360:Uranium Mill Tailings Remedial Action 2978:radioisotope thermoelectric generator 2733:(half-life 245 thousand years), 2656:The main by-product of enrichment is 2573: 2503: 2222: 11597:History of the anti-nuclear movement 11179: 10152: 9271:Sewage regulation and administration 8301:The radiological accident in Goiânia 8298:International Atomic Energy Agency, 8224:New incident at French nuclear plant 7428:from the original on 22 October 2013 6994:International Atomic Energy Agency, 6495:Ojovan, M. I. and Lee, W. E. (2005) 6329:, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 6325:Ojovan, M. I. and Lee, W. E. 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IAEA, Vienna, Austria (1994). 5773: 5755:Margonelli, Lisa (2009-05-01). 5748: 5732:Nobel, Justin (29 April 2020). 5725: 5706: 5682: 5670: 5645: 5604: 5593:from the original on 2013-05-20 5579: 5534:from the original on 2009-06-27 5516: 5507: 5436: 5410: 5364: 5303: 5285: 5247: 5230: 5217: 5180: 5163: 5142: 5129: 5116: 4801:Associated hazard warning signs 4035: 3847:Rock melting – not implemented. 3368:Removal of very low-level waste 3343:<1% – high-level waste (HLW) 3018: 2942:Nuclear weapons decommissioning 2936:pyrometallurgical fast reactors 1946:and their radiation has a high 1840:The energy and the type of the 98:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 10833:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 9715:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 7857:Milton, R. (January 17, 1978) 7632:Hafemeister, David W. (2007). 7508:. May 29, 2019. Archived from 6773:Nuclear Issues Briefing Paper, 6740:Wilmarth, W. R. et al. 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(2000). 7879:"酵素でプチ断食｜成功させる秘訣は代替ドリンクにあった！" 6371:Black, Richard (2006-04-27). 4937: 4896:Personal protective equipment 4861:Human Interference Task Force 4333:Horizontal drillhole disposal 3813:Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant 3770: 3741: 3596:The ongoing controversy over 3380:, from the section of the US 3043:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 2976:Some designs might contain a 438:Electrical resistance heating 11446:Andreev Bay nuclear accident 11433:Chazhma Bay nuclear accident 11023:Field-reversed configuration 10633:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 7243:"Utah Nuclear Waste Summary" 7224:Public Utilities Fortnightly 6908:. 2001-06-22. Archived from 6346:Brown, Paul (14 April 2004) 6299:. 2014-01-20. Archived from 6267:Larson, Aaron (2020-01-28). 6081:Humber, Yuriy (2015-07-10). 6060:Geere, Duncan. (2010-09-20) 5679:. uic.com.au (November 2006) 5655:. Tenorm.com. Archived from 5209:10.1016/0029-5582(65)90719-4 5064:Applied Groundwater Modeling 5062:; Woessner, William (1992). 4733: 4481:of power from each reactor. 4272:a tunnel, or use large-bore 2737:(2.144 million years), 2594: 2505:... nor beyond 15.7 Ma 1743:Decay energy is split among 148:Persistent organic pollutant 72:Air pollution from a factory 7: 11380:Nyonoksa radiation accident 10980:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 10165: 9927:States with nuclear weapons 9261:History of waste management 7703:"Dumping and Loss overview" 6775:21. Retrieved January 2009. 6760:World Nuclear Association, 4843: 4638: 4494:chirped pulse amplification 4473:production from all of the 4461:in the reactor. A study at 4327:Lake District National Park 4265:Waste Isolation Pilot Plant 3732:Waste Isolation Pilot Plant 3665:, discuss the issue on the 3337:94% – low-level waste (LLW) 3144: 3048: 2702: 2224:No fission products have a 1957: 1910:will differ. For instance, 1485:Long-lived fission products 1145:long-lived fission products 10: 11776: 11652:Russell–Einstein Manifesto 11575:Films about nuclear issues 11570:Books about nuclear issues 11458:Three Mile Island accident 11386:Fukushima nuclear accident 11265:Military nuclear accidents 11260:Nuclear meltdown accidents 10993: 10818:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 9942:Tests in the United States 8849:fluorescent lamp recycling 8034:Cohen, Bernard L. (1998). 7621:. Interscience Publishers. 7619:Electrochemistry of Oxygen 6702:10.1016/j.jiec.2017.01.032 5504:." Retrieved 8 April 2007. 5124:Radiation and human health 4737: 4675: 4584: 4515: 4405: 4161: 3832:Deep geological repository 3782: 3631: 3534: 3421: 3357: 3351: 3320: 2877: 2810:Long-lived fission product 2807: 2797: 2706: 2637:). As a gas, it undergoes 2587: 2577: 1953: 1228: 1222: 1218: 1173:deep geological repository 1165:deep geological repository 11665: 11612:Nuclear-Free Future Award 11550: 11521:Totskoye nuclear exercise 11367: 11349:Sunken nuclear submarines 11234: 11148: 11104: 11056: 11013: 11003: 10955: 10943:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 10856: 10838:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 10803: 10786: 10726: 10653: 10645:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 10619: 10610: 10562: 10542: 10495: 10477: 10433: 10338: 10320: 10188: 10175: 10160: 10147: 10102: 10035: 9980: 9971: 9919: 9827: 9818: 9785: 9728: 9690: 9681: 9602: 9534: 9457: 9399: 9395: 9304: 9218: 9187: 9097: 8949: 8746: 8735: 8582: 8134:, AFP, September 14, 2009 8060:10.1179/isr.1998.23.3.193 7960:Cherkashin, Yuri (2004). 7707:Oceans in the Nuclear Age 7352:10.1080/00207230601047255 6816:American Physical Society 6624:10.1007/s11661-010-0525-7 6425:World Nuclear Association 5677:Cosmic origins of Uranium 5449:Nuclear Control Institute 4906:Radioactive contamination 4856:Environmental remediation 4581:National management plans 4511: 4073: 3892:Yucca Mountain Repository 3382:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 2532: 2012: 2001: 1992: 1960: 1733: 1181:radioactive contamination 693:War and environmental law 313:Health effects from noise 163:Volatile organic compound 41:radioactive waste barrels 10848:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 10464:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 9800:Electron-beam processing 9231:China's waste import ban 8442:(annotated bibliography) 6125:Findlay, Trevor (2010). 5688:U.S. Geological Survey, 5610:Idaho State University. 5393:www.radioactivity.eu.com 5254:Cochran, Robert (1999). 5094:. ICRP publication 103. 4876:Material unaccounted for 3620:, is currently the only 3478:Intermediate-level waste 2695:(MOX) and to dilute, or 1796:readily absorbs neutrons 318:Marine mammals and sonar 11627:Nuclear power phase-out 10963:Organic nuclear reactor 10135:Nuclear power phase-out 10058:Nuclear decommissioning 9998:Reactor-grade plutonium 9748:Targeted alpha-particle 9627:Accidents and incidents 8592:Agricultural wastewater 8395:Nuclear waste stalemate 8347:The Mainichi Daily News 8268:. Retrieved March 2009. 8226:. Retrieved March 2009. 7090:10.3390/ijerph110606099 7026:Environ Health Perspect 6715:Brünglinghaus, Marion. 6439:, retrieved 2011-11-14. 5612:Radioactivity in Nature 5589:. Epa.gov. 2006-06-28. 4911:Radioactive scrap metal 4891:Nuclear decommissioning 4577:, and other proposals. 4486:Nobel Prize for Physics 4007:), while in the former 3819:, on the west coast of 3618:Grundy County, Illinois 3241: 3223:Usually ranging from 1 2894:reactor-grade plutonium 2884:Reactor-grade plutonium 1938:emitting actinides and 1199:Nature and significance 1121:mixed-oxide (MOX) fuels 1087:nuclear decommissioning 793:Freshwater salinization 713:Agricultural wastewater 11632:Nuclear weapons debate 9316:Environment portal 8994:Bosnia and Herzegovina 8884:water recycling shower 7943:Yucca Mountain Project 7775:Freidberg, Jeffrey P. 7586:Calmet, D. P. (1989). 7020:Potera, Carol (2011). 6790:, Retrieved March 2021 6303:on September 15, 2014. 5866:"NRC: Low-Level Waste" 5802:The Geological Society 5653:"Regulation of TENORM" 5559:Gabbard, Alex (1993). 5315:Nuclear Energy Insider 4985:"The Joint Convention" 4726:were in power between 4600: 4567:non-rocket spacelaunch 4353: 4312:Deep borehole disposal 4274:tunnel boring machines 4268: 4256: 4212:Closterium moniliferum 4090:. The Synroc contains 4011:it is normal to use a 3933: 3842:Deep borehole disposal 3824: 3780: 3748:Generation IV reactors 3582: 3556:electricity generation 3499: 3491: 3369: 3193: 2874:Proliferation concerns 2827: 2795: 2741:(87.7 years) and 2660:(DU), principally the 1012:Environment portal 42: 11490:K-19 nuclear accident 11285:Nuclear weapons tests 10125:Anti-nuclear movement 8684:Municipal solid waste 8664:Industrial wastewater 8515:(documents and links) 8349:(December 15, 2011), 7617:Hoare, J. P. (1968). 7534:on February 20, 2020. 7512:on February 24, 2020. 5032:Attix, Frank (1986). 4866:List of global issues 4665:Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj 4633:natural radioisotopes 4594: 4414:integral fast reactor 4408:Nuclear transmutation 4348: 4344:Joint Research Centre 4283:stewardship cessation 4262: 4254: 4223:Above-ground disposal 3928: 3867:Nuclear transmutation 3804: 3778: 3580: 3574:nuclear power plant. 3497: 3485: 3367: 3176: 3110:intravenous injection 2880:Nuclear proliferation 2817: 2785: 2629:), then converted to 2549:№, primarily a 2536:₡, has thermal 1944:biological half-lives 1225:Fission product yield 1123:. The residual 4% is 1115:plants, about 96% of 753:Industrial wastewater 521:Municipal solid waste 443:Soil guideline values 33: 11622:Nuclear power debate 11484:Cuban Missile Crisis 11335:in the United States 11033:Reversed field pinch 10828:Traveling-wave (TWR) 10312:Supercritical (SCWR) 9810:Gemstone irradiation 8879:water heat recycling 8784:Garden waste dumping 7939:Department of Energy 7390:on 18 December 2012. 7262:on 16 December 2008. 7039:10.1289/ehp.119-a244 5575:on February 5, 2007. 4901:Radiation protection 4654:United Arab Emirates 4518:Nuclear reprocessing 4475:light-water reactors 4419:subcritical reactors 4365:Ocean floor disposal 4356:Ocean floor disposal 4198:Scenedesmus spinosus 4158:Long-term management 3877:Nuclear reprocessing 3671:create a new article 3663:improve this article 3548:transuranic elements 3468:Greater Than Class C 3386:chemically hazardous 3284:oil and gas industry 3104:, used for treating 3080:, used for treating 3026:Department of Energy 2838:Depending on what a 2709:Nuclear reprocessing 2631:uranium hexafluoride 1888:or a gamete-forming 1113:nuclear reprocessing 1071:radioactive material 962:Most polluted cities 614:Overhead power lines 11607:Nuclear close calls 10198:Aqueous homogeneous 9993:Reprocessed uranium 9666:Safety and security 9246:Eco-industrial park 8834:appliance recycling 8754:Anaerobic digestion 8699:Post-consumer waste 8597:Biodegradable waste 8052:1998ISRv...23..193C 7457:. London, England. 7424:. London, England. 7344:2006IJEnS..63..859S 7171:2016Natur.529..149T 6615:2011MMTA...42..837O 6192:Scientific American 6042:Scientific American 6036:Hvistendahl, Mara. 5722:. enprotec-inc.com. 5201:1965NucPh..71..299M 4886:Microbial corrosion 4659:Mainichi Daily News 4599:in northern Germany 4492:has proposed using 4341:European Commission 4281:with the immediate 4096:light-water reactor 3953:and then calcined. 1794:, its predecessor, 1513: 1241: 778:Ocean acidification 688:Unexploded ordnance 609:Advertising clutter 541:Post-consumer waste 486:Foam food container 471:Biodegradable waste 128:Global distillation 11710:Nuclear technology 11515:Operation Plumbbob 11478:Operation Fishbowl 11415:Chernobyl disaster 11112:Dense plasma focus 10027:Actinide chemistry 9492:Isotope separation 9389:Nuclear technology 9291:Waste minimisation 9236:Cleaner production 8901:Reusable packaging 8814:Mechanical sorting 8617:Construction waste 8524:2010-06-11 at the 8511:2008-12-23 at the 8500:Radwaste Solutions 8418:Los Alamos Science 8357:2011-12-15 at the 8328:. 30 November 2018 8307:2011-01-20 at the 8264:2009-04-02 at the 8209:2010-05-28 at the 8176:2009-03-26 at the 8130:2009-09-29 at the 8111:2016-12-28 at the 8091:2011-10-18 at the 8020:2011-02-02 at the 7864:2015-12-22 at the 7749:2008-02-17 at the 7252:University of Utah 7003:2008-12-16 at the 6767:2008-12-21 at the 6747:2006-06-29 at the 6717:"Waste processing" 6482:2015-11-28 at the 6435:2012-02-20 at the 6353:2017-03-21 at the 6253:2006-05-17 at the 6067:2016-05-22 at the 5718:2006-02-20 at the 5695:2005-11-24 at the 5639:2012-05-03 at the 5617:2015-02-05 at the 5500:2007-07-05 at the 5489:2007-03-19 at the 5238:classically stable 5225:sea of instability 5169:Specifically from 5092:Annals of the ICRP 4965:www.geolsoc.org.uk 4775:developing nations 4771:radiation exposure 4601: 4544:unconventional oil 4506:neutron spallation 4269: 4257: 4027:Phosphate ceramics 4001:borosilicate glass 3934: 3844:– not implemented. 3825: 3781: 3583: 3500: 3492: 3430:nuclear fuel cycle 3370: 3282:Residues from the 3233:Chernobyl disaster 3194: 3177:Annual release of 3009:solvent extraction 2991:The beta decay of 2832:spent nuclear fuel 2828: 2800:Spent nuclear fuel 2796: 2683:, and on at least 2601:nuclear fuel cycle 2584:Spent nuclear fuel 2580:Nuclear fuel cycle 2574:Nuclear fuel cycle 2113:> 9 a 1930:-137 which, being 1842:ionizing radiation 1482: 1235: 1213:ionizing radiation 1143:and finally seven 1117:spent nuclear fuel 1024:Ecology portal 649:Herbicidal warfare 193:Introduced species 133:Indoor air quality 103:Chlorofluorocarbon 43: 11750:Radioactive waste 11691: 11690: 11617:Nuclear-free zone 11580:Anti-war movement 11536:Rocky Flats Plant 11194: 11193: 11144: 11143: 11140: 11139: 11091:Magnetized-target 10988: 10987: 10951: 10950: 10782: 10781: 10778: 10777: 10722: 10721: 10606: 10605: 10538: 10537: 10143: 10142: 10098: 10097: 9967: 9966: 9954:Weapon-free zones 9781: 9780: 9773:Radiopharmacology 9355: 9354: 9286:Waste legislation 9195:Sanitation worker 9169:London Convention 9105:Bamako Convention 8896:Resource recovery 8864:textile recycling 8859:plastic recycling 8839:battery recycling 8779:Ecological design 8704:Radioactive waste 8528:(briefing papers) 8283:Los Angeles Times 8192:, pp. 39−40. 7916:978-0-309-07317-2 7823:www.bloomberg.com 7684:978-0-618-93596-3 7313:scientiapress.com 7165:(7585): 149–151. 6257:. wipp.energy.gov 6013:"Coal Ash Basics" 5842:. April 3, 2017. 5561:"Coal Combustion" 5524:"Nuclear Logging" 5236:Excluding those " 5135:Sancar, A. et al 5105:978-0-7020-3048-2 5045:978-0-471-01146-0 4318:In January 2013, 4247:Geologic disposal 3916:Initial treatment 3699: 3698: 3691: 3673:, as appropriate. 3634:Transuranic waste 3628:Transuranic waste 3569:per year. A 1000- 3550:generated in the 3306:Rare-earth mining 3261:and is less than 3057:tends to contain 2896:. In addition to 2567: 2566: 2528:0.7–14.1 Ga 2524: 2519: 2512: 2491: 2484: 2472: 2463: 2456: 2451: 2437: 2428: 2408: 2394: 2387: 2380: 2375: 2363: 2358: 2353: 2343: 2338: 2324: 2306: 2301: 2289: 2284: 2279: 2274: 2264: 2259: 2245: 2238: 2214: 2209: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2180: 2175: 2168: 2161: 2156: 2151: 2141: 2136: 2131: 2126: 2102: 2093: 2075: 1914:is a short-lived 1807: 1806: 1480: 1479: 1231:Radioactive decay 1211:and thereby emit 1163:for storage in a 1063:Radioactive waste 1060: 1059: 995: 994: 661:Nuclear holocaust 584:Urban heat island 398:Radioactive waste 183:Biological hazard 93:Air quality index 16:(Redirected from 11767: 11732: 11731: 11720: 11719: 11708: 11707: 11706: 11699: 11683: 11682: 11674: 11673: 11672: 11503:Kyshtym disaster 11498:nuclear meltdown 11425:Related articles 11409:Goiânia accident 11221: 11214: 11207: 11198: 11197: 11182: 11181: 11170: 11169: 11159: 11158: 11157: 11069: 11028:Levitated dipole 10998: 10990: 10989: 10938:Helium gas (GFR) 10801: 10800: 10796: 10733: 10732: 10617: 10616: 10567: 10566: 10560: 10559: 10555: 10554: 10336: 10335: 10332: 10331: 10170: 10162: 10161: 10154:Nuclear reactors 10149: 10148: 10048:High-level (HLW) 9978: 9977: 9825: 9824: 9805:Food irradiation 9795:Atomic gardening 9688: 9687: 9671:Nuclear meltdown 9497:Nuclear material 9487:Fissile material 9482:Fertile material 9397: 9396: 9382: 9375: 9368: 9359: 9358: 9324: 9323: 9314: 9313: 9179:OSPAR Convention 9110:Basel Convention 8921:Waste collection 8911:Sewage treatment 8869:timber recycling 8844:bottle recycling 8824:Reclaimed lumber 8819:Photodegradation 8741: 8659:Industrial waste 8627:Electronic waste 8622:Demolition waste 8602:Biomedical waste 8576:waste management 8561: 8554: 8547: 8538: 8537: 8429: 8427: 8425: 8408: 8380: 8379: 8368: 8362: 8344: 8338: 8337: 8335: 8333: 8318: 8312: 8296: 8287: 8286: 8275: 8269: 8255: 8249: 8248: 8233: 8227: 8220: 8214: 8199: 8193: 8187: 8181: 8167: 8161: 8160: 8158: 8156: 8141: 8135: 8122: 8116: 8102: 8096: 8081: 8075: 8074: 8072: 8071: 8062:. 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Archived from 5251: 5245: 5234: 5228: 5221: 5215: 5212: 5184: 5178: 5167: 5161: 5146: 5140: 5133: 5127: 5122:Gofman, John W. 5120: 5114: 5113: 5084: 5078: 5077: 5056: 5050: 5049: 5029: 5023: 5022: 5020: 5018: 4999: 4993: 4992: 4981: 4975: 4974: 4972: 4971: 4957: 4926:Waste management 4835: 4823: 4811: 4784:Goiânia accident 4764:Marshall Islands 4569:systems such as 4551:Breeder reactors 4532:food irradiation 4228:Dry cask storage 3949:) is mixed with 3858:Antarctic Treaty 3837:Dry cask storage 3694: 3687: 3683: 3680: 3674: 3646: 3645: 3638: 3614:Morris Operation 3544:fission products 3537:High-level waste 3531:High-level waste 3354:Uranium tailings 3067:nuclear medicine 2917:fission products 2864:Mixed oxide fuel 2804:High-level waste 2751:nuclear reactors 2719:fission products 2693:mixed oxide fuel 2687:even a sailboat 2658:depleted uranium 2641:to increase the 2523: 2518: 2511: 2490: 2483: 2471: 2462: 2455: 2450: 2446:1.61–6.5 Ma 2436: 2427: 2407: 2393: 2386: 2379: 2374: 2362: 2357: 2352: 2342: 2337: 2323: 2312:8.3–8.5 ka 2305: 2300: 2293:4.7–7.4 ka 2288: 2283: 2278: 2273: 2268:1.3–1.6 ka 2263: 2258: 2244: 2237: 2227: 2213: 2208: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2179: 2174: 2167: 2160: 2155: 2150: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2101: 2092: 2074: 2014:Fission products 1983: 1976: 1969: 1958: 1901:pharmacokinetics 1864:Pharmacokinetics 1799: 1788: 1782: 1779: 1773: 1762: 1756: 1741: 1720: 1698: 1676: 1654: 1579: 1570: 1565: 1533: 1532: 1528: 1514: 1507: 1500: 1493: 1481: 1470: 1467: 1462: 1440: 1427: 1419: 1414: 1398: 1391: 1386: 1380: 1361: 1358: 1353: 1334: 1331: 1310: 1307: 1301: 1270: 1242: 1239:fission products 1234: 1189:joint convention 1129:fission products 1106:high-level waste 1079:nuclear research 1075:nuclear medicine 1052: 1045: 1038: 1022: 1021: 1020: 1010: 1009: 941: 940: 644:Chemical warfare 546:Waste management 506:Industrial waste 481:Electronic waste 466:Advertising mail 448:Phytoremediation 423:Land degradation 363:Depleted uranium 248:Overillumination 198:Invasive species 70: 60: 45: 44: 21: 11775: 11774: 11770: 11769: 11768: 11766: 11765: 11764: 11740: 11739: 11738: 11726: 11714: 11704: 11702: 11694: 11692: 11687: 11670: 11668: 11661: 11637:Peace activists 11552: 11546: 11371: 11369: 11363: 11241: 11239: 11237: 11230: 11225: 11195: 11190: 11155: 11153: 11136: 11100: 11067: 11052: 11009: 10999: 10994: 10984: 10947: 10852: 10797: 10790: 10789: 10774: 10718: 10649: 10624: 10602: 10574: 10556: 10549: 10548: 10547: 10534: 10500: 10491: 10473: 10438: 10429: 10343: 10326: 10325: 10324: 10316: 10230:Natural fission 10184: 10183: 10171: 10166: 10156: 10139: 10115:Nuclear weapons 10094: 10053:Low-level (LLW) 10031: 9963: 9915: 9814: 9777: 9724: 9677: 9598: 9530: 9453: 9391: 9386: 9356: 9351: 9327:Category: Waste 9308: 9300: 9281:Waste hierarchy 9214: 9205:Waste collector 9183: 9174:Oslo Convention 9093: 8945: 8941:Waste-to-energy 8936:Waste treatment 8906:Right to repair 8804:Landfill mining 8789:Illegal dumping 8742: 8733: 8694:Packaging waste 8689:Open defecation 8649:Hazardous waste 8578: 8565: 8526:Wayback Machine 8513:Wayback Machine 8436: 8423: 8421: 8405: 8389: 8384: 8383: 8370: 8369: 8365: 8359:Wayback Machine 8345: 8341: 8331: 8329: 8320: 8319: 8315: 8309:Wayback Machine 8297: 8290: 8277: 8276: 8272: 8266:Wayback Machine 8256: 8252: 8235: 8234: 8230: 8221: 8217: 8211:Wayback Machine 8201:Report RAI.it, 8200: 8196: 8188: 8184: 8178:Wayback Machine 8168: 8164: 8154: 8152: 8142: 8138: 8132:Wayback Machine 8123: 8119: 8113:Wayback Machine 8103: 8099: 8093:Wayback Machine 8082: 8078: 8069: 8067: 8032: 8028: 8022:Wayback Machine 8011: 8007: 7999: 7992: 7984: 7980: 7971: 7969: 7958: 7954: 7929: 7928: 7924: 7917: 7901: 7897: 7888: 7886: 7877: 7876: 7872: 7868:. heritage.org. 7866:Wayback Machine 7856: 7852: 7843: 7842: 7838: 7828: 7826: 7825:. April 2, 2019 7817: 7816: 7812: 7804: 7800: 7799: 7795: 7786: 7784: 7779:. Web.mit.edu. 7773: 7769: 7761: 7757: 7751:Wayback Machine 7742: 7738: 7730: 7726: 7716: 7714: 7713:on June 5, 2011 7701: 7700: 7696: 7685: 7677:. p. 279. 7673:(10 ed.). 7665: 7661: 7646: 7630: 7626: 7615: 7611: 7584: 7580: 7567: 7565: 7561: 7548: 7544: 7543: 7539: 7522: 7521: 7517: 7500: 7499: 7495: 7478: 7474: 7464: 7462: 7445: 7441: 7431: 7429: 7412: 7408: 7399: 7395: 7387: 7376: 7372: 7371: 7367: 7328: 7324: 7319:on 5 June 2004. 7307: 7306: 7302: 7294: 7283:Current Science 7277: 7271: 7267: 7259: 7245: 7239: 7235: 7220: 7216: 7208: 7204: 7180:10.1038/529149a 7149: 7145: 7136: 7134: 7129:. May 7, 2009. 7121: 7120: 7116: 7069: 7065: 7018: 7011: 7005:Wayback Machine 6993: 6989: 6980: 6978: 6974: 6967: 6963: 6962: 6958: 6949: 6947: 6943: 6936: 6932: 6931: 6927: 6918: 6916: 6912: 6901: 6897: 6896: 6892: 6873: 6869: 6860: 6858: 6854: 6843: 6839: 6838: 6834: 6825: 6823: 6810: 6798: 6794: 6783: 6779: 6769:Wayback Machine 6759: 6755: 6749:Wayback Machine 6739: 6735: 6726: 6724: 6713: 6709: 6686: 6682: 6671: 6667: 6658: 6656: 6652: 6641: 6637: 6636: 6632: 6595: 6591: 6580: 6576: 6567: 6565: 6561: 6554: 6548: 6544: 6525: 6521: 6510: 6503: 6494: 6490: 6486:, January 2012. 6484:Wayback Machine 6472: 6465: 6454:The Independent 6448: 6447: 6443: 6437:Wayback Machine 6423: 6419: 6410: 6408: 6396: 6392: 6383: 6381: 6369: 6365: 6355:Wayback Machine 6345: 6341: 6324: 6320: 6312: 6308: 6291: 6290: 6286: 6277: 6275: 6265: 6261: 6255:Wayback Machine 6246: 6242: 6226: 6225: 6219: 6217: 6207: 6203: 6184: 6180: 6171: 6169: 6160: 6159: 6155: 6146: 6144: 6140: 6129: 6123: 6116: 6103: 6102: 6098: 6079: 6075: 6069:Wayback Machine 6059: 6055: 6046: 6044: 6034: 6030: 6021: 6019: 6009: 6005: 5996: 5994: 5985: 5984: 5980: 5971: 5969: 5960: 5959: 5955: 5940: 5936: 5927: 5925: 5915: 5911: 5901: 5899: 5888: 5884: 5875: 5873: 5864: 5863: 5859: 5849: 5847: 5834: 5833: 5824: 5814: 5812: 5808: 5797: 5793: 5792: 5788: 5778: 5774: 5765: 5763: 5753: 5749: 5739: 5737: 5730: 5726: 5720:Wayback Machine 5711: 5707: 5697:Wayback Machine 5687: 5683: 5675: 5671: 5662: 5660: 5651: 5650: 5646: 5641:Wayback Machine 5631: 5624: 5619:Wayback Machine 5609: 5605: 5596: 5594: 5585: 5584: 5580: 5557: 5546: 5537: 5535: 5522: 5521: 5517: 5512: 5508: 5502:Wayback Machine 5491:Wayback Machine 5482: 5467: 5458: 5456: 5441: 5437: 5428: 5426: 5415: 5411: 5402: 5400: 5387: 5386: 5379: 5370: 5369: 5365: 5348: 5347: 5343: 5327: 5326: 5320: 5318: 5309: 5308: 5304: 5291: 5290: 5286: 5277: 5275: 5268: 5252: 5248: 5235: 5231: 5222: 5218: 5213: 5189:Nuclear Physics 5185: 5181: 5175:nuclear reactor 5171:thermal neutron 5168: 5164: 5147: 5143: 5134: 5130: 5121: 5117: 5106: 5086: 5085: 5081: 5074: 5057: 5053: 5046: 5030: 5026: 5016: 5014: 5001: 5000: 4996: 4983: 4982: 4978: 4969: 4967: 4959: 4958: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4846: 4839: 4836: 4827: 4824: 4815: 4812: 4803: 4742: 4736: 4684: 4674: 4672:Illegal dumping 4641: 4589: 4583: 4575:space elevators 4559: 4520: 4514: 4443:fusion reactors 4410: 4404: 4358: 4249: 4232:spent fuel pool 4225: 4179: 4166: 4160: 4133: 4125: 4121: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4078:The Australian 4076: 4068:portland cement 4038: 4029: 4013:phosphate glass 3993: 3967:stainless steel 3941:. Currently at 3923: 3918: 3871:neutron capture 3791: 3773: 3744: 3695: 3684: 3678: 3675: 3660: 3647: 3643: 3636: 3630: 3539: 3533: 3508:chemical sludge 3480: 3426: 3424:Low-level waste 3420: 3418:Low-level waste 3362: 3356: 3350: 3330: 3325: 3308: 3280: 3271:person-rem/year 3244: 3171: 3147: 3051: 3021: 2944: 2890:nuclear weapons 2886: 2876: 2840:nuclear reactor 2812: 2806: 2780: 2762:neutron poisons 2727:alpha particles 2711: 2705: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2652: 2636: 2628: 2624: 2612: 2607:Uranium dioxide 2597: 2592: 2586: 2578:Main articles: 2576: 2563: 2538:neutron capture 2401:327–375 ka 2370:150–250 ka 2249:430–900 a 2228: 2225: 2220:141–351 a 2005: 1988: 1987: 1956: 1866: 1835:radiation yield 1823:stable nuclides 1803: 1802: 1789: 1785: 1780: 1776: 1763: 1759: 1742: 1738: 1718: 1696: 1674: 1652: 1573: 1568: 1559: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1525: 1512: 1511: 1468: 1460: 1438: 1412: 1384: 1378: 1359: 1351: 1332: 1308: 1299: 1279: 1266: 1255: 1253: 1237: 1233: 1227: 1221: 1201: 1149:neutron capture 1133:spent fuel pool 1125:minor actinides 1102:low-level waste 1095:nuclear weapons 1067:hazardous waste 1056: 1018: 1016: 1004: 997: 996: 896: 888: 887: 861: 853: 852: 788:Pharmaceuticals 768:Nonpoint source 708: 698: 697: 666:Nuclear fallout 639: 629: 628: 599: 589: 588: 579: 569: 568: 559: 551: 550: 536:Packaging waste 501:Hazardous waste 461: 453: 452: 413: 403: 402: 373:Nuclear fallout 368:Nuclear fission 348: 338: 337: 303: 293: 292: 268: 260: 259: 233: 231:Electromagnetic 223: 222: 213: 205: 204: 178: 168: 167: 138:Ozone depletion 83: 73: 58: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11773: 11763: 11762: 11757: 11752: 11737: 11736: 11724: 11712: 11689: 11688: 11666: 11663: 11662: 11660: 11659: 11654: 11649: 11644: 11642:Peace movement 11639: 11634: 11629: 11624: 11619: 11614: 11609: 11604: 11599: 11594: 11587: 11582: 11577: 11572: 11567: 11562: 11556: 11554: 11548: 11547: 11545: 11544: 11538: 11533: 11528: 11523: 11517: 11511: 11509:Windscale fire 11505: 11499: 11492: 11486: 11480: 11470: 11468:Lucens reactor 11464: 11454: 11448: 11442: 11435: 11429: 11428: 11427: 11422: 11411: 11405: 11399: 11394: 11388: 11382: 11375: 11373: 11365: 11364: 11362: 11361: 11356: 11351: 11346: 11345: 11344: 11339: 11338: 11337: 11332: 11325:United Kingdom 11322: 11317: 11312: 11307: 11302: 11297: 11292: 11282: 11277: 11272: 11267: 11262: 11257: 11252: 11246: 11244: 11232: 11231: 11224: 11223: 11216: 11209: 11201: 11192: 11191: 11189: 11188: 11176: 11164: 11149: 11146: 11145: 11142: 11141: 11138: 11137: 11135: 11134: 11129: 11124: 11122:Muon-catalyzed 11119: 11114: 11108: 11106: 11102: 11101: 11099: 11098: 11093: 11088: 11083: 11082: 11081: 11071: 11062: 11060: 11054: 11053: 11051: 11050: 11045: 11040: 11035: 11030: 11025: 11019: 11017: 11011: 11010: 11004: 11001: 11000: 10986: 10985: 10983: 10982: 10977: 10976: 10975: 10970: 10959: 10957: 10953: 10952: 10949: 10948: 10946: 10945: 10940: 10935: 10930: 10929: 10928: 10923: 10918: 10913: 10908: 10903: 10898: 10893: 10888: 10883: 10878: 10873: 10862: 10860: 10854: 10853: 10851: 10850: 10845: 10840: 10835: 10830: 10825: 10820: 10815: 10813:Integral (IFR) 10810: 10804: 10798: 10787: 10784: 10783: 10780: 10779: 10776: 10775: 10773: 10772: 10767: 10762: 10757: 10752: 10747: 10741: 10739: 10730: 10724: 10723: 10720: 10719: 10717: 10716: 10715: 10714: 10709: 10708: 10707: 10702: 10697: 10692: 10677: 10672: 10671: 10670: 10659: 10657: 10651: 10650: 10648: 10647: 10642: 10637: 10628: 10626: 10622: 10614: 10608: 10607: 10604: 10603: 10601: 10600: 10595: 10590: 10585: 10579: 10577: 10572: 10564: 10557: 10543: 10540: 10539: 10536: 10535: 10533: 10532: 10531: 10530: 10525: 10520: 10515: 10504: 10502: 10498: 10493: 10492: 10490: 10489: 10483: 10481: 10475: 10474: 10472: 10471: 10466: 10461: 10460: 10459: 10454: 10443: 10441: 10436: 10431: 10430: 10428: 10427: 10426: 10425: 10420: 10415: 10410: 10405: 10404: 10403: 10398: 10393: 10383: 10378: 10377: 10376: 10371: 10368: 10365: 10362: 10348: 10346: 10341: 10333: 10318: 10317: 10315: 10314: 10309: 10308: 10307: 10304: 10299: 10294: 10293: 10292: 10287: 10277: 10272: 10267: 10262: 10257: 10252: 10247: 10242: 10232: 10227: 10226: 10225: 10220: 10215: 10210: 10200: 10194: 10192: 10186: 10185: 10177: 10176: 10173: 10172: 10158: 10157: 10145: 10144: 10141: 10140: 10138: 10137: 10132: 10130:Uranium mining 10127: 10122: 10117: 10112: 10106: 10104: 10100: 10099: 10096: 10095: 10093: 10092: 10087: 10086: 10085: 10080: 10070: 10065: 10060: 10055: 10050: 10045: 10039: 10037: 10033: 10032: 10030: 10029: 10024: 10023: 10022: 10012: 10007: 10006: 10005: 10003:Minor actinide 10000: 9995: 9984: 9982: 9975: 9969: 9968: 9965: 9964: 9962: 9961: 9956: 9951: 9946: 9945: 9944: 9939: 9929: 9923: 9921: 9917: 9916: 9914: 9913: 9912: 9911: 9901: 9896: 9895: 9894: 9889: 9879: 9874: 9869: 9868: 9867: 9857: 9852: 9847: 9842: 9837: 9831: 9829: 9822: 9816: 9815: 9813: 9812: 9807: 9802: 9797: 9791: 9789: 9783: 9782: 9779: 9778: 9776: 9775: 9770: 9765: 9760: 9755: 9750: 9745: 9740: 9734: 9732: 9726: 9725: 9723: 9722: 9717: 9712: 9707: 9702: 9700:Autoradiograph 9696: 9694: 9685: 9679: 9678: 9676: 9675: 9674: 9673: 9663: 9662: 9661: 9651: 9650: 9649: 9639: 9634: 9629: 9624: 9619: 9614: 9608: 9606: 9600: 9599: 9597: 9596: 9591: 9586: 9581: 9576: 9571: 9566: 9561: 9556: 9551: 9546: 9540: 9538: 9532: 9531: 9529: 9528: 9527: 9526: 9521: 9516: 9515: 9514: 9509: 9494: 9489: 9484: 9479: 9474: 9469: 9463: 9461: 9455: 9454: 9452: 9451: 9450: 9449: 9444: 9434: 9429: 9424: 9422:Atomic nucleus 9419: 9414: 9409: 9403: 9401: 9393: 9392: 9385: 9384: 9377: 9370: 9362: 9353: 9352: 9350: 9349: 9344: 9339: 9334: 9329: 9318: 9305: 9302: 9301: 9299: 9298: 9293: 9288: 9283: 9278: 9273: 9268: 9263: 9258: 9253: 9248: 9243: 9238: 9233: 9228: 9222: 9220: 9216: 9215: 9213: 9212: 9207: 9202: 9200:Street sweeper 9197: 9191: 9189: 9185: 9184: 9182: 9181: 9176: 9171: 9166: 9165: 9164: 9159: 9154: 9149: 9144: 9139: 9134: 9129: 9128: 9127: 9112: 9107: 9101: 9099: 9095: 9094: 9092: 9091: 9086: 9084:United Kingdom 9081: 9076: 9071: 9066: 9061: 9056: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9036: 9031: 9026: 9021: 9016: 9011: 9006: 9001: 8996: 8991: 8986: 8981: 8976: 8971: 8966: 8961: 8955: 8953: 8947: 8946: 8944: 8943: 8938: 8933: 8928: 8923: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8903: 8898: 8893: 8888: 8887: 8886: 8881: 8876: 8874:tire recycling 8871: 8866: 8861: 8856: 8854:land recycling 8851: 8846: 8841: 8836: 8826: 8821: 8816: 8811: 8806: 8801: 8796: 8791: 8786: 8781: 8776: 8771: 8766: 8764:Biodegradation 8761: 8756: 8750: 8748: 8744: 8743: 8736: 8734: 8732: 8731: 8726: 8724:Surface runoff 8721: 8716: 8711: 8706: 8701: 8696: 8691: 8686: 8681: 8676: 8671: 8666: 8661: 8656: 8651: 8646: 8641: 8636: 8635: 8634: 8624: 8619: 8614: 8612:Chemical waste 8609: 8604: 8599: 8594: 8588: 8586: 8580: 8579: 8564: 8563: 8556: 8549: 8541: 8535: 8534: 8529: 8516: 8503: 8497: 8491: 8485: 8479: 8473: 8467: 8461: 8455: 8449: 8443: 8435: 8434:External links 8432: 8431: 8430: 8409: 8404:978-0874809039 8403: 8388: 8385: 8382: 8381: 8363: 8339: 8313: 8288: 8270: 8250: 8228: 8215: 8194: 8182: 8162: 8136: 8117: 8097: 8076: 8046:(3): 193–203. 8026: 8005: 7990: 7978: 7952: 7949:on 2009-05-15. 7935:DOE Factsheets 7922: 7915: 7895: 7870: 7850: 7836: 7810: 7793: 7767: 7755: 7736: 7724: 7694: 7683: 7659: 7645:978-0387689098 7644: 7624: 7609: 7578: 7557:. March 2021. 7537: 7515: 7493: 7472: 7439: 7406: 7393: 7365: 7338:(6): 859–872. 7322: 7300: 7265: 7233: 7214: 7202: 7143: 7114: 7063: 7009: 6987: 6956: 6925: 6890: 6887:on 2010-07-10. 6867: 6850:. 2005-08-22. 6832: 6792: 6777: 6753: 6733: 6707: 6680: 6665: 6630: 6589: 6574: 6542: 6519: 6501: 6488: 6463: 6441: 6417: 6390: 6363: 6339: 6318: 6306: 6284: 6273:POWER Magazine 6259: 6240: 6201: 6178: 6153: 6114: 6096: 6073: 6053: 6028: 6003: 5978: 5953: 5934: 5909: 5882: 5857: 5822: 5786: 5772: 5747: 5724: 5705: 5681: 5669: 5644: 5622: 5603: 5578: 5544: 5515: 5506: 5465: 5435: 5409: 5377: 5363: 5360:on 2011-06-06. 5341: 5302: 5284: 5266: 5246: 5229: 5216: 5179: 5162: 5141: 5128: 5115: 5104: 5079: 5072: 5060:Anderson, Mary 5051: 5044: 5024: 5013:on 13 May 2013 4994: 4976: 4942: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4841: 4840: 4837: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4806: 4802: 4799: 4760:Enewetak Atoll 4738:Main article: 4735: 4732: 4673: 4670: 4650:Daniel Poneman 4640: 4637: 4582: 4579: 4563:launch vehicle 4558: 4557:Space disposal 4555: 4516:Main article: 4513: 4510: 4471:minor actinide 4431:European Union 4406:Main article: 4403: 4400: 4399: 4398: 4382:Law of the Sea 4378:Earth's mantle 4372:, burial in a 4357: 4354: 4323:county council 4278:Channel Tunnel 4248: 4245: 4224: 4221: 4186:bioremediation 4178: 4175: 4171:geoforecasting 4159: 4156: 4131: 4123: 4119: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4075: 4072: 4037: 4034: 4028: 4025: 3991: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3888: 3887: 3884: 3874: 3864: 3861: 3854: 3851:Ocean disposal 3848: 3845: 3839: 3834: 3772: 3769: 3743: 3740: 3697: 3696: 3657:of the subject 3655:worldwide view 3650: 3648: 3641: 3632:Main article: 3629: 3626: 3535:Main article: 3532: 3529: 3479: 3476: 3422:Main article: 3419: 3416: 3352:Main article: 3349: 3346: 3345: 3344: 3341: 3338: 3329: 3328:Classification 3326: 3316:rare-earth ore 3307: 3304: 3279: 3276: 3243: 3240: 3202:alpha particle 3170: 3167: 3146: 3143: 3142: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3123: 3113: 3099: 3096:thyroid cancer 3085: 3071:technetium-99m 3050: 3047: 3020: 3017: 3011:. A truncated 2943: 2940: 2875: 2872: 2808:Main article: 2779: 2776: 2704: 2701: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2650: 2634: 2626: 2622: 2610: 2596: 2593: 2575: 2572: 2565: 2564: 2562: 2561: 2558:neutron poison 2554: 2547: 2541: 2533: 2530: 2529: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2514: 2508: 2507: 2502: 2499: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2487: 2486: 2481: 2479: 2474: 2469: 2467: 2465: 2459: 2458: 2453: 2448: 2443: 2441: 2439: 2434: 2431: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2411: 2410: 2405: 2403: 2398: 2396: 2391: 2389: 2383: 2382: 2377: 2372: 2367: 2365: 2360: 2355: 2349: 2348: 2347:32–76 ka 2345: 2340: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2329: 2326: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2313: 2310: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2295: 2294: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2276: 2270: 2269: 2266: 2261: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2250: 2247: 2242: 2240: 2235: 2232: 2231: 2221: 2218: 2216: 2211: 2206: 2203: 2202: 2197: 2192: 2187: 2182: 2177: 2172: 2170: 2164: 2163: 2158: 2153: 2148: 2143: 2138: 2133: 2128: 2122: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2110: 2108: 2106: 2104: 2098: 2097: 2095: 2090: 2088: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2077: 2071: 2070: 2067: 2064: 2061: 2052: 2043: 2034: 2025: 2024: 2011: 2000: 1990: 1989: 1986: 1985: 1978: 1971: 1963: 1961: 1955: 1952: 1865: 1862: 1854:decay products 1805: 1804: 1801: 1800: 1783: 1774: 1757: 1735: 1734: 1731: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1721: 1719: 1715: 1709: 1708: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1697: 1693: 1687: 1686: 1683: 1680: 1677: 1671: 1665: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1655: 1649: 1643: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1624: 1623: 1617: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1602: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1583: 1582: 1580: 1571: 1566: 1557: 1554: 1553: 1548: 1541: 1536: 1524: 1518: 1510: 1509: 1502: 1495: 1487: 1483: 1478: 1477: 1474: 1471: 1463: 1457: 1451: 1450: 1447: 1444: 1441: 1435: 1429: 1428: 1420: 1415: 1413: 1409: 1406: 1400: 1399: 1392: 1387: 1385: 1381: 1375: 1369: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1354: 1348: 1342: 1341: 1338: 1335: 1327: 1324: 1318: 1317: 1314: 1311: 1303: 1297: 1291: 1290: 1285: 1272: 1261: 1251: 1245: 1223:Main article: 1220: 1217: 1200: 1197: 1153:alpha emitters 1069:that contains 1058: 1057: 1055: 1054: 1047: 1040: 1032: 1029: 1028: 1027: 1026: 1014: 999: 998: 993: 992: 991: 990: 982: 981: 977: 976: 975: 974: 969: 964: 959: 957:Law by country 954: 946: 945: 939: 938: 933: 928: 923: 918: 913: 908: 903: 897: 894: 893: 890: 889: 886: 885: 884: 883: 878: 868: 862: 859: 858: 855: 854: 851: 850: 845: 840: 835: 830: 828:Surface runoff 825: 820: 815: 810: 805: 800: 795: 790: 785: 780: 775: 770: 765: 760: 755: 750: 745: 740: 735: 730: 728:Eutrophication 725: 720: 715: 709: 704: 703: 700: 699: 696: 695: 690: 685: 683:Scorched earth 680: 679: 678: 676:Nuclear winter 673: 671:Nuclear famine 668: 658: 657: 656: 646: 640: 635: 634: 631: 630: 627: 626: 621: 616: 611: 606: 600: 595: 594: 591: 590: 587: 586: 580: 575: 574: 571: 570: 567: 566: 560: 557: 556: 553: 552: 549: 548: 543: 538: 533: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 473: 468: 462: 459: 458: 455: 454: 451: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 428:Bioremediation 425: 420: 414: 409: 408: 405: 404: 401: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 358:Bioremediation 355: 349: 344: 343: 340: 339: 336: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 308:Transportation 304: 299: 298: 295: 294: 291: 290: 285: 280: 275: 269: 266: 265: 262: 261: 258: 257: 255:Radio spectrum 252: 251: 250: 245: 234: 229: 228: 225: 224: 221: 220: 214: 211: 210: 207: 206: 203: 202: 201: 200: 190: 185: 179: 174: 173: 170: 169: 166: 165: 160: 155: 150: 145: 140: 135: 130: 125: 123:Global dimming 120: 115: 110: 105: 100: 95: 90: 84: 79: 78: 75: 74: 71: 63: 62: 54: 53: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11772: 11761: 11758: 11756: 11755:Radioactivity 11753: 11751: 11748: 11747: 11745: 11735: 11730: 11725: 11723: 11718: 11713: 11711: 11701: 11700: 11697: 11686: 11678: 11677: 11664: 11658: 11655: 11653: 11650: 11648: 11645: 11643: 11640: 11638: 11635: 11633: 11630: 11628: 11625: 11623: 11620: 11618: 11615: 11613: 11610: 11608: 11605: 11603: 11600: 11598: 11595: 11593: 11592: 11588: 11586: 11583: 11581: 11578: 11576: 11573: 11571: 11568: 11566: 11563: 11561: 11558: 11557: 11555: 11549: 11543: 11539: 11537: 11534: 11532: 11529: 11527: 11524: 11522: 11518: 11516: 11512: 11510: 11506: 11504: 11500: 11497: 11493: 11491: 11487: 11485: 11481: 11479: 11475: 11471: 11469: 11465: 11463: 11459: 11455: 11453: 11449: 11447: 11443: 11440: 11436: 11434: 11430: 11426: 11423: 11421: 11418: 11417: 11416: 11412: 11410: 11406: 11404: 11400: 11398: 11395: 11393: 11389: 11387: 11383: 11381: 11377: 11376: 11374: 11366: 11360: 11357: 11355: 11352: 11350: 11347: 11343: 11342:United States 11340: 11336: 11333: 11331: 11328: 11327: 11326: 11323: 11321: 11318: 11316: 11313: 11311: 11308: 11306: 11303: 11301: 11298: 11296: 11293: 11291: 11288: 11287: 11286: 11283: 11281: 11278: 11276: 11273: 11271: 11268: 11266: 11263: 11261: 11258: 11256: 11253: 11251: 11248: 11247: 11245: 11243: 11233: 11229: 11222: 11217: 11215: 11210: 11208: 11203: 11202: 11199: 11187: 11186: 11177: 11175: 11174: 11165: 11163: 11162: 11151: 11150: 11147: 11133: 11130: 11128: 11125: 11123: 11120: 11118: 11115: 11113: 11110: 11109: 11107: 11103: 11097: 11094: 11092: 11089: 11087: 11084: 11080: 11079:electrostatic 11077: 11076: 11075: 11072: 11070: 11064: 11063: 11061: 11059: 11055: 11049: 11046: 11044: 11041: 11039: 11036: 11034: 11031: 11029: 11026: 11024: 11021: 11020: 11018: 11016: 11012: 11008: 11002: 10997: 10991: 10981: 10978: 10974: 10971: 10969: 10966: 10965: 10964: 10961: 10960: 10958: 10954: 10944: 10941: 10939: 10936: 10934: 10931: 10927: 10924: 10922: 10919: 10917: 10914: 10912: 10909: 10907: 10904: 10902: 10899: 10897: 10894: 10892: 10889: 10887: 10884: 10882: 10879: 10877: 10874: 10872: 10869: 10868: 10867: 10864: 10863: 10861: 10859: 10858:Generation IV 10855: 10849: 10846: 10844: 10841: 10839: 10836: 10834: 10831: 10829: 10826: 10824: 10821: 10819: 10816: 10814: 10811: 10809: 10808:Breeder (FBR) 10806: 10805: 10802: 10799: 10794: 10785: 10771: 10768: 10766: 10763: 10761: 10758: 10756: 10753: 10751: 10748: 10746: 10743: 10742: 10740: 10738: 10734: 10731: 10729: 10725: 10713: 10710: 10706: 10703: 10701: 10698: 10696: 10693: 10691: 10688: 10687: 10686: 10683: 10682: 10681: 10678: 10676: 10673: 10669: 10666: 10665: 10664: 10661: 10660: 10658: 10656: 10652: 10646: 10643: 10641: 10638: 10636: 10634: 10630: 10629: 10627: 10625: 10618: 10615: 10613: 10609: 10599: 10596: 10594: 10591: 10589: 10586: 10584: 10581: 10580: 10578: 10576: 10568: 10565: 10561: 10558: 10553: 10546: 10541: 10529: 10526: 10524: 10521: 10519: 10516: 10514: 10511: 10510: 10509: 10506: 10505: 10503: 10501: 10494: 10488: 10485: 10484: 10482: 10480: 10476: 10470: 10467: 10465: 10462: 10458: 10455: 10453: 10450: 10449: 10448: 10445: 10444: 10442: 10440: 10432: 10424: 10421: 10419: 10416: 10414: 10411: 10409: 10406: 10402: 10399: 10397: 10394: 10392: 10389: 10388: 10387: 10384: 10382: 10379: 10375: 10372: 10369: 10366: 10363: 10360: 10359: 10358: 10355: 10354: 10353: 10350: 10349: 10347: 10345: 10337: 10334: 10330: 10323: 10319: 10313: 10310: 10305: 10303: 10300: 10298: 10295: 10291: 10288: 10286: 10283: 10282: 10281: 10278: 10276: 10273: 10271: 10268: 10266: 10263: 10261: 10258: 10256: 10253: 10251: 10248: 10246: 10243: 10241: 10238: 10237: 10236: 10233: 10231: 10228: 10224: 10221: 10219: 10216: 10214: 10211: 10209: 10206: 10205: 10204: 10201: 10199: 10196: 10195: 10193: 10191: 10187: 10182: 10181: 10174: 10169: 10163: 10159: 10155: 10150: 10146: 10136: 10133: 10131: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10121: 10118: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10110:Nuclear power 10108: 10107: 10105: 10101: 10091: 10090:Transmutation 10088: 10084: 10081: 10079: 10076: 10075: 10074: 10071: 10069: 10066: 10064: 10061: 10059: 10056: 10054: 10051: 10049: 10046: 10044: 10041: 10040: 10038: 10034: 10028: 10025: 10021: 10018: 10017: 10016: 10013: 10011: 10008: 10004: 10001: 9999: 9996: 9994: 9991: 9990: 9989: 9986: 9985: 9983: 9979: 9976: 9974: 9970: 9960: 9957: 9955: 9952: 9950: 9947: 9943: 9940: 9938: 9935: 9934: 9933: 9930: 9928: 9925: 9924: 9922: 9918: 9910: 9907: 9906: 9905: 9902: 9900: 9897: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9887:high-altitude 9885: 9884: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9877:Proliferation 9875: 9873: 9870: 9866: 9863: 9862: 9861: 9858: 9856: 9853: 9851: 9848: 9846: 9843: 9841: 9838: 9836: 9833: 9832: 9830: 9826: 9823: 9821: 9817: 9811: 9808: 9806: 9803: 9801: 9798: 9796: 9793: 9792: 9790: 9788: 9784: 9774: 9771: 9769: 9766: 9764: 9763:Brachytherapy 9761: 9759: 9756: 9754: 9751: 9749: 9746: 9744: 9741: 9739: 9736: 9735: 9733: 9731: 9727: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9697: 9695: 9693: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9680: 9672: 9669: 9668: 9667: 9664: 9660: 9657: 9656: 9655: 9652: 9648: 9645: 9644: 9643: 9640: 9638: 9635: 9633: 9630: 9628: 9625: 9623: 9620: 9618: 9615: 9613: 9610: 9609: 9607: 9605: 9601: 9595: 9592: 9590: 9587: 9585: 9582: 9580: 9577: 9575: 9572: 9570: 9567: 9565: 9562: 9560: 9559:Cross section 9557: 9555: 9552: 9550: 9547: 9545: 9542: 9541: 9539: 9537: 9533: 9525: 9522: 9520: 9517: 9513: 9510: 9508: 9505: 9504: 9503: 9500: 9499: 9498: 9495: 9493: 9490: 9488: 9485: 9483: 9480: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9464: 9462: 9460: 9456: 9448: 9445: 9443: 9440: 9439: 9438: 9435: 9433: 9430: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9404: 9402: 9398: 9394: 9390: 9383: 9378: 9376: 9371: 9369: 9364: 9363: 9360: 9348: 9347:Organizations 9345: 9343: 9340: 9338: 9335: 9333: 9330: 9328: 9319: 9317: 9312: 9307: 9306: 9303: 9297: 9294: 9292: 9289: 9287: 9284: 9282: 9279: 9277: 9274: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9266:Landfill fire 9264: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9227: 9224: 9223: 9221: 9217: 9211: 9208: 9206: 9203: 9201: 9198: 9196: 9193: 9192: 9190: 9186: 9180: 9177: 9175: 9172: 9170: 9167: 9163: 9160: 9158: 9155: 9153: 9150: 9148: 9145: 9143: 9140: 9138: 9135: 9133: 9130: 9126: 9123: 9122: 9121: 9118: 9117: 9116: 9115:EU directives 9113: 9111: 9108: 9106: 9103: 9102: 9100: 9096: 9090: 9089:United States 9087: 9085: 9082: 9080: 9077: 9075: 9072: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9030: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9020: 9017: 9015: 9012: 9010: 9007: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8987: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8967: 8965: 8962: 8960: 8957: 8956: 8954: 8952: 8948: 8942: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8929: 8927: 8926:Waste sorting 8924: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8912: 8909: 8907: 8904: 8902: 8899: 8897: 8894: 8892: 8889: 8885: 8882: 8880: 8877: 8875: 8872: 8870: 8867: 8865: 8862: 8860: 8857: 8855: 8852: 8850: 8847: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8837: 8835: 8832: 8831: 8830: 8827: 8825: 8822: 8820: 8817: 8815: 8812: 8810: 8807: 8805: 8802: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8792: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8780: 8777: 8775: 8772: 8770: 8767: 8765: 8762: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8751: 8749: 8745: 8740: 8730: 8727: 8725: 8722: 8720: 8717: 8715: 8712: 8710: 8707: 8705: 8702: 8700: 8697: 8695: 8692: 8690: 8687: 8685: 8682: 8680: 8677: 8675: 8674:Marine debris 8672: 8670: 8667: 8665: 8662: 8660: 8657: 8655: 8652: 8650: 8647: 8645: 8642: 8640: 8637: 8633: 8630: 8629: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8620: 8618: 8615: 8613: 8610: 8608: 8605: 8603: 8600: 8598: 8595: 8593: 8590: 8589: 8587: 8585: 8581: 8577: 8573: 8569: 8562: 8557: 8555: 8550: 8548: 8543: 8542: 8539: 8533: 8530: 8527: 8523: 8520: 8517: 8514: 8510: 8507: 8504: 8501: 8498: 8495: 8492: 8489: 8486: 8483: 8480: 8477: 8474: 8471: 8468: 8465: 8462: 8459: 8456: 8453: 8450: 8447: 8444: 8441: 8438: 8437: 8419: 8415: 8410: 8406: 8400: 8396: 8391: 8390: 8387:Cited sources 8377: 8373: 8367: 8360: 8356: 8352: 8348: 8343: 8327: 8323: 8317: 8310: 8306: 8303: 8302: 8295: 8293: 8284: 8280: 8274: 8267: 8263: 8260: 8254: 8246: 8242: 8238: 8232: 8225: 8219: 8212: 8208: 8204: 8198: 8191: 8186: 8179: 8175: 8171: 8166: 8151: 8147: 8140: 8133: 8129: 8126: 8121: 8114: 8110: 8106: 8101: 8094: 8090: 8086: 8080: 8066:on 2012-02-04 8065: 8061: 8057: 8053: 8049: 8045: 8041: 8037: 8030: 8023: 8019: 8015: 8009: 8002: 7997: 7995: 7987: 7982: 7968:on 2008-03-11 7967: 7963: 7956: 7948: 7944: 7940: 7936: 7932: 7926: 7918: 7912: 7908: 7907: 7899: 7885:on 2013-10-21 7884: 7880: 7874: 7867: 7863: 7860: 7854: 7846: 7840: 7824: 7820: 7814: 7803: 7797: 7782: 7778: 7771: 7764: 7759: 7752: 7748: 7745: 7740: 7733: 7728: 7712: 7708: 7704: 7698: 7690: 7686: 7680: 7676: 7672: 7671: 7663: 7655: 7651: 7647: 7641: 7637: 7636: 7628: 7620: 7613: 7605: 7601: 7597: 7593: 7589: 7582: 7576: 7560: 7556: 7555: 7547: 7541: 7533: 7529: 7525: 7519: 7511: 7507: 7503: 7497: 7489: 7488: 7483: 7476: 7460: 7456: 7455: 7450: 7443: 7427: 7423: 7422: 7417: 7410: 7403: 7397: 7386: 7382: 7375: 7369: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7337: 7333: 7326: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7304: 7293: 7289: 7285: 7284: 7276: 7269: 7258: 7254: 7253: 7244: 7237: 7229: 7225: 7218: 7211: 7206: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7164: 7160: 7159: 7154: 7147: 7132: 7128: 7124: 7118: 7110: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7067: 7059: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7040: 7035: 7031: 7027: 7023: 7016: 7014: 7006: 7002: 6999: 6998: 6991: 6977:on 2008-06-26 6973: 6966: 6960: 6946:on 2008-06-26 6942: 6935: 6929: 6915:on 2008-06-26 6911: 6907: 6900: 6894: 6886: 6882: 6878: 6871: 6853: 6849: 6842: 6836: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6806: 6802: 6796: 6789: 6788: 6781: 6774: 6770: 6766: 6763: 6757: 6750: 6746: 6743: 6737: 6723:on 2013-08-08 6722: 6718: 6711: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6684: 6676: 6669: 6651: 6647: 6640: 6634: 6625: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6600: 6593: 6585: 6578: 6564:on 2008-06-26 6560: 6553: 6546: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6523: 6515: 6508: 6506: 6498: 6492: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6476: 6470: 6468: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6445: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6421: 6407: 6406: 6401: 6394: 6380: 6379: 6374: 6367: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6349: 6343: 6336: 6335:9780080993928 6332: 6328: 6322: 6315: 6310: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6288: 6274: 6270: 6263: 6256: 6252: 6249: 6244: 6236: 6230: 6216: 6212: 6205: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6182: 6168:on 2016-02-01 6167: 6163: 6157: 6143:on 2014-03-07 6139: 6135: 6128: 6121: 6119: 6110: 6106: 6100: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6077: 6070: 6066: 6063: 6057: 6043: 6039: 6032: 6018: 6014: 6007: 5993:on 2016-02-01 5992: 5988: 5982: 5968:on 2016-03-13 5967: 5963: 5957: 5949: 5945: 5938: 5924: 5920: 5913: 5898:on 2 May 2014 5897: 5893: 5886: 5871: 5867: 5861: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5831: 5829: 5827: 5815:September 12, 5807: 5803: 5796: 5790: 5783: 5782: 5776: 5762: 5758: 5751: 5735: 5728: 5721: 5717: 5714: 5709: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5691: 5685: 5678: 5673: 5659:on 2013-07-23 5658: 5654: 5648: 5642: 5638: 5635: 5629: 5627: 5620: 5616: 5613: 5607: 5592: 5588: 5582: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5555: 5553: 5551: 5549: 5533: 5529: 5525: 5519: 5510: 5503: 5499: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5485: 5480: 5478: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5470: 5455:on 2015-11-25 5454: 5450: 5446: 5439: 5425:on 2010-03-30 5424: 5420: 5413: 5399:on 2020-09-23 5398: 5394: 5390: 5384: 5382: 5373: 5367: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5345: 5337: 5331: 5316: 5312: 5306: 5298: 5294: 5288: 5274:on 2011-10-16 5273: 5269: 5267:0-89448-451-6 5263: 5259: 5258: 5250: 5243: 5239: 5233: 5226: 5220: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5183: 5176: 5172: 5166: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5145: 5138: 5132: 5125: 5119: 5111: 5107: 5101: 5098:(2–4). 2007. 5097: 5093: 5089: 5083: 5075: 5073:0-12-059485-4 5069: 5065: 5061: 5055: 5047: 5041: 5037: 5036: 5028: 5012: 5008: 5004: 4998: 4990: 4986: 4980: 4966: 4962: 4956: 4954: 4952: 4950: 4948: 4943: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4848: 4834: 4829: 4822: 4817: 4810: 4805: 4804: 4798: 4794: 4792: 4787: 4785: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4767: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4752: 4748: 4747:Lake Karachay 4741: 4731: 4729: 4728:1996 and 2001 4725: 4721: 4717: 4712: 4710: 4706: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4692:whistleblower 4689: 4683: 4679: 4669: 4666: 4661: 4660: 4655: 4651: 4646: 4636: 4634: 4630: 4629:United States 4626: 4622: 4618: 4617:millisieverts 4613: 4611: 4605: 4598: 4593: 4588: 4578: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4554: 4552: 4548: 4545: 4539: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4509: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4490:Gérard Mourou 4487: 4482: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4449:such as in a 4448: 4444: 4439: 4436: 4432: 4426: 4422: 4420: 4415: 4409: 4402:Transmutation 4396: 4395: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4385: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4370:abyssal plain 4366: 4362: 4352: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4337: 4334: 4330: 4328: 4324: 4321: 4316: 4313: 4309: 4307: 4303: 4298: 4295: 4290: 4286: 4284: 4279: 4275: 4266: 4261: 4253: 4244: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4220: 4218: 4214: 4213: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4199: 4193: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4174: 4172: 4165: 4155: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4129: 4117: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4071: 4069: 4065: 4062: 4061:blast furnace 4058: 4053: 4050: 4047: 4043: 4033: 4024: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3987: 3983: 3978: 3975: 3970: 3968: 3964: 3959: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3939:vitrification 3932: 3927: 3921:Vitrification 3913: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3897: 3893: 3885: 3882: 3878: 3875: 3872: 3868: 3865: 3862: 3859: 3855: 3852: 3849: 3846: 3843: 3840: 3838: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3829: 3828: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3809: 3803: 3799: 3797: 3790: 3786: 3777: 3768: 3766: 3764: 3759: 3757: 3753: 3752:Fast reactors 3749: 3739: 3737: 3733: 3728: 3722: 3720: 3716: 3713:/g (3.7 3712: 3708: 3704: 3703:radionuclides 3693: 3690: 3682: 3679:November 2013 3672: 3668: 3664: 3658: 3656: 3649: 3640: 3639: 3635: 3625: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3610: 3608: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3592: 3591:United States 3588: 3579: 3575: 3572: 3568: 3563: 3559: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3538: 3528: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3496: 3489: 3484: 3475: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3451: 3450: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3425: 3415: 3412: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3378:11(e)2 wastes 3375: 3366: 3361: 3355: 3348:Mill tailings 3342: 3339: 3336: 3335: 3334: 3324: 3319: 3317: 3313: 3303: 3300: 3295: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3275: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3251:Earth's crust 3248: 3239: 3236: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3221: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3191: 3187: 3186:radioisotopes 3184: 3180: 3175: 3166: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3139: 3136: 3133: 3130: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3120:brachytherapy 3117: 3114: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3100: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3086: 3083: 3079: 3076: 3075: 3074: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3059:beta particle 3056: 3055:medical waste 3046: 3044: 3040: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3016: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2989: 2986: 2981: 2979: 2974: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2961:tended to be 2960: 2955: 2953: 2949: 2939: 2937: 2933: 2932:fast reactors 2928: 2926: 2920: 2918: 2913: 2911: 2910:plutonium-238 2907: 2906:plutonium-241 2903: 2902:plutonium-240 2899: 2898:plutonium-239 2895: 2891: 2885: 2881: 2871: 2869: 2865: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2847:nuclear fuels 2843: 2841: 2835: 2833: 2825: 2821: 2816: 2811: 2805: 2801: 2793: 2789: 2784: 2775: 2772: 2768: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2743:americium-241 2740: 2739:plutonium-238 2736: 2735:neptunium-237 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2710: 2700: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2679: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2632: 2620: 2616: 2608: 2604: 2602: 2591: 2590:Nuclear power 2585: 2581: 2571: 2559: 2555: 2552: 2548: 2546: 2542: 2539: 2535: 2534: 2531: 2527: 2515: 2509: 2506: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2494: 2488: 2480: 2478: 2477:15–24 Ma 2475: 2468: 2466: 2460: 2447: 2444: 2442: 2440: 2433: 2432: 2424: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2413: 2412: 2404: 2402: 2399: 2397: 2390: 2384: 2371: 2368: 2366: 2350: 2346: 2334: 2332: 2331: 2328:24.1 ka 2327: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2315: 2311: 2309: 2297: 2296: 2292: 2271: 2267: 2255: 2253: 2252: 2248: 2241: 2234: 2233: 2230: 2219: 2217: 2205: 2204: 2186: 2183: 2171: 2165: 2147: 2144: 2123: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2111: 2109: 2107: 2105: 2099: 2096: 2089: 2087: 2084: 2082: 2080: 2078: 2072: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2060: 2058: 2053: 2051: 2049: 2044: 2042: 2040: 2035: 2033: 2032: 2027: 2026: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1984: 1979: 1977: 1972: 1970: 1965: 1964: 1959: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1932:water soluble 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1904:of an element 1902: 1897: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1861: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1838: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1811:radionuclides 1797: 1793: 1787: 1778: 1771: 1767: 1761: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1725: 1722: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1706: 1703: 1700: 1694: 1692: 1689: 1688: 1684: 1681: 1678: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1666: 1662: 1659: 1656: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1644: 1640: 1637: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1625: 1622: 1618: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1607: 1604: 1603: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1590: 1588: 1585: 1584: 1581: 1577: 1572: 1567: 1563: 1558: 1556: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1546: 1542: 1540: 1537: 1535: 1523: 1519: 1516: 1515: 1508: 1503: 1501: 1496: 1494: 1489: 1488: 1486: 1475: 1472: 1464: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1452: 1448: 1445: 1442: 1436: 1434: 1431: 1430: 1426: 1421: 1416: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1388: 1382: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1370: 1366: 1363: 1355: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1343: 1339: 1336: 1328: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1319: 1315: 1312: 1304: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1278: 1277: 1273: 1265: 1262: 1259: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1244: 1243: 1240: 1236:Medium-lived 1232: 1226: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1205:radionuclides 1196: 1194: 1190: 1185: 1182: 1178: 1177:transmutation 1174: 1168: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1109: 1107: 1103: 1098: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1083:nuclear power 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1065:is a type of 1064: 1053: 1048: 1046: 1041: 1039: 1034: 1033: 1031: 1030: 1025: 1015: 1013: 1008: 1003: 1002: 1001: 1000: 989: 986: 985: 984: 983: 979: 978: 973: 970: 968: 965: 963: 960: 958: 955: 953: 950: 949: 948: 947: 943: 942: 937: 934: 932: 929: 927: 924: 922: 919: 917: 914: 912: 909: 907: 904: 902: 899: 898: 892: 891: 882: 879: 877: 874: 873: 872: 869: 867: 864: 863: 857: 856: 849: 846: 844: 843:Water quality 841: 839: 836: 834: 831: 829: 826: 824: 821: 819: 816: 814: 811: 809: 806: 804: 801: 799: 796: 794: 791: 789: 786: 784: 781: 779: 776: 774: 771: 769: 766: 764: 761: 759: 756: 754: 751: 749: 746: 744: 741: 739: 736: 734: 731: 729: 726: 724: 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 710: 707: 702: 701: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 681: 677: 674: 672: 669: 667: 664: 663: 662: 659: 655: 652: 651: 650: 647: 645: 642: 641: 638: 633: 632: 625: 622: 620: 619:Traffic signs 617: 615: 612: 610: 607: 605: 602: 601: 598: 593: 592: 585: 582: 581: 578: 573: 572: 565: 562: 561: 555: 554: 547: 544: 542: 539: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 526:Nanomaterials 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 463: 457: 456: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 415: 412: 407: 406: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 388:Radioactivity 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 350: 347: 342: 341: 334: 333:Soundproofing 331: 329: 328:Noise control 326: 324: 323:Noise barrier 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 305: 302: 297: 296: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 270: 264: 263: 256: 253: 249: 246: 244: 241: 240: 239: 236: 235: 232: 227: 226: 219: 216: 215: 209: 208: 199: 196: 195: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 180: 177: 172: 171: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 149: 146: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 114: 111: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 96: 94: 91: 89: 86: 85: 82: 77: 76: 69: 65: 64: 61: 56: 55: 51: 47: 46: 40: 36: 32: 19: 18:Nuclear waste 11667: 11589: 11585:Bikini Atoll 11531:Hanford Site 11526:Bikini Atoll 11330:in Australia 11320:Soviet Union 11315:South Africa 11183: 11171: 11152: 11132:Pyroelectric 11086:Laser-driven 10866:Sodium (SFR) 10793:fast-neutron 10632: 10178: 10068:Reprocessing 9972: 9949:WMD treaties 9768:Radiosurgery 9738:Fast-neutron 9710:Scintigraphy 9219:Other topics 9210:Waste picker 9137:incineration 8916:Urban mining 8794:Incineration 8774:Durable good 8719:Sharps waste 8703: 8679:Mining waste 8422:. Retrieved 8417: 8394: 8366: 8346: 8342: 8330:. Retrieved 8325: 8316: 8300: 8282: 8273: 8257:Reuters UK, 8253: 8241:The Guardian 8240: 8231: 8222:Reuters UK, 8218: 8197: 8185: 8165: 8153:. Retrieved 8149: 8139: 8120: 8100: 8079: 8068:. Retrieved 8064:the original 8043: 8039: 8029: 8008: 7981: 7970:. Retrieved 7966:the original 7955: 7947:the original 7934: 7925: 7905: 7898: 7887:. Retrieved 7883:the original 7873: 7853: 7839: 7827:. Retrieved 7822: 7813: 7796: 7785:. Retrieved 7770: 7758: 7739: 7727: 7715:. Retrieved 7711:the original 7706: 7697: 7689:Google Books 7687:– via 7669: 7662: 7654:Google Books 7634: 7627: 7618: 7612: 7595: 7591: 7581: 7566:. Retrieved 7552: 7540: 7532:the original 7527: 7518: 7510:the original 7505: 7496: 7485: 7475: 7463:. Retrieved 7454:The Guardian 7452: 7442: 7430:. Retrieved 7421:The Guardian 7419: 7409: 7396: 7385:the original 7380: 7368: 7335: 7331: 7325: 7317:the original 7312: 7303: 7287: 7281: 7268: 7257:the original 7249: 7236: 7227: 7223: 7217: 7205: 7162: 7156: 7146: 7135:. Retrieved 7117: 7080: 7076: 7066: 7029: 7025: 6996: 6990: 6979:. Retrieved 6972:the original 6959: 6948:. Retrieved 6941:the original 6928: 6917:. Retrieved 6910:the original 6893: 6885:the original 6880: 6870: 6859:. Retrieved 6835: 6824:. Retrieved 6804: 6795: 6786: 6780: 6772: 6756: 6736: 6725:. Retrieved 6721:the original 6710: 6693: 6689: 6683: 6674: 6668: 6657:. Retrieved 6645: 6633: 6606: 6602: 6592: 6583: 6577: 6566:. Retrieved 6559:the original 6545: 6528: 6522: 6513: 6496: 6491: 6473: 6453: 6444: 6420: 6409:. Retrieved 6403: 6393: 6382:. Retrieved 6376: 6366: 6359:The Guardian 6358: 6342: 6326: 6321: 6309: 6301:the original 6296: 6287: 6276:. Retrieved 6272: 6262: 6243: 6218:. Retrieved 6214: 6204: 6191: 6181: 6170:. Retrieved 6166:the original 6156: 6145:. Retrieved 6138:the original 6133: 6109:The Guardian 6108: 6099: 6086: 6076: 6056: 6045:. Retrieved 6041: 6031: 6020:. Retrieved 6016: 6006: 5995:. Retrieved 5991:the original 5981: 5970:. Retrieved 5966:the original 5956: 5947: 5943: 5937: 5926:. Retrieved 5922: 5912: 5900:. Retrieved 5896:the original 5885: 5874:. Retrieved 5869: 5860: 5848:. Retrieved 5839: 5813:. Retrieved 5801: 5789: 5780: 5775: 5764:. Retrieved 5761:The Atlantic 5760: 5750: 5738:. Retrieved 5727: 5708: 5700: 5684: 5672: 5661:. Retrieved 5657:the original 5647: 5606: 5595:. Retrieved 5581: 5573:the original 5568: 5564: 5536:. Retrieved 5527: 5518: 5509: 5457:. Retrieved 5453:the original 5438: 5427:. Retrieved 5423:the original 5412: 5401:. Retrieved 5397:the original 5392: 5366: 5358:the original 5354:dailykos.com 5353: 5344: 5319:. Retrieved 5314: 5305: 5287: 5276:. Retrieved 5272:the original 5256: 5249: 5232: 5219: 5192: 5188: 5182: 5165: 5157: 5144: 5136: 5131: 5123: 5118: 5095: 5091: 5082: 5063: 5054: 5034: 5027: 5015:. Retrieved 5011:the original 5006: 4997: 4979: 4968:. Retrieved 4964: 4916:Radioecology 4795: 4788: 4773:, mostly in 4768: 4743: 4713: 4685: 4658: 4642: 4614: 4606: 4602: 4571:mass drivers 4560: 4549: 4540: 4525: 4521: 4483: 4440: 4427: 4423: 4417:to dedicate 4411: 4392: 4386: 4363: 4359: 4349: 4338: 4331: 4317: 4310: 4302:uranium mine 4299: 4291: 4287: 4270: 4226: 4210: 4196: 4194: 4190:Strontium-90 4180: 4167: 4077: 4042:ion exchange 4039: 4036:Ion exchange 4030: 4009:Soviet Union 4003:(similar to 3979: 3971: 3960: 3935: 3900: 3889: 3879:such as the 3826: 3806: 3792: 3767: 3760: 3745: 3723: 3700: 3685: 3676: 3652: 3621: 3611: 3595: 3584: 3564: 3560: 3552:reactor core 3540: 3512:nuclear fuel 3501: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3452: 3427: 3413: 3377: 3371: 3331: 3309: 3296: 3281: 3245: 3237: 3225:millisievert 3222: 3195: 3148: 3053:Radioactive 3052: 3022: 3019:Legacy waste 3005:pyrochemical 2990: 2982: 2975: 2956: 2945: 2929: 2925:denaturation 2921: 2914: 2887: 2844: 2836: 2829: 2786:Activity of 2765:quantity of 2758:reprocessing 2755: 2712: 2685:one occasion 2655: 2605: 2598: 2568: 2504: 2423:1.33 Ma 2223: 2185:29–97 a 2146:10–29 a 2056: 2047: 2038: 2030: 1908:radioisotope 1898: 1882:birth defect 1867: 1839: 1808: 1786: 1777: 1760: 1739: 1620: 1544: 1521: 1424: 1395: 1275: 1248: 1202: 1186: 1169: 1137:strontium-90 1110: 1099: 1093:mining, and 1085:generation, 1062: 1061: 931:Point source 876:Heavy metals 838:Urban runoff 823:Sulfur water 798:Septic tanks 654:Agent Orange 564:Space debris 418:Agricultural 397: 283:Volcanic ash 143:Particulates 11657:Smiling Sun 11368:Individual 11305:North Korea 11043:Stellarator 11007:confinement 10901:Superphénix 10728:Molten-salt 10680:VHTR (HTGR) 10457:HW BLWR 250 10423:R4 Marviken 10352:Pressurized 10322:Heavy water 10306:many others 10235:Pressurized 10190:Light water 9892:underground 9850:Disarmament 9758:Tomotherapy 9753:Proton-beam 9617:Power plant 9579:Temperature 9412:Engineering 9241:Downcycling 9188:Occupations 9157:waste water 9054:Switzerland 9044:South Korea 9034:New Zealand 8959:Afghanistan 8931:Waste trade 8891:Repurposing 8729:Toxic waste 8709:Scrap metal 8644:Green waste 8607:Brown waste 8584:Major types 8490:(documents) 8484:(documents) 8466:(documents) 8190:Hecker 2000 8001:Vandenbosch 7986:Vandenbosch 7829:November 2, 7210:Vandenbosch 7032:(6): A244. 6405:The Caravan 6314:Vandenbosch 5917:Pihlak, A. 5870:www.nrc.gov 5850:December 3, 5736:. DeSmog UK 5565:ORNL Review 5528:logwell.com 5419:"Plutonium" 5242:quadrillion 4921:Toxic waste 4720:Afghanistan 4709:Legambiente 4688:'Ndrangheta 4306:uranium ore 4207:biosorption 4177:Remediation 4116:zirconolite 3995:containing 3955:Calcination 3486:Spent fuel 3389:heavy metal 3278:Oil and gas 3229:cosmic rays 3159:radiography 3118:, used for 3106:bone cancer 3090:, used for 2959:atomic bomb 2767:uranium-235 2747:californium 2731:uranium-234 2717:, contains 2501:80 Ma 2069:<0.001% 2066:0.04–1.25% 1998:decay chain 1858:decay chain 1850:contaminate 1141:caesium-137 901:Area source 743:Groundwater 496:Green waste 476:Brown waste 460:Solid waste 218:Information 113:Exhaust gas 11744:Categories 11647:Peace camp 11437:1985–1987 11370:accidents 11238:disasters 11068:(acoustic) 10685:PBR (PBMR) 10073:Spent fuel 10063:Repository 10043:Fuel cycle 10010:Activation 9787:Processing 9654:Propulsion 9612:by country 9544:Activation 9296:Zero waste 9098:Agreements 9029:Kazakhstan 8984:Bangladesh 8769:Composting 8654:Heat waste 8639:Food waste 8632:by country 8502:(magazine) 8332:26 October 8070:2011-05-30 7972:2011-12-19 7889:2013-08-01 7787:2013-08-01 7465:1 February 7432:1 February 7137:2011-06-25 6981:2008-06-06 6950:2008-06-06 6919:2008-06-06 6861:2008-06-06 6826:2008-06-06 6751:. srs.gov. 6727:2013-08-01 6659:2006-11-08 6646:PNNL-15198 6609:(4): 837. 6568:2008-06-30 6411:2020-11-13 6384:2020-11-13 6278:2020-03-05 6220:2020-05-08 6172:2015-08-25 6147:2015-08-10 6047:2020-03-02 6022:2020-03-02 5997:2015-08-25 5972:2016-03-13 5928:2021-08-05 5902:4 December 5876:2018-08-17 5766:2020-04-23 5701:Fact Sheet 5663:2013-08-01 5597:2013-08-01 5538:2009-07-07 5459:2015-11-25 5429:2010-03-18 5403:2021-08-10 5321:2015-07-29 5278:2011-09-04 5195:(2): 299. 5017:1 December 4970:2020-03-12 4938:References 4779:aesthetics 4751:dust storm 4676:See also: 4585:See also: 4374:subduction 4294:subduction 4162:See also: 4128:perovskite 4100:hollandite 4092:pyrochlore 4084:geochemist 3943:Sellafield 3931:Sellafield 3896:spent fuel 3783:See also: 3771:Management 3742:Prevention 3736:New Mexico 3707:half-lives 3510:and metal 3405:New Mexico 3358:See also: 3321:See also: 3098:(8.0 days) 3084:(2.7 days) 3039:geomelting 2878:See also: 2798:See also: 2729:, such as 2725:that emit 2707:See also: 2639:enrichment 2619:yellowcake 2588:See also: 2086:4–6 a 1912:iodine-131 1831:iodine-131 1827:iodine-129 1768:and 35 of 1229:See also: 1091:rare-earth 988:By country 980:Categories 871:Pollutants 848:Wastewater 818:Stagnation 763:Monitoring 738:Freshwater 604:Air travel 491:Food waste 433:Defecation 243:Ecological 176:Biological 108:Combustion 48:Part of a 11439:Therac-25 11372:and sites 11242:incidents 11236:Lists of 11038:Spheromak 10737:Fluorides 10401:IPHWR-700 10396:IPHWR-540 10391:IPHWR-220 10180:Moderator 9860:Explosion 9835:Arms race 9622:Economics 9574:Reflector 9569:Radiation 9564:Generator 9519:Plutonium 9472:Deuterium 9437:Radiation 9407:Chemistry 9276:Upcycling 9142:landfills 9132:framework 9125:Recycling 9120:batteries 9049:Sri Lanka 9009:Hong Kong 8974:Australia 8951:Countries 8829:Recycling 8747:Processes 8568:Biosolids 8472:(article) 8424:1 October 8203:L'Eredità 8003:, p. 248. 7988:, p. 247. 7717:March 23, 7604:0020-6067 6809:cited in 6248:Why Wipp? 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